arXiv:1408.0350v3 [] 25 Feb 2016

Factorizations of almost simple groups
with a solvable factor, and Cayley graphs
of solvable groups
Cai Heng Li, Binzhou Xia
(Li) The University of Western Australia, Crawley 6009, WA, Australia.
Email: cai.heng.li@uwa.edu.au
(Xia) Peking University, Beijing 100871, China.
Email: binzhouxia@pku.edu.cn

Abstract
A classification is given for factorizations of almost simple groups with at least one
factor solvable, and it is then applied to characterize s-arc-transitive Cayley graphs
of solvable groups, leading to a striking corollary: Except the cycles, every nonbipartite connected 3-arc-transitive Cayley graph of a solvable group is a cover of
the Petersen graph or the Hoffman-Singleton graph.

Key words and phrases:
factorizations; almost simple groups; solvable groups; s-arc-transitive graphs

AMS Subject Classification (2010): 20D40, 20D06, 20D08, 05E18

Acknowledgements. We would like to thank Cheryl Praeger for valuable comments. We also thank Stephen Glasby and Derek Holt for their help with some of
the computation in Magma. The first author acknowledges the support of a NSFC
grant and an ARC Discovery Project Grant. The second author acknowledges the
support of NSFC grant 11501011.

Contents
Chapter 1. Introduction
1.1. Factorizations of almost simple groups
1.2. s-Arc transitive Cayley graphs
Chapter 2. Preliminaries
2.1. Notation
2.2. Results on finite simple groups
2.3. Elementary facts concerning factorizations
2.4. Maximal factorizations of almost simple groups

5
5
8
11
11
13
16
18

Chapter 3. The factorizations of linear and unitary groups of prime dimension 21
3.1. Singer cycles
21
3.2. Linear groups of prime dimension
23
3.3. Unitary groups of prime dimension
25
Chapter 4. Non-classical groups
4.1. The case that both factors are solvable
4.2. Exceptional groups of Lie type
4.3. Alternating group socles
4.4. Sporadic group socles

27
27
28
28
29

Chapter 5. Examples in classical groups
5.1. Examples in unitary groups
5.2. Examples in symplectic groups
5.3. Examples in orthogonal groups of odd dimension
5.4. Examples in orthogonal groups of plus type

31
31
33
35
36

Chapter 6. Reduction for classical groups
6.1. The case that A is solvable
6.2. Inductive hypothesis
6.3. The case that A has at least two unsolvable composition factors

39
39
40
43

Chapter 7. Proof of Theorem 1.1
7.1. Linear groups
7.2. Symplectic Groups
7.3. Unitary Groups
7.4. Orthogonal groups of odd dimension
7.5. Orthogonal groups of even dimension
7.6. Completion of the proof

47
47
49
57
60
62
69

Chapter 8. s-Arc transitive Cayley graphs of solvable groups

71

3

4

CONTENTS

8.1.
8.2.
8.3.
8.4.

Preliminaries
A property of finite simple groups
Reduction to affine and almost simple groups
Proof of Theorem 1.2

71
74
78
88

Appendix A. Tables for nontrivial maximal factorizations of almost simple
classical groups

95

Appendix B. Magmacodes

99

Appendix. Bibliography

105

CHAPTER 1

Introduction
A classification is given for factorizations of almost simple groups with at least
one factor solvable (Theorem 1.1), and it is then applied to characterize s-arctransitive Cayley graphs of solvable groups (Theorem 1.2), leading to a striking
corollary:
Except the cycles, every non-bipartite connected 3-arc-transitive
Cayley graph of a solvable group is a cover of the Petersen graph
or the Hoffman-Singleton graph.
1.1. Factorizations of almost simple groups
For a group G, the expression G = HK with H, K proper subgroups of G is
called a factorization of G, and H, K are called its factors. A finite group G is
said to be almost simple if it lies between a nonabelian simple group S and its
automorphism group Aut(S), or equivalently, if G has a unique minimal normal
subgroup, which is nonabelian simple.
The socle of a group G is the product of all minimal normal subgroups, denoted by soc(G). For a finite almost simple group, the factorization with a factor
containing the socle is trivial in some sense. Thus we only consider the factorizations of which the factors are core-free. A factorization of an almost simple group
is said to be nontrivial if both its factors are core-free. We also say the factors
in nontrivial factorizations of an almost simple group nontrivial. When speaking of
factorizations of almost simple groups, we always refer to nontrivial ones. It is at the
heart of studying factorizations of general groups to understand the factorizations
of almost simple groups.
Problem A. Classify factorizations of finite almost simple groups.
This problem has been investigated for a long time. In the early stage, there were
some partial results for certain simple groups. For instance, Itô [29] determined the
factorizations of PSL2 (q), and the factorizations of certain finite simple groups into
two simple groups are classified [19, 20, 52]. A factorization is said to be exact if
the intersection of the two factors is trivial. The exact factorizations of alternating
and symmetric groups are determined by Wiegold and Williamson [54]. Fisman
and Arad [16] in 1987 proved a conjecture of Szép [50, 51] saying that a nonabelian
simple group G does not have a factorization G = HK with the centers of H and
K both nontrivial.
During 1980s’ and 1990s’, the status of research on Problem A dramatically
changed since some significant classification results have been achieved. In 1987,
Hering, Liebeck and Saxl [25] classified factorizations of exceptional groups of Lie
type. A factorization G = HK is called a maximal factorization of G if both
5

6

1. INTRODUCTION

H, K are maximal subgroups of G. In 1990, Liebeck, Praeger and Saxl published
the landmark work [42] classifying maximal factorizations of finite almost simple
groups, which is the foundation of many further works on Problem A. When the
socle is an alternating group, in fact all the factorizations of an almost simple group
were determined in [42, THEOREM D]. Based on the maximal factorizations in [42,
THEOREM C], Giudici [21] in 2006 determined the factorizations of almost simple
groups with sporadic simple group socle.
Nevertheless, Problem A for classical groups of Lie type is widely open. Our
approach to this problem is to divide it into three major cases:
• at least one of the two factors is solvable;
• at least one of the two factors has at least two unsolvable composition
factors;
• both factors have a unique unsolvable composition factor.
In this paper, we solve Problem A for the first case (Theorem 1.1). In subsequent
work [39], we solve the problem for the second case.
For the notation in the following theorem, refer to Section 2.1.
Theorem 1.1. Suppose that G is an almost simple group with socle L and
G = HK for solvable subgroup H and core-free subgroup K of G. Then one of
the following statements holds.
(a) Both factors H, K are solvable, and the triple (G, H, K) is described in
Proposition 4.1.
(b) L = An , and the triple (G, H, K) is described in Proposition 4.3.
(c) L is a sporadic simple group, and the triple (G, H, K) is described in Proposition 4.4.
(d) L is a classical group of Lie type, and the triple (L, H ∩ L, K ∩ L) lies in
Table 1.1 or Table 1.2.
Conversely, for each simple group L in Table 1.1 and Table 1.2, there exist group
G and subgroups H, K as described such that soc(G) = L and G = HK.
Here are some remarks on Theorem 1.1.
(i) For the triple (G, H, K) in part (d) of Theorem 1.1, NL (K ∩ L) is maximal
in L except when K ∩ L = PSL3 (3) in row 6 of Table 1.2 or K ∩ L = A5 ,
S5 in row 11 of Table 1.2, respectively.
(ii) By the benefit of isomorphisms
PSL4 (q) ∼
= PΩ5 (q),
= PΩ2m+1 (2f ) and PSp (q) ∼
= PΩ+ (q), PSp (2f ) ∼
6

2m

4

there is a uniform description for rows 2–9 of Table 1.1: L = PSU2m (q 1/2 )
with m > 2 or PΩ2m+1 (q) with m > 2 or PΩ+
2m (q) with m > 3, and up to
graph automorphisms of L, we have
H ∩ L 6 Op (Pm ):ˆGL1 (q m ).m < Pm

and NL (K ∩ L) = Nε1 ,

where ε = 2m − n ∈ {0, −} with n being the dimension of L. To illustrate this, take row 4 of Table 1.1 as an instance. Denote by τ the graph
automorphism of L of order 2, and consider the factorization Gτ = H τ K τ
deriving from G = HK. Since τ maps P1 to P2 and Sp2 (q 2 ).2 to O−
4 (q),
we deduce that H τ ∩ L 6 q 3 :(q 2 − 1).2 < P2 and K τ ∩ L D Ω−
4 (q).

1.1. FACTORIZATIONS OF ALMOST SIMPLE GROUPS

7

This means that the triple (Gτ , H τ , K τ ) is in our uniform description with
L = soc(Gτ ) = PΩ5 (q) and q even.
(iii) Although Table 1.1 presents Pk as a maximal subgroup of L containing
H ∩ L for each of the rows 2–9, it does not assert that Pk is the only such
maximal subgroup. In fact, H ∩ L may be contained in the intersection of
two different maximal subgroups of L, one of which is Pk . For example,
G = Sp4 (4) has a factorization G = HK with H = 24 :15 < P2 ∩ O−
4 (4) and
K = Sp2 (16):2.
Table 1.1.
row L

H ∩L 6

K ∩LD

1

PSLn (q)

ˆGL1 (q n ):n =

2

PSL4 (q)

q 3 : q d−1 .3 < Pk

PSp4 (q)

d = (4, q − 1),
k ∈ {1, 3}

3

PSp2m (q)

q m(m+1)/2 :(q m − 1).m < Pm

Ω−
2m (q)

m > 2, q even

4

PSp4 (q)

q 3 :(q 2 − 1).2 < P1

Sp2 (q 2 )

q even

5

PSp4 (q)

q 1+2 : q 2−1 .2 < P1

PSp2 (q 2 )

q odd

6

q −1
PSU2m (q) q m : (q+1)d
.m < Pm

SU2m−1 (q)

m > 2,
d = (2m, q + 1)

7

Ω2m+1 (q)

(q m(m−1)/2 .q m ): q

8

PΩ+
2m (q)

q m(m−1)/2 : q

9

PΩ+
8 (q)

q 6 : q d−1 .4 < Pk

q n −1
:n
(q−1)d

3

2

2m

2

4

m −1

d

m −1

2

q n−1 :SLn−1 (q) d = (n, q − 1)

.m < Pm Ω−
2m (q)

.m < Pk

remark

Ω2m−1 (q)
Ω7 (q)

m > 3, q odd
m > 5,
d = (4, q m − 1),
k ∈ {m, m − 1}
d = (4, q 4 − 1),
k ∈ {1, 3, 4}

8

1. INTRODUCTION

Table 1.2.
row
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20

L
PSL2 (11)
PSL2 (16)
PSL2 (19)
PSL2 (29)
PSL2 (59)
PSL4 (3)
PSL4 (3)
PSL4 (4)
PSL5 (2)
PSp4 (3)
PSp4 (3)
PSp4 (5)
PSp4 (7)
PSp4 (11)
PSp4 (23)
Sp6 (2)
PSp6 (3)
PSU3 (3)
PSU3 (5)
PSU4 (3)

21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28

PSU4 (8)
Ω7 (3)
Ω7 (3)
Ω9 (3)
Ω+
8 (2)
Ω+
8 (2)
PΩ+
8 (3)
PΩ+
8 (3)

H∩L6
11:5
D34
19:9
29:14
59:29
24 :5:4
33 :13:3
26 :63:3
31:5
33 :S4
31+2
+ :2.A4
51+2
+ :4.A4
71+2
+ :6.S4
111+2
+ :10.A4
231+2
+ :22.S4
1+2
3+ :2.S4
1+4
31+4
.D10
+ :2
31+2
:8
+
51+2
+ :8
34 :D10 , 34 :S4 ,
34 :32 :4, 31+4
+ .2.S4
513:3
35 :24 .AGL1 (5)
33+3 :13:3
36+4 :21+4 .AGL1 (5)
22 :15.4 < A9
26 :15.4
36 :24 .AGL1 (5)
36 :(33 :13:3), 33+6 :13.3

K ∩L
A5
A5
A5
A5
A5
PSL3 (3), 33 :PSL3 (3)
(4 × PSL2 (9)):2
(5 × PSL2 (16)):2
26 :(S3 × PSL3 (2))
24 :A5
A5 , 24 :A5 , S5 , A6 , S6
PSL2 (52 ), PSL2 (52 ):2
PSL2 (72 ), PSL2 (72 ):2
PSL2 (112 ), PSL2 (112 ):2
PSL2 (232 ), PSL2 (232 ):2
A8 , S8
PSL2 (27):3
PSL2 (7)
A7
PSL3 (4)
212 :SL2 (64).7
G2 (3)
Sp6 (2)
−
Ω−
8 (3), Ω8 (3).2
Sp6 (2)
A9
Ω7 (3)
Ω+
8 (2)

Note the isomorphism PSp4 (3) ∼
= PSU4 (2) for rows 10 and 11.
1.2. s-Arc transitive Cayley graphs
The second part of this paper gives a characterization of non-bipartite connected
s-arc-transitive Cayley graphs of solvable groups where s > 2, as an application of
Theorem 1.1. Before stating the result, we introduce some definitions.
Let Γ = (V, E) be a simple graph with vertex set V and edge set E. An
automorphism of Γ is a permutation on V that preserves the edge set E. The
group consisting of all the automorphisms of Γ is called the (full) automorphism
group of Γ and denoted by Aut(Γ ). For a positive integer s, an s-arc in Γ is a
sequence of vertices (α0 , α1 , . . . , αs ) such that {αi−1 , αi } ∈ E and αi−1 6= αi+1 for
all admissible i. A 1-arc is simply called an arc. For some G 6 Aut(Γ ), the graph
Γ is said to be (G, s)-arc-transitive if Γ is regular (means that each vertex has the

1.2. s-ARC TRANSITIVE CAYLEY GRAPHS

9

same number of neighbors) and G acts transitively on the s-arcs of Γ ; Γ is said to
be (G, s)-transitive if Γ is (G, s)-arc-transitive but not (G, s + 1)-arc-transitive. If Γ
is (Aut(Γ ), s)-arc-transitive or (Aut(Γ ), s)-transitive, then we say that Γ is s-arctransitive or s-transitive, respectively. Note that the cycles can be s-arc-transitive
for any positive integer s.
Given a group R and a subset S ⊂ R which does not contain the identity of R
such that S = S −1 := {g −1 | g ∈ S}, the Cayley graph Cay(R, S) of R is the graph
with vertex set R such that two vertices x, y are adjacent if and only if yx−1 ∈ S.
It is easy to see that Cay(R, S) is connected if and only if S generates the group R,
and a graph Γ is (isomorphic to) a Cayley graph of R if and only if Aut(Γ ) has a
subgroup isomorphic to R acting regularly on the vertices of Γ .
There have been classification results for certain classes of s-arc-transitive Cayley
graphs in the literature. For instance, see [1] for 2-arc-transitive circulants (Cayley graphs of cyclic groups), [15, 45, 46] for 2-arc-transitive dihedrants (Cayley
graphs of dihedral groups) and [30, 37] for 2-arc-transitive Cayley graphs of abelian
groups. Cubic s-arc-transitive Cayley graphs are characterized in [9, 40, 56, 57],
and tetravalent case is studied in [36].
A graph Γ is said to be a cover of a graph Σ , if there exists a surjection φ
from the vertex set of Γ to the vertex set of Σ which preserves adjacency and is
a bijection from the neighbors of v to the neighbors of v φ for any vertex v of Γ .
Suppose that Γ = (V, E) is a (G, s)-arc-transitive graph with s > 2, and G has a
normal subgroup N which has at least three orbits on the vertex set V . Then N
induces a graph ΓN = (VN , EN ), where VN is the set of N-orbits on V and EN is
the set of N-orbits on E, called the normal quotient of Γ induced by N. In this
context, we call Γ a normal cover of ΓN , and call Γ a proper normal cover of ΓN if
in addition N 6= 1.
A transitive permutation group G is called primitive if G does not preserve
any nontrivial partition of the points, and is called quasiprimitive if every nontrivial
normal subgroup of G is transitive. Given a non-bipartite (G, s)-arc-transitive graph
Σ with s > 2, one can take a maximal intransitive normal subgroup N of G, so that
ΣN is (G/N, s)-arc-transitive with G/N vertex-quasiprimitive and Σ is a cover of
ΣN , see [48]. If in addition Σ is a Cayley graph of a solvable group, then the
normal quotient ΣN admits a solvable vertex-transitive group of automorphisms.
Thus to characterize s-arc-transitive Cayley graphs of solvable groups, the first step
is to classify (G, s)-arc-transitive graphs with G vertex-quasiprimitive containing a
solvable vertex-transitive subgroup. This is essentially the result in Theorem 1.2,
where Σ is extended to the class of graphs admitting a solvable vertex-transitive
group of automorphisms although our original purpose is those Cayley graphs of
solvable groups. A group G is called affine if Cdp E G 6 AGLd (p) for some prime p
and positive integer d. The (G, 2)-arc-transitive graphs for primitive affine groups
G are classified in [30]. The (G, 2)-arc-transitive graphs for almost simple groups G
with socle PSL2 (q) are classified in [23].
Theorem 1.2. Let Σ be a non-bipartite connected (X, s)-transitive graph admitting a solvable vertex-transitive subgroup of X, where s > 2 and the valency of
Σ is at least three. Then s = 2 or 3, and X has a normal subgroup N with the
(G, s)-transitive normal quotient Γ described below, where G = X/N and Γ = ΣN .

10

1. INTRODUCTION

(a) G is a 3-transitive permutation group of degree n, Γ = Kn , and s = 2.
(b) G is a primitive affine group, so that Γ is classified in [30], and s = 2.
(c) PSL2 (q) 6 G 6 PΓL2 (q) for some prime power q > 4, so that Γ is classified
in [23].
(d) G = PSU3 (5) or PΣU3 (5), Γ is the Hoffman-Singlton graph, and s = 3.
(e) G = HS or HS.2, Γ is the Higman-Sims graph, and s = 2.
In particular, s = 3 if and only if Γ is the Petersen graph or the Hoffman-Singleton
graph.
A Cayley graph Γ of a group R is called a normal Cayley graph of R if the right
regular representation of R is normal in Aut(Γ ), and a Cayley graph of a solvable
group is called a solvable Cayley graph. An instant consequence of Theorem 1.2 is
the following.
Corollary 1.3. A connected non-bipartite 2-arc-transitive solvable Cayley graph
of valency at least three is a normal cover of
(a) a complete graph, or
(b) a normal Cayley graph of Cd2 , or
(c) a (G, 2)-arc-transitive graph with soc(G) = PSL2 (q), or
(d) the Hoffman-Singlton graph, or
(e) the Higman-Sims graph.
In particular, a connected non-bipartite 3-arc-transitive solvable Cayley graph of
valency at least three is a normal cover of the Petersen graph or the HoffmanSingleton graph.
We remark that neither the Petersen graph nor the Hoffman-Singleton graph is
a Cayley graph. Thus a non-bipartite 3-arc-transitive solvable Cayley graph (if any)
is a proper normal cover of the Petersen graph or the Hoffman-Singleton graph.

CHAPTER 2

Preliminaries
We collect in this chapter the notation and elementary facts as well as some technical lemmas. Some basic facts will be used in the sequel without further reference.
2.1. Notation
In this paper, all the groups are supposed to be finite and all graphs are supposed
to be finite and simple if there are no further instructions. We set up the notation
below, where G, H, K are groups, M is a subgroup of G, n and m are positive
integers, p is a prime number, and q is a power of p (so that q is called a p-power).
Z(G)
rad(G)
soc(G)
G(∞)
CG (M)
NG (M)
Op (G)
[G:M]
G◦H
G:H
G.H
G:H:K
G:H.K
G.H.K
Sn
An
Cn
D2n
[n]
np
np′
pn
pn+m
p1+2n
+
p1+2n
−
GF(q)
ΓLn (q)
GLn (q)
SLn (q)
PΓLn (q)

center of G
solvable radical (the largest solvable normal subgroup) of G
socle
of the minimal normal subgroups) of G
T∞(product
(i)
= i=1 G
centralizer of M in G
normalizer of M in G
largest normal p-subgroup of G
set of right cosets of M in G
a central product of G and H
a split extension of G by H
an extension of G by H
a group of both type G:(H:K) and (G:H):K
a group of type G:(H.K) (this is automatically of type (G:H).K)
a group of type G.(H.K) (this is automatically of type (G.H).K)
symmetric group of degree n (naturally acting on {1, 2, . . . , n})
alternating group of degree n (naturally acting on {1, 2, . . . , n})
cyclic group of order n (sometimes just denoted by n)
dihedral group of order 2n
an unspecified group of order n
p-part of n (the largest p-power that divides n)
= n/np
elementary abelian group of order pn
= pn .pm
extraspecial group of order p1+2n with exponent p when p is odd
extraspecial group of order p1+2n with exponent p2 when p is odd
finite field of q elements
group of semilinear bijections on GF(q)n
general linear group on GF(q)n
special linear group on GF(q)n
= ΓLn (q)/Z(GLn (q))
11

12

2. PRELIMINARIES

PGLn (q)
PSLn (q)
Sp2n (q)
PSp2n (q)
GUn (q)
SUn (q)
PGUn (q)
PSUn (q)
O2n+1 (q)
O+
2n (q)
O−
2n (q)
SO2n+1 (q)
SO+
2n (q)
SO−
2n (q)
Ω2n+1 (q)
Ω+
2n (q)
Ω−
2n (q)
PSO2n+1 (q)
PSO+
2n (q)
PSO−
2n (q)
PΩ2n+1 (q)
PΩ+
2n (q)
−
PΩ2n (q)
Kn
Kn,m

projective general linear group on GF(q)n
projective special linear group on GF(q)n
symplectic group on GF(q)2n
projective symplectic group on GF(q)2n
general unitary group on GF(q 2 )n
special unitary group on GF(q 2 )n
projective general unitary group on GF(q 2 )n
projective special unitary group on GF(q 2 )n
general orthogonal group on GF(q)2n+1
general orthogonal group on GF(q)2n with Witt index n
general orthogonal group on GF(q)2n with Witt index n − 1
special orthogonal group on GF(q)2n
special orthogonal group on GF(q)2n with Witt index n
special orthogonal group on GF(q)2n with Witt index n − 1
derived subgroup of SO2n+1 (q)
derived subgroup of SO+
2n (q)
derived subgroup of SO−
2n (q)
projective special orthogonal group on GF(q)2n
projective special orthogonal group on GF(q)2n with Witt
index n
projective special orthogonal group on GF(q)2n with Witt
index n − 1
derived subgroup of PSO2n+1 (q)
derived subgroup of PSO+
2n (q)
−
derived subgroup of PSO2n (q)
complete graph on n vertices
complete bipartite graph with bipart sizes n and m

Let T be a classical linear group on V with center Z such that T /Z is a classical
simple group, and X be a subgroup of GL(V ) containing T as a normal subgroup.
Then for any subgroup Y of X, denote by ˆY the subgroup (Y ∩ T )Z/Z of T /Z.
For example, if X = GLn (q) and Y = GL1 (q n ):n 6 X (see Section 3.1), then
ˆY = ((q n − 1)/((q − 1)(n, q − 1))):n as the third column of row 1 in Table 1.1.
If G is a linear group, define Pk [G] to be the stabilizer of a k-space in G. For
the rest of this section, let G be a symplectic, unitary or orthogonal group. If G
is transitive on the totally singular k-spaces, then define Pk [G] to be the stabilizer
of a totally singular k-space in G. If G is not transitive on the totally singular
k-spaces (so that G is an orthogonal group of dimension 2k with Witt index k, see
[42, 2.2.4]), then G has precisely two orbits on them and
(i) define Pk−1 [G], Pk [G] to be the stabilizers of totally singular k-spaces in the
two different orbits of G;
(ii) define Pk−1,k [G] to be the stabilizer of a totally singular (k − 1)-space in G;
(iii) define P1,k−1 [G] to be the intersection P1 [G] ∩ Pk−1 [G], where the 1-space
stabilized by P1 [G] lies in the k-space stabilized by Pk−1 [G];
(iv) define P1,k [G] to be the intersection P1 [G] ∩ Pk [G], where the 1-space stabilized by P1 [G] lies in the k-space stabilized by Pk [G].
Let W be a non-degenerate k-space. We define

2.2. RESULTS ON FINITE SIMPLE GROUPS

13

(i) Nk [G] = GW if either G is symplectic or unitary, or G is orthogonal of even
dimension with k odd;
(ii) Nεk [G] = GW for ε = ± if G is orthogonal and W has type ε;
(iii) Nεk [G] = GW for ε = ± if G is orthogonal of odd dimension and W ⊥ has
type ε.
+
For the above defined groups Pk [G], Pi,j [G], Nk [G], N−
k [G] and Nk [G], we will simply
+
write Pk , Pi,j , Nk , N−
k and Nk , respectively, if the classical group G is clear from
the context.
We shall employ the families C1 –C8 of subgroups of classical groups defined in
[2], see [34, 33] for their group structure and [34, 7] for determination of their
−
maximality in classical simple groups. The subgroups Pk , Nk , N+
k and Nk defined
in the previous paragraph are actually C1 subgroups of classical groups.
2.2. Results on finite simple groups
This section contains some information about the finite simple groups which is
needed in the sequel.
2.2.1. Classification of the finite simple groups. Let q be a prime power.
By the classification of finite simple groups (CFSG), the finite nonabelian simple
groups are:
(i) An with n > 5;
(ii) classical groups of Lie type:
PSLn (q) with n > 2 and (n, q) 6= (2, 2) or (2, 3),
PSp2m (q) with m > 2 and (m, q) 6= (2, 2),
PSUn (q) with n > 3 and (n, q) 6= (3, 2),
Ω2m+1 (q) with m > 3 and q odd,
−
PΩ+
2m (q) with m > 4, PΩ2m (q) with m > 4;
(iii) exceptional groups of Lie type:
G2 (q) with q > 3, F4 (q), E6 (q), E7 (q), E8 (q),
2
B2 (22c+1 ) = Sz(22c+1 ) with c > 1, 2 G2 (32c+1) with c > 1,
2
F4 (22c+1 ) with c > 1, 2 F4 (2)′ , 3 D4 (q), 2 E6 (q);
(iv) 26 sporadic simple groups.
Furthermore, the only repetitions among (i)–(iv) are:
PSL2 (4) ∼
= PSL2 (5) ∼
= A5 , PSL3 (2) ∼
= PSL2 (7),
∼
∼
PSL2 (9) = A6 , PSL4 (2) = A8 , PSU4 (2) ∼
= PSp4 (3).
For the orders of the groups listed in (ii)–(iv), see [42, TABLE 2.1].
Remark 2.1. We note that
PSp (2) ∼
= S6 , G2 (2) ∼
= PSU3 (3):2,
4

2

G2 (3) ∼
= PΓL2 (8),

and the groups PSL2 (2), PSL2 (3), PSU3 (2), 2 B2 (2) are all solvable.

14

2. PRELIMINARIES

2.2.2. Outer automorphism group. As a consequence of CFSG, the outer
automorphism groups of finite simple groups are explicitly known. In particular,
the Schreier conjecture is true, that is, the outer automorphism group of every finite
simple group is solvable. We collect some information for the outer automorphism
groups of simple groups of Lie type in the following two tables, where q = pf with
p prime. For the presentations of outer automorphism groups of classical simple
groups, see [7, 1.7].
Table 2.1.
L
PSL2 (q)
PSLn (q), n > 3
PSUn (q), n > 3
PSp2m (q), (m, p) 6= (2, 2)
PSp4 (q), q even
Ω2m+1 (q), m > 3, q odd
m
PΩ−
2m (q), m > 4, q 6≡ 3 (mod
m
PΩ−
2m (q), m > 4, q ≡ 3 (mod
+
PΩ2m (q), m > 5, q m 6≡ 1 (mod
m
PΩ+
2m (q), m > 5, q ≡ 1 (mod
+
PΩ8 (q)

4)
4)
4)
4)

Out(L)
Cd × Cf
Cd :(C2 × Cf )
Cd :C2f
Cd × Cf
C2f
C2 × Cf
Cd × C2f
D8 × Cf
C2 × Cd × Cf
D8 × Cf
Sd × Cf

d
(2, q − 1)
(n, q − 1)
(n, q + 1)
(2, q − 1)
1
1
(2, q − 1)
4
(2, q − 1)
4
2 + (2, q − 1)

Table 2.2.
L
G2 (q), q > 3
F4 (q)
E6 (q)
E7 (q)
E8 (q)
2
B2 (q), q = 22c+1 > 23
2
G2 (q), q = 32c+1 > 33
2
F4 (q), q = 22c+1 > 23
2
F4 (2)′
3
D4 (q)
2
E6 (q)

|Out(L)|
(3, p)f
(2, p)f
2df
df
f
f
f
f
2
3f
2df

d
1
1
(3, q − 1)
(2, q − 1)
1
1
1
1
1
1
(3, q + 1)

Let a and m be positive integers. A prime number r is called a primitive prime
divisor of the pair (a, m) if r divides am − 1 but does not divide aℓ − 1 for any
positive integer ℓ < m. We will simply say that r is a primitive prime divisor of
am − 1 when a is prime.
Lemma 2.2. A prime number r is a primitive prime divisor of (a, m) if and only
if a has order m in GF(r)× . In particular, if r is a primitive prime divisor of (a, m),
then m r − 1 and r > m.
The following Zsigmondy’s theorem shows exactly when the primitive prime divisors exist.

2.2. RESULTS ON FINITE SIMPLE GROUPS

15

Theorem 2.3. (Zsigmondy, see [3, Theorem IX.8.3]) Let a and m be integers
greater than 1. Then (a, m) has a primitive prime divisor except for (a, m) = (2, 6)
or (2k − 1, 2) with some positive integer k.
Checking the orders of outer automorphism groups of finite simple groups and
viewing Lemma 2.2, one has the consequence below, see [42, p.38 PROPOSITION
B].
Lemma 2.4. Let L be a simple group of Lie type over GF(q), where q = pf with
p prime and m > 3. If (q, m) 6= (2, 6) or (4, 3), then no primitive prime divisor of
pf m − 1 divides |Out(L)|.
2.2.3. Minimal index of proper subgroups. A group G is said to be perfect
if G′ = G. A group G is said to be quasisimple if G is perfect and G/Z(G) is
nonabelian simple.
Lemma 2.5. Let P (X) denote the smallest index of proper subgroups of an arbitrary group X. Then the following statements hold.
(a) If G is almost simple with socle L, then |G|/|H| > P (L) for any core-free
subgroup H of G.
(b) If G is quasisimple with center Z, then P (G/Z) = P (G).
(c) If G is a permutation group on n points and N is a normal subgroup of G,
then P (G/N) 6 n.
(d) If H and K are subgroups of G such that |G|/|K| < P (H), then H 6 K.
Proof. Proof for parts (a) and (b) is fairly easy, so we omit it. To prove part (c),
use induction on n. When n = 1, the conclusion holds trivially. Let K 6 G be the
stabilizer of an arbitrary point. Evidently, |G|/|K| 6 n, and K is a permutation
group on n − 1 points. As K/K ∩ N ∼
= KN/N, we see that K/K ∩ N is isomorphic
to a subgroup H of G/N. If H 6= G/N, then
P (G/N) 6

|G/N|
|G||K ∩ N|
|G|
=
6
6 n.
|H|
|N||K|
|K|

If H = G/N, then P (G/N) = P (K/K ∩ N) 6 n − 1 by the inductive hypothesis.
Consequently, part (c) is true.
It remains to prove part (d). Suppose on the contrary that H K. Then H ∩ K
is a proper subgroup of H, and so |H|/|H ∩ K| > P (H). This causes a contradiction
that
|G|
|HK|
|H|
P (H) >
>
=
> P (H).
|K|
|K|
|H ∩ K|
Thereby we have H 6 K.

A list of the smallest indices of proper subgroups of classical simple groups was
obtained by Cooperstein [11]. In fact, the smallest index of proper subgroups of a
classical simple group follows immediately from the classification of its maximal subgroups. This is cited in the following theorem and is referred to [34, Theorem 5.2.2],
which also points out the two errors in Cooperstein’s list.
Theorem 2.6. The smallest index P (L) of proper subgroups of a classical simple
group L is as in Table 2.3.

16

2. PRELIMINARIES

Table 2.3.
L
PSLn (q), (n, q) 6= (2, 5), (2, 7), (2, 9), (2, 11), (4, 2)
PSL2 (5), PSL2 (7), PSL2 (9), PSL2 (11), PSL4 (2)
PSp2m (q), m > 2, q > 2, (m, q) 6= (2, 3)
Sp2m (2), m > 3
PSp4 (3)
Ω2m+1 (q), m > 3, q > 5 odd
Ω2m+1 (3), m > 3
PΩ+
2m (q), m > 4, q > 3
PΩ+
2m (2), m > 4
PΩ−
2m (q), m > 4
PSU3 (q), q 6= 5
PSU3 (5)
PSU4 (q)
PSUn (q), n > 5, (n, q) 6= (6m, 2)
PSUn (2), n ≡ 0 (mod 6)

P (L)
(q n − 1)/(q − 1)
5, 7, 6, 11, 8
(q 2m − 1)/(q − 1)
2m−1 (2m − 1)
27
(q 2m − 1)/(q − 1)
3m (3m − 1)/2
(q m − 1)(q m−1 + 1)/(q − 1)
2m−1 (2m − 1)
(q m + 1)(q m−1 − 1)/(q − 1)
q3 + 1
50
(q + 1)(q 3 + 1)
(q n −(−1)n )(q n−1 −(−1)n−1 )
q 2 −1
n−1 n

2

(2 − 1)/3

2.3. Elementary facts concerning factorizations
We first give several equivalent conditions for a factorization.
Lemma 2.7. Let H, K be subgroups of G. Then the following are equivalent.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)

G = HK.
G = H x K y for any x, y ∈ G.
|H ∩ K||G| = |H||K|.
|G| 6 |H||K|/|H ∩ K|.
H acts transitively on [G:K] by right multiplication.
K acts transitively on [G:H] by right multiplication.

Due to part (b) of Lemma 2.7, we will consider conjugacy classes of subgroups
when studying factorizations of a group. Given a group G and its subgroups H, K,
in order to inspect whether G = HK holds we only need to compute the orders of G,
H, K and H ∩K by part (c) or (d) of Lemma 2.7. This is usually easier than checking
the equality G = HK directly, see our Magmacodes in APPENDIX B. Utilizing
equivalent conditions (e) and (f) in Lemma 2.7, one can construct factorizations in
terms of permutation groups.
Example 2.8. According to Lemma 2.7, each k-homogeneous permutation group
H of degree n gives rise to a factorization Sn = H(Sk × Sn−k ).
(a) Each transitive permutation group H of degree n gives rise to a factorization Sn = HSn−1 . Since a group is transitive in its regular permutation
representation, we see that each group is a factor of some symmetric group.
(b) Each 2-homogeneous permutation group H of degree n gives rise to a factorization Sn = H(S2 × Sn−2 ). The solvable 2-homogeneous group H of
degree n > 5 only exists for prime power n, and is either a subgroup of

2.3. ELEMENTARY FACTS CONCERNING FACTORIZATIONS

17

AΓL1 (n) or one of the following (see [31] and [4, Theorem XII.7.3]):
H
52 :SL2 (3), 52 :Q8 .6, 52 :SL2 (3).4
72 :Q8 .S3 , 72 :SL2 (3).6
112 :SL2 (3).5, 112 :SL2 (3).10
232 :SL2 (3).22
34 :21+4 .5, 34 :21+4 .D10 , 34 :21+4 .AGL1 (5)

n
52
72
112
232
34

(c) There are only three solvable 3-homogeneous groups of degree n > 5,
namely, AGL1 (8) and AΓL1 (8) with n = 8, and AΓL1 (32) with n = 32.
Each of them is a factor of Sn with the other factor being S3 × Sn−3 .
See the proof of Proposition 4.3 for a more comprehensive treatment of these factorizations.
The following simple lemma will be used repeatedly in subsequent chapters.
Lemma 2.9. Let H, K be subgroups of G and L be a normal subgroup of G. If
G = HK, then we have the following divisibilities.
(a) |G| divides |H||K|.
(b) |G| divides |H ∩ L||K||G/L|.
(c) |L| divides |H ∩ L||K|.
(d) |L| divides |H ∩ L||K ∩ L||G/L|.
Proof. It derives from G = HK that |H ∩ K||G| = |H||K| and thus statement
(a) holds. Then since |H| = |H ∩ L||HL/L| divides |H ∩ L||G/L|, we conclude that
|G| divides |H ∩ L||K||G/L|. Hence statement (b) holds, which is equivalent to (c).
Since |K| = |K ∩ L||KL/L| divides |K ∩ L||G/L|, we then further deduce statement
(d).

In the remainder of this section, we present some lemmas relating factorizations
of a group and those of its subgroups.
Lemma 2.10. Let H, K and M be subgroups of G. If G = HK, then M =
(H ∩ M)(K ∩ M) if and only if |HM||KM| 6 |G||(H ∩ K)M|. In particular, if
G = HK and H 6 M, then M = H(K ∩ M).
Proof. By Lemma 2.7, M = (H ∩ M)(K ∩ M) if and only if
(2.1)

|M| 6 |H ∩ M||K ∩ M|/|H ∩ K ∩ M|.

Substituting |H ∩M| = |H||M|/|HM|, |K ∩M| = |K||M|/|HK| and |H ∩K ∩M| =
|H ∩ K||M|/|(H ∩ K)M| into (2.1), we obtain
|HM||KM||H ∩ K| 6 |H||K||(H ∩ K)M|.
Since |H||K|/|H ∩ K| = |G| in view of G = HK, the above inequality turns out to
be |HM||KM| 6 |G||(H ∩ K)M|. This proves the lemma.

Lemma 2.11. Let K, M be subgroups of G and H be a subgroup of M. If M =
H(K ∩ M), then G = HK if and only if G = MK.
Proof. If G = HK, then H 6 M implies G = MK. If G = MK, then
G = (H(K ∩ M))K = H((K ∩ M)K) = HK.


18

2. PRELIMINARIES

The above two lemmas enable us to construct new factorizations from given ones.
Example 2.12. Let G = PSL4 (3), M = PSp4 (3).2 < G and K = P1 =
33 :PSL3 (3). Then we have G = MK and K ∩ M = 33 :(S4 × 2) by [42, 3.1.1].
Since the almost simple group M = PSp4 (3).2 has a factorization M = H(K ∩ M)
with H = 24 :AGL1 (5) (see row 11 of Table 4.1), there holds G = HK by Lemma
2.11. This factorization is as described in row 6 of Table 1.2.
6
Example 2.13. Let G = PΩ+
8 (3), M = P4 = 3 :PSL4 (3) and K = N1 = Ω7 (3).
3+3
Then we have G = MK and K ∩M = 3 :PSL3 (3) by [42, 5.1.15]. Write M = R:S,
where R = C63 and S = PSL4 (3). As shown in Example 2.12, S has a factorization
S = H1 K1 with H1 = 24 :AGL1 (5) and K1 = 33 :PSL3 (3) < K ∩M. Let H = R:H1 <
M. It follows that

M = RS = RH1 K1 = HK1 = H(K ∩ M),
and thus G = HK by Lemma 2.11. This factorization is as described in row 27 of
Table 1.2.
2.4. Maximal factorizations of almost simple groups
The nontrivial maximal factorizations of almost simple groups are classicfied by
Liebeck, Praeger and Saxl [42]. According to [42, THEOREM A], any nontrivial
maximal factorization G = AB of almost simple group G with socle L classical of
Lie type lies in TABLEs 1–4 of [42]. In TABLE 1 of [42], the maximal subgroups
A and B are given by some natural subgroups XA and XB of A ∩ L and B ∩ L
respectively such that A = NG (XA ) and B = NG (XB ). In fact, the explicit group
structures of A ∩ L and B ∩ L in TABLE 1 of [42] can be read off from [34], which
gives the following lemma.
Lemma 2.14. Let G be an almost simple group with socle L classical of Lie type.
If G = AB is a nontrivial maximal factorization as described in TABLE 1 of [42],
then letting XA and XB be as defined in TABLE 1 of [42], we have one of the
following.
(a) A ∩ L = XA and B ∩ L = XB .
(b) L = PSLn (q) with n > 4 even, B ∩ L = XB , and A ∩ L = PSpn (q).a where
a = (2, q − 1)(n/2, q − 1)/(n, q − 1).
(c) L = PSU2m (q) with m > 2, A ∩ L = XA , and B ∩ L = PSp2m (q).a where
a = (2, q − 1)(m, q + 1)/(2m, q + 1).
(d) L = PΩ+
2m (q) with m > 6 even and q > 2, A ∩ L = XA , and B ∩ L =
(PSp2 (q) ⊗ PSpm (q)).a where a = gcd(2, m/2, q − 1).
In particular, |A ∩ L|/|XA | 6 2 and |B ∩ L|/|XB | 6 2.
In light of Lemma 2.14, we restate THEOREM A of [42] as follows.
Theorem 2.15. (Liebeck, Praeger and Saxl) Let G be an almost simple group
with socle L classical of Lie type not isomorphic to A5 , A6 or A8 . If G = AB is a
nontrivial maximal factorization of G, then interchanging A and B if necessary, the
triple (L, A ∩ L, B ∩ L) lies in Tables A.1–A.7 in APPENDIX A.
For a group G, the solvable radical of G, denoted by rad(G), is the product of
all the solvable normal subgroups of G.

2.4. MAXIMAL FACTORIZATIONS OF ALMOST SIMPLE GROUPS

19

Lemma 2.16. If a group G has precisely one (involving multiplicity) unsolvable
composition factor, then G/rad(G) is almost simple.
Proof. Let R = rad(G) be the solvable radical of G. If G/R has an abelian
minimal normal subgroup N say, then the full preimage of N is solvable and normal
in G, which is a contradiction since R is the largest solvable normal subgroup of
G. Thus each minimal normal subgroup of G/R is nonabelian. As G has only one
unsolvable composition factor, so does G/R. Therefore, G/R has only one minimal
normal subgroup and the minimal normal subgroup is nonabelian simple, which
shows that G/R is almost simple.

T
(i)
be the first perfect group in the derived
For a group G, let G(∞) = ∞
i=1 G
series of G. Obviously, G is solvable if and only if G(∞) = 1. In fact, G(∞) is the
smallest normal subgroup of G such that G/G(∞) is solvable.
The following proposition plays a fundamental role in our further analysis.
Proposition 2.17. Suppose G is an almost simple group with socle classical of
Lie type, and G = AB with subgroups A, B maximal and core-free in G. If A has
exactly one unsolvable composition factor and R = rad(A), then (A ∩ B)R/R is
core-free in A/R.
Proof. Let S be the unique unsolvable composition factor of A. By Lemma
2.16, A/R is an almost simple group with socle S. Suppose that (A∩B)R/R contains
soc(A/R) = (A/R)(∞) = A(∞) R/R. Then (A ∩ B)R > A(∞) R. From G = AB we
deduce that |G|/|B| = |A|/|A ∩ B| divides |A||R|/|(A ∩ B)R|. Hence |G|/|B| divides
|A||R|
|A||A(∞) ∩ R|
|A|
=
=
.
|A(∞) R|
|A(∞) |
|A(∞) /rad(A(∞) )|
Since A(∞) /rad(A(∞) ) is also an almost simple group with socle S, this implies that
|G|/|B| divides |A|/|S|. However, inspecting the candidates in Tables A.1–A.7, we
conclude that the factorization G = AB does not satisfy this divisibility condition.
Thus (A ∩ B)R/R does not contain soc(A/R), that is, (A ∩ B)R/R is core-free in
A/R.

In order to appeal the classification of maximal factorizations to investigate
the general factorizations of an almost simple group G, say, we need to embed a
nontrivial factorization G = HK to the a maximal factorization G = AB. This can
be easily accomplished by taking arbitrary maximal subgroups A, B of G containing
H, K respectively. However, such maximal subgroups A and B are not necessarily
core-free.
Lemma 2.18. Suppose that G is an almost simple group with socle L and G has
a nontrivial factorization G = HK. Then the following statements hold.
(a) HL = KL = G if and only if for any maximal subgroups A, B of G containing H, K respectively, A, B are both core-free.
(b) There exist L E G∗ 6 G and a factorization G∗ = H ∗ K ∗ of G∗ such that
H ∗ ∩ L = H ∩ L, K ∗ ∩ L = K ∩ L and H ∗ L = K ∗ L = G∗ .
Proof. Assume that HL = KL = G. For any maximal subgroups A of G
containing H, since A > L will lead to a contradiction that A > HL = G, we know

20

2. PRELIMINARIES

that A is core-free in G. Similarly, any maximal subgroup B of G containing K is
core-free in G.
Conversely, assume that any maximal subgroups of G containing H, K, respectively, are core-free in G. If HL < G, then the maximal subgroup of G containing
HL (and thus containing H) is not core-free in G, contrary to the assumption.
Hence HL = G, and similarly we have KL = G. Therefore, part (a) is true.
For part (b), take G∗ = HL ∩ KL, H ∗ = H ∩ G∗ and K ∗ = K ∩ G∗ . Then
L E G∗ 6 G, H ∗ ∩ L = H ∩ L and K ∗ ∩ L = K ∩ L. It follows that H ∗ and K ∗ are
both core-free in G∗ since H and K are both core-free in G. By [44, Lemma 2(i)],
we have G∗ = H ∗ K ∗ and H ∗ L = K ∗ L = G∗ . Thus G∗ = H ∗ K ∗ is a factorization
satisfying part (b).

Remark 2.19. For a nontrivial factorization G = HK, if we are concerned with
H ∩soc(G) and K ∩soc(G) instead of H and K (such as in proving Theorem 1.1(d)),
then Lemma 2.18 allows us to assume that any maximal subgroups of G containing
H, K, respectively, are core-free in G.

CHAPTER 3

The factorizations of linear and unitary groups of prime
dimension
We classify factorizations of almost simple linear and unitary groups of prime
dimension in this chapter. It turns out that all these factorizations have at least one
solvable factor unless the socle is PSL3 (4).
3.1. Singer cycles
Let n = ab > 2 and V = GF(q n ). Then V may be viewed as an n-dimensional
vector space over GF(q) and an a-dimensional vector space over GF(q b ). Let g be a
GF(q b )-linear transformation on V . This means that, by definition, g is a bijection
on V satisfying
(u + v)g = ug + v g for any u, v ∈ V and
(λv)g = λ(v g ) for any λ ∈ GF(q b ).
Since GF(q) ⊆ GF(q b ), we see from the above conditions that g is also a GF(q)-linear
transformation on V . Therefore, GLa (q b ) 6 GLn (q). In fact, for any g ∈ GLa (q b )
and σ ∈ Gal(GF(q b )/GF(q)), it is direct to check by definition that σ −1 gσ is still a
GF(q b )-linear transformation. Hence we have
GLa (q b ):Gal(GF(q b )/GF(q)) = GLa (q b ):b 6 GLn (q).
Taking a = 1 and b = n in the above argument, one obtains that GL1 (q n ) <
GL1 (q n ):n < GLn (q). We call the cyclic group GL1 (q n ) and its conjugates in GLn (q)
the Singer cycle of GLn (q), and call ˆGL1 (q n ) and its conjugates in PGLn (q) the
Singer cycle of PGLn (q). Obviously, the group GL1 (q n ) consisting of all GF(q n )linear transformations of V is transitive on V \ {0}. It follows that Singer cycles are
transitive on the 1-spaces and (n − 1)-spaces, respectively, of V . Accordingly, for
k = 1 or n − 1 we obtain the factorizations
GLn (q) = GL1 (q n )Pk [GLn (q)] = (GL1 (q n ):n)Pk [GLn (q)]
and
PGLn (q) = ˆGL1 (q n )Pk [PGLn (q)] = (ˆGL1 (q n ):n)Pk [PGLn (q)].
It is worth mentioning that ΓL1 (q n ) actually has a lot of subgroups which are
transitive on V \ {0}, see [17, 18].
We have seen in the above that there exist almost simple groups G with socle
L = PSLn (q) and subgroups H, K such that G = HK, H ∩ L 6 ˆGL1 (q n ):n and
K ∩ L 6 P1 or Pn−1 . In the rest of this section, we will show that if such a
factorization holds then K ∩ L must contain a large normal subgroup of P1 or Pn−1 .
Lemma 3.1. Let G be an almost simple group with socle L = PSLn (q) and
(n, q) 6= (3, 2), (3, 3) or (4, 2). If G = HK for subgroups H and K of G such that
H ∩ L 6 ˆGL1 (q n ):n and K ∩ L 6 P1 or Pn−1 , then K < PΓLn (q).
21

22

3. PRIME DIMENSION

Proof. Suppose K
PΓLn (q), and write d = (n, q − 1). Then n > 3, K
involves the graph automorphism of L, and K ∩ L stabilizes a decomposition V =
V1 ⊕ Vn−1 , where V is an n-dimensional vector space over GF(q) and V1 , Vn−1 are
1-space and (n − 1)-space, respectively, in V . This implies that |K ∩ L| divides
|GLn−1 (q)|/d. Moreover, we conclude from H ∩ L 6 ˆGL1 (q n ):n that |H ∩ L| divides
n(q n − 1)/(d(q − 1)). Hence by Lemma 2.9 we obtain
(3.1)

q n−1 2f n,

and thereby 2n−1 6 pn−1 6 pf (n−1) /f 6 2n. This yields n 6 4, and so n = 3 or
4. However, we deduce q = 2 from (3.1) if n = 3 or 4, contrary to our assumption
that (n, q) 6= (3, 2) or (4, 2). Thus K 6 PΓLn (q), and further K < PΓLn (q) since
K 6= PΓLn (q).

Lemma 3.2. Let G be an almost simple group with socle L = PSLn (q). If G =
HK for subgroups H, K of G such that H ∩ L 6 ˆGL1 (q n ):n and K ∩ L 6 P1 or
Pn−1 , then one of the following holds.
(a) q n−1 :SLn−1 (q) E K ∩ L.
(b) (n, q) ∈ {(2, 4), (3, 2), (3, 3), (3, 4), (3, 8)} and K is solvable.
Proof. Let q = pf with prime number p. We divide the discussion into two
cases distinguishing n = 2 or not. Note that if n = 2, part (a) turns out to be
Cfp E K ∩ L.
Case 1. Assume n = 2, and suppose q 6= 4. Then q > 5 and K ∩ L 6
Cfp :C(q−1)/(2,q−1) .
First suppose f 6 2. Then p > 2 as q > 5. It derives from Lemma 2.9 that q
divides |K ∩ L|. Hence q:SL1 (q) = Cfp E K ∩ L as part (a) of Lemma 3.2.
Next suppose f > 3. By Zsigmondy’s theorem, pf − 1 has a primitive prime
divisor r except (p, f ) = (2, 6). If (p, f ) = (2, 6), then 24 · 3 · 7 divides |K ∩ L| by
Lemma 2.9, but the only subgroups of 26 :63 in PSL2 (64) with order divisible by
24 · 3 · 7 are 26 :21 and 26 :63, which leads to 26 E K ∩ L. If (p, f ) 6= (2, 6), then
Lemma 2.9 implies that K ∩ L has order divisible by r and thus has an element
of order r. Note that Cr does not have any faithful representation over GF(p) of
dimension less than f . We then have Cfp :Cr E K ∩ L.
Case 2. Assume n > 3, and assume without loss of generality K ∩ L 6 P1 .
Write O = G/L. By Lemma 2.18, we may assume that there exist core-free maximal
subgroups A, B of G containing H, K, respectively. Then G = AB with A =
ˆGL1 (q n ):n.O and B 6 PΓLn (q) by Lemma 3.1. It follows from Theorem 2.15 that
B ∩ L = P1 . Thus B = P1 .O and O 6 PΓLn (q)/PSLn (q) = [(n, q − 1)f ]. Since
|G|/|A| divides |K|, |B|/|K| divides
|A||B|
|A|(q − 1)
|ˆGL1 (q n )|(q − 1)|O|
n|O|
=
=
=
.
n
n
|G|
q −1
q −1
(n, q − 1)
This yields that |B|/|K| divides nf . Suppose that (n, q) 6= (3, 2) or (3, 3). Then B
has a unique unsolvable composition factor PSLn−1 (q), and B (∞) = (B ∩ L)(∞) =
q n−1 :SLn−1 (q). Let R = rad(B), B = B/R and K = KR/R. It follows that B is
an almost simple group with socle PSLn−1 (q) by Lemma 2.16. Notice that |B|/|K|
divides |B|/|K| and thus divides nf . Moreover, we conclude from Theorem 2.6 that

3.2. LINEAR GROUPS OF PRIME DIMENSION

23

either each proper subgroup of PSLn−1 (q) has index greater than nf , or (n, q) ∈
{(3, 4), (3, 8), (3, 9)}.
First assume that K is core-free in B. Then the observation
|soc(B)|
|K soc(B)|
|B|
=
6
6 nf
|K ∩ soc(B)|
|K|
|K|
implies that (n, q) ∈ {(3, 4), (3, 8), (3, 9)}. If (n, q) = (3, 4) or (3, 8), then K is
solvable since it is core-free in PΓL2 (q), which implies that K is solvable as part (b)
asserts. If (n, q) = (3, 9), then computation in Magma[6] shows that 34 :SL2 (9) E
K ∩ L, as part (a) of Lemma 3.2.
(∞)
Next assume that K > soc(B). Since soc(B) = B , this yields KR > B (∞) .
As a consequence, K > SLn−1 (q), which implies K ∩ L > SLn−1 (q). Note that
B ∩ L = q n−1 :ˆGLn−1 (q) and SLn−1 (q) 6 ˆGLn−1 (q) 6 B (∞) acts irreducibly on
q n−1 . We conclude that either K ∩ L > q n−1 :SLn−1 (q) or K ∩ L 6 ˆGLn−1 (q).
However, the latter causes |A|p |K ∩ L|p |O|p < |G|p , contrary to Lemma 2.9. Thus
K ∩ L > q n−1 :SLn−1 (q) as part (a) asserts.

3.2. Linear groups of prime dimension
Now we determine the factorizations of almost simple groups with socle PSLn (q)
for prime dimension n. We exclude the values of (n, q) ∈ {(2, 4), (2, 5), (2, 9), (3, 2)}
due to the isomorphisms PSL2 (4) ∼
= PSL2 (5) ∼
= A5 , PSL2 (9) ∼
= A6 and PSL3 (2) ∼
=
PSL2 (7).
Theorem 3.3. Let G be an almost simple group with socle L = PSLn (q) and
n be a prime with (n, q) 6∈ {(2, 4), (2, 5), (2, 9), (3, 2)}. If G = HK is a nontrivial
factorization, then interchanging H and K if necessary, one of the following holds.
(a) H ∩ L 6 ˆGL1 (q n ):n, and q n−1 :SLn−1 (q) E K ∩ L 6 P1 or Pn−1 .
(b) n = 2 with q ∈ {7, 11, 16, 19, 23, 29, 59}, or n = 3 with q ∈ {3, 4, 8}, or
(n, q) = (5, 2), and (G, H, K) lies in Table 3.1.
Conversely, for each L there exists a factorization G = HK satisfying part (a) with
soc(G) = L, and each triple (G, H, K) in Table 3.1 gives a factorization G = HK.
Proof. Suppose that G = HK is a nontrivial factorization. By Lemma 2.18,
there exist a group G∗ with socle L and its factorization G∗ = H ∗ K ∗ such that
H ∗ ∩ L = H ∩ L, K ∗ ∩ L = K ∩ L, and the maximal subgroups A∗ , B ∗ containing
H ∗ , K ∗ respectively are core-free in G∗ . Now G∗ = A∗ B ∗ is determined by Theorem
2.15. Inspecting candidates there and interchanging A∗ and B ∗ if necessary, we
obtain the following possibilities as n is prime.
(i) A∗ ∩ L = ˆGL1 (q n ):n and B ∗ ∩ L = P1 or Pn−1 .
(ii) n = 2 and q ∈ {7, 11, 16, 19, 23, 29, 59} as in rows 5–8 of Table A.1.
(iii) L = PSL3 (4), A∗ ∩ L = PSL2 (7) and B ∗ ∩ L = A6 .
(iv) L = PSL5 (2), A∗ ∩ L = 31.5 and B ∗ ∩ L = P2 or P3 .
Let A, B be maximal core-free subgroups (maximal among the core-free subgroups)
of G containing H, K respectively.
Case 1. Assume that (i) appears, which implies H ∩ L = H ∗ ∩ L 6 ˆGL1 (q n ):n
and K ∩ L = K ∗ ∩ L 6 P1 or Pn−1 . If (n, q) 6∈ {(3, 2), (3, 3), (3, 8)}, then Lemma 3.2

24

3. PRIME DIMENSION

Table 3.1.
row
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17

G
PSL2 (7).O
PSL2 (11).O
PSL2 (11).O
PΓL2 (16)
PSL2 (19).O
PSL2 (23).O
PSL2 (29)
PGL2 (29)
PSL2 (59).O
PSL3 (2).2
PSL3 (3).O
PSL3 (4).2
PSL3 (4).22
PSL3 (4).22
PSL3 (4).(S3 × O)
PSL3 (8).(3 × O)
PSL5 (2).O

H
7:O, 7:(3 × O)
11:(5 × O1 )
11:O, 11:(5 × O)
17:8
19:(9 × O)
23:(11 × O)
29:7, 29:14
29:28
59:(29 × O)
7:6
13:(3 × O)
PGL2 (7)
PGL2 (7)
PGL2 (7) × 2
7:(3 × O).S3
73:(9 × O1 )
31:(5 × O)

K
S4
A4 .O2
A5
(A5 × 2).2
A5
S4
A5
A5
A5
8
32 :ΓL1 (9)
M10
M10 :2
M10
(24 .(3 × D10 )).2
23+6 :72 :(3 × O2 )
26 :(S3 × SL3 (2))

where O 6 C2 , and O1 , O2 are subgroups of O such that O = O1 O2 .
already leads to part (a). It then remains to treat (n, q) = (3, 3) and (3, 8), respectively.
First consider (n, q) = (3, 3). Since |G|/|A| = 144, we deduce from the factorization G = AK that |K| must be divisible by 144. Suppose that part (a)
fails, that is, 32 :SL2 (3)
K ∩ L. Then simple computation in Magma[6] shows
2
K = AΓL1 (9) = 3 :ΓL1 (9) in order that G = AK. Now |K| = 144 = |G|/|A|, and
it derives from G = HK that H = A. Thus row 11 of Table 3.1 occurs.
Next consider (n, q) = (3, 8), and suppose that part (a) fails. Then by Lemma 3.2,
K is solvable. Besides, H 6 A is solvable as well. Searching by Magma[6] the factorizations of G with two solvable factors, we obtain the factorizations in row 16 of
Table 3.1.
Case 2. Assume that (ii) appears. In this case, A∗ ∩ L and B ∗ ∩ L are described
in rows 5–8 of Table A.1 as follows:
A∗ ∩ L
P1
P1
P1
D34

B∗ ∩ L
A5
S4
A4
PSL2 (4)

q
11, 19, 29, 59
7, 23
11
16

Arguing in the same vein as the above case leads to rows 1–9 of Table 3.1. We have
also confirmed these factorizations with computation in Magma[6].
Case 3. Assume that (iii) appears. Computation in Magma[6] for this case
gives the triple (G, H, K) in rows 12–15 of Table 3.1. We remark that there are H2 ∼
=
PGL2 (7), K2 ∼
= M10 such that PSL3 (4):22 =
= PGL2 (7) × 2 and K3 ∼
= M10 :2, H3 ∼

3.3. UNITARY GROUPS OF PRIME DIMENSION

25

H2 K2 = H3 K3 , but PSL3 (4):22 6= H3 K2 . In fact, the subgroup H1 of H3 isomorphic to PGL2 (7) is not conjugate to H2 in PSL3 (4):22 , and the subgroup K1 of K2
isomorphic to M10 is not conjugate to K3 in PSL3 (4):22 .
Case 4. Finally, assume that (iv) appears. In this case, P2 ∼
= B 6 L and
|G|/|A| = |B|, refer to [10]. Thus H = A and K = B as in row 17 of Table 3.1.
Conversely, since the Singer cycle H of G = PGLn (q) is transitive on the 1-spaces
and (n − 1)-spaces respectively, it gives a factorization G = HK satisfying part (a),
where K = P1 [PGLn (q)] and Pn−1 [PGLn (q)] respectively. Moreover, computation
in Magma[6] verifies that each triple (G, H, K) in Table 3.1 gives a factorization
G = HK. The proof is thus completed.

As a consequence of Theorem 3.3, we have
Corollary 3.4. Let G be an almost simple linear group of prime dimension.
Then any nontrivial factorization of G has at least one factor solvable, unless soc(G) =
PSL3 (4) and the factorization G = HK is described in rows 12–14 of Table 3.1.
3.3. Unitary groups of prime dimension
The factorizations of unitary groups of prime dimension are classified in the
following theorem.
Theorem 3.5. Let G be an almost simple group with socle L = PSUn (q) for an
odd prime n. If G = HK is a nontrivial factorization, then interchanging H and K
if necessary, (G, H, K) lies in Table 3.2. Conversely, each triple (G, H, K) in Table
3.2 gives a factorization G = HK.
Table 3.2.
row
1
2
3
4
5
6

G
PSU3 (3).O
PSU3 (3).2
PSU3 (5).O
PSU3 (5).2
PSU3 (5).S3
PSU3 (8).32.O

H
31+2
+ :8:O
31+2
+ :8
51+2
+ :8.O
1+2
51+2
+ :8, 5+ :8:2
1+2
51+2
+ :(3:8), 5+ :24:2
57:9.O1

K
PSL2 (7).O
O 6 C2
PGL2 (7)
A7
O 6 S3
S7
S7
23+6 :(63:3).O2 O1 O2 = O 6 C2

Proof. Suppose G = HK to be a nontrivial factorization. By Lemma 2.18,
there exist a group G∗ with socle L and its factorization G∗ = H ∗ K ∗ such that H ∗ ∩
L = H ∩ L, K ∗ ∩ L = K ∩ L, and the maximal subgroups A∗ , B ∗ containing H ∗ , K ∗
respectively are core-free in G∗ . Now G∗ = A∗ B ∗ is determined by Theorem 2.15,
which shows that, interchanging A∗ and B ∗ if necessary, the triple (L, A∗ ∩L, B ∗ ∩L)
lies in rows 5–7 of Table A.3 as follows:
L
PSU3 (3)
PSU3 (5)
PSU3 (8)

A∗ ∩ L
PSL2 (7)
A7
19.3

B∗ ∩ L
P1
P1
P1

26

3. PRIME DIMENSION

Computation in Magma[6] for these cases produces all nontrivial factorizations
as listed in Table 3.2. We remark that there are two non-isomorphic groups of type
31+2
+ :8 for H in row 2 of Table 3.2. Also, there are two non-isomorphic groups of
1+2
type 51+2
+ :(3:8) for H in row 5 of Table 3.2, where one is 5+ :24 and the other is
not.

As a consequence of Theorem 3.5, we have
Corollary 3.6. Let G be an almost simple unitary group of odd prime dimension. Then any nontrivial factorization of G has at least one factor solvable.

CHAPTER 4

Non-classical groups
For non-classical almost simple groups, since the factorizations are classified
[25, 42, 21], we can read off those factorizations which have a solvable factor.
4.1. The case that both factors are solvable
We first classify factorizations of almost simple groups with both factors solvable
based on Kazarin’s result [32], so that we can focus later on the factorizations with
precisely one solvable factor.
Proposition 4.1. Let G be an almost simple group with socle L. If G = HK
for solvable subgroups H, K of G, then interchanging H and K if necessary, one of
the following holds.
(a) L = PSL2 (q), H ∩ L 6 D2(q+1)/d and q E K ∩ L 6 q:((q − 1)/d), where q is
a prime power and d = (2, q − 1).
(b) L is one of the groups: PSL2 (7) ∼
= PSL3 (2), PSL2 (11), PSL3 (3), PSL3 (4),
∼
PSL3 (8), PSU3 (8), PSU4 (2) = PSp4 (3) and M11 ; moreover, (G, H, K) lies
in Table 4.1.
Conversely, for each prime power q there exists a factorization G = HK satisfying
part (a) with soc(G) = L = PSL2 (q), and each triple (G, H, K) in Table 4.1 gives a
factorization G = HK.
Table 4.1.
row
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11

G
PSL2 (7).O
PSL2 (11).O
PSL2 (23).O
PSL3 (3).O
PSL3 (3).O
PSL3 (4).(S3 × O)
PSL3 (8).(3 × O)
PSU3 (8).32 .O
PSU4 (2).O
PSU4 (2).O
PSU4 (2).2

H
7:O, 7:(3 × O)
11:(5 × O1 )
23:(11 × O)
13:O, 13:(3 × O)
13:(3 × O)
7:(3 × O).S3
73:(9 × O1 )
57:9.O1
24 :5
24 :D10 .O1
24 :5:4

12

M11

11:5

K
S4
A4 .O2
S4
32 :2.S4
AΓL1 (9)
24 :(3 × D10 ).2
23+6 :72 :(3 × O2 )
23+6 :(63:3).O2
31+2
+ :2.(A4 .O)
31+2
+ :2.(A4 .O2 )
3
31+2
+ :S3 , 3 :(S3 × O),
33 :(A4 × 2), 33 :(S4 × O)
M9 .2

where O 6 C2 , and O1 , O2 are subgroups of O such that O = O1 O2 .
27

28

4. NON-CLASSICAL GROUPS

Proof. Suppose G = HK for solvable subgroups H, K of G. By the result of
[32], either L = PSL2 (q), or L is one of the groups:
PSU3 (8), PSU4 (2) ∼
= PSp4 (3), PSL4 (2), M11 , PSL3 (q) with q = 3, 4, 5, 7, 8.
For the latter case, computation in Magma[6] excludes PSL3 (5) and PSL3 (7), and
produces for the other groups all the factorizations G = HK with H, K solvable as
in rows 4–12 of Table 4.1. Next we assume the former case, namely, L = PSL2 (q).
If L = PSL2 (4) ∼
= A6 , it is easy to see that
= A5 or L = PSL2 (9) ∼
= PSL2 (5) ∼
part (a) holds. Thus we assume L = PSL2 (q) with q ∈ {4, 5, 9}. Appealing Theorem
3.3, we have the factorization G = HK as described in either part (a) or the first
three rows of Table 4.1. This completes the proof.

4.2. Exceptional groups of Lie type
Consulting the classification [25] of factorizations of exceptional groups of Lie
type, one obtains the following proposition.
Proposition 4.2. Suppose G is an almost simple group with socle L and G =
HK with core-free subgroups H, K of G. If H is solvable, then L is not an exceptional
group of Lie type.
4.3. Alternating group socles
In this section we study the case of alternating group socle.
Proposition 4.3. Suppose n > 5 and soc(G) = An acting naturally on Ωn =
{1, . . . , n}. If G = HK for solvable subgroup H and core-free unsolvable subgroup
K of G, then one of the following holds.
(a) An E G 6 Sn with n > 6, H is transitive on Ωn , and An−1 E K 6 Sn−1 .
(b) An E G 6 Sn with n = pf for some prime p, H is 2-homogeneous on Ωn ,
and An−2 E K 6 Sn−2 × S2 ; moreover, either H 6 AΓL1 (pf ) or (H, n) lies
in the table:
H
52 :SL2 (3), 52 :Q8 .6, 52 :SL2 (3).4
72 :Q8 .S3 , 72 :SL2 (3).6
112 :SL2 (3).5, 112 :SL2 (3).10
232 :SL2 (3).22
34 :21+4 .5, 34 :21+4 .D10 , 34 :21+4 .AGL1 (5)

n
52
72
112
232
34

(c) An E G 6 Sn with n = 8 or 32, An−3 E K 6 Sn−3 × S3 , and (H, n) =
(AGL1 (8), 8), (AΓL1 (8), 8) or (AΓL1 (32), 32).
(d) A6 E G 6 S6 , H 6 S4 × S2 , and K = PSL2 (5) or PGL2 (5).
(e) A6 E G 6 S6 , H 6 S3 ≀ S2 , and K = PSL2 (5) or PGL2 (5).
(f) n = 6 or 8, and (G, H, K) lies in Table 4.2.
Conversely, for each G in parts (a)–(e) there exists a factorization G = HK as
described, and each triple (G, H, K) in Table 4.2 gives a factorization G = HK.

4.4. SPORADIC GROUP SOCLES

29

Table 4.2.
row
1
2
3
4
5
6

G
M10
PGL2 (9)
PΓL2 (9)
PΓL2 (9)
A8
S8

H
32 :Q8
AGL1 (9)
AΓL1 (9)
AGL1 (9), 32 :Q8 , AΓL1 (9)
15, 3 × D10 , ΓL1 (16)
D30 , S3 × 5, S3 × D10 ,
3 × AGL1 (5), S3 × AGL1 (5)

K
PSL2 (5)
PSL2 (5)
PSL2 (5)
PGL2 (5)
AGL3 (2)
AGL3 (2)

Proof. Since all core-free subgroups of S5 is solvable, we obtain n > 6 by our
assumption that K is unsolvable. If n = 6 and G
S6 , then computation in
Magma[6] leads to rows 1–4 of Table 4.2. Thus we assume G 6 Sn with n > 6 in
the rest of the proof. By THEOREM D and Remark 2 after it in [42], one of the
following cases appears.
(i) H is k-homogeneous on Ωn and An−k 6 K 6 Sn−k × Sk for some k ∈
{1, 2, 3, 4, 5}.
(ii) An−k 6 H 6 Sn−k × Sk and K is k-homogeneous on Ωn for some k ∈
{1, 2, 3, 4, 5}.
(iii) n = 6, H ∩ A6 6 S3 ≀ S2 and K ∩ A6 = PSL2 (5) with H, K both transitive
on Ω6 .
(iv) n = 8, H > C15 and K = AGL3 (2).
The k-homogeneous but not k-transitive permutation groups are determined by
Kantor [31]. Besides, the 2-transitive permutation groups are well-known, see for
example [8, Tables 7.3-7.4]. Indeed, Huppert [27] classified the solvable 2-transitive
permutation groups much earlier, see also [4, Theorem XII.7.3]. From these results,
we conclude that any solvable 2-homogeneous permutation group H 6 Sn is as described in part (b). Moreover, for k > 3 the only solvable k-homogeneous subgroups
of Sn are AGL1 (8) with (n, k) = (8, 3), AΓL1 (8) with (n, k) = (8, 3) and AΓL1 (32)
with (n, k) = (32, 3).
First suppose (i) appears. It is just part (a) of Proposition 4.3 if k = 1. If k > 2,
then the conclusion in the last paragraph leads to parts (b) and (c).
Next suppose (ii) appears. Since n > 6 and An−k 6 H is solvable, k 6= 1. Assume
k = 2. We then have n = 6 as An−2 6 H is solvable. Note that the only unsolvable
2-homogeneous subgroups of S6 not containing A6 are PSL2 (5) and PGL2 (5) (see
for example [14, Table 2.1]). This corresponds to part (d). Similarly, we obtain
part (e) if k = 3. If k > 4, An−k 6 H solvable implies 5 6 n 6 9, but there are no
k-homogeneous permutation groups for such degrees by [31] and [8, Table 7.3 and
Table 7.4].
Finally, for (iii) and (iv), computation in Magma[6] leads to part (e) and rows
5–6 of Table 4.2. Thus the proof is completed.

4.4. Sporadic group socles
Now we consider the sporadic almost simple groups.

30

4. NON-CLASSICAL GROUPS

Proposition 4.4. Let L = soc(G) be a sporadic simple group. If G = HK
for solvable subgroup H and core-free unsolvable subgroup K of G, then one of the
following holds.
(a) M12 6 G 6 M12 .2, H is transitive on [G:M11 ], and K = M11 .
(b) G = M24 , H is transitive on [M24 :M23 ], and K = M23 .
(c) (G, H, K) lies in Table 4.3.
Conversely, each triple (G, H, K) in parts (a)–(c) gives a factorization G = HK.
Table 4.3.
row
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13

G
M11
M11
M12
M12 .2
M22 .2
M23
M23
J2 .2

H
11, 11:5
M9 , M9 .2, AGL1 (9)
M9 .2, M9 .S3
M9 .2, M9 .S3
11:2, 11:10
23
23:11
52 :4, 52 :(4 × 2), 52 :12,
52 :Q12 , 52 :(4 × S3 )
HS
51+2
+ :8:2
HS.2 51+2
+ :(4 ≀ S2 )
HS.2 52 :4, 52 :(4 × 2), 52 :42 , 51+2
+ :4,
1+2 2
1+2
51+2
:(4
×
2),
5
:4
,
5
+
+
+ :8:2
1+2
1+2
1+2
He.2 7+ :6, 7+ :(6 × 2), 7+ :(6 × 3),
1+2
71+2
+ :(S3 × 3), 7+ :(S3 × 6)
Suz.2 35 :12, 35 :((11:5) × 2)

K
M10
PSL2 (11)
PSL2 (11)
PGL2 (11)
PSL3 (4):2
M22
M22 , PSL3 (4):2, 24 :A7
G2 (2)
M22
M22 , M22 .2
M22 .2
Sp4 (4).4
G2 (4).2

Proof. Suppose that G = HK is a nontrivial factorization with H solvable and
K unsolvable. If G = L, then from [21, Theorem 1.1] we directly read off the triples
(G, H, K), as stated in the proposition. Now suppose G 6= L. Since this indicates
Out(L) 6= 1, we have L 6= Mk for k ∈ {11, 23, 24}.
First assume L = (H ∩ L)(K ∩ L). Then since H ∩ L is solvable, we deduce
from [21, Theorem 1.1] that L = M12 or HS. Consequently, G = M12 .2 or HS.2.
Searching in Magma[6] for factorizations in these two groups leads to part (a) or
one of rows 4, 10, 11 of Table 4.3.
Next assume L 6= (H ∩ L)(K ∩ L). Then by [21, Theorem 1.2] and computation
results of Magma[6], (G, H, K) lies in one of rows 5, 8, 10–13 of Table 4.3.

Remark 4.5.
(i) For G = J2 .2 in row 8 of Table 4.3, there are two nonisomorphic groups of shape 52 :4 for H.
(ii) For G = HS.2 in row 11 of Table 4.3, there are four non-isomorphic groups
of shape 52 :4, two non-isomorphic groups of shape 52 :(4 × 2) and two nonisomorphic groups of shape 51+2
+ :4 for H.
(iii) For G = He.2 in row 12 of Table 4.3, three non-isomorphic groups of shape
71+2
+ :6 for H.

CHAPTER 5

Examples in classical groups
We present in this chapter examples for infinite families of factorizations appearing in Table 1.1. Let q = pf throughout this chapter, where p is a prime and f is a
positive integer.
5.1. Examples in unitary groups
Let V be a vector space over GF(q 2 ) of dimension 2m > 4 equipped with a
non-degenerate unitary form β. There is a basis e1 , . . . , em , f1 , . . . , fm of V such
that
β(ei , ej ) = β(fi , fj ) = 0, β(ei , fj ) = δi,j
for any i, j ∈ {1, . . . , m} (see [42, 2.2.3]). Let
G = GU(V, β) = GU2m (q)
be the general unitary group of dimension 2m over GF(q 2 ), and let A be the stabilizer
of the totally singular subspace he1 , . . . , em i in G, called a parabolic subgroup. Then
2

A = Pm [G] = q m :GLm (q 2 ),
see [55, 3.6.2]. Fix an element µ of GF(q 2 ) such that µ + µq 6= 0. Then em + µfm is
a nonisotropic vector. Let K be the stabilizer of em + µfm in G. Then
K = GU2m−1 (q) 6 N1 [G].
We now construct a solvable subgroup H of A such that G = HK.
2

Construction 5.1. Let R = Op (A) = q m and C = GLm (q 2 ) < A. Take S to
be a Singer cycle of C and H = RS.
2

Proposition 5.2. In the above notation, H = q m :GL1 (q 2m ) is a solvable sub2
group of Pm [G], H ∩ K = R ∩ K = q (m−1) , and
2

GU2m (q) = G = HK = (q m :GL1 (q 2m ))GU2m−1 (q).
Proof. Define linear maps wk (λ) for 1 6 k 6 m and λ ∈ GF(q 2 )∗ , xi,j (λ) for
i 6= j and λ ∈ GF(q 2 ), yi,j (λ) for 1 6 i < j 6 m and λ ∈ GF(q 2 ), and zk (λ) for
1 6 k 6 m, λ ∈ GF(q 2 ) and λ + λq = 0 by
wk (λ) :
xi,j (λ) :
yi,j (λ) :
zk (λ) :

ek 7→ λek , fk →
7 λ−q fk ,
ej 7→ ej + λei , fi 7→ fi − λq fj ,
fi 7→ fi + λej , fj →
7 fj − λq ei ,
fk 7→ fk + λek

and fixing all the other basis vectors of V . By [55, 3.6.2], A = R:C with C denoting
the group generated by all wk (λ) and xi,j (λ) and R denoting the group generated
by all yi,j (λ) and zk (λ).
31

32

5. EXAMPLES IN CLASSICAL GROUPS
2

Since S is a Singer cycle of C = GLm (q 2 ), the group H = R:S = q m :GL1 (q 2m )
is solvable. It is obvious that S is a Hall p′ -subgroup of H. Let M be a Hall p′ subgroup of H ∩ K. Since M is a p′ -subgroup of H, M 6 S h for some h ∈ R. We
then have M 6 S h ∩ K, and so |H ∩ K|p′ divides |S h ∩ K|. Similarly, |H ∩ K|p
divides |R ∩ K|, and thus |H ∩ K| divides |R ∩ K||S h ∩ K|.
First we calculate |R ∩ K|. For all 1 6 i < j 6 m − 1, 1 6 k 6 m − 1 and
λ ∈ GF(q), it is obvious that yi,j (λ) and zk (λ) both fix em + µfm , that is to say,
yi,j (λ) and zk (λ) are both in K. These yi,j (λ) and zk (λ) generate an elementary
2
abelian group of order q (m−1) . Now consider an element
g = y1,m (λ1 ) . . . ym−1,m (λm−1 )zm (λm )
in R. Notice that g sends em + µfm to
−

m−1
X

µλqi ei + (1 + µλm )em + µfm .

i=1

Then g ∈ K if and only if λ1 = · · · = λm = 0, that is, g = 1. Thereby we conclude
2
|R ∩ K| = q (m−1) .
Next we show |S h ∩ K| = 1. Suppose on the contrary that |S h ∩ K| is divisible
by a prime number r. Then there exists a subgroup X of order |S h ∩ K|r in S such
that X h 6 K. Denote by Y the subgroup of A ∩ K generated by
{wk (λ) : k 6 m − 1, λ ∈ GF(q 2 )∗ } ∪ {xi,j (λ) : i 6 m − 1, j 6 m − 1, λ ∈ GF(q 2 )}.
Then Y ∼
= GLm−1 (q 2 ) and Y fixes em . Since |A ∩ K| = q (2m−1)(m−1) (q 2m−2 −
2
1) . . . (q − 1) (see [42, 3.3.3]), we know that Y contains a Sylow r-subgroup of
−1
A ∩ K. It follows that X h 6 Y h1 for some h1 ∈ A ∩ K. Hence X 6 Y h1 h , and so
h1 h−1
X fixes em
. This is a contradiction since S acts regularly on the nonzero vectors
of he1 , . . . , em i.
2
Now that |H ∩ K| divides |R ∩ K||S h ∩ K| = |R ∩ K| = q (m−1) , we conclude
G = HK by Lemma 2.7. We also see that H ∩ K = R ∩ K is a elementary abelian
2
group of order q (m−1) .

The lemma below excludes certain factorizations of unitary groups, which will
be useful in the proof of Theorem 1.1.
Lemma 5.3. In the above notation, let τ be the semilinear map on V such that
e
(λv)τ = λp v for any λ ∈ GF(q 2 ) and v ∈ V , where e|2f . Let Σ = SU(V, β):hτ i
and N 6 Σ be the stabilizer of e2 + µf2 . If M is a maximal solvable subgroup of Σ
stabilizing he1 , e2 i, then Σ 6= MN.
Proof. Suppose Σ = MN. Let L = SU(V, β), Γ = GU(V, β):hτ i and Y 6 Γ be
the stabilizer of e2 +µf2 . Evidently, M = X ∩Σ with X a maximal solvable subgroup
of Γ stabilizing he1 , e2 i. Note that the stabilizer of he1 , e2 i in Γ is A:hτ i = R:(C:hτ i).
Then R 6 X, and X = RQ with Q maximal solvable in C:hτ i. Since Σ = (X ∩Σ )N,
|X| is divisible by a primitive prime divisor r of p4f − 1, which implies that |Q| is
divisible by r.
Take S and H as in Construction 5.1. Viewing C:hτ i 6 GL4f (p), we conclude
that S 6 Q and |Q| = 4f |S|/e. As a consequence, H > X and |X| = 4f |H|/e.

5.2. EXAMPLES IN SYMPLECTIC GROUPS

33

Moreover, Γ = XG = XGY = X(HK)Y = (XH)(KY ) = XY . It then derives
from Σ = (X ∩ Σ )N = (X ∩ Σ )(Y ∩ Σ ) and Lemma 2.10 that
(5.1)

|XΣ ||Y Σ | 6 |Γ ||(X ∩ Y )Γ |.

It is easily seen HL = KL = G. Hence HΣ = KΣ = Γ , and so XΣ = Y Σ = Γ .
From |X| = 4f |H|/e we deduce that |X ∩ Y | 6 4f |H ∩ Y |/e and thus |(X ∩ Y )Σ | 6
4f |(H ∩ Y )Σ |/e. This in conjunction with H ∩ Y = H ∩ K = R ∩ K 6 L yields
|(X ∩ Y )Σ | 6 4f |Σ |/e. Therefore, (5.1) implies that
(q + 1)|Σ | = |Γ | 6 |(X ∩ Y )Σ | 6

4f |Σ |
,
e

which gives (q, e) = (2, 1), (3, 1), (4, 1) or (8, 1). However, computation in Magma[6]
shows that none of these is possible.

5.2. Examples in symplectic groups
Let p = 2 and V be a vector space over GF(q) of dimension 2m > 4 equipped
with a non-degenerate symplectic form β. There is a basis e1 , . . . , em , f1 , . . . , fm of
V such that
β(ei , ej ) = β(fi , fj ) = 0,

β(ei , fj ) = δi,j

for any i, j ∈ {1, . . . , m}. Let
G = Sp(V, β) = Sp2m (q)
be the symplectic group of dimension 2m over GF(q), and let A be the stabilizer of
the totally singular subspace he1 , . . . , em i in G. Then
A = Pm [G] = q m(m+1)/2 :GLm (q),
see [55, 3.5.4]. Let Q be a quadratic form of minus type on V associated with the
form β. Fix an element σ with x2 + x + σ an irreducible quadratic over GF(q) such
that
Q(e1 ) = · · · = Q(em−1 ) = Q(f1 ) = · · · = Q(fm−1 ) = 0,
Q(em ) = 1, Q(fm ) = σ
(see [42, 2.2.3]). Take
K = O− (V, Q) = O−
2m (q),
the general orthogonal group of minus type of dimension 2m over GF(q).
We construct a solvable subgroup H of A such that G = HK.
Construction 5.4. Let R = O2 (A) = q m(m+1)/2 and C = GLm (q) < A. Take
S to be a Singer cycle of C and H = RS.
Proposition 5.5. In the above notation, H = q m(m+1)/2 :GL1 (q m ) is a solvable
subgroup of Pm [G], and
Sp2m (q) = G = HK = (q m(m+1)/2 :GL1 (q m ))O−
2m (q).

34

5. EXAMPLES IN CLASSICAL GROUPS

Proof. Define linear maps wk (λ) for 1 6 k 6 m and λ ∈ GF(q)∗ , xi,j (λ) for
i 6= j and λ ∈ GF(q), yi,j (λ) for 1 6 i < j 6 m and λ ∈ GF(q), and zk (λ) for
1 6 k 6 m and λ ∈ GF(q) by
wk (λ) :
xi,j (λ) :
yi,j (λ) :
zk (λ) :

ek 7→ λek , fk →
7 λ−1 fk ,
ej 7→ ej + λei , fi 7→ fi − λfj ,
fi 7→ fi + λej , fj →
7 fj + λei ,
fk 7→ fk + λek

and fixing all the other basis vectors of V . By [55, 3.5.4], A = R:C with C denoting
the group generated by all wk (λ) and xi,j (λ) and R denoting the group generated
by all yi,j (λ) and zk (λ).
Since S is a Singer cycle of C = GLm (q), H = R:S = q m(m+1)/2 :GL1 (q m ) is
solvable. Clearly, S is a Hall 2′ -subgroup of H. Let M be a Hall 2′ -subgroup of
H ∩ K. Since M is a 2′ -subgroup of H, M 6 S h for some h ∈ R. We then have
M 6 S h ∩ K, and so |H ∩ K|2′ divides |S h ∩ K|. Similarly, |H ∩ K|2 divides |R ∩ K|,
and thus |H ∩ K| divides |R ∩ K||S h ∩ K|.
First we calculate |R ∩ K|. For all 1 6 i < j 6 m − 1 and λ ∈ GF(q), it is
obvious that yi,j (λ) fixes Q(ek ) and Q(fk ) for k = 1, . . . , m and thus yi,j (λ) ∈ K.
These yi,j (λ) generate an elementary abelian group of order q (m−1)(m−2)/2 . Now
consider an element
g = y1,m (λ1 ) . . . ym−1,m (λm−1 )z1 (µ1 ) . . . zm (µm )
in R. Notice that g fixes e1 , . . . , em and
g : fi 7→ fi + λi em + µi ei , i = 1, . . . , m − 1,
m−1
X
fm 7→ fm +
λi ei + µm em .
i=1

Then g ∈ K if and only if

Q(fi + λi em + µi ei ) = Q(fi ),
and
Q(fm +

m−1
X

i = 1, . . . , m − 1

λi ei + µm em ) = Q(fm ),

i=1

which is equivalent to µi = −λ2i for i = 1, . . . , m − 1 and µm = 0 or 1. Hence all
the elements of shape g in K generate an elementary abelian group of order 2q m−1 .
Therefore, we conclude |R ∩ K| = 2q m−1 · q (m−1)(m−2)/2 = 2q m(m−1)/2 .
Next we show |S h ∩K| = 1. Suppose on the contrary that |S h ∩K| is divisible by
an odd prime r. Then there exists a subgroup X of order r in S such that X h 6 K.
Denote by Y the subgroup of A ∩ K generated by
{wk (λ) : k 6 m − 1, λ ∈ GF(q)∗ } ∪ {xi,j (λ) : i 6 m − 1, j 6 m − 1, λ ∈ GF(q)}.
Then Y ∼
= GL(m−1, q) and Y fixes em . Since |A∩K| = 2q m(m−1) (q m−1 −1) . . . (q−1)
(see [42, 3.2.4(a)]), we know that Y contains a Sylow r-subgroup of A∩K. It follows
−1
h1 h−1
that X h 6 Y h1 for some h1 ∈ A ∩ K. Hence X 6 Y h1 h , and so X fixes em
.
This is a contradiction since S acts regularly on the nonzero vectors of he1 , . . . , em i.

5.3. EXAMPLES IN ORTHOGONAL GROUPS OF ODD DIMENSION

35

Now that |H ∩ K| divides |R ∩ K||S h ∩ K| = 2q m(m−1)/2 , we conclude G = HK
by Lemma 2.7.

5.3. Examples in orthogonal groups of odd dimension
Let p > 2 and V be a vector space over GF(q) of dimension 2m + 1 > 5 equipped
with a non-degenerate quadratic form Q and the associated bilinear form β. There
is a basis e1 , . . . , em , f1 , . . . , fm , d of V such that
β(ei , ej ) = β(fi , fj ) = β(ei , d) = β(fi , d) = 0,
Q(ei ) = 0, Q(fj ) = 0, Q(d) = 1

β(ei , fj ) = δi,j ,

for any i, j ∈ {1, . . . , m} (see [42, 2.2.3]). Let
G = SO(V, Q) = SO2m+1 (q)
be the special orthogonal group of dimension 2m + 1 over GF(q), and let A = Pm [G]
be the stabilizer of the totally singular subspace he1 , . . . , em i in G. Then
A = Pm [G] = (q m(m−1)/2 .q m ):GLm (q),
where q m(m−1)/2 .q m is a special p-group with center of order q m(m−1)/2 , see [55,
3.7.4]. Fix a non-square element µ in GF(q), and let K be the stabilizer of the
vector em + µfm in G. Then
−
K = SO−
2m (q) 6 N1 [G].

We show that A has a solvable subgroup H such that G = HK.
Construction 5.6. Let R = Op (A) = q m(m−1)/2 .q m and C = GLm (q) < A.
Take S to be a Singer cycle of C and H = RS.
Proposition 5.7. In the above notation, H = (q m(m−1)/2 .q m ):GL1 (q m ) is a
solvable subgroup of Pm [G], and
SO2m+1 (q) = G = HK = ((q m(m−1)/2 .q m ):GL1 (q m ))SO−
2m (q).
Proof. Define linear maps wk (λ) for 1 6 k 6 m and λ ∈ GF(q)∗ and xi,j (λ)
for i 6= j and λ ∈ GF(q) by
wk (λ) : ek 7→ λek , fk →
7 λ−1 fk ,
xi,j (λ) : ej →
7 ej + λei , fi 7→ fi − λfj
and fixing all the other basis vectors of V . By [55, 3.7.4], A = R:C with C denoting
the group generated by all wk (λ) and xi,j (λ) and R denoting the kernel of the action
of A on he1 , . . . , em i.
Since S is a Singer cycle of C = GLm (q), H = R:S = (q m(m−1)/2 .q m ):GL1 (q m )
is solvable. It is obvious that S is a Hall p′ -subgroup of H. Let M be a Hall p′ subgroup of H ∩ K. Since M is a p′ -subgroup of H, M 6 S h for some h ∈ R. We
then have M 6 S h ∩ K, and so |H ∩ K|p′ divides |S h ∩ K|. Similarly, |H ∩ K|p
divides |R ∩ K|, and thus |H ∩ K| divides |R ∩ K||S h ∩ K|.
First we calculate |R∩K|. For any g ∈ R∩K, since g fixes both em and em +µfm ,
g fixes fm as well, and so g fixes
W := hem , fm i⊥ = he1 , . . . , em−1 , f1 , . . . , fm−1 , di.

36

5. EXAMPLES IN CLASSICAL GROUPS

Thus we conclude that R ∩ K equals the pointwise stabilizer of he1 , . . . , em−1 i in
SO(W, β). According to the previous paragraph, this is a special group of order
q m(m−1)/2 , whence |R ∩ K| = q m(m−1)/2 .
Next we show that |S h ∩ K| = 1. Suppose on the contrary that |S h ∩ K| is
divisible by a prime number r. Then there exists a subgroup X of order |S h ∩ K|r
in S such that X h 6 K. Denote by Y the subgroup of A ∩ K generated by
{wk (λ) : k 6 m − 1, λ ∈ GF(q)∗ } ∪ {xi,j (λ) : i 6 m − 1, j 6 m − 1, λ ∈ GF(q)}.
Then Y ∼
= GL(m−1, q) and Y fixes em . Since |A∩K| = q m(m−1) (q m−1 −1) . . . (q −1)
(see [42, 3.4.1]), we know that Y contains a Sylow r-subgroup of A ∩ K. It follows
−1
h1 h−1
that X h 6 Y h1 for some h1 ∈ A ∩ K. Hence X 6 Y h1 h , and so X fixes em
.
This is a contradiction since S acts regularly on the nonzero vectors of he1 , . . . , em i.
Now that |H ∩ K| divides |R ∩ K||S h ∩ K| = q m(m−1)/2 , we conclude G = HK
by Lemma 2.7.

5.4. Examples in orthogonal groups of plus type
Let V be a vector space over GF(q) of dimension 2m > 6 equipped with a nondegenerate quadratic form Q and the associated bilinear form β such that the Witt
index of Q equals m. There is a basis e1 , . . . , em , f1 , . . . , fm of V such that
Q(ei ) = Q(fi ) = β(ei , ej ) = β(fi , fj ) = 0,

β(ei , fj ) = δi,j

for any i, j ∈ {1, . . . , m} (see [42, 2.2.3]). Let
G = SO(V, Q) = SO+
2m (q)
be the special orthogonal group of plus type of dimension 2m over GF(q), and let A
be the stabilizer of the totally singular subspace he1 , . . . , em i in G. Then
A = Pm [G] = q m(m−1)/2 :GLm (q),
see [55, 3.7.4]. Let K be the stabilizer of the vector em + fm in G. Then
K = SO2m−1 (q) 6 N1 [G].
We show in the following that A has a solvable subgroup H such that G = HK.
Construction 5.8. Let R = Op (A) = q m(m−1)/2 and C = GLm (q) < A. Take
S to be a Singer cycle of C and H = RS.
Proposition 5.9. In the above notation, H = q m(m−1)/2 :GL1 (q m ) is a solvable
subgroup of Pm [G], and
m(m−1)/2
SO+
:GL1 (q m ))SO2m−1 (q).
2m (q) = G = HK = (q

Proof. Define linear maps wk (λ) for 1 6 k 6 m and λ ∈ GF(q)∗ , xi,j (λ) for
i 6= j and λ ∈ GF(q), and yi,j (λ) for 1 6 i < j 6 m and λ ∈ GF(q) by
wk (λ) : ek 7→ λek , fk →
7 λ−1 fk ,
xi,j (λ) : ej →
7 ej + λei , fi 7→ fi − λfj ,
yi,j (λ) : fi 7→ fi + λej , fj →
7 fj − λei
and fixing all the other basis vectors of V . By [55, 3.7.4], A = R:C with C denoting
the group generated by all wk (λ) and xi,j (λ) and R denoting the group generated
by all yi,j (λ).

5.4. EXAMPLES IN ORTHOGONAL GROUPS OF PLUS TYPE

37

Since S is a Singer cycle of C = GLm (q), H = R:S = q m(m−1)/2 :GL1 (q m ) is
solvable. It is obvious that S is a Hall p′ -subgroup of H. Let M be a Hall p′ subgroup of H ∩ K. Since M is a p′ -subgroup of H, M 6 S h for some h ∈ R. We
then have M 6 S h ∩ K, and so |H ∩ K|p′ divides |S h ∩ K|. Similarly, |H ∩ K|p
divides |R ∩ K|, and thus |H ∩ K| divides |R ∩ K||S h ∩ K|.
First we calculate |R ∩ K|. For all 1 6 i < j 6 m − 1 and λ ∈ GF(q), it is
obvious yi,j (λ) ∈ K. These yi,j (λ) generate an elementary abelian group of order
q (m−1)(m−2)/2 . Now consider an element
g = y1,m (λ1 ) . . . ym−1,m (λm−1 )
in R. Notice that g sends em + fm to
−

m−1
X

λi ei + em + fm .

i=1

Then g ∈ K if and only if λ1 = · · · = λm−1 = 0, which is equivalent to g = 1.
Therefore, we conclude |R ∩ K| = q (m−1)(m−2)/2 .
Next we show |S h ∩ K| = 1. Suppose on the contrary that |S h ∩ K| is divisible
by a prime number r. Then there exists a subgroup X of order |S h ∩ K|r in S such
that X h 6 K. Denote by Y the subgroup of A ∩ K generated by
{wk (λ) : k 6 m − 1, λ ∈ GF(q)∗ } ∪ {xi,j (λ) : i 6 m − 1, j 6 m − 1, λ ∈ GF(q)}.
2
Then Y ∼
= GL(m − 1, q) and Y fixes em . Since |A ∩ K| = q (m−1) (q m−1 − 1) . . . (q − 1)
(see [42, 3.6.1(a)]), we know that Y contains a Sylow r-subgroup of A∩K. It follows
−1
h1 h−1
that X h 6 Y h1 for some h1 ∈ A ∩ K. Hence X 6 Y h1 h , and so X fixes em
.
This is a contradiction since S acts regularly on the nonzero vectors of he1 , . . . , em i.
Now that |H ∩ K| divides |R ∩ K||S h ∩ K| = q (m−1)(m−2)/2 , we conclude G = HK
by Lemma 2.7.


CHAPTER 6

Reduction for classical groups
Towards the proof of Theorem 1.1, we set up the strategy for the classical group
case when precisely one factor is solvable, and establish some preconditioning results.
Throughout this chapter, let G be an almost simple group with socle L classical
of Lie type, and G = HK be a nontrivial factorization of G with H solvable. By the
results in Chapter 4, we assume that L is not isomorphic to A5 , A6 or A8 . To show
that part (d) of Theorem 1.1 holds, we may further assume that the factorization
G = HK can be embedded into a nontrivial maximal factorization G = AB by
virtue of Lemma 2.18. The candidates for the factorization G = AB are listed in
Tables A.1–A.7.
6.1. The case that A is solvable
First of all, we determine the case when A is solvable. An inspection of Tables
A.1–A.7 shows that this occurs for three classes of socle L:
(i) L = PSLn (q) with n prime,
(ii) L = PSp4 (3) ∼
= PSU4 (2),
(iii) L = PSU3 (3), PSU3 (5) or PSU3 (8).
The candidates in (i) and (iii) are treated respectively in Theorem 3.3 and Theorem 3.5. Thus we only need to deal with (ii). For an almost simple group G with
socle PSp4 (3) ∼
= PSU4 (2), all the nontrivial factorizations of G can be produced
instantly by Magma[6]. We state the computation result here.
Proposition 6.1. Let G be an almost simple group with socle L = PSp4 (3) ∼
=
PSU4 (2). Then the following four cases give all the nontrivial factorizations G =
HK with H solvable.
(a) Both H and K are solvable, and (G, H, K) lies in rows 9–11 of Table 4.1.
(b) G = PSp4 (3), H 6 Pk [PSp4 (3)], and (G, H, K, k) lies in rows 1–4 of Table
6.1; moreover, Pk [PSp4 (3)] is the only maximal subgroup of G containing
H.
(c) G = PSp4 (3).2, and L = (H ∩ L)(K ∩ L); in particular, H = (H ∩ L).O1
and K = (K ∩ L).O2 , where Oi 6 C2 for i ∈ {1, 2} and O1 O2 = C2 .
(d) G = PSp4 (3).2, L 6= (H ∩ L)(K ∩ L), H 6 Pk [PSp4 (3).2], and (G, H, K, k)
lies in rows 5–6 of Table 6.1; moreover, Pk [PSp4 (3).2] is the only maximal
subgroup of G containing H.
To sum up, we have the following proposition.
Proposition 6.2. Let G be an almost simple group with socle L classical of
Lie type not isomorphic to A5 , A6 or A8 . If G = HK is a nontrivial factorization
such that H is contained in some solvable maximal subgroup of G, then one of the
following holds as in Theorem 1.1.
39

40

6. REDUCTION FOR CLASSICAL GROUPS

Table 6.1.
row
1
2
3
4
5
6

G
PSp4 (3)
PSp4 (3)
PSp4 (3)
PSp4 (3)
PSp4 (3).2
PSp4 (3).2

H
1+2
1+2
4
4
31+2
− , 3+ , 3+ :2, [3 ], [3 ]:2
1+2
3+ :4
1+2
31+2
+ :Q8 , 3+ :2.A4
3
3
3 :A4 , 3 :S4
31+2
+ :8
1+2
31+2
+ :ΓL1 (9), 3+ :2.S4

K
24 :A5
24 :A5
24 :A5 , S5 , A6 , S6
24 :A5
S5 × 2, A6 × 2, S6 , S6 × 2
S5

k
1, 2
1
1
2
1
1

(a) L = PSLn (q) with n prime, and (G, H, K) lies in row 1 of Table 1.1, or
rows 1–7 of Table 4.1, or rows 1–5, 9 of Table 1.2.
(b) L = PSp4 (3) ∼
= PSU4 (2), and (G, H, K) lies in rows 9–11 of Table 4.1 or
rows 10–11 of Table 1.2.
(c) L = PSU3 (q) with q ∈ {3, 5, 8}, and (G, H, K) lies in row 8 of Table 4.1
or rows 18–19 of Table 1.2.
6.2. Inductive hypothesis
The lemma below enables us to prove Theorem 1.1 by induction.
Lemma 6.3. Let G = HB be a factorization and H 6 A 6 G. If N is a normal
subgroup of A such that A/N is almost simple, then either soc(A/N) E (A∩B)N/N
or HN/N is a nontrivial factor of A/N.
Proof. Since G = HB and H 6 A, we have A = H(A ∩ B) by Lemma 2.10.
Let A = A/N, H = HN/N and A ∩ B = (A∩B)N/N. Then it holds A = H A ∩ B,
and the lemma follows.

Combining Lemma 6.3 and Proposition 2.17, we obtain the following lemma.
Lemma 6.4. Let G be an almost simple classical group of Lie type, G = HK is a
nontrivial factorizations of G with H solvable and HL = KL = G. If A is a maximal
subgroup of G containing H such that A has precisely one unsolvable composition
factor, then A/rad(A) is an almost simple group with a nontrivial solvable factor
Hrad(A)/rad(A).
Proof. Take B to be a maximal subgroup of G containing K. By Lemma 2.18,
B is core-free. Since H 6 A, we then obtain a nontrivial maximal factorization
G = AB. Write R = rad(A). Then A/R is almost simple, and Proposition 2.17
asserts that soc(A/R) (A ∩ B)R/R. Applying Lemma 6.3 with N = R there, we
know that HR/R is a nontrivial factor of A/R. Besides, HR/R is obviously solvable
as H is solvable. This completes the proof.

Let G be an almost simple group. We will use induction on the order of G to finish
the proof of Theorem 1.1. The base case for induction is settled by Propositions
4.1–4.4 and 6.2. Now we make the inductive hypothesis:
Hypothesis 6.5. For any almost simple group G1 with order properly dividing
|G|, if G1 = H1 K1 for solvable subgroup H1 and core-free subgroup K1 of G1 , then
the triple (G1 , H1 , K1 ) satisfies Theorem 1.1.

6.2. INDUCTIVE HYPOTHESIS

41

For our convenience when applying the inductive hypothesis in subsequent chapters, we draw together some essential information in the next lemma under Hypothesis 6.5.
Lemma 6.6. Suppose G is an almost simple group satisfying Hypothesis 6.5 and
G = HK is a nontrivial factorization with H solvable and HL = KL = G. If A
is a maximal subgroup of G containing H such that A has the unique unsolvable
composition factor S, then writing R = rad(A) and A/R = S.O, we have the
following statements.
(a) S is not an exceptional group of Lie type.
(b) S 6= PΩ−
2ℓ (q) for ℓ > 4.
(c) If S = PSLℓ (q), then H is as described in one of the following rows:
row
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12

H6
R.(((q ℓ − 1)/((q − 1)d)).ℓ).O
R.(q:((q − 1)/d)).O
R.(q 3 :((q 3 − 1)/d).3).O
R.(S2 × S3 )
R.S4
R.(S2 × S4 )
R.(32 :2.S4 )
R.(24 .(3 × D10 )).2
R.(26 :(56:7):6)
R.(S2 ≀ S4 )
R.(S4 ≀ S2 )
R.(24 :5:4).O

remark
d = (ℓ, q − 1)
ℓ = 2, d = (2, q − 1)
ℓ = 4, d = (4, q − 1)
ℓ = 2, q = 4
ℓ = 2, q ∈ {5, 7, 11, 23}
ℓ = 2, q = 9
ℓ = 3, q = 3
ℓ = 3, q = 4
ℓ = 3, q = 8
ℓ = 4, q = 2
ℓ = 4, q = 2
ℓ = 4, q = 3

(d) If S = PSp2ℓ (q) with ℓ > 2, then H is as described in one of the following
rows:
row
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

H6
R.(q ℓ(ℓ+1)/2 :(q ℓ − 1).ℓ).O
R.(q 1+2 :((q 2 − 1)/2).2).O
R.(24 :AGL1 (5))
R.(33 :(S4 × 2))
R.(31+2
+ :2.S4 )
R.(q 3 :(q − 1).A4 ).2
R.(q 3 :(q − 1).S4 ).2
R.(31+2
+ :2.S4 )
1+4
R.(31+4
.D10 ).2
+ :2

remark
q even
ℓ = 2, q
ℓ = 2, q
ℓ = 2, q
ℓ = 2, q
ℓ = 2, q
ℓ = 2, q
ℓ = 3, q
ℓ = 3, q

odd
=3
=3
=3
∈ {5, 11}
∈ {7, 23}
=2
=3

(e) If S = PSU2ℓ+1 (q) with ℓ > 1, then ℓ = 1 and H is as described in one of
the following rows:
row
1
2
3
4

H6
R.(31+2
+ :8:2)
R.(51+2
+ :24:2)
R.(57:9.2)
R.(23+6 :63:3).2

remark
q=3
q=5
q=8
q=8

42

6. REDUCTION FOR CLASSICAL GROUPS

(f) If S = PSU2ℓ (q) with ℓ > 2, then H is as described in one of the following
rows:
row H 6
remark
ℓ2
2ℓ
1
R.(q :((q − 1)/((q + 1)d)).ℓ).O d = (2ℓ, q + 1)
2
R.(33 :(S4 × 2))
ℓ = 2, q = 2
1+2
3
R.(3+ :2.S4 )
ℓ = 2, q = 2
4
R.(34 :S4 ).O
ℓ = 2, q = 3
4 2
5
R.(3 :3 :4).O
ℓ = 2, q = 3
6
R.(31+4
ℓ = 2, q = 3
.2.S
).O
4
+
7
R.(513:3).O
ℓ = 2, q = 8
(g) If S = Ω2ℓ+1 (q) with ℓ > 3 and q odd, then H is as described in one of the
following rows:
row
1
2
3

H6
remark
ℓ(ℓ−1)/2 ℓ
ℓ
R.((q
.q ):((q − 1)/2).ℓ).O
R.(35 :24 .AGL1 (5)).2
ℓ = 3, q = 3
6+4 1+4
R.(3 :2 .AGL1 (5)).2
ℓ = 4, q = 3

(h) If S = PΩ+
2ℓ (q) with ℓ > 4, then H is as described in one of the following
rows:
row H 6
remark
ℓ(ℓ−1)/2
ℓ
1
R.(q
:((q − 1)/d).ℓ).O d = (4, q ℓ − 1)
6 4
2
R.(3 :2 .AGL1 (5)).O
ℓ = 4, q = 3
9
3
R.([3 ].13.3).O
ℓ = 4, q = 3
Proof. Let A = A/R and H = HR/R. Then A is an almost simple group with
socle S, O = A/S 6 Out(S), and
H 6 HR = R.H 6 R.(H ∩ S).O.
By Lemma 6.4, H is a nontrivial solvable factor of A. By Hypothesis 6.5, the pair
(A, H) satisfies Theorem 1.1. Thus the candidates for (A, H) are from Propositions
4.1, 4.3, 4.4 or Tables 1.1–1.2. In particular, statements (a) and (b) of the lemma
are both true. Next we prove statements (c)–(h) case by case.
Case 1. Let S = PSLℓ (q). If the solvable factor H of A is from Proposition 4.1,
then in view of PSL2 (4) ∼
= A5 , we see that one of rows 1–2, 4–5 and 7–9
= PSL2 (5) ∼
appears.
Next, consider the solvable factors H from Proposition 4.3, which occurs only
for (ℓ, q) = (2, 9) or (4, 2). For (ℓ, q) = (2, 9), S = A6 and one of rows 1–2 and 6
appears. For (ℓ, q) = (4, 2), S = A8 and one of rows 1, 3 and 10–11 appears.
Finally, the candidates from Tables 1.1–1.2 are just rows 1, 3 and 12 in statement
(c). This completes the verification of statement (c).
Case 2. Let S = PSp2ℓ (q) with ℓ > 2. Then (A, H) either satisfies Proposition
4.1 or lies in Tables 1.1–1.2. For the former, (ℓ, q) = (2, 3) and one of rows 3–5 in
statement (d) appears. For the latter, we have rows 1–2 and 4–9 in statement (d).
Case 3. Assume that S = PSU2ℓ+1 (q). Then ℓ = 1, and (A, H) lies in rows
18–19 of Table 1.2 or row 8 of Table 4.1. This leads to the four rows in statement
(e).

6.3. THE CASE THAT A HAS AT LEAST TWO UNSOLVABLE COMPOSITION FACTORS 43

Case 4. Let S = PSU2ℓ (q) with ℓ > 2. Then (A, H) either satisfies Proposition
4.1 or is from Tables 1.1–1.2. For the former, (ℓ, q) = (2, 2) and one of rows 1–3 in
statement (f) appears. For the latter, we have rows 1 and 4–7 in statement (f).
Case 5. Let S = Ω2ℓ+1 (q) with ℓ > 3. In this case, (A, H) only arises in Tables
1.1–1.2, from which we read off the three rows in statement (g).
Case 6. Now let S = Ω+
2ℓ (q) with ℓ > 4. Then the only candidates in Tables
1.1–1.2 lead to the three rows in statement (h).

6.3. The case that A has at least two unsolvable composition factors
This section is devoted to the case when A has at least two unsolvable composition factors. We can read off the candidates of maximal factorizations from Tables
A.1–A.7.
Lemma 6.7. Let G be an almost simple group with socle L classical of Lie type.
If G = AB is a nontrivial maximal factorization of G such that A has at least
two unsolvable composition factors, then A has exactly two unsolvable composition
factors and (L, A ∩ L, B ∩ L) lies in Table 6.2, where a = gcd(2, ℓ, q − 1).
Table 6.2.
row
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

L
Sp4ℓ (2f ), f ℓ > 2
Sp4ℓ (4), ℓ > 2
Sp4 (2f ), f > 2
Sp4 (2f ), f > 3 odd
Sp6 (2f ), f > 2
Sp4 (4)
PΩ+
4ℓ (q), ℓ > 3, q > 4
PΩ+
8 (q), q > 5 odd
Ω+
(2)
8
Ω+
8 (4)

A∩L
Sp2ℓ (2f ) ≀ S2
Sp2 (4) × Sp4ℓ−2 (4)
f
O+
4 (2 )
+ f
O4 (2 )
Sp2 (2f ) × Sp4 (2f )
O+
4 (4)
(PSp2 (q) × PSp2ℓ (q)).a
(PSp2 (q) × PSp4 (q)).2
(SL2 (4) × SL2 (4)).22
(SL2 (16) × SL2 (16)).22

B∩L
f
O−
4ℓ (2 )
Sp2ℓ (16).2
Sp2 (4f ).2
Sz(2f )
G2 (2f )
O−
4 (4)
N1
Ω7 (q)
Sp6 (2)
Sp6 (4)

Remark 6.8. In row 6 of Table 6.2, either A, B are both C8 subgroups, or A is
in C2 and B is in C3 .
Now we analyze the candidates in Table 6.2 under Hypothesis 6.5.
Proposition 6.9. Let G be an almost simple group satisfying Hypothesis 6.5
with socle L classical of Lie type. If G = HK is a nontrivial factorization with H
solvable and HL = KL = G, and a maximal subgroup A of G containing H has at
least two unsolvable composition factors, then one of the following holds.
(a) L = Sp4 (4), and (L, H ∩ L, K ∩ L) lies in row 3 or 4 of Table 1.1.
+
(b) L = Ω+
8 (2) or Ω8 (4), and (L, H ∩ L, K ∩ L) lies in row 9 of Table 1.1.
Proof. Take B to be a maximal subgroup of G containing K. By Lemma 2.18,
A, B are both core-free in G. Hence G = AB is a nontrivial maximal factorization,
and by Lemma 6.7, (L, A ∩ L, B ∩ L) lies in Table 6.2. If L = Sp4 (4), then computation in Magma[6] shows that (L, H ∩ L, K ∩ L) lies in row 3 or 4 of Table 1.1,

44

6. REDUCTION FOR CLASSICAL GROUPS

+
as described in part (a) of the proposition. For L = Ω+
8 (2) or Ω8 (4), computation
in Magma[6] shows that part (b) of the proposition holds. Thus we assume that
+
L 6∈ {Sp4 (4), Ω+
8 (2), Ω8 (4)}, and in particular, none of rows 6 and 9–10 of Table 6.2
appears.
Case 1. Suppose L = PSp4 (q). Then it is seen in Table 6.2 that q = 2f > 4
and one of rows 1 (with ℓ = 1), 3 and 4 appears. Consequently, A ∩ L ∼
= SL2 (q) ≀ S2 ,
2
∼
B ∩ L = SL2 (q ).2 or Sz(q), and G/L = Ce 6 Cf . Viewing
 2 2
q (q − 1)/2,
if B ∩ L ∼
= SL2 (q 2 ).2,
|L|/|B ∩ L| =
2 2
q (q − 1)(q + 1), if B ∩ L = Sz(q),

we conclude that |L|/|B ∩ L| is divisible by q 2 (q 2 − 1)/2, and so is |H ∩ L||G/L| by
Lemma 2.9.
Write A ∩ L = (T1 × T2 ).S2 , where T1 ∼
= T2 ∼
= SL2 (q), and let X = (H ∩ L) ∩
(T1 × T2 ). Then X is a solvable subgroup of T1 × T2 , and X has index at most 2 in
H ∩ L. Thus |X||G/L| is divisible by q 2 (q 2 − 1)/4. Since G/L = Ce 6 Cf , it follows
that e|X| is divisible by q 2 (q 2 − 1)/4. Let Xi = XTi /Ti . T3−i for i = 1, 2. Then
X1 , X2 are solvable, and X . X1 × X2 .
Note that A has a subgroup T of index 2 such that T ∩ L ∼
= SL2 (q) × SL2 (q). If
H 6 T , then G = T B and A = T (A ∩ B), contrary to the facts that A ∩ B 6 T (see
[42, 3.2.4(b) and 5.1.7(b)]). Hence H T , and thus there exists an element g ∈ H\T
interchanging T1 and T2 by conjugation. Since X g = (H ∩ L)g ∩ (T1 × T2 )g = X,
g induces an isomorphism between X1 and X2 . As a consequence, |X| divides
|X1 ||X2 | = |X1 |2 .
Any solvable subgroup of SL2 (2f ) has order dividing q(q − 1), 2(q − 1), 2(q + 1)
or 12, refer to [28, Chapter 2, 8.27]. Hence |X| divides (q(q − 1))2 , (2(q − 1))2 ,
(2(q + 1))2 or 144. Since q 2 (q 2 − 1)/4 divides e|X| and e divides f , we deduce that
q 2 (q 2 −1)/4 divides f q 2 (q −1)2 , 4f (q −1)2 , 4f (q +1)2 or 144f . If q 2 (q 2 −1)/4 divides
f q 2 (q−1)2 , or equivalently q+1 divides 4f (q−1), then observing (q+1, 4(q−1)) = 1,
we have q + 1 f , which is impossible. In the same vein, we see that the others are
impossible too. This excludes the possibility of L = PSp4 (q), and especially, rows 3
and 4 of Table 6.2.
To complete the proof, we still need to exclude rows 1, 2, 5 and 7–8.
Case 2. Suppose that (L, A ∩ L, B ∩ L) lies in one of row 1 of Table 6.2.
From case 1 we see that ℓ > 2. Let G/L = Ce 6 Cf and T = (T1 × T2 ):e, where
+
f
f
T1 ∼
= Sp2ℓ (2f ). Observe that A ∩ B = (O−
= T2 ∼
2ℓ (2 ) × O2ℓ (2 )):e (see [42, 3.2.4(b)]).
f
Without loss of generality, suppose A ∩ B ∩ T1 = O−
2ℓ (2 ). It derives from G = HB
that A = H(A∩B), and thus T = (H ∩T )(A∩B) since A∩B 6 T . Now consider the
factorization T = X1 A ∩ B, where T = T /T1 = Sp2ℓ (2f ).e, A ∩ B = (A∩B)T1 /T1 =
f
O+
2ℓ (2 ).e and X1 = (H ∩ T )T1 /T1 is solvable. By Hypothesis 6.5, this factorization
must satisfy the conclusion of Theorem 1.1. Hence we have (ℓ, f ) = (2, 1) or (3, 1).
Now L = Sp4ℓ (2) with ℓ ∈ {2, 3}. Replacing T1 with T2 in the above paragraph,
we obtain the factorization Sp2ℓ (2) = X2 O−
2ℓ (2) along the same lines, where X2 =
(H ∩ T )T2 /T2 is solvable. Moreover, since B is not transitive on the 2ℓ-dimensional
non-degenerate symplectic subspaces, we know that G 6= T B. Consequently, H T
as G = HB. It follows that each element in H \ T induces an isomorphism between
X1 and X2 . However, computation in Magma[6] shows that there do not exist two
factorizations Sp2ℓ (2) = X(3−ε)/2 Oε2ℓ (2), where ε = ±1, such that X1 and X2 are

6.3. THE CASE THAT A HAS AT LEAST TWO UNSOLVABLE COMPOSITION FACTORS 45

both solvable and have the same order. This contradiction implies that row 1 of
Table 6.2 cannot appear.
Case 3. Suppose that (L, A ∩ L, B ∩ L) lies in one of rows 2, 5, 7 and 8 of
Table 6.2. Then A ∩ L has a subgroup PSp2 (q) × T of index at most 2, where
T = PSp2k (q) with k > 2 and q > 4. We deduce from Zsigmondy’s theorem that
q 2k − 1 has a primitive prime divisor r. Write N = CA (T ), and note T ⊳ A and
N ∩T = 1. Then N ⊳ NA (T ) = A, and T ∼
= NT /N 6 A/N . Aut(T ), which means
that A/N is an almost simple group with socle PSp2k (q). By N ∼
= NT /T 6 A/T
we know that |N| divides 2|PSp2 (q)||Out(L)|. Consequently, |N| is not divisible by
r.
As the intersection A ∩ B is determined in [42] (see 3.2.1(a), 5.23(b), 3.6.1(d)
and 5.1.15 there), it follows readily that (A ∩ B)N/N does not contain PSp2k (q).
Hence by Lemma 6.3, HN/N is a nontrivial factor of A/N. Then since HN/N is
solvable, Hypothesis 6.5 implies that either HN/N ∩ PSp2k (q) 6 q k(k+1)/2 :(q k − 1).k,
or q ∈ {5, 7, 11, 23} and HN/N ∩PSp2k (q) 6 q 3 :(q−1).S4 . Thereby we conclude that
|HN/N| is not divisible by r. Since |H| = |HN/N||H ∩ N| divides |HN/N||N|, this
implies that |H| is not divisible by r. However, the factorization G = HB requires
|H| to be divisible by |G|/|B| and thus by r, a contradiction.


CHAPTER 7

Proof of Theorem 1.1
We will complete the proof of Theorem 1.1 by induction on the order of the
almost simple group. Thus throughout the first five sections of this chapter, we
assume Hypothesis 6.5.
7.1. Linear groups
The main result of this section is the following proposition, which verifies Theorem 1.1 for linear groups under Hypothesis 6.5.
Proposition 7.1. Let G be an almost simple group with socle L = PSLn (q)
not isomorphic to A5 , A6 or A8 . If G = HK is a nontrivial factorization with H
solvable, K unsolvable and HL = KL = G, then under Hypothesis 6.5, one of the
following holds.
(a) H ∩ L 6 ˆGL1 (q n ).n, and q n−1 :SLn−1 (q) E K ∩ L 6 P1 or Pn−1 .
(b) L = PSL4 (q), H ∩ L 6 q 3 :((q 3 − 1)/(4, q − 1)).3, and PSp4 (q) E K ∩ L 6
PSp4 (q).a, where a = (4, q + 1)/(2, q − 1) 6 2.
(c) L = PSL2 (q) with q ∈ {11, 16, 19, 29, 59} or PSL4 (q) with q ∈ {3, 4} or
PSL5 (2), and (L, H ∩ L, K ∩ L) is as described in Table 7.1.
Table 7.1.
row
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

L
PSL2 (11)
PSL2 (16)
PSL2 (19)
PSL2 (29)
PSL2 (59)
PSL4 (3)
PSL4 (3)
PSL4 (4)
PSL5 (2)

H ∩L6
11:5
D34
19:9
29:14
59:29
24 :5:4
33 :26:3
26 :63:3
31:5

K∩L
A5
A5
A5
A5
A5
PSL3 (3), 33 :PSL3 (3)
(4 × PSL2 (9)):2
(5 × PSL2 (16)):2
26 :(S3 × PSL3 (2))

Proof. By Lemma 2.18, we may take A, B to be core-free maximal subgroups of
G containing H, K respectively. Then the maximal factorizations G = AB are listed
in Table A.1 (interchanging A, B if necessary) by Theorem 2.15. If n is a prime,
then the proposition holds by Theorem 3.3. We thus assume that n is a composite
number. Under this assumption, (L, A ∩ L, B ∩ L) lies in rows 1–4 of Table A.1. For
L = PSL4 (3) or PSL4 (4), computation in Magma[6] shows that one of parts (a),
(b) and (c) of Proposition 7.1 holds. Thus assume (n, q) 6∈ {(4, 3), (4, 4)} for the
rest of the proof.
47

48

7. PROOF

Case 1. Suppose that B ∩ L = ˆGLa (q b ).b with ab = n and b prime, as in
row 1 or row 4 of Table A.1 (with A, B interchanged). Then A ∩ L = P1 , Pn−1
or Stab(V1 ⊕ Vn−1 ). Notice that A has the unique unsolvable composition factor
PSLn−1 (q). Write q = pf with p prime, R = rad(A) and A/R = PSLn−1 (q).O.
As (n, q) 6∈ {(4, 3), (4, 4)}, we deduce from Lemma 6.6(c) that either |H|p divides
(n − 1)|R|p |O|p , or (n, q) = (4, 8) and |H| divides 26 · 56 · 7 · 6|R|. If the latter
occurs, then |H| is not divisible by 73, contrary to the factorization G = HB since
a = b = 2 and |G|/|B| is divisible by 73. Hence |H|p divides (n − 1)|R|p |O|p , and
then as |R||O| = |A|/|PSLn−1 (q)|, we have that |H|p divides (n − 1)f q n−1. Since
G = HB, we know that |H|p|B ∩ L|p is divisible by |L|p , and hence |L|p divides
(n − 1)f q n−1|B ∩ L|p . Consequently,
q n(n−1)/2 (n − 1)f q n−1 · q n(a−1)/2 b,
that is, q n(n−a)/2−n+1 b(n − 1)f . Since (b, n − 1) = 1 we conclude that either
q n(n−a)/2−n+1 bf or q n(n−a)/2−n+1 (n − 1)f . Since a 6 n/2 and b < n − 1, it follows
that
(7.1)

qn

2 /4−n+1

6 q n(n−a)/2−n+1 6 max(b, n − 1)f = (n − 1)f.

This implies
2

2

2

2n /4−n+1 6 pn /4−n+1 6 pf (n /4−n+1) /f 6 n − 1,
which leads to n = 4. However, substituting n = 4 into (7.1) gives q 6 3f , contradicting the assumption (n, q) 6∈ {(4, 2), (4, 3)}.
Case 2. Suppose that B ∩ L = P1 or Pn−1 , as in row 1 or row 2 of Table A.1.
Assume that row 2 of Table A.1 appears. Then A ∩ L = PSpn (q).c with n > 4
even and c = (2, q − 1)(n/2, q − 1)/(n, q − 1) 6 2. As (n, q) 6= (4, 3), Lemma 6.6(d)
implies that either (n, q) = (6, 2) or |H| is not divisible by any primitive prime
divisor of q n − 1. Since the factorization G = HK requires |H| to be divisible by
|G|/|B| = (q n − 1)/(q − 1), we have (n, q) = (6, 2) and thus |H| is divisible by
(q n − 1)/(q − 1) = 63. However, by Lemma 6.6(d), |H| divides 26 · (23 − 1) · 3 or
33 · 2 · 24, which is a contradiction.
We thus have row 1 of Table A.1, namely, A ∩ L = ˆGLa (q b ).b with ab = n and
b prime. Note that A has the unique unsolvable composition factor PSLa (q b ). By
Lemma 6.6(c), H 6 PΓL1 ((q b )a ) = PΓL1 (q n ). This by Lemma 3.2 leads to part (a)
of Proposition 7.1.
Case 3. Suppose that B ∩ L = PSpn (q).c with n > 4 even and c = (2, q −
1)(n/2, q − 1)/(n, q − 1), as in row 2 or row 3 of Table A.1 (with A, B interchanged).
Then
A ∩ L = P1 , Pn−1 or Stab(V1 ⊕ Vn−1 ).
Notice that A has the unique unsolvable composition factor PSLn−1 (q). Write q = pf
with p prime, R = rad(A) and A/R = PSLn−1 (q).O.
Assume A ∩ L = Stab(V1 ⊕ Vn−1 ) ∼
= ˆGLn−1 (q). Then by Lemma 6.6(c), |H|p
divides 2(n − 1)f . This implies that |H|p is not divisible by |L|p /|B ∩ L|p =
2
q n(n−1)/2−n /4 . Consequently, |H| is not divisible by |L|/|B ∩ L|, which is a contradiction to the factorization G = HB. Therefore, A ∩ L = P1 or Pn−1 .
Assume n > 6. By Zsigmondy’s theorem, (q, n − 3) has a primitive prime divisor
r as n 6= 9. Then Lemma 6.6(c) implies that |H| is not divisible by r. Observe that

7.2. SYMPLECTIC GROUPS

49

r does not divide |B|. This yields that r does not divide |H||B|, contrary to the
factorization G = HB since |G| is divisible by r.
We thus have n = 4 and A ∩ L ∼
= P1 = q 3 :(GL3 (q)/(4, q − 1)). Hence c =
2
(2, q − 1) /(4, q − 1) = (4, q + 1)/(2, q − 1). By Lemma 6.6(c), either H 6 R.(((q 3 −
1)/((q − 1)(3, q − 1))).3).O, or q = 8 and |H| divides 26 · 56 · 7 · 6|R|. If the latter
occurs, then |H| is not divisible by 73, contrary to the factorization G = HB since
|L|/|B ∩ L| = |PSL4 (8)|/|PSp4 (8)| is divisible by 73. Therefore,




q3 − 1
q3 − 1
3
.3 .O = q .
.3 .(G/L).
H 6 R.
(q − 1)(3, q − 1)
(4, q − 1)
Accordingly we have H ∩ L 6 q 3 :((q 3 − 1)/(4, q − 1)).3, and this further yields by
Lemma 2.9 that q 3 (q 4 − 1)(q 2 − 1) divides 6(4, q − 1)f |K ∩ L|. Consequently,
|PSp4 (q).a|
6(4, q − 1)f |PSp4 (q).a|
q4 − 1
6
<
.
|K ∩ L|
q 3 (q 4 − 1)(q 2 − 1)
q−1
Since (q 4 − 1)/(q − 1) equals the smallest index of proper subgroups of PSp4 (q) by
Theorem 2.6, we obtain from Lemma 2.5 that PSp4 (q) E K ∩ L. Thus part (b) of
Proposition 7.1 follows.
Case 4. Suppose that B ∩ L = Stab(V1 ⊕ Vn−1 ) = ˆGLn−1 (q) with n > 4 even,
as in row 3 or row 4 of Table A.1. Note that the factorization G = HK requires |H|
to be divisible by |L|/|B ∩ L| = q n−1 (q n − 1)/(q − 1).
Assume that row 3 of Table A.1 appears. Then A ∩ L = PSpn (q).c with c =
(2, q − 1)(n/2, q − 1)/(n, q − 1) 6 2. As (n, q) 6= (4, 3), Lemma 6.6(d) implies
that either (n, q) = (6, 2) or |H| is not divisible by any primitive prime divisor of
q n − 1. Since |H| is divisible by (q n − 1)/(q − 1), we have (n, q) = (6, 2) and thus
|H| is divisible by (q n − 1)/(q − 1) = 63. However, by Lemma 6.6(d), |H| divides
26 · (23 − 1) · 3 or 33 · 2 · 24, which is a contradiction.
Now row 4 of Table A.1 appears, that is, A ∩ L = ˆGLn/2 (q 2 ).2 with q ∈ {2, 4}.
As (n, q) 6∈ {(4, 2), (4, 4)}, we have n > 6. Since A has the unique unsolvable
composition factor PSLn/2 (q 2 ), Lemma 6.6(c) holds with R = rad(A) and A/R =
PSLn/2 (q 2 ).O. To be more precise, row 1, 3 or 8 in Lemma 6.6(c) holds as q ∈ {2, 4}
and n > 6. Observe that |R||O| = |A|/|PSLn/2 (q 2 )| divides 2(q 2 − 1)(n/2, q 2 − 1). If
q n −1 has a primitive prime divisor r, then the factorization G = HK requires |H| to
be divisible by q n−1 r, but none of rows 1, 3 and 8 in Lemma 6.6(c) satisfies this. Thus
q n −1 does not have any primitive prime divisor, which is equivalent to (n, q) = (6, 2)
by Zsigmondy’s theorem. In this situation, row 1 or 8 in Lemma 6.6(c) appears,
but neither of them allows |H| to be divisible by q n−1 (q n − 1)/(q − 1) = 25 · 32 · 7, a
contradiction.

7.2. Symplectic Groups
In this section we verify Theorem 1.1 for symplectic groups under Hypothesis
6.5.
Proposition 7.2. Let G be an almost simple group with socle L = PSp2m (q),
where m > 2. If G = HK is a nontrivial factorization with H solvable, K unsolvable
and HL = KL = G, then under Hypothesis 6.5, one of the following holds.

50

7. PROOF

(a) q is even, H ∩ L 6 q m(m+1)/2 :(q m − 1).m < Pm , and Ω−
2m (q) E K ∩ L ≤
O−
(q).
2m
(b) m = 2, q is even, H ∩ L 6 q 3 :(q 2 − 1).2 < P1 , and Sp2 (q 2 ) E K ∩ L ≤
Sp2 (q 2 ).2.
(c) m = 2, q is odd, H ∩ L 6 q 1+2 :((q 2 − 1)/2).2 < P1 and PSp2 (q 2 ) E K ∩ L 6
PSp2 (q 2 ).2.
(d) L = PSp4 (q) with q ∈ {3, 5, 7, 11, 23} or PSp6 (q) with q = 2 or 3, and
(L, H ∩ L, K ∩ L) is as described in Table 7.2.
Table 7.2.
row
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

L
PSp4 (3)
PSp4 (3)
PSp4 (5)
PSp4 (7)
PSp4 (11)
PSp4 (23)
Sp6 (2)
PSp6 (3)

H∩L6
33 :S4
31+2
+ :2.A4
53 :4.A4
73 :6.S4
113 :10.A4
233 :22.S4
31+2
+ :2.S4
1+4
31+4
.D10
+ :2

K∩L
24 :A5
A5 , 24 :A5 , S5 , A6 , S6
PSL2 (52 ), PSL2 (52 ):2
PSL2 (72 ), PSL2 (72 ):2
PSL2 (112 ), PSL2 (112 ):2
PSL2 (232 ), PSL2 (232 ):2
A8 , S8
PSL2 (27):3

Throughout this section, fix G, L, H, K to be the groups in the condition of
Proposition 7.2, and take A, B to be core-free maximal subgroups of G containing
H, K respectively (such A and B are existent by Lemma 2.18). We shall first treat
symplectic groups of dimension four in Section 7.2.1 (see Lemma 7.3), and then
treat the general case in Section 7.2.2 by Lemmas 7.6 and 7.7, distinguishing the
maximal factorization G = AB in rows 1–12 or 13–16 of Table A.2. These lemmas
together prove Proposition 7.2.
7.2.1. Symplectic groups of dimension four. The main result of this subsection is stated in the following lemma.
Lemma 7.3. If L = PSp4 (q) with q > 3, then one of the following holds.
−
(a) q is even, H ∩ L 6 q 3 :(q 2 − 1).2 < P2 , and Ω−
4 (q) E K ∩ L ≤ O4 (q).
(b) q is even, H ∩ L 6 q 3 :(q 2 − 1).2 < P1 , and Sp2 (q 2 ) E K ∩ L ≤ Sp2 (q 2 ).2.
(c) q is odd, H ∩ L 6 q 1+2 :((q 2 − 1)/2).2 < P1 and PSp2 (q 2 ) E K ∩ L 6
PSp2 (q 2 ).2.
(d) L = PSp4 (q) with q ∈ {3, 5, 7, 11, 23}, and (L, H ∩ L, K ∩ L) is as described
in rows 1–6 of Table 7.2.
Proof. For L = PSp4 (3), the lemma holds as a consequence of Proposition
6.1. Thus we assume q > 4 for the rest of our proof. By Proposition 6.9, we further
assume that A∩L has at most one unsolvable composition factor. Therefore, we only
need to consider rows 1–11 of Table A.2 for the maximal factorization G = AB by
Lemma 2.15. Moreover, A ∩ L 6= Sz(q) as Lemma 6.6(a) asserts, which rules out row
11 of Table A.2. Hence we have the following candidates for the pair (A ∩ L, B ∩ L).
(i) A ∩ L ∼
= PSL2 (q 2 ).2 and B ∩ L = P1 or P2 .
+
(ii) A ∩ L ∼
= O−
= PSL2 (q 2 ).2 and B ∩ L ∼
4 (q) or O4 (q).

7.2. SYMPLECTIC GROUPS

51

(iii) A ∩ L = P1 and B ∩ L = PSp2 (q 2 ).2.
(iv) q is even, A ∩ L = P2 and B ∩ L = O−
4 (q).
− f
f
(v) q = 4 with f ∈ {1, 2}, A ∩ L = O4 (4 ) and B ∩ L = Sp4 (2f ).
f
(vi) q = 4f with f ∈ {1, 2}, A ∩ L = Sp4 (2f ) and B ∩ L = O−
4 (4 ).
Case 1. Suppose that (A ∩ L, B ∩ L) is as described in (i). Let R = rad(A) and
S = soc(A/R). Write A/R = S.O and q = pf with p prime. Then S = PSL2 (q 2 ),
and we see from Lemma 6.6(c) that H 6 R.(((q 4 − 1)/((q 2 − 1)(2, q − 1)).2).O or
R.(q 2 :((q 2 − 1)/(2, q − 1))).O as in row 1 or row 2 of the table there. In particular,
|H| divides 2(q 2 + 1)|R||O|/(2, q − 1) or q 2 (q 2 − 1)|R||O|/(2, q − 1). Since |R||O| =
|A|/|S| = 2|A|/|A ∩ L| divides f (2, q − 1), we thus obtain that |H| divides 4f (q 2 + 1)
or 2f q 2 (q 2 − 1). Moreover, |L|/|B ∩ L| = (q 4 − 1)/(q − 1) divides |H| according to
the factorization G = HB. Hence (q 4 − 1)/(q − 1) divides 4f (q 2 + 1) or 2f q 2 (q 2 − 1),
which is impossible.
Case 2. Suppose that (A ∩ L, B ∩ L) is as described in (ii). Let R = rad(A) and
S = soc(A/R). Write A/R = S.O and q = pf with p prime. Then S = PSL2 (q 2 ),
and we see from Lemma 6.6(c) that H 6 R.(((q 4 − 1)/((q 2 − 1)(2, q − 1)).2).O or
R.(q 2 :((q 2 − 1)/(2, q − 1))).O as in row 1 or row 2 of the table there. In particular,
|H| divides 2(q 2 + 1)|R||O|/(2, q − 1) or q 2 (q 2 − 1)|R||O|/(2, q − 1). Since |R||O| =
|A|/|S| = 2|A|/|A ∩ L| = 2|G|/|L| divides 2f (2, q − 1), we thus obtain that |H|
divides 4f (q 2 + 1) or 2f q 2 (q 2 − 1). Moreover, |L| divides |H||B ∩ L| due to the
factorization G = HB. Hence
(7.2)

|L|/|B ∩ L| divides 4f (q 2 + 1) or 2f q 2(q 2 − 1).

2 2
∼ +
If B ∩ L ∼
= O−
4 (q), then |L|/|B ∩ L| = q (q − 1)/2. If B ∩ L = O4 (q), then
|L|/|B ∩ L| = q 2 (q 2 + 1)/2. Thus by (7.2), either
2 2
B∩L∼
= O−
4 (q) and |H| divides 2f q (q − 1), or

q = 4 and B ∩ L = O+
4 (4).
Computation in Magma[6] shows that the latter gives no factorization G = HB
with H solvable. Thus we have the former, which indicates p = 2 since row 1 of
Table A.2 is now excluded. Also, H ∩ L 6 P1 [PSL2 (q 2 ).2] since H 6 R.(q 2 :((q 2 −
1)/(2, q − 1))).O as row 2 of the table in Lemma 6.6(c). Combining the condition
that |H| divides 2f q 2(q 2 − 1) with the conclusion of the factorization G = HK that
|L| divides |H||K ∩ L|, we deduce that |L| divides 2f q 2(q 2 − 1)|K ∩ L|. That is to
say, q 4 (q 4 − 1)(q 2 − 1) divides 2f q 2 (q 2 − 1)|K ∩ L|, or equivalently, q 2 (q 4 − 1) divides
2f |K ∩ L|. Since K ∩ L 6 B ∩ L ∼
= SL2 (q 2 ).2, it then follows that SL2 (q 2 ) . K ∩ L.
Note that A ∩ L lie in two possible Aschbacher classes of subgroups of L, namely,
C3 and C8 . We distinguish these two classes in the next two paragraphs.
Assume that A ∩ L = Sp2 (q 2 ).2 is a C3 subgroup of L. Then B ∩ L = O−
4 (q),
and P1 [A ∩ L] 6 P2 [L]. Hence H ∩ L 6 P2 [L]. Since P2 [L] = q 3 :GL2 (q), we
have H ∩ L 6 q 3 :M for some maximal solvable subgroup M of GL2 (q). From
the factorization G = HB we deduce that |L| divides f |B ∩ L||H ∩ L|, that is,
q 4 (q 4 − 1)(q 2 − 1) divides 2f q 2 (q 4 − 1)|H ∩ L|. Consequently, q 2 (q 2 − 1) divides
2f |H ∩ L|, which further yields that (q 2 − 1) divides 2f |M|. This implies that
M = (q 2 − 1):2, and thus H ∩ L 6 q 3 :(q 2 − 1).2. Therefore, part (a) of Lemma 7.3
appears.

52

7. PROOF

2
Assume that A ∩ L = O−
4 (q) is a C8 subgroup of L. Then B ∩ L = Sp2 (q ).2,
3
and P1 [A ∩ L] 6 P1 [L]. Hence H ∩ L 6 P1 [L]. Since P1 [L] = q :GL2 (q), we
have H ∩ L 6 q 3 :M for some maximal solvable subgroup M of GL2 (q). According
to the factorization G = HB we have that |L| divides f |B ∩ L||H ∩ L|, that is,
q 4 (q 4 − 1)(q 2 − 1) divides 2f q 2 (q 4 − 1)|H ∩ L|. Consequently, q 2 (q 2 − 1) divides
2f |H ∩L|, which yields that (q 2 −1) divides 2f |M|. This implies that M = (q 2 −1):2,
and thus H ∩ L 6 q 3 :(q 2 − 1).2. Therefore, part (b) of Lemma 7.3 appears.
Case 3. Consider the pair (A ∩ L, B ∩ L) as described in (iii). If q is even, then
since H ∩ L 6 P1 [L], arguing as the second paragraph of Case 1 leads to part (b) of
Lemma 7.3. Thus assume q = pf with odd prime p. Let X be a maximal solvable
subgroup of

A ∩ L = P1 = q 1+2 :((q − 1) × Sp2 (q))/2 = q 1+2 :(q − 1).PSp2 (q)
containing H ∩L. Then X = q 1+2 :((q−1)×Y )/2 for some maximal solvable subgroup
Y of Sp2 (q). By Lemma 6.6(c), Y /C2 6 PSp2 (q) lies in the following table:
row
1
2
3
4
5

Y /C2
Dq+1
q:((q − 1)/2)
A4
S4
S4

q
odd
odd
5, 11
7, 23
9

Moreover, the factorization G = HB together with H ∩ L 6 X implies that |L|
divides |X||B ∩ L||Out(L)|, that is, q + 1 divides 2qf |Y |. Thereby checking the
above table we conclude that only its rows 1 and 3–4 are possible. Notice that |L|
divides |X||K ∩ L||Out(L)| due to the factorization G = HK. If row 1 appears,
then X = q 1+2 :C(q2 −1)/2 .C2 and it follows that q(q 4 − 1) divides 4f |K ∩ L|. This
implies that PSp2 (q 2 ) E K ∩ L, as part (c) of Lemma 7.3. If row 3 appears, then
X = q 1+2 :(q − 1).A4 with q ∈ {5, 11} and it follows that q(q 4 − 1)(q + 1) divides
48f |K ∩ L|. This implies that PSp2 (q 2 ) 6 K ∩ L, and leads to part (d) of Lemma
7.3. Similarly, if row 4 appears, then X = q 1+2 :(q − 1).S4 with q ∈ {7, 23} and it
follows that q(q 4 −1)(q + 1) divides 96f |K ∩L|. This implies that PSp2 (q 2 ) 6 K ∩L,
as part (d) of Lemma 7.3.
Case 4. Consider the pair (A∩L, B∩L) as described in (iv). Since H∩L 6 P2 [L],
arguing as the third paragraph of Case 1 leads to part (a) of Lemma 7.3.
Case 5. Suppose that (A ∩ L, B ∩ L) is as described in (v). If f = 1, then
|L|/|B ∩ L| is divisible by 5 · 17, but Lemma 6.6(c) implies that |H| is not divisible
by 5 · 17, contrary to the factorization G = HB. If f = 2, then |L|/|B ∩ L| is
divisible by 17 · 257, but Lemma 6.6(c) implies that |H| is not divisible by 17 · 257,
contrary to the factorization G = HB. Hence this case is not possible.
Case 6. Finally, consider the pair (A ∩ L, B ∩ L) as described in (vi). If f = 1,
then the factorization G = HB requires |H ∩ L| to be divisible by 15, contrary to
the fact that A ∩ L = Sp4 (2) ∼
= S6 does not possess any solvable subgroup of order
divisible by 15. If f = 2, then |L|/|B ∩ L| is divisible by 17, but Lemma 6.6(d)
implies that |H| is not divisible by 17, contradicting the factorization G = HB.
Hence this case is not possible either. We thus complete the proof.


7.2. SYMPLECTIC GROUPS

53

7.2.2. Symplectic groups of dimension at least six. We first embark on
the infinite families for the maximal factorization G = AB, namely, rows 1–12 of
Table A.2.
Lemma 7.4. Let m > 3, q = pf with p prime and (m, q) 6= (3, 2). If the
maximal factorization G = AB lies in rows 1–12 of Table A.2 (interchanging A, B
if necessary), then each primitive prime divisor of p2f m − 1 divides |B ∩ L|.
Proof. By Lemma 2.9, it suffices to show that any primitive prime divisor
r of p2f m − 1 does not divide |H ∩ L|. Suppose to the contrary that r divides
|H ∩ L|. Then r divides |A ∩ L|. Inspecting rows 1–12 of Table A.2, we conclude
that A ∩ L = PSp2a (q b ).b with ab = m and b prime or SO−
2m (q) with q even or G2 (q)
−
∼
with m = 3. Notice that SO6 (q) = PSU4 (q).2 if q is even. Since r divides |H|, we
deduce from Lemma 6.6(a), (b) and (f) that either A ∩ L = PSp2a (q b ).b with ab = m
and b prime or L = Sp6 (8) and A ∩ L = SO−
6 (8).
Suppose that L = Sp6 (8) and A ∩ L = SO−
6 (8). Then one sees from Table A.2
that B ∩ L = Sp2 (83 ).3, P3 or G2 (8). For these candidates of B ∩ L, it holds that
|L|/|B ∩ L| is divisible by 13. However, Lemma 6.6(f) shows that |H| is not divisible
by 13, contrary to the factorization G = HB. Therefore, A ∩ L = PSp2a (q b ).b with
ab = m and b prime.
Write R = rad(A) and A/R = PSp2a (q b ).O. Since r divides |H|, we deduce
from Lemma 6.6(c) (with ℓ = 2 there) and (d) that a = 1, b = m is prime and
H 6 R.D2(qm +1)/(2,q−1) .O. This together with the equality |R||O| = |A|/|PSp2 (q m )|
yields that |H| divides
2(q m + 1)|A|
2m(q m + 1)|A|
2m(q m + 1)|G|
=
=
,
(2, q − 1)|PSp2 (q m )|
(2, q − 1)|A ∩ L|
(2, q − 1)|L|
whence |H| divides 2f m(q m + 1). Then from the factorization G = HB we obtain
that
(7.3)

|L|/|B ∩ L| divides 2f m(q m + 1).

As seen from Table A.2, the possibilities for B ∩ L are:
P1 , SO+
2m (q) with q even,

SO−
2m (q) with q even.

We proceed by these three cases for B ∩ L.
Case 1: B ∩ L = P1 . Then (q 2m − 1)/(q − 1) divides 2f m(q m + 1) by (7.3), that
is, the divisibility in
(7.4)

q m − 1 2f m(q − 1).

It follows by (7.4) that (m, q) 6= (3, 4). Hence pf m − 1 has a primitive prime divisor
s by Zsigmondy’s theorem as m is prime. However, since 2f m(q − 1) is not divisible
by s, (7.4) does not hold, which is a contradiction.
m m
m
Case 2: B ∩ L = SO+
2m (q) with p = 2. Then q (q + 1)/2 divides 2f m(q + 1)
by (7.3), that is, 2f m 4f m. This forces f m = 4, contrary to the condition that
m > 3 is prime.
m m
m
Case 3: B ∩ L = SO−
2m (q) with p = 2. Then q (q − 1)/2 divides 2f m(q + 1)
m m
m
m m
m
m
by (7.3), that is, q (q − 1) 4f m(q + 1). Since (q , q + 1) = (q − 1, q + 1) = 1,
this implies q m (q m − 1) 4f m, which is impossible.


54

7. PROOF

Lemma 7.5. Let m > 3, q = 2f and (m, q) 6= (3, 2). If the maximal factorization
G = AB lies in rows 1–12 of Table A.2 (interchanging A, B if necessary) with
B ∩ L = SO−
2m (q), then H 6 Pm [G].
Proof. By Proposition 6.9, the maximal factor A has at most one unsolvable
composition factor. Consequently, A ∩ L 6= Spm ≀ S2 . Then in rows 1–12 of Table
A.2, the possibilities for A ∩ L are:
Sp2a (q b ).b with ab = m and b prime, Pm ,
1/2
O+
) with q ∈ {4, 16}.
2m (q) with q ∈ {2, 4}, Sp2m (q

We proceed by these four cases for A ∩ L.
Case 1: A ∩ L = Sp2a (q b ).b with ab = m and b prime. In this case, A =
Sp2a (q b ).Cbe , where Ce = G/L 6 Cf . By Lemma 6.3, H is a solvable nontrivial
factor of A.
Assume H Pa [A], a parabolic subgroup of A. By Hypothesis 6.5, we see from
Theorem 1.1 that either a = 1 and |H| divides 2(q m +1)me, or a = 2 and H 6 P1 [A].
For the latter, the observation P1 [A] 6 Pm/2 [G] yields that H 6 Pm/2 [G], and thus
the factorization G = Pm/2 [G]B arises, contrary to Theorem 2.15. Hence we have
the former, and in particular |H| divides 2(q m + 1)mf . Then the factorization
G = HB implies that |L|/|B ∩ L| = q m (q m − 1)/2 divides 2(q m + 1)mf , that is,
q m (q m − 1) 4f m(q m + 1). Since (q m , q m + 1) = (q m − 1, q m + 1) = 1, this derives
f q m (q m − 1) 4f m, which is impossible.
Therefore, H 6 Pa [A], then the observation Pa [A] 6 Pm [G] implies that H 6
Pm [G], as the lemma asserts.
Case 2: A ∩ L = Pm . Then H 6 A = Pm [G] as stated in the lemma.
+
Case 3: A ∩ L = O+
2m (q) with q ∈ {2, 4}. In this case, A = O2m (q).Ce , where
Ce 6 Cf . By Lemma 6.3, H is a solvable nontrivial factor of A.
Assume H Pm [A]. Viewing O+
6 (q) = PSL4 (q).2, we conclude from Hypothesis
6.5 and Theorem 1.1 that one of the following holds.
(i) m = 4 and H 6 P1 [A].
(ii) (m, q) = (4, 2) and H 6 S9 .
(iii) (m, q) = (3, 4) and |H| divides 4(44 − 1)|Out(PSL4 (4))| = 24 · 3 · 5 · 17.
If (i) holds, then the observation P1 [A] 6 P1 [G] yields that H 6 P1 [G], and thus the
factorization G = P1 [G]B arises, contrary to Theorem 2.15. For (ii), computation
in Magma[6] shows that it gives no factorization G = HB with H solvable. Thus
we have (iii), and in particular |H| is not divisible by 7. However, the factorization
G = HB requires |H| to be divisible by |L|/|B ∩ L|, and thus |H| is divisible by 7,
a contradiction.
Consequently, H 6 Pm [A], and it follows that H 6 Pm [G], as the lemma states.
Case 4: A ∩ L = Sp2m (q 1/2 ) with q ∈ {4, 16}. If (m, q) = (3, 4), then Hypothesis
6.5 in conjunction with Theorem 1.1 implies that |H| is not divisible by 63, contrary
to the condition that 25 · 63 = |L|/|B ∩ L| divides |H|. Thus (m, q) 6= (3, 4), and it
follows that 2f m −1 has a primitive prime divisor r. Since r divides |G|/|B|, r should
also divide |H| as the factorization G = HB requires. However, by Hypothesis 6.5
and Theorem 1.1, r does not divide |H|, which is a contradiction.


7.2. SYMPLECTIC GROUPS

55

Now we finish the analysis for maximal factorizations G = AB from rows 1–12
of Table A.2.
Lemma 7.6. If m > 3 and the maximal factorization G = AB lies in rows 1–12
of Table A.2 (A, B may be interchanged), then one of the following holds.
(a) q is even, H ∩ L 6 q m(m+1)/2 :(q m − 1).m < Pm , and Ω−
2m (q) E K ∩ L ≤
−
O2m (q).
+
∼
(b) G = PSp6 (2), H = 31+2
+ :2.M with M 6 S4 , and A8 E K 6 O6 (2) = S8 ;
moreover, (M, A, K) lies in the following table:
M
A
K
2 2 , 4 O−
(2),
G
(2)
S8
2
6
−
D8
O6 (2), G2 (2) A8 , S8
A4
O−
S8
6 (2)
−
S4
O6 (2)
A8 , S8
1+4
(c) G = PSp6 (3).2, A = P1 [G], K = B = PSL2 (27):6, H = 31+4
.AGL1 (5)
+ :2
1+4 1+4
and H ∩ L = 3+ :2 .D10 .

Proof. Let q = pf with p prime. For (m, q) = (3, 2), computation in Magma[6]
verifies the lemma directly. Thus we assume (m, q) 6= (3, 2) henceforth, and it follows
that p2f m − 1 has a primitive prime divisor r. By Lemma 7.4, r divides |B ∩ L|.
Then according to Table A.2, the possibilities for B ∩ L are:
PSp2a (q b ).b with ab = m and b prime,
O−
G2 (q) with m = 3 and q even.
2m (q) with q even,
We proceed by these three cases for B ∩ L.
Case 1. Suppose that B ∩ L = PSp2a (q b ).b, where ab = m and b is prime. By
Proposition 6.9, A has at most one unsolvable composition factor. Then inspecting
Table A.2, we obtain the following candidates for A ∩ L:
−
P1 , O+
2m (q) with q even, O2m (q) with q even, N2 with b = 2 and q = 2.

If (m, q) 6= (4, 2), then pf (2m−2) − 1 has a primitive prime divisor s by Zsigmondy’s
theorem. Let s = 33 ·7 if (m, q) = (4, 2). Since s divides |L|/|B ∩L|, the factorization
G = HB requires |H| to be divisible by s.
First assume that A ∩ L = P1 or A ∩ L = N2 with b = q = 2. Then A has the
unique unsolvable composition factor PSp2m−2 (q). Since s divides |H|, we conclude
from Lemma 6.6(d) that (m, q) = (3, 3), A ∩ L = P1 and H 6 rad(A).(24 :AGL1 (5)).
In this situation, computation in Magma[6] shows that part (c) of Lemma 7.6
appears.
Next assume that A ∩ L = O+
2m (q) with p = 2. If m > 4, then there is a
contradiction that |H| is not divisible by s by Lemma 6.6(h). Thus m = 3, which
indicates that A has the unique unsolvable composition factor PSL4 (q). Since |H|
is divisible by s, we deduce from Lemma 6.6(c) that |H| divides 8f (q 4 − 1)/(q − 1).
Therefore, the factorization G = HB implies that |L| divides |H||PSp2 (q 3 ).3| and
thus 8f (q 2 + 1)(q + 1)|PSp2 (q 3 ).3|. This turns out to be that q 6 (q 2 − 1)(q − 1) 24f ,
which is impossible.
Now assume that A ∩ L = O−
2m (q) with p = 2. By Lemma 6.6(b), m = 3
and thus A has the unique unsolvable composition factor PSU4 (q). It then derives

56

7. PROOF

from Lemma 6.6(f) that either |H| divides 4f q 4 (q 4 − 1)/(q + 1) or q = 8 and |H|
is not divisible by 13. The latter is contrary to the factorization G = HB since
|L|/|B ∩ L| is divisible by 13. Consequently, |H| divides 4f q 4 (q 4 − 1)/(q + 1).
Thereby the factorization G = HB implies that |L| divides |H||PSp2 (q 3 ).3| and thus
4f q 4 (q 2 + 1)(q − 1)|PSp2 (q 3 ).3|. This turns out to be that q 2 (q 2 − 1)(q + 1) 12f ,
which is impossible.
Case 2. Suppose that B ∩ L = O−
2m (q) with p = 2. By Lemma 7.5 we have
H 6 Pm [G]. Let X = Pm [G] be a maximal subgroup of G containing H. Then
X = q m(m+1)/2 :GLm (q).Ce and B = O−
2m (q).Ce , where Ce 6 Cf . If (m, q) 6= (3, 4) or
(6, 2), then 2f m − 1 has a primitive prime divisor s by Zsigmondy’s theorem. Let
s = 7 if (m, q) = (3, 4) or (6, 2). Since s divides |L|/|B ∩ L|, we conclude by Lemma
2.9 that s also divides |H|. This together with Lemma 6.6(c) implies that
(7.5)

H 6 (q m(m+1)/2 :(q m − 1).m).Ce < X,

and thus H ∩ L 6 q m(m+1)/2 :(q m − 1).m < Pm .
It derives from the factorization G = HK that B = (H ∩ B)K. Note that H ∩ B
is solvable and K is unsolvable. Then by Hypothesis 6.5 and Theorem 1.1, either
B (∞) E K, or m = 3 and B has the unique unsolvable composition factor PSU4 (q)
with |K| not divisible by any primitive prime divisor of 24f − 1. In light of (7.5),
the latter indicates that |H||K| is not divisible by any primitive prime divisor of
24f − 1, contradicting the factorization G = HK. Thus we have B (∞) E K, which
leads to Ω−
2m (q) E K ∩ L. Therefore, part (a) of Lemma 7.6 appears.
Case 3. Suppose that m = 3 and B ∩ L = G2 (q) with p = 2. In this case, we
have f > 1 by our assumption that (m, q) 6= (3, 2). By Proposition 6.9, A has at
most one unsolvable composition factor. Then inspecting Table A.2, we obtain the
following candidates for A ∩ L:
−
O+
6 (q), O2m (q), P1 .

From the factorization G = HB we know that |L|/|B ∩ L| divides |H|, that is,
(7.6)

q 3 (q 4 − 1) |H|.

By Zsigmondy’s theorem, q 4 − 1 has a primitive prime divisor s. Then s divides
|H| as a consequence of (7.6). Accordingly, we exclude the candidate A ∩ L = P1
by Lemma 6.6(d) since in this situation A has the unique unsolvable composition
factor PSp4 (q).
Assume A ∩ L = O+
6 (q). Then A has the unique unsolvable composition factor
PSL4 (q). Since s divides |H|, we deduce from Lemma 6.6(c) that |H|2 divides 8f .
This together with (7.6) yields that q 3 8f , which is impossible.
−
Now assume A ∩ L = O−
6 (q). Note that A = Ω6 (q).C2f /e = SU4 (q).C2f /e , where
e 2f . Let V be a vector space over GF(q 2 ) of dimension 4 equipped with a nondegenerate unitary form β, and u1 , u2 , u3, u4 be a orthonormal basis of V . Let τ be
the semilinear transformation of V fixing the basis vectors u1 , u2, u3 , u4 such that
e
(λv)τ = λp v for any v ∈ V and λ ∈ GF(q 2 ). Then we can write A = S:T with
S = SU(V, β) and T = hτ i = C2f /e such that A∩B = (S∩B):T and S∩B = SU3 (q) is
the stabilizer of u1 in S by [42, 5.2.3(b)]. It derives from G = HB that A = H(A∩B)
and thus A = H(S ∩ B)T . Denote the stabilizer of u1 in A by N. Take e1 , e2 , f1 , f2

7.3. UNITARY GROUPS

57

to be a basis of V and µ ∈ GF(q 2 ) such that e2 + µf2 = u1 and
β(ei , ej ) = β(fi , fj ) = 0,

β(ei , fj ) = δi,j

for any i, j ∈ {1, 2}. Then A = HN since (S ∩ B)T ⊆ N. By Hypothesis 6.5,
this factorization should satisfy Theorem 1.1, that is, H x 6 M with some x ∈ A
and maximal solvable subgroup M of A stabilizing he1 , e2 i. However, this gives
A = H x N = MN, contrary to Lemma 5.3.

For rows 13–16 of Table A.2, since the case L = PSp4 (3) has been treated in
Lemma 7.3, we only need to consider rows 14–16.
Lemma 7.7. The maximal factorization G = AB does not lie in rows 14–16 of
Table A.2 (A, B may be interchanged).
Proof. By Lemma 6.6(b), A ∩ L 6= O−
8 (2). We now deal with the remaining
candidates in rows 14–16 of Table A.2.
Case 1. L = PSp6 (3), A ∩ L = PSL2 (13) and B ∩ L = P1 . Since |L|/|B ∩ L| =
6
(3 − 1)/(3 − 1), we deduce from G = HB that |H| is divisible by 7 · 13. However,
Lemma 6.6(c) shows that |H| is not divisible by 7 · 13, a contradiction.
Case 2. L = PSp6 (3), A ∩ L = P1 and B ∩ L = PSL2 (13). In order that B is
a maximal subgroup of G such that B ∩ L = PSL2 (13), we have G = L (see [10]).
7
Consequently, A = A ∩ L = P1 = 31+4
+ :Sp4 (3). Since |L|/|B ∩ L| is divisible by 2 · 5,
we deduce from G = HB that |H| is divisible by 27 · 5. However, Sp4 (3) has no
solvable subgroup of order divisible by 27 · 5, which indicates that A has no solvable
subgroup of order divisible by 27 · 5. Hence this case is not possible either.
Case 3. L = Sp8 (2), A ∩ L = S10 and B ∩ L = O−
8 (2). In this case, G = L
and |G|/|B| = 120. Hence |H| is divisible by 120 according to the factorization
G = HB. Applying Hypothesis 6.5 to the factorization A = H(H ∩ B), we view
from Proposition 4.3 that H is a transitive subgroup of S10 . However, S10 does not
have a solvable transitive subgroup of order divisible by 120, which is a contradiction.
Case 4. L = Sp8 (2), A ∩ L = PSL2 (17) and B ∩ L = O+
8 (2). In this case,
G = L and A ∩ B = D18 (see [42, 5.1.9]). Since |G|/|B| is divisible by 23 · 17, we
deduce from G = HB that |H| is divisible by 23 · 17. Hence H must be C17 :C8 as
a solvable subgroup of PSL2 (17). However, this leads to H ∩ (A ∩ B) = 2 and thus
|H||A ∩ B| < |H ∩ (A ∩ B)||A|, contradicting the factorization A = H(A ∩ B).
Case 5. L = Sp8 (2), A ∩ L = O+
8 (2) and B ∩ L = PSL2 (17). From the
factorization G = HB we deduce that |H| is divisible by |G|/|B| = 212 · 33 · 52 · 7,
+
12
3
2
but the only proper subgroup of O+
8 (2) with order divisible by 2 · 3 · 5 · 7 is Ω8 (2),
which is unsolvable. Hence this case is impossible too.

7.3. Unitary Groups
This section is devoted to the proof of the proposition below, which confirms
Theorem 1.1 for unitary groups under Hypothesis 6.5.
Proposition 7.8. Let G be an almost simple group with socle L = PSUn (q),
where n > 3. If G = HK is a nontrivial factorization with H solvable, K unsolvable
and HL = KL = G, then under Hypothesis 6.5, one of the following holds.
2
(a) n = 2m, H ∩ L 6 q m :((q 2m − 1)/((q + 1)(n, q + 1))).m < Pm , and
SU2m−1 (q) E K ∩ L 6 N1 .

58

7. PROOF

(b) L = PSU3 (q) with q =∈ {3, 5} or PSU4 (q) with q ∈ {2, 3, 8}, and (L, H ∩
L, K ∩ L) is as described in Table 7.3.
Table 7.3.
row
1
2
3
4
5
6

L
PSU4 (2)
PSU4 (2)
PSU3 (3)
PSU3 (5)
PSU4 (3)

H ∩L6
33 :S4
31+2
+ :2.A4
31+2
+ :8
51+2
+ :8
34 :D10 , 34 :S4 ,
34 :32 :4, 31+4
+ .2.S4
PSU4 (8) 513:3

K∩L
24 :A5
A5 , 24 :A5 , S5 , A6 , S6
PSL2 (7)
A7
PSL3 (4)
212 :SL2 (64).7

We start the proof of the proposition by taking A, B to be core-free maximal
subgroups of G containing H, K, respectively (such A and B are existent by Lemma
2.18). The maximal factorizations G = AB are listed in Table A.3 by Theorem
2.15. If n is prime, then the proposition holds clearly by Theorem 3.5. We thus
assume that n is a composite number. For L = PSU4 (2) ∼
= PSp4 (3), it is seen
from Proposition 6.1 that Proposition 7.8 is true. For L = PSU4 (3), computation
in Magma[6] shows that part (a) or (b) of Proposition 7.8 holds. Thus assume
(n, q) 6∈ {(4, 2), (4, 3)} in the following.
Under the above assumptions, we only need to consider rows 1–4 and 10–12
of Table A.3. After analysis for these rows below, the proposition will follow by
Lemmas 7.10 and 7.11.
Lemma 7.9. If (n, q) 6∈ {(4, 2), (4, 3)} and the maximal factorization G = AB lies
in rows 1–4 of Table A.3 (interchanging A, B if necessary), then either H ∩ L 6 Pm
and B ∩ L = N1 or (L, H ∩ L, K ∩ L) is as described in row 6 of Table 7.3.
Proof. As in rows 1–4 of Table A.3, n = 2m > 4 and either A ∩ L or B ∩ L is
N1 .
Case 1. Assume that A∩L = N1 . Then A has the unique unsolvable composition
factor PSU2m−1 (q). By Lemma 6.6(e), we have m = 2 and q ∈ {5, 8} since (n, q) 6=
(4, 3). Consequently, neither row 3 nor 4 of Table A.3 appears. Now B ∩ L = P2
or PSp4 (q).a with a 6 2 as in row 1 or row 2 of Table A.3. One checks directly for
q ∈ {5, 8} that r = (q 2 − q + 1)/3 is a prime number dividing |L|/|B ∩ L|. It follows
then from the factorization G = HB that r divides |H|, which leads to q = 8 and
H ∩ L 6 GU1 (83 ):3 = 513:3 by Lemma 6.6(e). In in turn implies that |L| divides
513 · 3|K ∩ L||Out(L)|, that is, 217 · 32 · 5 · 72 · 13 divides |K ∩ L|. Thereby we obtain
K ∩ L = P2 = 212 :SL2 (64).7 as in row 6 of Table 7.3.
Case 2. Assume that B ∩ L = N1 = ˆGU2m−1 (q) and one of the following four
cases appears.
(i) A ∩ L = Pm .
(ii) A ∩ L = PSp2m (q).a with a = (2, q − 1)(m, q + 1)/(n, q + 1) 6 2.
(iii) q = 2 and A ∩ L = ˆSLm (4).2.
(iv) q = 4 and A ∩ L = ˆSLm (16).3.2.

7.3. UNITARY GROUPS

59

Let q = pf with p prime. For case (i), the lemma already holds. By Zsigmondy’s
theorem, pf n − 1 has a primitive prime divisor r if (n, q) 6= (6, 2). Let r = 7 if
(n, q) = (6, 2). Since G = HB and r divides |L|/|B ∩ L|, it follows that r divides
|H| by Lemma 2.9.
First suppose that case (ii) appears. Then from Lemma 6.6(d) we conclude that
(n, q) = (6, 2) and H 6 P3 [A]. Note that P3 [PSp6 (2)] 6 P3 [PSU6 (2)]. We thereby
obtain H ∩ L 6 P3 [PSU6 (2)] as the lemma asserts.
Next suppose that case (iii) or (iv) appears. Then p = 2 and f ∈ {1, 2}. Write
R = rad(A) and A/R = PSLm (q 2 ).O. Noticing that r divides |H|, we conclude from
Lemma 6.6(c) that


q 2m − 1
H 6 R.
.m .O.
(q 2 − 1)(m, q 2 − 1)
In particular, |H|2 divides m(|R||O|)2. This together with the equality |R||O| =
|A|/|PSLm (q 2 )| implies that |H|2 divides 2m(|A|/|A ∩ L|)2 = 2m|G/L|2 and thus
divides 4f m. However, the factorization G = HB indicates that |H|2 is divisible by
(|G|/|B|)2. Hence q 2m−1 = (|G|/|B|)2 divides 4f m, which is impossible as (n, q) 6=
(4, 2).

Lemma 7.10. If (n, q) 6∈ {(4, 2), (4, 3)} and the maximal factorization G = AB
lies in rows 1–4 of Table A.3 (interchanging A, B if necessary), then either part (a)
of Proposition 7.8 holds or (L, H ∩ L, K ∩ L) is as described in row 6 of Table 7.3.
Proof. By Lemma 7.9, we may assume that A ∩ L = Pm with n = 2m, and
B ∩ L = N1 . Let d = (n, q + 1) and q = pf with p prime. Note that Pm =
2
q m :(SLm (q 2 ).(q − 1)/d) and N1 = GUn−1 (q)/d. Then A has the unique unsolvable
composition factor PSLm (q 2 ). By Zsigmondy’s theorem, (q 2 , m) has a primitive
prime divisor r. It derives from the factorization G = HB that r divides |H| since
r divides |L|/|B ∩ L|. Hence by Lemma 6.6(c),




2m
q 2m − 1
−1
m2 q
H 6 rad(A).
.m .O = q .
.m .(G/L)
(q 2 − 1)(m, q 2 − 1)
(q + 1)d
2

with A/rad(A) = PSLm (q 2 ).O. Accordingly, we have H ∩ L 6 q m :((q 2m − 1)/((q +
1)d)).m.
Suppose m = 2. Then the conclusion H ∩ L 6 q 4 :((q 4 − 1)/((q + 1)d)).2 above
implies that |L| divides
2q 4 (q 4 − 1)|K ∩ L||Out(L)|
= 4f q 4 (q 2 − 1)(q − 1)|K ∩ L|.
(q + 1)d
due to the factorization G = HK. It follows that q 2 (q 3 + 1)(q 2 − 1)(q + 1) divides
4df |K ∩ L|, and thus
|B ∩ L|
4df |B ∩ L|
6 2 3
= 4f q.
|K ∩ L|
q (q + 1)(q 2 − 1)(q + 1)
Note that each proper subgroup of SU3 (q) has index greater than 4f q by Theorem 2.6. We thereby obtain SU3 (q) E K ∩ L from Lemma 2.5, whence part (a) of
Proposition 7.8 appears.

60

7. PROOF

Now suppose m > 3. Let R = rad(B), B = B/R, H ∩ B = (H ∩ B)R/R and
K = KR/R. By Lemma 2.16, B is almost simple with socle PSU2m−1 (q). From
G = HK we deduce B = (H ∩ B)K and further B = H ∩ B K. Note that H ∩ B is
solvable, and B does not have any solvable nontrivial factor by Hypothesis 6.5. We
then have PSU2m−1 (q) E K. Therefore, K ∩ L contains (B ∩ L)(∞) = SU2m−1 (q),
and so SU2m−1 (q) E K ∩ L 6 B ∩ L = N1 as part (a) of Proposition 7.8. This
completes the proof.

Lemma 7.11. The maximal factorization G = AB does not lie in rows 10–12 of
Table A.3 (interchanging A, B if necessary).
Proof. For the factorization G = AB in these rows, A has a unique unsolvable
composition factor S. By Lemma 6.4 and Hypothesis 6.5, S 6= PSU5 (2), J3 , PSU7 (2)
or PSU11 (2). Thus we have the following three cases for (L, A ∩ L, B ∩ L).
(i) L = PSU6 (2), A ∩ L = PSU4 (3).2 and B ∩ L = N1 .
(ii) L = PSU6 (2), A ∩ L = M22 and B ∩ L = N1 .
(iii) L = PSU12 (2), A ∩ L = Suz and B ∩ L = N1 .
First assume that case (i) appears. Then by Lemma 6.6(f), |H| is not divisible
by 7. However, |G|/|B| is divisible by 7, which is a contradiction to the factorization
G = HB.
Next assume the case (ii) appears. Then by Lemma 6.4 and Hypothesis 6.5, |H|
is not divisible by 7 as row 5 of Table 4.3 suggests. However, |G|/|B| is divisible by
7, contrary to the factorization G = HB.
Finally assume the case (iii) appears. Then again by Lemma 6.4 and Hypothesis
6.5, |H| is not divisible by 7 as row 13 of Table 4.3 suggests. However, |G|/|B| is
divisible by 7, contrary to the factorization G = HB.

7.4. Orthogonal groups of odd dimension
In this section we verify Theorem 1.1 for orthogonal groups of odd dimension
under Hypothesis 6.5. First of all, we compute in Magma[6] all the nontrivial
factorizations of G with soc(G) = Ω7 (3), and list them in the following proposition.
Proposition 7.12. Let G be an almost simple group with socle L = Ω7 (3).
Then the following three cases give all the nontrivial factorizations G = HK with
H solvable.
(a) G = Ω7 (3), H < Pk [Ω7 (3)], and (G, H, K, k) lies in rows 1–2 of Table 7.4;
moreover, Pk [Ω7 (3)] is the only maximal subgroup of G containing H.
(b) G = SO7 (3), and L = (H ∩ L)(K ∩ L); in particular, H = (H ∩ L).O1 and
K = (K ∩ L).O2 , where Oi 6 C2 for i ∈ {1, 2} and O1 O2 = C2 .
(c) G = SO7 (3), L 6= (H ∩ L)(K ∩ L), H < P3 [SO7 (3)], K < N−
1 [SO7 (3)] and
(G, H, K, k) lies in row 3 of Table 7.4; moreover, P3 [SO7 (3)] is the only
maximal subgroup of G containing H.
Now we state the main result of this section.
Proposition 7.13. Let G be an almost simple group with socle L = Ω2m+1 (q)
with m > 3 and q odd. If G = HK is a nontrivial factorization with H solvable,
K unsolvable and HL = KL = G, then under Hypothesis 6.5, one of the following
holds.

7.4. ORTHOGONAL GROUPS OF ODD DIMENSION

61

Table 7.4.
row
1
2
3

G
Ω7 (3)
Ω7 (3)
SO7 (3)

H
35 :24 .5, 35 :24 .D10 , 35 :24 .AGL1 (5)
33+3 :13, 33+3 :13:3
33+3 :13:2, 33+3 :13:6

K
G2 (3)
N−
1 , Sp6 (2)
−
Ω6 (3).2

k
1
3
3

−
(a) H ∩ L 6 (q m(m−1)/2 .q m ):((q m − 1)/2).m < Pm , and Ω−
2m (q) E K ∩ L 6 N1 .
(b) L = Ω7 (3) or Ω9 (3), and (L, H ∩ L, K ∩ L) is as described in Table 7.5.

Table 7.5.
row
1
2
3

L
Ω7 (3)
Ω7 (3)
Ω9 (3)

H ∩L6
35 :24 .AGL1 (5)
33+3 :13:3
36+4 :21+4 .AGL1 (5)

K ∩L
G2 (3)
Sp6 (2)
−
Ω−
8 (3), Ω8 (3).2

Proof. Let q = pf with odd prime p. By Lemma 2.18, we may take A, B to be
core-free maximal subgroups of G containing H, K respectively. For L = Ω7 (3), the
proposition follows immediately from Proposition 7.12. Thus we assume (m, q) 6=
(3, 3) for the rest of the proof. Under this assumption, the maximal factorizations
G = AB lies in rows 1–5 of Table A.4 (interchanging A, B if necessary) by Theorem
2.15. Further by Lemma 6.6, the possibilities for A ∩ L are:
+
N−
1 with m = 3, Pm , P1 with m = 3, N1 with m = 3,
+
N−
2 with m = 3, N2 with m = 3, PSp6 (3).a with (m, q) = (6, 3) and a 6 2.
Case 1. Suppose that A ∩ L = N−
1 with m = 3. Then A has the unique
unsolvable composition factor PSU4 (q), and B ∩ L = Pm or G2 (q) seen from Table
A.4. By Zsigmondy’e theorem, p6f − 1 has a primitive prime divisor r, and we
conclude from Lemma 6.6(f) that r does not divide |H|. It follows that r divides
|B ∩ L| according to the factorization G = HB. This implies that B ∩ L 6= Pm , and
thus B ∩ L = G2 (q). Consequently, we have SO7 (q) G by [7, Proposition 5.7.2],
since B is a maximal subgroup of G. Hence A = SU4 (q).C2f /e with e 2f .
Let V be a vector space over GF(q 2 ) of dimension 4 equipped with a nondegenerate unitary form β, and u1 , u2 , u3, u4 be a orthonormal basis of V . Let τ
be the semilinear transformation of V fixing the basis vectors u1 , u2 , u3, u4 such that
e
(λv)τ = λp v for any v ∈ V and λ ∈ GF(q 2 ). Then we can write A = S:T with
S = SU(V, β) and T = hτ i = C2f /e such that A∩B = (S ∩B):T and S ∩B = SU3 (q)
is the stabilizer of u1 in S by [42, 5.1.14]. It derives from G = HB that A = H(A∩B)
and thus A = H(S ∩ B)T . Denote the stabilizer of u1 in A by N. Take e1 , e2 , f1 , f2
to be a basis of V and µ ∈ GF(q 2 ) such that e2 + µf2 = u1 and

β(ei , ej ) = β(fi , fj ) = 0,

β(ei , fj ) = δi,j

for any i, j ∈ {1, 2}. Then A = HN since (S ∩ B)T ⊆ N. By Hypothesis 6.5,
this factorization should satisfy Theorem 1.1, that is, H x 6 M with some x ∈ A
and maximal solvable subgroup M of A stabilizing he1 , e2 i. However, this gives
A = H x N = MN, contrary to Lemma 5.3.

62

7. PROOF

Case 2. Suppose that A ∩ L = Pm . Then it is seen from Table A.4 that
m(m−1)/2 m
B ∩ L = N−
.q ):SLm (q).((q − 1)/2), we conclude that A
1 . Noticing Pm = (q
has the unique unsolvable composition factor PSLm (q). By Zsigmondy’s theorem,
p2f m − 1 has a primitive prime divisor r, and pf m − 1 has a primitive prime divisor
s. Note that s divides |H| as s divides |L|/|B ∩ L|. Then by Lemma 6.6(c), either




m
qm − 1
m(m−1)/2 m q − 1
.m .O = (q
.q ):
.m .(G/L),
H 6 R.
(q − 1)(m, q − 1)
2

or (m, q) = (4, 3) and H 6 R.(24 :5:4).O, where R, O are defined in Lemma 6.6 with
A/R = PSLm (q).O. Thus either
H ∩ L 6 (q m(m−1)/2 .q m ):((q m − 1)/2).m, or

L = Ω9 (3) and H ∩ L 6 36+4 :21+4 .AGL1 (5).
As a consequence, r does not divide |H|. This in conjunction with the factorization
G = HK yields that r divides |K| since r divides |L|.
Let R = rad(B), B = B/R, H ∩ B = (H ∩ B)R/R and K = KR/R. By
Lemma 2.16, B is almost simple with socle PΩ−
2m (q). From G = HK we deduce
B = (H ∩ B)K and further B = H ∩ B K. Moreover, H ∩ B is solvable and r
divides |K| since r divides |K|. By Hypothesis 6.5, B does not have any solvable
nontrivial factor of order divisible by r. We then conclude that PΩ−
2m (q) E K.
−
−
(∞)
Hence K ∩ L contains (B ∩ L)
= Ω2m (q), and so Ω2m (q) E K ∩ L 6 B ∩ L = N−
1.
To sum up, we have shown in this case that either part (a) of Proposition 7.13
holds, or the triple (L, H ∩ L, K ∩ L) is described in row 3 of Table 7.5.
−
+
Case 3. Suppose that A ∩ L ∈ {P1 , N+
1 , N2 , N2 } with m = 3. In this case,
we have B ∩ L = G2 (q) from Table A.4. By Zsigmondy’s theorem, p4f − 1 has a
primitive prime divisor r, and r divides |H| since r divides |L|/|B ∩ L|. Thereby we
2
conclude from Lemma 6.6(c) and (d) that A ∩ L = N+
1 and H 6 R.(((q + 1)(q +
1)/(4, q − 1)).4).O with R = rad(A) and A/R = PSL4 (q).O. This implies that |H|p
divides
(|R||O|)p = (|A|/|PSL4 (q)|)p = (|A|/|A ∩ L|)p = |G/L|p
and thus divides f . As the factorization G = HB requires |H|p to be divisible by
|L|p /|B ∩ L|p = q 3 , we then obtain a contradiction that q 3 f .
Case 4. Finally suppose that PSp6 (3).a with (m, q) = (6, 3) and a 6 2. Then
we have B ∩ L = N−
1 as Table A.4 shows. It follows that |L|/|B ∩ L| is divisible by 7,
and thereby the factorization G = HB forces |H| to be divisible by 7. However, we
view from Lemma 6.6(d) that |H| is not divisible by 7. Thus this case is impossible
too. The proof is completed.

7.5. Orthogonal groups of even dimension
The main result of this section is the proposition below, which confirms Theorem 1.1 for orthogonal groups of even dimension under Hypothesis 6.5.
Proposition 7.14. Let G be an almost simple group with socle L = PΩε2m (q)
with m > 4 and ε = ±. If G = HK is a nontrivial factorization with H solvable, K
unsolvable and HL = KL = G, then under Hypothesis 6.5, ε = + and one of the
following holds.

7.5. ORTHOGONAL GROUPS OF EVEN DIMENSION

63

(a) m > 5, H ∩ L 6 q m(m−1)/2 :((q m − 1)/(4, q m − 1)).m < Pm or Pm−1 , and
Ω2m−1 (q) E K ∩ L 6 N1 .
(b) m = 4, H ∩ L 6 q 6 :((q 4 − 1)/(4, q 4 − 1)).4 < P1 or P3 or P4 , and K ∩ L =
Ω7 (q).
+
(c) L = Ω+
8 (2) or PΩ8 (3), and (L, H ∩ L, K ∩ L) is as described in Table 7.6.
Table 7.6.
row
1
2
3
4

L
Ω+
8 (2)
Ω+
8 (2)
PΩ+
8 (3)
PΩ+
8 (3)

H ∩L6
22 :15.4
26 :15.4
36 :24 .AGL1 (5)
36 :(33 :13:3), 33+6 :13.3

K ∩L
Sp6 (2)
A9
Ω7 (3)
Ω+
8 (2)

We treat the orthogonal groups of minus type, plus type of dimension 8, and
plus type of dimension at least 10, respectively in the following three subsections.
The above proposition will follow by Lemmas7.15, 7.18 and 7.20. Throughout this
section, fix G, L, H, K to be the groups in the condition of Proposition 7.2, and take
A, B to be core-free maximal subgroups of G containing H, K respectively (such A
and B exist by Lemma 2.18).
7.5.1. Orthogonal groups of minus type. First, we exclude the possibility
of orthogonal groups of minus type.
Lemma 7.15. Let G be an almost simple group with socle L. If G = HK is a
nontrivial factorization with H solvable, K unsolvable and HL = KL = G, then
under Hypothesis 6.5 we have L 6= PΩ−
2m (q) for m > 4.
Proof. Suppose on the contrary that L = PΩ−
2m (q) with m > 4. By Lemma
2.18, we may take A, B to be core-free maximal subgroups of G containing H, K
respectively. By Theorem 2.15, the maximal factorizations G = AB lies in Table
A.5 (interchanging A, B if necessary). If m is odd, then we have by Lemma 6.6(b)
and (e) that A ∩ L 6= P1 , N+
2 or ˆGUm (q). Hence the candidates for A ∩ L are:
2
N1 , Ω−
m (q ).2 with m even and q ∈ {2, 4}, A12 with (m, q) = (5, 2).

Let q = pf for prime number p. We proceed by the above three cases for A ∩ L.
Case 1. Suppose A ∩ L = N1 . In this case, as Table A.5 shows, either B ∩
2
L = ˆGUm (q) with q odd, or B ∩ L = Ω−
m (q ).2 with m even and q ∈ {2, 4}. If
f (2m−2)
(m, q) 6= (4, 2), then p
− 1 has a primitive prime divisor r by Zsigmondy’s
theorem. If (m, q) = (4, 2), then let r = 63. Then r divides |L|/|B ∩ L|, and thus
r divides |H| due to the factorization G = HK. However, since A has the unique
unsolvable composition factor PΩ−
2m−1 (q), we deduce from Lemma 6.6(d) and (g)
that |H| is not divisible by r, a contradiction.
2
Case 2. Suppose that A∩L = Ω−
m (q ).2 with m even and q ∈ {2, 4}. Then p = 2
and it is seen from Table A.5 that B ∩ L = N1 and G = Aut(L). By Zsigmondy’s
theorem, 22f m − 1 has a primitive prime divisor r. Since r divides |L|/|B ∩ L|, we
know that r divides |H| according to the factorization G = HB. It follows that

64

7. PROOF

m = 4 and H 6 R.D2(q4 +1) .O by Lemma 6.6(b), (c) and (f), where R, O are defined
in Lemma 6.6 with A/R = PSL2 (q 4 ).O. In particular, |H| divides
2(q 4 + 1)|R||O| =

2(q 4 + 1)|A|
4(q 4 + 1)|A|
=
= 4(q 4 + 1)|Out(L)| = 8f (q 4 + 1),
4
|PSL2 (q )|
|A ∩ L|

which implies that |G|/|B| divides 8f (q 4 +1) due to the factorization G = HB. As a
consequence, q 3 = (|G|/|B|)2 divides 8f . This restricts q = 2, whence L = PΩ−
8 (2).
−
However, computation in Magma[6] shows that G = SO8 (2) allows no factorization
G = HB with H solvable. Thus this case is impossible too.
Case 3. Finally suppose that A∩L = A12 with (m, q) = (5, 2). Then B∩L = P1 ,
A12 E A 6 S12 , and A ∩ B = (S4 × S8 ) ∩ A (see [42, 5.2.16]). This indicates that the
factorization A = H(A ∩ B) does not satisfy Theorem 1.1, contrary to Hypothesis
6.5. This completes the proof.

7.5.2. Orthogonal groups of dimension eight. We find out in Magma[6]
all the nontrivial factorizations of G with soc(G) = PΩ+
8 (2) in the next proposition.
Proposition 7.16. Let G be an almost simple group with socle L = Ω+
8 (2).
Then the following five cases give all the nontrivial factorizations G = HK with H
solvable.
(a) G = Ω+
8 (2), H is contained in Pk for some k ∈ {1, 3, 4}, and (H, K) lies in
row 5 of Table 7.7; moreover H is not contained in any maximal subgroup
of G other than P1 , P3 and P4 .
(b) G = Ω+
8 (2), H is contained in A9 , and (H, K) lies in row 1 of Table 7.7;
moreover H is not contained in any maximal subgroup of G other than A9 .
(c) G = Ω+
8 (2), H is contained in (3 × PSU4 (2)):2 and Pk simultaneously for
some k ∈ {1, 3, 4}, and (H, K) lies in rows 2–4 of Table 7.7; moreover H
is not contained in any maximal subgroup of G other than P1 , P3 , P4 and
(3 × PSU4 (2)):2.
2
(d) G = Ω+
8 (2), H is contained in (PSL2 (4)×PSL2 (4)).2 and Pk simultaneously
for some k ∈ {1, 3, 4}, and (H, K) lies in row 1 of Table 7.7; moreover H
is not contained in any maximal subgroup of G other than P1 , P3 , P4 and
(PSL2 (4) × PSL2 (4)).22 .
(e) G 6= Ω+
8 (2), and L = (H ∩ L)(K ∩ L).
Table 7.7.
row
1
2
3
4
5

maximal subgroups of G containing H
P1 , P3 , P4 , A9 , (PSL2 (4) × PSL2 (4)).22
P1 , P3 , P4 , (3 × PSU4 (2)):2
P1 , P3 , P4 , (3 × PSU4 (2)):2
P1 , P3 , P4 , (3 × PSU4 (2)):2
P1 , P3 , P4

H
22 :15.4
24 :15
24 :15.2
24 :15.4
26 :15, 26 :15.2, 26 :15.4

K
Sp6 (2)
Sp6 (2)
Sp6 (2)
Sp6 (2), A9
Sp6 (2), A9

f
For the rest of this subsection, let d = (2, q − 1) and L = PΩ+
8 (q) with q = p for
prime number p. We aim to show that part (b) or (c) of Proposition 7.14 appears
in this situation.

7.5. ORTHOGONAL GROUPS OF EVEN DIMENSION

65

Lemma 7.17. If q > 3 and B ∩ L = Ω7 (q), then H stabilizes a totally isotropic
k-space with k = 1 or 4.
Proof. By Proposition 6.9, we may assume that A has at most one unsolvable
composition factor. Then in view of Lemma 6.6(b), we see from Table A.7 that the
possibilities for A ∩ L are:
d
P1 , P3 , P4 , Ω7 (q), ˆ((q + 1)/d × Ω−
6 (q)).2 ,
+
d
ˆ((q − 1)/d × Ω+
6 (q)).2 , Ω8 (2) with q = 3.

If A∩L = P1 or P3 or P4 , then the lemma holds already. We deal with the remaining
candidates one by one below. By Zsigmondy’s theorem, p4f −1 has a primitive prime
divisor r, and r divides |H| as r divides |G|/|B|.
Case 1. Suppose A ∩ L = Ω7 (q). Since r divides |H|, it derives from Lemma
6.6(d) and (g) that q = 3 and H 6 rad(A).(35 :24 .AGL1 (5)).2. Note that L has a
graph automorphism of order 3 (see [2, (15.1)]) which permutes {P1 , P3 , P4 }. We
may assume without loss of generality that A ∩ L = N1 . Then by Proposition 7.12,
we have H < P1 [A]. Consequently, H stabilizes a totally isotropic 1-space since
P1 [A] 6 P1 [G].
d
Case 2. Suppose A ∩ L = ˆ((q + 1)/d × Ω−
6 (q)).2 . Note that L has a graph
automorphism of order 3 which sends N−
2 to a C3 subgroup ˆGU4 (q).2 of L and
permutes {P1 , P3 , P4 } [2, (15.1)]. We may assume without loss of generality that
A ∩ L = ˆGU4 (q).2 ∈ C3 . Since r divides |H|, we deduce from Lemma 6.4 and
Hypothesis 6.5 that H ∩ L 6 P2 [ˆGU4 (q).2]. A totally singular unitary 2-space
over GF(q 2 ) is also a totally singular orthogonal 4-space over GF(q). Therefore, H
stabilizes a totally isotropic 4-space.
d
Case 3. Suppose A ∩ L = ˆ((q − 1)/d × Ω+
6 (q)).2 . In this case, A has the unique
unsolvable composition factor PSL4 (q). Write R = rad(A) and A/R = PSL4 (q).O.
Since r divides |H|, we deduce from Lemma 6.6(c) that either


q4 − 1
H 6 R.
.4 .O, or q = 3 and H 6 R.(24 :5:4).O.
(q − 1)(4, q − 1)
Consequently, |H|p divides
4(|R||O|)p =

4|A|p
4|A|p (2d )p
=
= 4|G/L|p (2d )p ,
|PSL4 (q)|p
|A ∩ L|p

and thus divides 48f . According to the factorization G = HB we know that |H|p
is divisible by |L|p /|B ∩ L|p = q 3 . Hence we obtain q 3 48f , which is impossible as
q > 3.
Case 4. Suppose that A ∩ L = Ω+
8 (2) with q = 3. In this case, |L|/|B ∩ L|
is divisible by 27. Thus the factorization G = HB requires |H| to be divisible by
27. However, Lemma 6.6(h) implies that |H| is not divisible by 27, a contradiction.
This completes the proof.

Lemma 7.18. If L = PΩ+
8 (q), then one of the following holds.
(a) m = 4, H ∩ L 6 q 6 :((q 4 − 1)/(4, q 4 − 1)).4 < P1 or P3 or P4 , and K ∩ L =
Ω7 (q).
+
(b) L = Ω+
8 (2) or PΩ8 (3), and (L, H ∩ L, K ∩ L) is as described in Table 7.6.

66

7. PROOF

Proof. If L = Ω+
8 (2), the lemma follows directly by Proposition 7.16. Thus we
assume q > 3 for the rest of the proof. As a consequence, p6f − 1 has a primitive
prime divisor r.
Assume that r divides |H ∩ L|. Then r divides |A ∩ L|, and inspecting Table A.7
we obtain the candidates for A ∩ L:
(7.7)

+
d
6
Ω7 (q), ˆ((q + 1)/d × Ω−
6 (q)).2 , Ω8 (2) with q = 3, 2 :A8 with q = 3.

Since r divides |H|, we deduce from Lemma 6.6(d) and (f)–(h) that either A ∩ L =
d
6
ˆ((q + 1)/d × Ω−
6 (q)).2 with q = 8 or A ∩ L = 2 :A8 with q = 3. Suppose that the
former occurs. Then B ∩ L = Ω7 (8), P1 , P3 or P4 , and hence |L|/|B ∩ L| is divisible
by 13. However, Lemma 6.6(f) implies that |H| is not divisible by 13 since r divides
|H|. This contradicts the factorization G = HB as it requires |L|/|B ∩ L| to divide
|H| by Lemma 2.9.
Now A ∩ L = 26 :A8 with q = 3, and it follows that B ∩ L = P1 , P3 or P4 , as
in Table A.7. Therefore, |L|/|B ∩ L| is divisible by 35, which indicates that |H| is
divisible by 35 due to the factorization G = HB. Note that A/rad(A) is an almost
simple group with socle A8 , and Hrad(A)/rad(A) is a nontrivial solvable factor of
A/rad(A) by Lemma 6.4. This is contrary to Hypothesis 6.5 as Proposition 4.3
implies that A/rad(A) has no nontrivial solvable factor of order divisible by 35.
Consequently, r does not divide |H ∩ L|. Thus the factorization G = HB forces
r to divide |B ∩ L|. We thereby obtain the candidates for B ∩ L as in (7.7). By
Zsigmondy’s theorem, p4f − 1 has a primitive prime divisor s.
Case 1. Suppose B ∩ L = Ω7 (q). Then by Lemma 7.17, we may assume A ∩ L =
Pk with k ∈ {1, 3, 4}. Note that Pk = q 6 :(SL4 (q).(q − 1)/d)/d. In particular, A has
the unique unsolvable composition factor PSL4 (q). It derives from the factorization
G = HB that s divides |H| since s divides |L|/|B ∩ L|. Hence by Lemma 6.6(c),
either




q4 − 1
q4 − 1
6
H 6 R.
.4 .O = q .
.4 .(G/L),
(q − 1)(4, q − 1)
(4, q 4 − 1)
or q = 3 and H 6 R.(24 :5:4).O = (36 .24 .AGL1 (5)).(G/L), where R, O are defined
in Lemma 6.6 with A/R = PSL4 (q).O. Accordingly, either
H ∩ L 6 q6:

q4 − 1
.4, or q = 3 and H ∩ L 6 36 :24 .AGL1 (5).
(4, q 4 − 1)

Now |H ∩L| divides 24 q 6 (q 4 −1)/(4, q 4 −1), and we deduce from the factorization
G = HB that |L| divides 24 q 6 (q 4 − 1)|K ∩ L||G/L|/(4, q 4 − 1) by Lemma 2.9. Since
|G/L| divides 2f (4, q 4 − 1), this implies that |L| divides 25 f q 6(q 4 − 1)|K ∩ L|, that
is,
q 6 (q 6 − 1)(q 4 − 1)(q 2 − 1) divides 25 f d|K ∩ L|.
Hence we conclude K ∩ L = Ω7 (q) (see [7, Tables 8.28–8.29 and 8.39–8.40]). Therefore, either part (a) of the lemma holds, or (L, H ∩ L, K ∩ L) is as described in row
3 of Table 7.6.
d
Case 2. Suppose B ∩ L = ˆ((q + 1)/d × Ω−
6 (q)).2 . By Theorem 2.15, we have
the candidates for A ∩ L:
Ω7 (q), P1 , P3 , P4 , (3 × Ω+
6 (4)).2 with q = 4.

7.5. ORTHOGONAL GROUPS OF EVEN DIMENSION

67

Let t be a primitive prime divisor of p3f −1. According to the factorization G = HB,
the order |H| is divisible by |L|/|B ∩ L|, and thus divisible by st. However, since A
has socle Ω7 (q) or PSL4 (q), we deduce from Lemma 6.6(c), (d) and (g) that st does
not divide |H|, which is a contradiction.
Case 3. Suppose that B ∩ L = Ω+
8 (2) with q = 3. It is seen in Table A.7 that
the candidates for A ∩ L are P1 , P3 , P4 , P13 , P14 and P34 . From the factorization
G = HB we know that |H| is divisible by |L|/|B ∩ L| and thus divisible by 13.
Assume A ∩ L = P1 , P3 or P4 . Then A ∩ L = 36 :PSL4 (3), which implies that A
has the unique unsolvable composition factor PSL4 (3). Since |H| is divisible by 13,
we conclude from Lemma 6.6(c) that H ∩ L 6 36 :(33 :13:3), as in row 4 of Table 7.6.
Next assume A ∩ L = P13 , P14 or P34 . Then A ∩ L = 33+6 :PSL3 (3), which shows
that A has the unique unsolvable composition factor PSL3 (3). Since |H| is divisible
by 13, we conclude from Lemma 6.6(c) that H ∩ L 6 33+6 :13.3, as in row 4 of Table
7.6.
Case 4. Suppose that B ∩ L = 26 :A8 with q = 3. Then seen from Table A.7,
A ∩ L = Pk = 36 :PSL4 (3) with k ∈ {1, 3, 4}. In view of the factorization G = HB,
we know that |H| is divisible by |L|/|B ∩ L|, and thus divisible by 5 · 13. However, as
A has the unique unsolvable composition factor PSL4 (3), Lemma 6.6(c) shows that
|H| is not divisible by 5 · 13, which is a contradiction. The proof is thus finished. 
7.5.3. Orthogonal groups of even dimension at least ten. In this subsecf
tion, let L = PΩ+
2m (q) with m > 5 and q = p for prime number p. We aim to show
that part (a) of Proposition 7.14 holds for such L.
Lemma 7.19. If B ∩ L = N1 , then H stabilizes a totally singular m-space.
Proof. Due to Hypothesis 6.5, the conclusion of Theorem 1.1 excludes the
possibility of the case A ∩ L = Co1 . Thus we see from Table A.6 that there are six
cases for A ∩ L.
(i) A ∩ L = Pm or Pm−1 .
(ii) m is even, and A ∩ L = ˆGUm (q).2.
(iii) m is even, q > 2, and A ∩ L = (PSp2 (q) ⊗ PSpm (q)).a with a 6 2.
(iv) A ∩ L = ˆGLm (q).2.
2
2
(v) m is even, q = 2 or 4, and A ∩ L = Ω+
m (q ).2 .
(vi) m = 8, and A ∩ L = Ω9 (q).a with a 6 2.
If A ∩ L = Pm or Pm−1 , then the lemma holds already. Now we deal with (ii)–(vi).
Case 1. Suppose that A∩L = ˆGUm (q).2 with m = 2ℓ, as in (ii). By Hypothesis
6.5, we see from Theorem 1.1 that H 6 Pℓ [A]. Note that a totally singular unitary
ℓ-space over GF(q 2 ) is also a totally singular orthogonal m-space over GF(q). We
then conclude that H 6 Pℓ [A] stabilizes a totally singular m-space.
Case 2. Suppose that (iii) appears. As Proposition 6.9 indicates that A has at
most one unsolvable composition factor, we have q = 3 and A ∩ L = (PSp2 (3) ×
PSpm (3)).a with a 6 2. By Zsigmondy’s theorem, 3m − 1 has a primitive prime
divisor r. From the factorization G = HB we conclude that r divides |H| since r
divides |L|/|B ∩ L|. However, Lemma 6.6(d) implies that |H| is not divisible by r,
which is a contradiction.
Case 3. Suppose A ∩ L = ˆGLm (q).2, as in (iv). By Lemma 6.6(c), we have
H 6 R.(((q m − 1)/((q − 1)(m, q − 1))).m).O, where R and O are defined in Lemma

68

7. PROOF

6.6 with A/R = PSLm (q).O. It follows that |H|p divides
m(|R||O|)p =

m(2|A|)p
m|A|p
=
= m(2|G/L|)p
|PSLm (q)|p
|A ∩ L|p

and thus divides 4f m. This implies that q m−1 = (|L|/|B ∩ L|)p divides 4f m due to
the factorization G = HB. As a consequence, we obtain
2m−1 6 pm−1 6 pf (m−1) /f 6 4m,
which is impossible as m > 5.
2
2
Case 4. Suppose that (v) appears, that is, A ∩ L = Ω+
m (q ).2 with m = 2ℓ
and q ∈ {2, 4}. By Zsigmondy’s theorem, 2f m − 1 has primitive prime divisor r if
(m, q) 6= (6, 2). Set r = 7 if (m, q) = (6, 2). Since r divides |G|/|B|, r also divides
|H| as the factorization G = HB requires. Due to Hypothesis 6.5, it derives from the
conclusion of Theorem 1.1 that H 6 Pℓ [A] or Pℓ−1 [A]. Note that a totally singular
orthogonal ℓ-space over GF(q 2 ) is also a totally singular orthogonal m-space over
GF(q). We then conclude have H stabilizes a totally singular m-space.
Case 5. Assume that L = PΩ+
16 (q) and A ∩ L = Ω9 (q).a with a 6 2, as in
(vi). By Zsigmondy’s theorem, p8f − 1 has a primitive prime divisor r. According
to the factorization G = HB we know that r divides |H| since r divides |L|/|B ∩ L|.
However, Lemma 6.6(g) implies that |H| is not divisible by r, which is a contradiction.

m(m−1)/2
Lemma 7.20. If L = PΩ+
:((q m −
2m (q) with m > 5, then H ∩ L 6 q
m
1)/(4, q − 1)).m < Pm or Pm−1 , and Ω2m−1 (q) E K ∩ L 6 N1 .

Proof. By Zsigmondy’s theorem, pf (2m−2) − 1 has a primitive prime divisor r.
Assume that r divides |H ∩ L|. Then r divides |A ∩ L|, and inspecting Table A.6
we obtain the candidates for A ∩ L:
(7.8)

N1 , ˆGUm (q).2 with m even,

N−
2.

Since r divides |H|, we conclude from Lemma 6.6(b), (d) and (f) that none of them
is possible. Therefore, r does not divide |H ∩ L|. Hence the factorization G = HB
forces r to divide |B ∩ L| by Lemma 2.9. We thus obtain the candidates for B ∩ L
as in (7.8).
Case 1. Suppose B ∩ L = N1 . Then by Lemma 7.19, we may assume that
A∩L = Pk with k ∈ {m, m−1}. Let d = (4, q m −1)/(2, q−1). Then Z(Ω+
2m (q)) = Cd
m(m−1)/2
and Pk = q
:(SLm (q).(q − 1)/(2, q − 1))/d (see [34, Proposition 4.1.20]). In
particular, A has the unique unsolvable composition factor PSLm (q). Hence we
deduce from Lemma 6.6(c) that




qm − 1
qm − 1
m(m−1)/2
H 6 rad(A).
.m .O = q
.
.m .(G/L),
(q − 1)(m, q − 1)
(4, q m − 1)
with A/rad(A) = PSLm (q).O. Consequently,
(7.9)

H ∩ L 6 q m(m−1)/2 :

qm − 1
.m.
(4, q m − 1)

Let R = rad(B), B = B/R, K = KR/R and H ∩ B = (H ∩ B)R/R. From
G = HK we deduce B = (H ∩ B)K and B = H ∩ B K. Note that B is almost

7.6. COMPLETION OF THE PROOF

69

simple with socle Ω2m−1 (q). Since H ∩ B is solvable, it then derives from Hypothesis
6.5 that either K ∩ soc(B) 6 Ω−
2m−2 (q).2 or K D Ω2m−1 (q).
Assume that K ∩ soc(B) 6 Ω−
2m−2 (q).2. Since |B|/|K| divides |B|/|K| and
|G|/|K| divides |H ∩ L||Out(L)|, we deduce that (|G|/|B|)(|B|/|K|) divides |H ∩
L||Out(L)|. This together with (7.9) leads to
q 2(m−1) (q m − 1)(q m−1 − 1)
2f mq m(m−1)/2 (q m − 1),
2(2, q − 1)
which gives
(7.10)

q m−1 − 1 4f m(2, q − 1).

As a consequence,
pf (m−1) − 1
p4f − 1
6
6 4(2, q − 1),
5f
fm
which forces q = 2. Substituting this into the above inequality, we obtain that
2m−1 − 1 6 4m and thus m = 5. However, the pair (m, q) = (5, 2) does not satisfy
(7.10), a contradiction.
Therefore, we have K D Ω2m−1 (q). It follows that K ∩ L contains (B ∩ L)(∞) =
Ω2m−1 (q), and thus Ω2m−1 (q) E K ∩ L 6 B ∩ L = N1 , as the lemma states.
Case 2. Suppose that B ∩ L = ˆGUm (q).2 with m even. As listed in Table A.6,
there are three candidates for A ∩ L:
N1 , P1 , N+
2 with q = 4.
By Zsigmondy’s theorem, pf (2m−4) − 1 has a primitive prime divisor s. According
to the factorization G = HB, the order |H| is divisible by |L|/|B ∩ L|, and thus
divisible by s. However, since A has socle Ω2m−1 (q) or PΩ+
2m−2 (q), we deduce from
Lemma 6.6(d), (g) and (h) that s does not divide |H|, which is a contradiction.
Case 3. Finally suppose B ∩ L = N−
2 . Then by Theorem 2.15, we obtain all the
candidates for A ∩ L:
Pm , Pm−1 , ˆGLm (q).2 with q ∈ {2, 4}.
By Zsigmondy’s theorem, pf (m−1) −1 has a primitive prime divisor s if (m, q) 6= (7, 2).
Set s = 7 if (m, q) = (7, 2). From the factorization G = HB we know that |L|/|B∩L|
divides |H|, whence s divides |H|. However, since A has the unique unsolvable
composition factor PSLm (q), we conclude from Lemma 6.6(c) that s does not divide
|H|, a contradiction. The proof is thus completed.

7.6. Completion of the proof
We are now able to complete the proof of Theorem 1.1 by summarizing the
results obtained in previous sections.
Lemma 7.21. Let G be an almost simple group with socle L. Then each nontrivial
factorization G = HK with H solvable satisfies Theorem 1.1.
Proof. Proposition 4.2 shows that L cannot be an exceptional group of Lie
type. If K is also solvable or L is an alternating group or a sporadic simple group,
then Propositions 4.1, 4.3 and 4.4, respectively, describe the triple (G, H, K).

70

7. PROOF

Now assume that K is unsolvable and L is a classical group of Lie type not
isomorphic to any alternating group. To prove that part (d) of Theorem 1.1 holds,
we may embed G = HK into a nontrivial maximal factorization G = AB (this means
that we can find core-free maximal subgroups A, B containing H, K respectively, see
Remark 2.19). If A is solvable, then part (d) of Theorem 1.1 follows by Proposition
6.2. Under Hypothesis 6.5, Propositions 7.1, 7.2, 7.8, 7.13 and 7.14 show that the
triple (G, H, K) lies in Table 1.1 or Table 1.2. Therefore, we conclude by induction
that any nontrivial factorization G = HK with H solvable satisfies Theorem 1.1. 
To finish the proof of Theorem 1.1, it remains to verify that for each socle L
listed in Table 1.1 or Table 1.2, there exist factorizations as described.
Lemma 7.22. For each L in Table 1.1 and Table 1.2, there exist group G and
subgroups H, K as described such that soc(G) = L and G = HK.
Proof. To see the existence for row 1 of Table 1.1, let G = PGLn (q), L =
soc(G), H be a Singer cycle and K be the stabilizer of a 1-space in G. Then
H ∩ L = ˆGL1 (q n ) = (q n − 1)/(n, q − 1), K ∩ L = P1 , and G = HK. Moreover, take
τ to be a graph automorphism of L of order 2 such that K τ ∩ L = Pn−1 , and then
we have soc(Gτ ) = L and Gτ = H τ K τ .
∼
Take m = 3 in Proposition 5.9. Then by the isomorphisms PΩ+
6 (q) = PSL4 (q)
and PΩ5 (q) ∼
= PSp4 (q), we see that row 2 of Table 1.1 arises.
Next let G, H, K be defined as in Proposition 5.5. Then G = soc(G) = Sp2m (q)
with q even, H is solvable, H = q m(m+1)/2 :(q m −1) 6 Pm , K = O−
2m (q), and G = HK
by Proposition 5.5. Hence row 3 of Table 1.1 arises. If m = 2, then further take
τ to be a graph automorphism of G of order 2, under which we have Gτ = H τ K τ ,
H τ 6 (P2 )τ = P1 and K τ = Sp2 (q 2 ).2 by [2, (14.1)]. This shows that the row 4 of
Table 1.1 arises.
Take m = 2 in Proposition 5.7. Then by the isomorphisms PΩ5 (q) ∼
= PSp4 (q)
−
2
∼
and PΩ4 (q) = PSp2 (q ), we see that row 5 of Table 1.1 arises.
For row 6 of Table 1.1, let G, H, K be defined as in Proposition 5.2, Z = Z(G),
G = G/Z, L = soc(G), H = HZ/Z and K = KZ/Z. Then G = PGU2m (q),
2
H ∩ L = q m :(q 2m − 1)/((q + 1)(2m, q + 1)) < Pm , K ∩ L = N1 , and G = H K holds
since G = HK by Proposition 5.2.
For row 7 of Table 1.1, let G, H, K be defined as in Proposition 5.7 and L =
soc(G). Then G = SO2m+1 (q), H ∩L = (q m(m−1)/2 .q m ):(q m −1)/2 < Pm , K∩L = N−
1,
and G = HK by Proposition 5.7.
Now let G, A, H, K be defined as in Proposition 5.9, Z = Z(G), G = G/Z, L =
soc(G), H = HZ/Z, A = AZ/Z and K = KZ/Z. Then G = PSO+
2m (q), A∩L is one
of Pm and Pm−1 , say A∩L = Pm , H ∩L = q m(m−1)/2 :(q m −1)/(4, q m −1), K ∩L = N1 ,
and G = H K by Proposition 5.9. Moreover, take σ to be an automorphism of L
σ
σ σ
such that A ∩ L = Pm−1 . We have G = H K . Hence row 8 of Table 1.1 arises. If
m = 4, then further take τ to be a graph automorphism of L of order 3 such that
τ
τ
τ
τ
τ
A ∩ L = P1 , under which we have soc(G ) = L and G = H K . Consequently,
row 9 of Table 1.1 arises.
Finally, computation in Magma[6] shows that for each row in Table 1.2, there
exists factorization G = HK with soc(G) = L and (H ∩ L, K ∩ L) as described.
This completes the proof.


CHAPTER 8

s-Arc transitive Cayley graphs of solvable groups
This chapter is devoted to proving Theorem 1.2, and is organized as follows.
Section 8.1 collects preliminary results that are needed in the ensuing arguments.
In particular, Lemma 8.4 reduces the proof of Theorem 1.2 to the quasiprimitive
case. Section 8.2 presents a result regarding the outer automorphism group of simple
groups, which generalizes a well-known result of Gorenstein and plays an important
role in the proof of Theorem 1.2. Section 8.3 further reduces the quasiprimitive case
to the affine case and the almost simple case. Then the final section completes the
proof Theorem 1.2 by citing the classification of the affine case in [30] and treating
the almost simple case based on Theorem 1.1.
8.1. Preliminaries
Throughout this section, let Γ = (V, E) be a connected G-arc-transitive graph
and {α, β} be an edge of Γ . Denote by Γ (α) the set of neighbors of α in Γ , and
Γ (α)
Gα the permutation group on Γ (α) induced by Gα .
8.1.1. Normal subgroups and normal quotients. As mentioned in the Introduction chapter, for a normal subgroup N of G which is intransitive on V , we
have a normal quotient graph ΓN = (VN , EN ) of Γ , where VN the set of N-orbits
on V and EN the set of N-orbits on E. We shall see that the normal quotient ΓN
inherits certain properties of Γ .
The first lemma is a well-known result, see for example [47, Lemma 1.6].
Lemma 8.1. Let Γ = (V, E) be a connected G-arc-transitive graph such that
is primitive, N be a normal subgroup of G, and G = G/N. If |VN | > 3, then
the following statements hold.
Γ (α)
Gα

(a) N is semiregular on V and G is faithful on VN .
(b) For any α ∈ V and B ∈ VN , Gα ∼
= GB .
The next lemma shows that the s-arc-transitivity is inherited by normal quotients.
Lemma 8.2. (Praeger [48]) Assume that Γ is a connected non-bipartite (G, s)arc-transitive graph with s > 2. Then there exists a normal subgroup N of G
such that G/N is a quasiprimitive permutation group on VN of type almost simple (AS), affine (HA), twisted wreath product (TW) or product action (PA) and ΓN
is (G/N, s)-arc transitive.
Although a normal quotient of a Cayley graph is not necessarily a Cayley graph,
we have the following observation.
71

72

8. CAYLEY GRAPHS OF SOLVABLE GROUPS

Lemma 8.3. If Γ is a Cayley graph of a group R and N is a normal subgroup
of G. Then RN/N is transitive on VN .
This reduces the proof of Theorem 1.2 to the quasiprimitive case.
Lemma 8.4. Theorem 1.2 holds if it holds for the case where X = G is vertexquasiprimitive.
For vertex-transitive normal subgroups of G, we have the following consequences.
Lemma 8.5. Let K be a vertex-transitive normal subgroup of G. Then the following statements hold.
(a) Gα /Kα ∼
= G/K.
(b) If K is arc-transitive, then Gαβ /Kαβ ∼
= G/K.
Γ (α)
(c) If Gα is primitive and Kα 6= 1, then K is arc-transitive.
Proof. Since K is vertex-transitive, we have G = KGα , and thus
Gα /Kα = Gα /Gα ∩ K ∼
= Gα K/K = G/K,
as part (a) states. If K is arc-transitive, then G = KGαβ , and so
Gαβ /Kαβ = Gαβ /Gαβ ∩ K ∼
= Gαβ K/K = G/K,
Γ (α)

proving part (b). Now suppose that Gα
is primitive and Kα 6= 1. Since Γ
Γ (α)
is connected, we see that if Kα
= 1 then Kα = 1. Thus by our assumption,
Γ (α)
Γ (α)
Γ (α)
Γ (α)
Kα
6= 1. It follows that Kα
is transitive since Kα
is normal in Gα
and
Γ (α)
Gα is primitive. This implies that K is arc-transitive.

8.1.2. Vertex and arc stabilizers. Now suppose further that Γ is (G, 2)-arc[1]
transitive. Denote by Gα the kernel of the action induced by Gα on Γ (α), and
[1]
[1]
[1]
[1]
[1]
Gαβ := Gα ∩ Gβ . Noting that Gα E Gαβ and the kernel of the action of Gα on
[1]

Γ (β) is equal to Gαβ , we have the observation as follows.
Γ (α)
[1]
Γ (β)
[1]
[1]
Lemma 8.6. Gα /Gαβ ∼
= Gαβ .
= (Gα )Γ (β) E Gαβ ∼

The next theorem is a fundamental result in the study of 2-arc-transitive graphs,
see [53, §4].
Theorem 8.7. Let Γ be a connected (G, 2)-arc-transitive graph, and {α, β} be
an edge of Γ . Then the following statements hold.
[1]
(a) Gαβ is a p-group for some prime p.
[1]

Γ (α)

(b) If Gαβ is a nontrivial p-group with prime p, then Gα
D PSLd (q) and
d
|Γ (α)| = (q − 1)/(q − 1) for some p-power q and integer d > 2.
Utilizing Theorem 8.7 and results of [38], we establish the following lemma.
Lemma 8.8. Let Γ be (G, 2)-arc-transitive, and K be a vertex-transitive normal
Γ (α)
subgroup of G such that Kα 6= 1 is imprimitive on Γ (α). Then Gα
is an affine
2-transitive permutation group of degree pd , where p is prime and d > 2, and the
following hold.
[1]
(a) Gαβ = 1.

8.1. PRELIMINARIES

73

(b) Kαβ ∼
= Ck × Cm with k m and Cm = Kαβ 6 GL1 (pf ) for some proper
divisor f of d.
(c) Kα ∼
= Ck × (Cdp :Cm ).
[1]
[1]
(d) Gα 6 Cm . In particular, |Gα | divides pf − 1.
Γ (α)

Γ (α)

Proof. By [38, Corollary 1.2 and Lemma 3.3], Gα
is an affine 2-transitive
Γ (α)
d
permutation group of degree p with p prime, and Kαβ 6 GL1 (pf ), where f is a
Γ (α)
proper divisor of d. Consequently, Kαβ = Cm for some m (pf − 1). Applying
[1]

Theorem 8.7 we have Gαβ = 1, as part (a) asserts. This together with Lemma 8.6
[1]

[1]

[1]

Γ (α)

[1]

implies that Kα = Kα /Kαβ is isomorphic to a subgroup of Kαβ , so that Kα = Ck
for some k m.
[1]
Γ (α)
[1]
Now that Kαβ /Kα ∼
= Kαβ is cyclic, Kα contains the commutator subgroup
[1]

[1]

[1]

′
′
′
Kαβ
of Kαβ . For the same reason, Kβ > Kαβ
. Therefore, Kαβ
6 Kα ∩ Kβ =
[1]

[1]

[1]

Kαβ = 1, and hence Kαβ is abelian. Since Kα = Ck and Kαβ /Kα = Cm are
[1]
both cyclic, we conclude that Kαβ = Kα × Cm , proving part (b). It follows that
[1]
Kα = Op (Kα ):Kαβ = Kα × (Op (Kα ):Cm ), as in part (c).
[1]
[1]
[1]
Γ (α)
Γ (α)
Γ (α)
Γ (α)
Finally, let X = KGα . Then Xα = Gα , Xα
= Kα , and Xαβ = Kαβ .
[1]
Γ (β)
Γ (β)
[1]
[1]
[1]
[1]
=K
,
Viewing X 6 G = 1, we deduce that Gα = Xα ∼
= (Xα )Γ (β) ✁ X
αβ

αβ

αβ

αβ

which leads to part (d).



8.1.3. Coset graph construction. As Γ is G-arc-transitive, there exists g ∈
G interchanging α and β. Consequently,
Ggαβ = (Gα ∩ Gβ )g = Ggα ∩ Ggβ = Gβ ∩ Gα = Gαβ ,
namely, g normalizes the arc stabilizer Gαβ . Because Gα is transitive on Γ (α), so
the valency of Γ equals
|Γ (α)| = |Gα |/|Gαβ | = |Gα |/|Gα ∩ Gβ | = |Gα |/|Gα ∩ Ggα |.
Moreover, hGα , gi = G since Γ is connected. Thus we have the following lemma.
Lemma 8.9. There exists g ∈ NG (Gαβ ) such that
(a) g 2 ∈ Gαβ and hGα , NG (Gαβ )i = hGα , gi = G;
(b) the valency of Γ equals |Gα |/|Gα ∩ Ggα |;
(c) Γ is (G, 2)-arc-transitive if and only if Gα is 2-transitive on [Gα :Gα ∩ Ggα ].
Conversely, suppose that K is a core-free subgroup of G and g is an element in
G \ K with g 2 ∈ K. Then G acts faithfully on [G:K] by right multiplication, so
that G can be regarded as a transitive permutation group on [G:K]. Denote the
points K and Kg in [G:K] by α and β, respectively. Then Gα = K, Gβ = K g , and
(α, β)g = (β, α). The graph with vertex set [G:K] and edge set {α, β}G is G-arctransitive, where two vertices Kx, Ky are adjacent if and only if yx−1 ∈ KgK. Such
a graph is called a coset graph, denoted by Cos(G, K, KgK). It is steadily seen that
Cos(G, K, KgK) is connected if and only if hK, gi = G.
Remark 8.10. Replacing g by some power of g, we may assume that g is a
2-element. This accelerates the search for (G, 2)-arc-transitive graphs for given G
and Gα , see the Magmacodes in Appendix B.

74

8. CAYLEY GRAPHS OF SOLVABLE GROUPS

We introduce the Hoffman-Singlton graph and the Higman-Sims graph in terms
of coset graphs.
Example 8.11. Let G = PΣU3 (5), K be a subgroup of G isomorphic to S7 and
M a subgroup of K isomorphic to S6 . The normalizer NG (M) of M in G is an
extension of M by C2 . Take g to be any element of NG (M) \ M. Then g 2 ∈ M and
hK, gi = G, whence Cos(G, K, KgK) is connected. The graph Cos(G, K, KgK) is
the well-known Hoffman-Singlton graph [26], which is non-bipartite and 3-transitive.
Moreover, the full automorphism group of Cos(G, K, KgK) is isomorphic to G and
has a subgroup 51+2
+ :8:2 transitive on vertices.
Example 8.12. Let G = HS, K be a subgroup of G isomorphic to M22 and
M a subgroup of K isomorphic to PSL3 (4). The normalizer NG (M) of M in G
is an extension of M by C2 . Take g to be any element of NG (M) \ M. Then
g 2 ∈ M and hK, gi = G. Thus Cos(G, K, KgK) is a connected (G, 2)-arc-transitive
graph. This is the Higman-Sims graph, see [10]. The full automorphism group
of Cos(G, K, KgK) is isomorphic to G.2 and has a subgroup 51+2
+ :8:2 transitive
on vertices. Note that the valency of Cos(G, K, KgK) is |K|/|M| = 22. Hence
Cos(G, K, KgK) is not 3-arc-transitive since |M| is not divisible by 32 ·72 = (22−1)2.
Moreover, Cos(G, K, KgK) is non-bipartite since G does not have a subgroup of
index two.
8.1.4. Other facts. The following lemma is a well-known result in elementary
number theory, which is a consequence of so-called Legendre’s formula.
Lemma 8.13. For any positive integer n and prime p, the p-part (n!)p < pn/(p−1) .
We also need a theorem of Dixon on the maximal order of solvable permutation
groups of given degree.
Theorem 8.14. (Dixon [13, Theorem 3]) For any solvable subgroup R of Sn ,
the order |R| 6 24(n−1)/3 .
The next lemma is a consequence of [43, Corollary 5].
Lemma 8.15. Let T ba a nonabelian simple group. Then for any solvable subgroup R of T , there exists a prime divisor r of |T | not dividing |R|.
8.2. A property of finite simple groups
A well-known theorem of Gorenstein [22, Theorem 1.53] says that for a nonabelian simple group T of order divisible by a prime r, if |T | is not divisible by r 2
then |Out(T )| is not divisible by r. We need an improved version of this theorem,
which will be established in this section. The proof will invoke the following elementary number theory result. Recall that for any positive integer f , we denote the
r-part of f by fr and denote fr′ = f /fr .
Lemma 8.16. Let f be a positive integer, r be a prime number, and
(
r, if r > 2
r0 =
4, if r = 2.
Then for any integer t > 1, the following statements hold.

8.2. A PROPERTY OF FINITE SIMPLE GROUPS

75

(a) r tf − 1 if and only if r tfr′ − 1.
(b) If t ≡ 1 (mod r0 ), then (tf − 1)r = fr (t − 1)r .
(c) If r0 tf − 1, then (tf − 1)r > r0 fr .
Proof. Let fr = r m , where m > 0. As r − 1 divides r m − 1, we derive
m
tf = tfr′ (r −1) tfr′ ≡ tfr′ (mod r) by Fermat’s little theorem. Then part (a) follows immediately.
Suppose that t ≡ 1 (mod r0 ). Then writing u = t − 1 we have
r  
tr − 1
(u + 1)r − 1
r(r − 1)u X r k−1
u .
=
=r+
+
k
t−1
u
2
k=3

Since r0 u, the above equality implies that (tr − 1)/(t − 1) ≡ r (mod r 2 ). As a
consequence, (tr − 1)r = r(t − 1)r . Applying this repeatedly, we obtain
m

(tf − 1)r = (tfr′ r − 1)r = r(tfr′ r

m−1

− 1)r = · · · = r m (tfr′ − 1)r .

In the meanwhile, the condition t ≡ 1 (mod r) implies that
tfr′ − 1
= 1 + t + t2 + · · · + tfr′ −1 ≡ fr′ (mod r)
t−1
and thus (tfr′ − 1)/(t − 1) is not divisible by r. Hence (tf − 1)r = r m (tfr′ − 1)r =
r m (t − 1)r as part (b) asserts.
Next suppose that t > 1 is an integer with r0 tf − 1. It follows from part (a)
that r tfr′ − 1. If r > 2, then by part (b) (replacing t with tfr′ there), one has
(tf − 1)r = fr (tfr′ − 1)r > rfr . If r = 2 and fr = 1, then part (c) holds trivially. If
r = 2 and ir > 2, then t is odd and so t2 ≡ 1 (mod 8), whence we conclude from
part (b) that
m−1

(tf − 1)r = (t2f2′ ·2

− 1)2 = 2m−1 (t2f2′ − 1)2 > 2m−1 · 8 = 2m+2 = r0 fr .

This proves part (c).



Now we give the improved version of Gorenstein’s theorem mentioned above.
Theorem 8.17. Let T be a simple group, and r be a common prime divisor of
|T | and |Out(T )|. Then |T |r > r|Out(T )|r , and further, for r = 2 or 3, |T |r =
r|Out(T )|r if and only if one of the following occurs, where p is a prime.
(a) r = 2, and T ∼
= PSL2 (pf ) with p ≡ ±3 (mod 8).
∼
(b) r = 3, and T = PSL2 (pf ) with p ≡ ±2 or ±4 (mod 9) and f ≡ 0 (mod 3).
(c) r = 3, and T ∼
= PSL3 (pf ), where either p ≡ 2 or 5 (mod 9) and f ≡ 2, 3
or 4 (mod 6), or p ≡ 4 or 7 (mod 9) and f 6≡ 0 (mod 3).
(d) r = 3, and T ∼
= PSU3 (pf ), where either p ≡ 2 or 5 (mod 9) and f ≡ 0, 1
or 5 (mod 6), or p ≡ 4 or 7 (mod 9) and f ≡ 0 (mod 3).
Proof. Assume that T is alternating or sporadic. Then either |Out(T )| 6 2,
or |Out(T )| = 4 and T = A6 . Hence r = 2, and the inequality |T |r > r|Out(T )|r
holds steadily. Further, |T |2 = 2|Out(T )|2 if and only if T = A5 ∼
= PSL2 (5) or
∼
T = A6 = PSL2 (9), as in part (a) of the lemma.
In the remainder of the proof, assume that T is a simple group of Lie type defined
over a field of characteristic p, and T is not isomorphic to A5 , A6 , A8 or A9 . If r = p,
then either T = PSL2 (pf ), or |T |p > q 3 > p|Out(T )|p . Suppose that T = PSL2 (pf ).

76

8. CAYLEY GRAPHS OF SOLVABLE GROUPS

Then pf > 8. For p = 2 or 3, |T |p = pf > pf > pfp = p|Out(T )|p . For p > 5,
|T |p = pf > pf > pfp = p|Out(T )|p . Thus assume that r 6= p hereafter.
Case 1. Suppose that r = 2. Then, in particular, T 6= 2 B2 (q) or 2 F4 (q).
An inspection of |T | and |Out(T )| for simple groups T of Lie type shows that
|Out(T )|2 6 2d2 f2 , and one of the following holds.
(i) |T | is divisible by d(q 2 − 1).
(ii) T = PSL2 (q), |T |2 = (q 2 − 1)2 /2, and |Out(T )|2 = 2f2 .
(iii) T = 2 G2 (q) with q = 32c+1 > 33 , |T |2 = (q 3 +1)2 (q−1)2 , and |Out(T )|2 = 1.
Since 4 q 2 − 1, we conclude from Lemma 8.16(c) that
(8.1)

(q 2 − 1)2 = (p2f − 1)2 > 4(2f )2 = 8f2 .

If (i) occurs, then the above equality implies
|T |2 > d2 (q 2 − 1)2 > 8d2 f2 > 2|Out(T )|2 .
If (iii) occurs, then apparently |T |2 > 2 = 2|Out(T )|2.
Now assume that (ii) occurs. Then by (8.1),
|T |2 = (q 2 − 1)2 /2 > 4f2 = 2|Out(T )|2 .
Moreover, |T |2 = 2|Out(T )|2 if and only if
(8.2)

(q 2 − 1)2 = 8f2 .

Note that (q 2 − 1)2 = ((p2 )f − 1)2 = f2 (p2 − 1)2 by Lemma 8.16(b). We see that
(8.2) is equivalent to (p2 − 1)2 = 8, which is further equivalent to the condition in
part (a) of the lemma.
Case 2. Suppose that r = 3. Then T 6= 2 G2 (q) and p2 ≡ 1 (mod 3). An
inspection of |T | and |Out(T )| divides simple groups T of Lie type into the following
six classes.
(i) |T | is divisible by 3d(q 2 − 1), and |Out(T )|3 = d3 f3 .
(ii) T = PSL2 (q), |T |3 = (q 2 − 1)3 , and |Out(T )|3 = f3 .
(iii) T = PSL3 (q), |T |3 = (q 3 − 1)3 (q 2 − 1)3 /d3, and |Out(T )|3 = d3 f3 .
(iv) T = PSU3 (q), |T |3 = (q 3 + 1)3 (q 2 − 1)3 /d3 , and |Out(T )|3 = d3 f3 .
6
4
2 2
(v) T = PΩ+
8 (q), |T |3 = (q − 1)3 (q − 1)3 (q − 1)3 , and |Out(T )|3 = 3f3 .
(vi) T = 3 D4 (q), |T |3 = (q 8 + q 4 + 1)3 (q 6 − 1)3 (q 2 − 1)3 , and |Out(T )|3 = 3f3 .
By Lemma 8.16(b) we have (q 2 − 1)3 = f3 (p2 − 1)3 . If (i), (v) or (vi) occurs, then
|T |3 /|Out(T )|3 > 3(q 2 − 1)3 /f3 = 3(p2 − 1)3 > 3.
Assume that (ii) occurs. Then |T |3 = (q 2 −1)3 = f3 (p2 −1)3 = (p2 −1)3 |Out(T )|3.
Hence |T |3 > 3|Out(T )|3 , and |T |3 = 3|Out(T )|3 if and only if (p2 − 1)3 = 3, which
is equivalent to p ≡ ±2 or ±4 (mod 9). This together with the condition that 3
divides |Out(T )| leads to part (b) of the lemma.
Next assume that (iii) appears. Then |T |3 /|Out(T )|3 = (q 3 − 1)3 (p2 − 1)3 /d23 .
If q ≡ 2 (mod 3), then |T |3 /|Out(T )|3 = (p2 − 1)3 > 3, and |T |3 /|Out(T )|3 = 3 is
equivalent to (p2 − 1)3 = 3, which occurs exactly when p ≡ 2 or 5 (mod 9) and f
odd. If q ≡ 1 (mod 3), then
|T |3
(q 3 − 1)3 (p2 − 1)3
(q 6 − 1)3 (p2 − 1)3
3f3 (p2 − 1)23
=
=
=
> 3,
|Out(T )|3
9
9
9

8.2. A PROPERTY OF FINITE SIMPLE GROUPS

77

and |T |3 /|Out(T )|3 = 3 is equivalent to f3 (p2 − 1)23 = 9, which occurs exactly when
either p ≡ 2 or 5 (mod 9) and f ≡ ±2 (mod 6), or p ≡ 4 or 7 (mod 9) and f 6≡ 0
(mod 3). To sum up, |T |3 = 3|Out(T )|3 if and only if either p ≡ 2 or 5 (mod 9) and
f 6≡ 0 (mod 6), or p ≡ 4 or 7 (mod 9) and f 6≡ 0 (mod 3). This together with the
condition that 3 divides |Out(T )| leads to part (c) of the lemma.
Now assume that (iv) appears. Then |T |3/|Out(T )|3 = (q 3 + 1)3 (p2 − 1)3 /d23 .
If q ≡ 1 (mod 3), then |T |3 /|Out(T )|3 = (p2 − 1)3 > 3, and |T |3 /|Out(T )|3 = 3
is equivalent to (p2 − 1)3 = 3, which occurs exactly when p ≡ 2 or 5 (mod 9) and
f ≡ ±1 (mod 6). If q ≡ 2 (mod 3), then
|T |3
(q 3 + 1)3 (p2 − 1)3
(q 6 − 1)3 (p2 − 1)3
3f3 (p2 − 1)23
=
=
=
> 3,
|Out(T )|3
9
9
9
and |T |3 /|Out(T )|3 = 3 is equivalent to f3 (p2 − 1)23 = 9, which occurs exactly when
either p ≡ 2 or 5 (mod 9) and f is even, or p ≡ 4 or 7 (mod 9). To sum up,
|T |3 = 3|Out(T )|3 if and only if either p ≡ 2 or 5 (mod 9) and f 6≡ 3 (mod 6), or
p ≡ 4 or 7 (mod 9). This together with the condition that 3 divides |Out(T )| leads
to part (d) of the lemma.
Case 3. Assume that r > 5. Then an inspection of |T | and |Out(T )| for simple
groups T of Lie type shows that |T |p > q and |Out(T )|r = dr fr .
Suppose that dr > 1. Then T = PSLn (q) or PSUn (q), and n > 5. First
assume that T = PSLn (q). Then r q − 1 = pf − 1, and hence we conclude from
Lemma 8.16(c) that (q − 1)r = (pf − 1)r > rfr . This together with the observation
that |T | is divisible by d(q − 1) yields |T |r > dr (q − 1)r > rdr fr = r|Out(T )|r .
Now assume that T = PSUn (q). Then r q + 1, whence r divides q 2 − 1 but not
q − 1. It follows that (q + 1)r = (q 2 − 1)r , and appealing Lemma 8.16(c) we obtain
(q + 1)r = (p2f − 1)r > rfr . This together with the observation that |T | is divisible
by d(q + 1) yields |T |r > dr (q + 1)r > rdr fr = r|Out(T )|r .
Suppose that dr = 1. As r divides |T |, an inspection of |T | and |Out(T )| for
simple groups T of Lie type shows that one the following happens.
(i) r q i − 1 for some i > 1 with |T |r > (q i − 1)r .
(ii) r q i + 1 for some i > 2 with |T |r > (q i + 1)r .
(iii) r q 8 + q 4 + 1 with |T |r > (q 8 + q 4 + 1)r .
First assume that (i) appears. Then we conclude from Lemma 8.16(c) that (q i −1)r =
(pif −1)r > rfr , which implies |T |r > (q i −1)r > rfr = r|Out(T )|r . Next assume that
(ii) appears. Then r divides q 2i −1 but not q i −1. It follows that (q i +1)r = (q 2i −1)r ,
and appealing Lemma 8.16(c) we obtain (q i + 1)r = (p2if − 1)r > rfr . This leads
to |T |r > (q i + 1)r > rfr = r|Out(T )|r . Finally assume that (iii) appears. If
r q 4 − 1, then q 8 + q 4 + 1 ≡ 3 (mod r), contrary to the condition that r q 8 + q 4 + 1.
Consequently, r does not divide q 4 − 1, and so (q 8 + q 4 + 1)r = (q 12 − 1)r . Now
appealing Lemma 8.16(c) we have (q 8 + q 4 + 1)r = (p12f − 1)r > rfr , which implies
|T |r > (q 8 + q 4 + 1)r > rfr = r|Out(T )|r .
The proof is thus completed.



78

8. CAYLEY GRAPHS OF SOLVABLE GROUPS

8.3. Reduction to affine and almost simple groups
In [48, Theorem 2] Praeger proved that the quasiprimitive groups acting 2-arctransitively on a connected graph can be divided into four different types, which
were later called HA, AS, TW and PA [49, Theorem 5.1], see Lemma 8.2. In
this section, we determine the quasiprimitive types for those containing a vertextransitive solvable subgroup. It will be shown that only types HA and AS can
occur.
We fix some notation throughout this section. Let Γ = (V, E) be a connected
(G, 2)-arc-transitive graph with G quasiprimitive on V , and R be a solvable vertextransitive subgroup of G. Take an edge {α, β} ∈ E and denote N = soc(G). Then
N = T1 × · · · × Tℓ , where ℓ > 2 and T1 ∼
= T for some nonabelian simple
= Tℓ ∼
= ... ∼
group T . Let T = {T1 , . . . , Tℓ }, and K be the kernel of G acting by conjugation on
T . Then N E K 6 Aut(T1 ) × · · · × Aut(Tℓ ).
Lemma 8.18. Assume that Nα is solvable. Then either T = PSL2 (q) with q > 5,
or T = PSU3 (8), PSU4 (2), PSL4 (2), M11 , or PSL3 (q) with q ∈ {3, 4, 5, 7, 8}.
Proof. Let X = NR. Then X = NXα , and
Xα /Nα ∼
= R/(R ∩ N),
= NXα /N = X/N = NR/N ∼
whence Xα /Nα is solvable. This together with the assumption that Nα is solvable
implies that Xα is solvable. Hence X is a product of two solvable groups R and Xα ,
and then by [32] we conclude that T is a one of the groups listed in the lemma. 
One will see that for TW or PA type G, the assumption of Lemma 8.18 is
satisfied, so that the simple groups listed in Lemma 8.18 are all the possibilities for
T . For later use, we give some properties for these groups in the next lemma.
Lemma 8.19. Let T be a simple group listed in Lemma 8.18, r be the largest
prime divisor of |T |, and m be the smallest index of solvable subgroups in T . Then
r 6 m, and the following statements hold.
(a) If m < 3|Out(T )|, then T = PSL2 (5) or PSL2 (9).
(b) If m 6 60, then either (T, m) = (PSL2 (q), q + 1) with prime power 8 6 q 6
59, or (T, m) lies in Table 8.1.
Table 8.1.
T PSL2 (5) PSL2 (7) PSL3 (3) PSL4 (2) PSU4 (2) M11
m 5
7
13
35
40
55
Proof. First, for T = PSU3 (8), PSU4 (2), PSL4 (2), M11 , or PSL3 (q) with q ∈
{3, 4, 5, 7, 8}, the value of m can be derived from [10], verifying the lemma directly.
Next assume that T = PSL2 (q) with prime power q > 5. For q = 5, 7, 9, 11, we see
from [10] that m = 5, 7, 10, 12, respectively, satisfying the conclusion of the lemma.
Thus assume that q = 8 or q > 13 in the following. Then according to Theorem 2.6,
the smallest index of proper subgroups of T is q + 1. As a consequence, m > q + 1.
At the meanwhile, T = PSL2 (q) has a solvable subgroup q:(q − 1)/(2, q − 1) of index
q +1. Thereby we obtain m = q +1 > 3|Out(T )|. Moreover, r q(q +1)(q −1) implies
that r q, q + 1 or q − 1, and hence r 6 q + 1 = m. This proves the lemma.


8.3. REDUCTION TO AFFINE AND ALMOST SIMPLE GROUPS

79

Lemma 8.20. G is not of type TW.
Proof. Suppose that G is quasiprimitive of TW type. Then Nα = 1, and
|V | = |N| = |T |ℓ . As a consequence, T is a simple group listed in Lemma 8.18. Let
m be the smallest index of solvable subgroups of Aut(T ), and R = RK/K. Then
R 6 G/K . Sℓ , and |R ∩ K||R| = |R| is divisible by |T |ℓ since R is transitive
on V . Let Ri be the projection of R ∩ K into Aut(Ti ), where 1 6 i 6 ℓ. Then
R ∩ K . R1 × · · · × Rℓ . By Lemma 8.19, either m > 3|Out(T )|, or T = PSL2 (5) or
PSL2 (9).
First assume that m > 3|Out(T )|. For 1 6 i 6 ℓ, since |Ri |m 6 |Aut(T )|, we
have |Ri | 6 |T |/3. Now |R ∩ K| 6 |R1 | · · · |Rℓ | 6 |T |ℓ /3ℓ , while |R ∩ K||R| > |T |ℓ .
Thus |R| > 3ℓ , which violates Theorem 8.14 on the order of the solvable subgroup
R in Sℓ .
Next assume that T = PSL2 (5). Then any solvable subgroup of Aut(T ) has
order dividing 24 or 20. Hence |R1 | · · · |Rℓ | divides 24x 20y for some nonnegative
integers x and y with x + y = ℓ. Viewing that |R ∩ K| divides |R1 | · · · |Rℓ | and |R|
divides ℓ!, we obtain 60ℓ 24x 20y ℓ! since 60ℓ divides |R| = |R ∩ K||R|. In particular,
3ℓ 3x (ℓ!)3 and 5ℓ 5y (ℓ!)5 . This implies ℓ < x + ℓ/2 and ℓ < y + ℓ/4 by Lemma 8.13,
which leads to a contradiction that 2ℓ < (x + ℓ/2) + (y + ℓ/4) = x + y + 3ℓ/4 = 7ℓ/4.
Finally assume that T = PSL2 (9). Then any solvable subgroup of Aut(T ) has
order dividing 288 or 40, and so |R∩K| divides 288x 40y for some nonnegative integers
x and y with x+y = ℓ. It follows that 360ℓ 288x 40y ℓ!. In particular, 32ℓ 32x (ℓ!)3 and
5ℓ 5y (ℓ!)5 . This implies 2ℓ < 2x + ℓ/2 and ℓ < y + ℓ/4 by Lemma 8.13, which leads
to a contradiction that 2ℓ < x + y + ℓ/2 = 3ℓ/2. The proof is thus completed. 
In the next few lemmas we exclude quasiprimitive type PA for G. Recall that
K 6 Aut(T1 ) × · · · × Aut(Tℓ ). We call a subgroup of K diagonal if it isomorphic to
its projection into Aut(Ti ) for each 1 6 i 6 ℓ.
Γ (α)

Lemma 8.21. If G is of type PA, then Kα

is transitive and imprimitive.

Proof. As G is quasiprimitive of type PA, we have Nα 6= 1. It follows from
Γ (α)
Γ (α)
Lemma 8.5 that Nα
is transitive, and so is Kα . For 1 6 i 6 ℓ, let Ri be the
projection of R ∩ N into Ti and Mi = CK (Ti ). Then Mi ✁ K, and K/Mi is almost
simple with socle T . Note that Mi × Ti > N is transitive on V while Mi is not. We
infer that Ti transitively permutes the orbits of Mi , and so Mi has more than two
orbits.
Γ (α)
Suppose for a contradiction that Kα
is primitive. Then Mi is semiregular
on V by Lemma 8.1. Hence Kα ∩ Mi = 1 for each 1 6 i 6 ℓ, which means that
Kα is diagonal. Without loss of generality, assume Kα = {(x, . . . , x) | x ∈ P } for
some P 6 Aut(T ). Then Kα ∼
= P and Nα = Kα ∩ N = Kα ∩ (T1 × · · · × Tℓ ) =
{(x, . . . , x) | x ∈ P ∩ T }. Consequently, |V | = |N|/|Nα | is divisible by |T |ℓ−1, and
Kα /Nα ∼
= P T /T 6 Out(T ). Since N is transitive on V , we derive that
= P/P ∩ T ∼
K/N = Kα N/N ∼
= Kα /Kα ∩ N = Kα /Nα . Out(T ).
Hence |R ∩ K|/|R ∩ N| divides |Out(T )|, and |R ∩ K||RK/K| = |R| is divisible by
|T |ℓ−1 due to the vertex-transitivity of R. Then as |R ∩ N| divides |R1 × · · · × Rℓ |,
(8.3)

|T |ℓ−1 divides |R1 × · · · × Rℓ ||Out(T )||RK/K|.

80

8. CAYLEY GRAPHS OF SOLVABLE GROUPS

Consider an arbitrary orbit of R by conjugation on T , say {T1 , . . . , Tk }, where
1 6 k 6 ℓ. Clearly, R1 ∼
= Rk . Let N = T1 × · · · × Tk , L = M1 ∩ · · · ∩ Mk ,
= ... ∼
K = KL/L, V be the orbits of L on V , v ∈ V , and R be the permutation group on
V induced by R. Then N , K are transitive permutation groups on V , and since Kα
is diagonal, K v is diagonal too. Moreover, the projection of R ∩ N into Ti is still
Ri for 1 6 i 6 k. Noticing R K/K . Sk , then along the same lines of the previous
paragraph, we derive that
(8.4)

|T |k−1 divides |R1 × · · · × Rk ||Out(T )||Sk | = |R1 |k |Out(T )|k!.

Assume that k > 1. Since R1 is a solvable subgroup of T1 , we know from Lemma 8.15
that there exists a prime r dividing |T | but not |R1 |. By Theorem 8.17, |T |r >
r|Out(T )|r , whence r|T |rk−2 divides (k!)r by (8.4). Accordingly,
(8.5)

r|T |rk−2 6 (k!)r < r k/(r−1)

by Lemma 8.13. In particular, r k−1 < r k/(r−1) , which forces r = 2. As |T | is
divisible by 4, (8.5) implies that 22k−3 < 2k , and so k 6 2. If k = 2, then |T |2
divides 2|Out(T )|2 because of (8.4), and thereby we have T = PSL2 (pf ) with prime
p ≡ ±3 (mod 8) by Theorem 8.17. However, in this situation (8.4) requires that
|PSL2 (pf )| = pf (p2f − 1)/2 divides 2|R1 |2 |Out(T )| = 4f |R1 |2 , which is not possible
for a solvable subgroup R1 of PSL2 (pf ). Therefore, k = 1. It follows that K = K/M1
is an almost simple group with socle T , and R ∩ N = R ∩ soc(K) ∼
= R1 .
The conclusion of the previous paragraph implies that R normalizes Ti for
each 1 6 i 6 ℓ, whence R 6 K. For 1 6 i 6 ℓ denote by αi the orbit of
Mi on V containing α. Then by the transitivity of R we have a factorization
K/Mi = (RMi /Mi )(K/Mi )αi . Moreover, K/Mi is an almost simple group with
socle T , (RMi /Mi ) ∩ soc(K/Mi ) ∼
= Ri , and (K/Mi )αi ∼
= Kα by Lemma 8.1. Let
Y = RT1 . Then T1 is normal in Y as T1 is normal in K. Since (T1 )α = 1 by
Lemma 8.1, we have Yα ∩ T1 = 1, and thus
Yα = Yα /Yα ∩ T1 ∼
= R/R ∩ T1
= Yα T1 /T1 6 Y /T1 = RT1 /T1 ∼
is solvable. Now Y = RYα is a product of two solvable subgroups, so by [32], T ∼
= T1
is one of the groups: PSL2 (q) with q > 5, PSU3 (8), PSU4 (2), PSL4 (2), M11 , and
PSL3 (q) with q ∈ {3, 4, 5, 7, 8}. Applying Theorem 1.1 to the factorizations K/Mi =
(RMi /Mi )(K/Mi )αi for 1 6 i 6 ℓ, where soc(K/M1 ) ∼
= T is one
= soc(K/Mℓ ) ∼
= ... ∼
∼
∼
of the above groups and (K/M1 )α1 = . . . = (K/Mℓ )αℓ , we conclude that there exists
a prime divisor r of |T | dividing none of |(RMi /Mi ) ∩ soc(K/Mi )| for 1 6 i 6 ℓ.
Consequently, r does not divide |R1 ×· · ·×Rk |. Thus (8.3) implies that |T |rℓ−1 divides
|Out(T )|r , which is not possible by Theorem 8.17. This contradiction completes the
proof.

Γ (α)

Lemma 8.22. Let R = RK/K. If G is of type PA, then Gα
is an affine
2-transitive permutation group of degree pd , where p is prime and d > 2, and the
following statements hold.
(a) R is isomorphic to a solvable subgroup of Gαβ /Kαβ , and |T |ℓ /|R1 × . . . Rℓ |
divides pd |Kαβ ||R|.
Γ (α)
Γ (α)
(b) |T |ℓ /|R1 × . . . Rℓ | divides |Kαβ ||Gα |.
(c) Kα is solvable, and Kαβ is diagonal.

8.3. REDUCTION TO AFFINE AND ALMOST SIMPLE GROUPS

81

(d) T is one of the groups listed in Lemma 8.18.
Γ (α)

Proof. Suppose that G has type PA. Then Kα is imprimitive by Lemma 8.21.
Γ (α)
We thereby see from Lemma 8.8 that Gα
is an affine 2-transitive permutation
group of degree pd , where p is prime and d > 2, and Kα is solvable.
Since Nα 6= 1 and Kα 6= 1, Lemma 8.5 shows that G/N ∼
= Gαβ /Nαβ and G/K ∼
=
Gαβ /Kαβ . Consequently, R is isomorphic to a solvable subgroup of Gαβ /Kαβ , and
|K/N| = |Kαβ /Nαβ |. Because N is arc-transitive by Lemma 8.5 and R is transitive
on V , so |R| is divisible by |V | = |N|/|Nα| = |T |ℓ /(pd |Nαβ |). Then as |R| = |R ∩
K||R| divides |K/N||R ∩ N||R| = |Kαβ /Nαβ ||R ∩ N||R|, we deduce that |T |ℓ /|R1 ×
. . . Rℓ | divides pd |Kαβ ||R|. Hence part (a) holds.
Viewing R . Gαβ /Kαβ , we derive from part (a) that |T |ℓ /|R1 × . . . Rℓ | divides
[1]
Γ (α)
[1]
Γ (α)
pd |Gαβ | = |Gα | = |Gα ||Gα |. Thus part (b) is true since |Gα | divides |Kαβ | by
Lemma 8.8.
To prove that Kαβ is diagonal, take an arbitrary i ∈ {1, . . . , ℓ} and let M =
Q
Γ (α)
is transitive, then the neighbors of α are in the same orbit of M
j6=i Kj . If Mα
Γ (α)

and so Γ will be bipartite. Hence Mα
is an intransitive normal subgroup of the
Γ (α)
Γ (α)
[1]
Frobenius group Kα . This forces Mαβ = 1, which means Mαβ = Mα . Similarly,
[1]

[1]

[1]

[1]

Mαβ = Mβ . It follows that Kαβ ∩ M = Mαβ = Mα ∩ Mβ = Mαβ = 1. Therefore,
Kαβ is diagonal, proving part (c).
Finally, as Kα is solvable we know that Nα is solvable too. Then Lemma 8.18
shows that T is one of the groups listed there.

Lemma 8.23. G is not of type PA.
Proof. Let r be the largest prime divisor of |T |, m be the smallest index of
solvable subgroups in T , and R = RK/K. Suppose for a contradiction that G
Γ (α)
has type PA. Then from Lemma 8.22 we know that Gα
is an affine 2-transitive
permutation group of degree pd , where p is prime and d > 2. The affine 2-transitive
permutation groups were classified by Hering [24], see also [41]. By virtue of this
classification, we will exclude the candidates of 2-transitive permutation groups for
Γ (α)
Gα
case by case. According to Lemma 8.22(d), T satisfies Lemma 8.18, and so
Γ (α)
Γ (α)
the integers r 6 m satisfy Lemma 8.19. Noticing Nα
> soc(Gα ) = Cdp as
Γ (α)
Γ (α)
Nα
⊳ Gα , we see that |T |ℓ = |N| is divisible by p. Hence |T | is divisible by p,
and so m > r > max{5, p}. Then the observation mℓ 6 |T |ℓ /|R1 × . . . Rℓ | together
with Lemma 8.22(b) yields
(8.6)

Γ (α)

max{5, p}ℓ 6 mℓ 6 |Kαβ ||GΓα (α) |.

For any group X, let P (X) denote the smallest index of a proper subgroup of X.
Note that G/K ∼
= Gαβ /Kαβ by Lemma 8.5, and G/K is isomorphic to a transitive
subgroup of Sℓ since N is the unique minimal normal subgroup of G.
Γ (α)
Case 1. Suppose that SLn (q) 6 Gαβ 6 ΓLn (q), where n > 2 and q = pf . Then
Γ (α)

Kαβ 6 Cq−1 , and PSLn (q) is a section of Gαβ /Kαβ . It follows from Lemma 2.5(c)
that ℓ > P (PSLn (q)) due to Gαβ /Kαβ . Sℓ . Thereby (8.6) leads to
(8.7)

max{5, p}P (PSLn (q)) 6 (q − 1)|AΓLn (q)|.

82

8. CAYLEY GRAPHS OF SOLVABLE GROUPS

Assume that (n, q) 6= (4, 2) or (2, q) with q 6 11. Then we have P (PSLn (q)) =
(q n − 1)/(q − 1) according to Table 2.3, and hence (8.7) implies
(8.8)

5(q

n −1)/(q−1)

Γ (α)

6 |Kαβ ||GΓα (α) | 6 (q − 1)|AΓLn (q)| < q n

2 +n+2

.

n

2

If q = 2, then n > 3 and the above inequality turns out to be 52 −1 < 2n +n+2 ,
n−1
n
2
not possible. It derives from (8.8) that 5q
< 5(q −1)/(q−1) < q n +n+2 . Hence
q n−1 ln 5 < (n2 + n + 2) ln q < (n2 + n + 2)q/2, and so q n−2 ln 25 < n2 + n + 2. This
2
indicates n 6 3 as q > 3. Further, if n = 3, then (8.8) turns out to be 5q +q+1 < q 14 ,
which is not possible. We therefore have n = 2. However, (8.8) then turns out to
be 5q+1 < q 8 , violating our assumption that q > 11.
Consequently, we only need to deal with the candidates in the table below.
n
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 4
q
2 3 4 5 7 8 9 11 2
P (PSLn (q)) 2 3 5 5 7 9 6 11 8
For (n, q) = (2, 2), (2, 7), (2, 11) or (4, 2), the inequality (8.7) does not hold, a
contradiction. Thus n = 2 and q ∈ {3, 4, 5, 8, 9}. Recall from (8.6) that
(8.9)

Γ (α)

mℓ 6 |Kαβ ||GΓα (α) | 6 (q − 1)|AΓL2 (q)| = q 3 (q 2 − 1)(q − 1)2 f.
Γ (α)

Assume that q = 3. Then Kαβ

6 C2 , and
Γ (α)

Γ (α)

|Sℓ | > |Gαβ /Kαβ | > |Gαβ /Kαβ | > |SL2 (3)|/2 > 12.
This implies ℓ > 4, and so (8.9) requires m4 6 25 · 33 . Accordingly we obtain m 6 5,
and thus T = A5 by Lemma 8.19. Observe that any solvable subgroup of T has
index divisible by 5 or 6. We infer from Lemma 8.22(b) that 5x 6y 25 · 33 for some
nonnegative integers x and y with x + y = ℓ, which is impossible as ℓ > 4.
Assume that q = 4. Then ℓ > P (PSL2 (4)) = 5, and (8.9) requires m5 6 26 · 33 · 5.
Hence m 6 7, and so T = A5 or PSL2 (7) by Lemma 8.19. If T = A5 , then any
solvable subgroup of T has index divisible by 5 or 6, and we infer from Lemma 8.22(b)
that 5x 6y 26 · 33 · 5 for some nonnegative integers x and y with x + y = ℓ > 5, a
contradiction. Thus T 6= A5 . Similarly, we derive that T 6= PSL2 (7).
Assume that q = 5. Then ℓ > P (PSL2 (5)) = 5, and (8.9) requires m5 6 27 · 3 · 53.
Hence m 6 8, and thus Lemma 8.19 implies T = A5 as |T | is divisible by p = 5. Now
we derive from Lemma 8.22(b) that 5x 6y 27 · 3 · 53 for some nonnegative integers x
and y with x + y = ℓ > 5, a contradiction.
Assume that q = 8. Then ℓ > P (PSL2 (4)) = 9, and (8.9) requires m5 6 29 ·32 ·73.
Hence m 6 5, and so T = A5 by Lemma 8.19. Now we derive from Lemma 8.22(b)
that 5x 6y 29 · 32 · 73 for some nonnegative integers x and y with x + y = ℓ > 9, a
contradiction.
Assume that q = 9. Then ℓ > P (PSL2 (9)) = 6, and (8.9) requires m6 6 211 ·36 ·5.
Hence m 6 13, and thus Lemma 8.19 implies that T = A5 , PSL2 (7), PSL2 (8), A6 ,
PSL2 (11) or PSL3 (3). If T = PSL2 (7), then any solvable subgroup of T has index
divisible by 7 or 8, and thereby we derive from Lemma 8.22(b) that 7x 8y 211 · 36 · 5
for some nonnegative integers x and y with x + y = ℓ > 6, not possible. Similarly
we exclude the candidates PSL2 (8), A6 , PSL2 (11) and PSL3 (3) for T . It follows
that T = A5 , and so |T |ℓ /|R1 × . . . Rℓ | is divisible by 5x 6y for some nonnegative

8.3. REDUCTION TO AFFINE AND ALMOST SIMPLE GROUPS

83

integers x and y with x + y = ℓ. According to Lemma 8.22(c), Kαβ . Aut(T ) = S5 .
Γ (α)
This together with Lemma 8.8(b) and Kαβ 6 C8 implies that |Kαβ | divides 4.
Hence 5x 6y divides 22 · 34 |R| by Lemma 8.22(a). Note that Lemma 8.22(b) implies
5x 6y 211 · 36 · 5, which yields x 6 1 and y 6 6. Therefore, (x, y) = (1, 6), (1, 5) or
(0, 6) as ℓ = x + y > 6. However, none of these values for (x, y) allows 5x 6y to divide
22 · 34 |R| for some solvable R . Sℓ = Sx+y , a contradiction.
Γ (α)
Case 2. Suppose that Gαβ D Sp2n (q)′ , where n > 2 and q = pf . Then
Γ (α)

Γ (α)

Gαβ 6 (Cq−1 ◦ Sp2n (q)).Cf , Kαβ 6 Cq−1 , and PSp2n (q)′ is a section of Gαβ /Kαβ .
It follows from Lemma 2.5(c) that ℓ > P (PSp2n (q)′ ) due to Gαβ /Kαβ . Sℓ . Let
q = pf . Then (8.6) yields
(8.10)

′

max{5, p}P (PSp2n (q) ) 6 q 2n |Sp2n (q)|(q − 1)2 f.

Noticing that f 6 q, we obtain
(8.11)

′

max{5, p}P (PSp2n (q) ) 6 q 2n+1 |Sp2n (q)|(q − 1)2 < q 2n

2 +3n+3

.

Moreover, by Theorem 2.6, one of the following appears.
(i) q > 2, (n, q) 6= (2, 3) and P (PSp2n (q)′ ) = (q 2n − 1)/(q − 1).
(ii) q = 2, n > 3 and P (PSp2n (q)′ ) = 2n−1 (2n − 1).
(iii) (n, q) = (2, 3) and P (PSp2n (q)′ ) = 27.
(iv) (n, q) = (2, 2) and P (PSp2n (q)′ ) = 6.
The possibility for (iii) and (iv) is directly ruled out by (8.10). If (i) occurs, then
(8.11) implies that q 2n−1 < (q 2n − 1)/(q − 1) < (2n2 + 3n + 3)f , and thus 32n−1 6
q 2n−1 /f < 2n2 + 3n + 3, not possible. If (ii) occurs, then (8.11) implies that
n (2n −1)

22

n−1 (2n −1)

< 52

< 22n

2 +3n+3

,

and thus 2n (2n − 1) < 2n2 + 3n + 3, not possible either.
Γ (α)
Γ (α)
Case 3. Suppose that Gαβ D G2 (q)′ , where q = 2f . Then pd = q 6 , Gαβ 6
Γ (α)

(Cq−1 ◦ G2 (q)).Cf , Kαβ 6 Cq−1 , and G2 (q)′ is a section of Gαβ /Kαβ . It follows
from Lemma 2.5(c) that ℓ > P (G2(q)′ ) due to Gαβ /Kαβ . Sℓ . Then (8.6) yields
(8.12)

′

5P (G2 (q) ) 6 q 6 |G2 (q)|(q − 1)2 f < q 23 .

For q = 2 or 4, P (G2(q)′ ) = 28 or 416 by [10], contrary to (8.12). Thus q > 8.
Consulting the classification of maximal subgroups of G2 (2f )′ = G2 (2f ) in [12], one
immediately concludes that P (G2(q)′ ) = (q 6 − 1)/(q − 1). Thereby (8.12) implies
that
5
5
6
2q < 5q < 5(q −1)/(q−1) < q 23 = 223f ,
and so 85 /3 6 q 5 /f < 23, a contradiction.
Γ (α)
Γ (α)
Case 4. Suppose that Gα 6 AΓL1 (pd ). Let H = Gαβ ∩ GL1 (pd ), and M be
Γ (α)
the full preimage of H under the natural homomorphism from Gαβ to Gαβ . Note
[1]

Γ (α)

by Lemma 8.8 that Gαβ = 1, Kαβ

6 GL1 (pf ) for some proper divisor f of d, and

[1]

|Gα | divides pf − 1. From (8.6) we deduce
(8.13)

Γ (α)

max{5, p}ℓ 6 |Kαβ ||GΓα (α) | 6 (pf − 1)pd (pd − 1)d.

84

8. CAYLEY GRAPHS OF SOLVABLE GROUPS

As M/M ∩ Gα ∼
= M Γ (α) = H is cyclic, we have M ′ 6 Gα . Similarly, M/M ∩
[1]
[1]
[1]
[1]
[1]
Gβ ∼
= M Γ (β) ∼
= H yields M ′ 6 Gβ . Thus M ′ 6 Gα ∩ Gβ = Gαβ = 1, which means
that M is abelian. Consequently, M has a subgroup L isomorphic to M Γ (β) ∼
= H.
Denote G = Gαβ /Kαβ , M = MKαβ /Kαβ and L = LKαβ /Kαβ . Clearly, L is a cyclic
normal subgroup of M . Since M is a normal subgroup of G and G ∼
= G/K is a
transitive permutation group on T , the orbits of M on T , say ∆1 , . . . , ∆k , are of
equal size. For 1 6 i 6 k, let Mi and Li be the restriction of M and L, respectively,
on ∆i . Then M = M1 × · · · × Mk , L = L1 × · · · × Lk , and Li is a cyclic normal
subgroup of Mi for each 1 6 i 6 k. From the transitivity of Mi on ∆i we deduce
that Li is semiregular on ∆i , and thus |Li | divides |∆i | = |∆1 | for each 1 6 i 6 k.
Noticing that |L1 |, . . . , |Lk | are pairwise coprime as L is cyclic, we conclude that
|L| = |L1 | · · · |Lk | divides |∆1 |. In particular, |L| divides ℓ. Because |M /L| divides
[1]
[1]
|M/L| = |M ∩ Gα | and |Gα | divides pf − 1, so |M/L| divides pf − 1. Moreover,
Γ (α)
Γ (α)
|G/M| divides d, since |G/M| divides |Gαβ /M| = |Gαβ /H| and |Gαβ /H| divides
|ΓL1 (pd )/|GL1 (pd )| = d. It follows that |G| divides (pf − 1)d|L| and thus divides
Γ (α)
Γ (α)
Γ (α)
Γ (α)
(pf − 1)dℓ. Since G is divisible by |Gαβ /Kαβ | while |Gαβ /Kαβ | is divisible by
(pd − 1)/(pf − 1), we thereby obtain
[1]

[1]

(pd − 1)/(pf − 1) (pf − 1)dℓ.

(8.14)

Observe that the greatest common divisor of (pd − 1)/(pf − 1) and pf − 1 equals
(d/f, pf − 1) due to (pd − 1)/(pf − 1) ≡ d/f (mod pf − 1). Then (8.14) is equivalent
to (pd − 1)/(pf − 1) (d/f, pf − 1)dℓ, which implies that
(8.15)

ℓ>

(pd − 1)f
(pd − 1)d/2
pd/2 + 1
>
=
.
(pf − 1)d2
(pd/2 − 1)d2
2d

Suppose p = 2. Combining (8.13) and (8.15) one obtains
(8.16)

5

2d/2 +1
2d

6 (2d/2 − 1)2d (2d − 1)d.

d/2

d/2

As a consequence, 2(2 +1)/d < 5(2 +1)/(2d) < 23d , or equivalently, 2d/2 + 1 < 3d2 .
This implies that d 6 20. However, d = 20 does not satisfy (8.14), whence d 6 19.
If d is prime, then f = 1 and (8.14) yields 2d − 1 ℓ, which in conjunction with (8.13)
d
gives 52 −1 6 2d (2d − 1)d, a contradiction. If d is a power of 2, then (8.14) yields
d/2
2d/2 + 1 ℓ, and so (8.13) leads to 52 +1 6 (2d/2 − 1)2d (2d − 1)d, not possible. If
d = 9, then 73 ℓ by (8.14), not satisfying (8.13). If d = 10, then by (8.14), either
f 6 2 and 31 ℓ or f = 5 and 33 ℓ, still not satisfying (8.13). The same argument
excludes d ∈ {12, 14, 15, 18}. Therefore, d = 6. If f 6 2, then 7 ℓ by (8.14), not
Γ (α)
Γ (α)
satisfying (8.13). Thus f = 3 as a proper divisor of d. Since Gαβ /Kαβ is divisible
Γ (α)

Γ (α)

by (26 − 1)/(23 − 1) = 9 and Gαβ /Kαβ
(8.6) requires

is a section of Sℓ , we conclude ℓ > 6. Then

Γ (α)

m6 6 mℓ 6 |Kαβ ||GΓα (α) | 6 |GL1 (23 )||AΓL6 (2)| = 27 · 33 · 72 ,
which means m 6 7. It follows from Lemma 8.19 that T = A5 or PSL2 (7). If
T = A5 , then any solvable subgroup of T has index divisible by 5 or 6, and thereby
we derive from Lemma 8.22(b) that 5x 6y 27 · 33 · 72 for some nonnegative integers

8.3. REDUCTION TO AFFINE AND ALMOST SIMPLE GROUPS

85

x and y with x + y = ℓ > 6, not possible. Hence T 6= A5 . Similarly T 6= PSL2 (7), a
contradiction.
Suppose p = 3. Combining (8.13) and (8.15) one obtains
5

3d/2 +1
2d

d/2

6 (3d/2 − 1)3d (3d − 1)d.
d/2

2

2

As a consequence, 5(3 +1)/(2d) < 33d , and thus 53 +1 < 36d < 55d . This is
equivalent to 3d/2 + 1 < 5d2 , whence d 6 11. If d = 2, then f = 1, and (8.13) yields
Γ (α)
Γ (α)
ℓ 6 3 while |Gαβ /Kαβ | is divisible by (32 − 1)/(3 − 1) = 4, contrary to the fact
Γ (α)

Γ (α)

that Gαβ /Kαβ is a section of Sℓ . If d = 3, then 13 ℓ by (8.14), not satisfying
(8.13). The same argument excludes d ∈ {5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11}. Therefore, d = 4, and
Γ (α)
so Kαβ 6 GL1 (32 ) as f 6 2. By (8.14) we have 5 ℓ. Then since (8.6) requires
Γ (α)

m5 6 mℓ 6 |Kαβ ||GΓα (α) | 6 |GL1 (32 )||AΓL4 (3)| = 29 · 34 · 5,
we obtain m 6 11. It follows from Lemma 8.19 that T = A5 , PSL2 (7), PSL2 (8) or
A6 . If T = PSL2 (7), then any solvable subgroup of T has index divisible by 7 or 8,
and thereby we derive from Lemma 8.22(b) that 7x 8y 29 · 34 · 5 for some nonnegative
integers x and y with x + y = ℓ > 5, which is impossible. Hence T 6= PSL2 (7).
Similarly, T 6= PSL2 (8) or A6 . Now T = A5 , and thus |T |ℓ /|R1 ×. . . Rℓ | is divisible by
5x 6y for some nonnegative integers x and y with x + y = ℓ. Thereby Lemma 8.22(b)
implies that 5x 6y 29 · 34 · 5, which leads to (x, y) = (1, 4) as x + y = ℓ > 5. In view
Γ (α)
of Kαβ 6 C8 , we derive from Lemma 8.8(b) that Kαβ is a 2-group. Accordingly,
5x 3y divides 34 |R| by Lemma 8.22(a), whence |R| is divisible by 5. It follows that R
is transitive on T . However, this indicates that R1 ∼
= R5 and thus (|A5 |/|R1 |)5
= ... ∼
9
4
divides 2 · 3 · 5, not possible.
Thus far we have known that p > 5. Then (8.13) together with (8.15) implies
(8.17)

p

pd/2 +1
2d

6 (pd/2 − 1)pd (pd − 1)d < p5d/2 d,

or equivalently, pd/2 +1 < 5d2 +2d logp d. As a consequence, 5d/2 +1 < 5d2 +2d log5 d,
which restricts d 6 6. If d = 6, then (8.17) forces p = 5 and so (8.14) yields
21 ℓ, not satisfying (8.13). If d = 5, then (8.14) implies that (p5 − 1)/(p − 1) 25ℓ
4
and so ℓ > 25p4 , which leads to pp /25 < 5p11 6 p12 by (8.13), a contradiction.
If d = 3, then (8.14) implies that (p2 + p + 1)/(9, p2 + p + 1) ℓ, which leads to
2
2
p(p +p+1)/(9,p +p+1) < 3p7 < p8 by (8.13), not possible. If d = 4, then it follows from
(8.17) that p = 5 or 7. If d = 4 and p = 5, then (8.14) yields 13 ℓ, violating (8.13).
If d = 4 and p = 7, then (8.14) yields 25 ℓ, again violating (8.13). Consequently,
d 6= 4, and thereby we have d = 2. Now (8.17) gives p ∈ {5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19}. If
p = 13 or 17, then (8.14) yields 7 ℓ or 9 ℓ, respectively, not satisfying (8.13). We
next rule out the possibilities for p ∈ {5, 7, 11, 19}.
Assume p = 5. Then (8.14) yields 3 ℓ, and so (8.6) requires
Γ (α)

m3 6 mℓ 6 |Kαβ ||GΓα (α) | 6 |GL1 (5)||AΓL2 (5)| = 27 · 3 · 53 ,
giving m 6 36. Moreover, |T | is divisible by p = 5. Thus it follows from Lemma 8.19
that T = A8 or PSL2 (q) with q ∈ {5, 9, 11, 16, 19, 25, 29, 31}. If T = A8 , then any
solvable subgroup of T has index divisible by 3 or 7, and thereby we derive from

86

8. CAYLEY GRAPHS OF SOLVABLE GROUPS

Lemma 8.22(b) that 3x 7y 27 · 3 · 53 for some nonnegative integers x and y with
x + y = ℓ > 3, not possible. Hence T 6= A8 . Similarly, T 6= PSL2 (q) for q ∈
{11, 16, 25, 29, 31}. Therefore, T = A5 , A6 or PSL2 (19). We derive a contradiction
below under the assumption that T = A5 , while a similar contradiction can be
derived for T = A6 or PSL2 (19). Note that |T |ℓ /|R1 × . . . Rℓ | is divisible by 5x 6y
for some nonnegative integers x and y with x + y = ℓ, and thereby Lemma 8.22(b)
implies 5x 6y 29 ·34 ·5. This shows that x 6 1 and y 6 4, which leads to (x, y) = (3, 0)
Γ (α)
or (2, 1) since 3 (x + y). In view of Kαβ 6 C4 , we derive from Lemma 8.8(b) that
Kαβ is a 2-group, and so 5x 3y divides 52 |R| by Lemma 8.22(a). If (x, y) = (3, 0), then
5 divides |R|, contrary to the condition R . Sℓ = S3 . Consequently, (x, y) = (2, 1),
and thus 3 divides |R|. It follows that R is transitive on T . However, this indicates
that R1 ∼
= R2 ∼
= R3 and so (|A5 |/|R1 |)32 divides 52 |R|, again contrary to R . S3 .
Γ (α)
Γ (α)
Assume p = 7. Since Gαβ /Kαβ is divisible by (72 − 1)/(7 − 1) = 8 and
Γ (α)

Γ (α)

Gαβ /Kαβ

is a section of Sℓ , we conclude ℓ > 4. Then (8.6) requires
Γ (α)

m4 6 mℓ 6 |Kαβ ||GΓα (α) | 6 |GL1 (7)||AΓL2 (7)| = 26 · 32 · 72 ,
which means m 6 12. Moreover, |T | is divisible by p = 7. Thus it follows from
Lemma 8.19 that T = PSL2 (7) or PSL2 (8). If T = PSL2 (8), then any solvable subgroup of T has index divisible by 9 or 28, and thereby we derive from Lemma 8.22(b)
that 9x 28y 26 · 32 · 72 for some nonnegative integers x and y with x + y = ℓ > 4,
not possible. Now T = PSL2 (7), and so |T |ℓ /|R1 × . . . Rℓ | is divisible by 7x 8y for
some nonnegative integers x and y with x + y = ℓ. Then Lemma 8.22(b) implies
that 7x 8y 26 · 32 · 72 , which leads to (x, y) = (2, 2) as x + y = ℓ > 5. In view of
Γ (α)
Kαβ 6 C6 , we derive from Lemma 8.8(b) that |Kαβ | divides 36. Consequently,
7x 8y divides 22 · 32 · 72 |R| by Lemma 8.22(a). However, this indicates that |R| is
divisible by 24 , contrary to the condition R . Sℓ = S4 .
Γ (α)
Γ (α)
Assume p = 11. Since Gαβ /Kαβ is divisible by (112 − 1)/(11 − 1) = 12
Γ (α)

Γ (α)

and Gαβ /Kαβ is a section of Sℓ , we have ℓ > 4. Moreover,(8.14) indicates 3 ℓ.
Thereby we conclude that ℓ > 6. Then (8.6) requires
Γ (α)

m6 6 mℓ 6 |Kαβ ||GΓα (α) | 6 |GL1 (11)||AΓL2 (11)| = 25 · 3 · 53 · 113 ,
which means m 6 15. Also, |T | is divisible by p = 11. Thus it follows from
Lemma 8.19 that T = PSL2 (11). Now any solvable subgroup of T has index divisible
by 11 or 12, and thereby we derive from Lemma 8.22(b) that 11x 12y 25 · 3 · 53 · 113
for some nonnegative integers x and y with x + y = ℓ > 6, not possible.
Assume p = 19. Then (8.14) yields 5 ℓ, and so (8.6) requires
Γ (α)

m5 6 mℓ 6 |Kαβ ||GΓα (α) | 6 |GL1 (19)||AΓL2 (19)| = 25 · 34 · 5 · 192 ,
giving m 6 21. Moreover, |T | is divisible by p = 19. Thus it follows from
Lemma 8.19 that T = PSL2 (19). Note that any solvable subgroup of T has index divisible by 19 or 20. Thereby we derive from Lemma 8.22(b) that 19x 20y 25 ·34 ·5·192
for some nonnegative integers x and y with x + y = ℓ > 5, not possible.

8.3. REDUCTION TO AFFINE AND ALMOST SIMPLE GROUPS

87

Γ (α)

Case 5. Suppose that Gα is not one of the 2-transitive permutation groups
Γ (α)
Γ (α)
in the previous cases. Then (pd , Gαβ , Kαβ ) lies in the table below.
row
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12

pd
36
24
34
52
52
72
112
232
112
192
292
592

Γ (α)

Gαβ
SL2 (13)
A7
Γ (α)
21+4 .5 6 Gαβ 6 21+4 .S5
SL2 (3)
Q8 .6, SL2 (3).4
Q8 .S3 , SL2 (3).6
SL2 (3).5, SL2 (3).10
SL2 (3).22
SL2 (5), 5 × SL2 (5)
9 × SL2 (5)
7 × SL2 (5), 28.PSL2 (5)
29 × SL2 (5)

Γ (α)

Kαβ
2
1
2
2
4
6
10
22
10
18
28
58

6

Assume that row 1 appears. Then it follows from Lemma 2.5(c) that ℓ >
P (PSL2 (13)) = 14 since PSL2 (13) is a section of Gαβ /Kαβ . Sℓ . Thereby (8.6)
yields 514 6 2 · 36 |SL2 (13)|, a contradiction. Similar argument rules out row 2.
Γ (α)
Γ (α)
Assume that row 3 appears. Then Gαβ /Kαβ has a section 24 :5, and so Sℓ has a
section 24 :5. This implies that ℓ > 10. It follows from (8.6) that 510 6 2 · 34|21+4 .S5 |,
a contradiction.
Γ (α)
Γ (α)
Next consider rows 4–8. As |Sℓ | > |Gαβ /Kαβ | > |Gαβ /Kαβ | > 12, we have
Γ (α)

Γ (α)

ℓ > 4. Note that |Kαβ ||Gα | divides 24p2 (p − 1)2 . Then (8.6) yields m4 6
24p2 (p − 1)2 , which gives an upper bound for m in the table below. This together
with the condition that p divides |T | restricts the possibilities for T by Lemma 8.19,
also shown in the table.
p
5 7
11
23
m 6 9 14
23
49
T
A5 PSL2 (7), PSL2 (8), PSL2 (13) PSL2 (11) PSL2 (23)
For p = 5, since any solvable subgroup of T = A5 has index divisible by 5 or 6, we
derive from Lemma 8.22(b) that 5x 6y 24 · 52 · 42 for some nonnegative integers x
and y with x + y = ℓ > 4, a contradiction. For p = 7, if T = PSL2 (7), then since
any solvable subgroup of T has index divisible by 7 or 8, Lemma 8.22(b) yields that
7x 8y 24 · 72 · 62 for some nonnegative integers x and y with x + y = ℓ > 4, not
possible. Similarly, T is not PSL2 (8) or PSL2 (13) either for p = 7. For p = 11, since
any solvable subgroup of T = PSL2 (11) has index divisible by 11 or 12, it follows from
Lemma 8.22(b) that 11x 12y 24 · 112 · 102 for some nonnegative integers x and y with
x + y = ℓ > 4, a contradiction. For p = 23, any solvable subgroup of T = PSL2 (23)
has index divisible by 23 or 24, and thereby it follows from Lemma 8.22(b) that
11x 12y 24 · 232 · 222 for some nonnegative integers x and y with x + y = ℓ > 4, again
a contradiction.
Γ (α)
Γ (α)
Finally, consider rows 9–12. Note that |Kαβ ||Gα | divides 60p2 (p − 1)2 , and
ℓ > P (PSL2 (5)) = 5 since PSL2 (5) is a section of Gαβ /Kαβ . Sℓ . It derives from
(8.6) that m5 6 60p2 (p − 1)2 , which gives m 6 14, 23, 33 or 58 corresponding to

88

8. CAYLEY GRAPHS OF SOLVABLE GROUPS

p = 11, 19, 29 or 59, respectively. We conclude that T = PSL2 (p) by Lemma 8.19
as |T | is divisible by p. Then any solvable subgroup of T has index divisible by
p or p + 1, and so Lemma 8.22(b) implies that px (p − 1)y 60p2 (p − 1)2 for some
nonnegative integers x and y with x + y = ℓ > 5, not possible.

We summarize the outcomes of this section in the following proposition.
Proposition 8.24. Let Γ = (V, E) be a connected (G, 2)-arc-transitive graph,
and R be a solvable vertex-transitive subgroup of G. If G is quasiprimitive on V ,
then G is either an almost simple group or an affine group.
Proof. We have seen in Lemmas 8.20 and 8.23 that the G is not of type TW or
PA. Then by [48, Theorem 2], the quasiprimitive type of G must be HA or AS. 
8.4. Proof of Theorem 1.2
We shall complete the proof of Theorem 1.2 in this section. Since quasiprimitive
2-arc-transitive graphs of affine type are classified in [30], we only need to treat the
almost simple case by Proposition 8.24. For convenience, we make a hypothesis as
follows.
Hypothesis 8.25. Let Γ = (V, E) be a connected (G, s)-arc-transitive graph,
where s > 2 and the valency of Γ is at least three. Suppose that G is almost simple
with socle L, and G is quasiprimitive on V containing a solvable vertex-transitive
subgroup R. Let {α, β} ∈ E.
By the quasiprimitivity of G we immediately derive from the above hypothesis
that L is transitive on V and Γ is non-bipartite. Furthermore, by Lemmas 8.5
and 8.9 we have the consequences below.
Lemma 8.26. Under Hypothesis 8.25, the following statements hold.
(a) G has a factorization G = RGα with a solvable factor R and a core-free
factor Gα .
(b) Either G = L or Gα L.
(c) There exists a 2-element g in NG (Gαβ ) such that
hGα , NG (Gαβ )i = hGα , gi = G
and Gα is 2-transitive on [Gα :Gα ∩ Ggα ].
The candidates for (G, R, Gα ) in the factorization G = RGα are categorized by
Theorem 1.1 into parts (a)–(d) there, and we will analyze them separately. Above
all, we consider the candidates (G, R, Gα) = (G, H, K) as in part (a) of Theorem 1.1,
which is the case where both H and K are solvable.
Lemma 8.27. Under Hypothesis 8.25, if Gα is solvable, then L = PSL2 (q) for
some prime power q, so that Γ is classified in [23].
Proof. Suppose that L 6= PSL2 (q) for any prime power q. Then by Proposition 4.1, (G, R, Gα ) = (G, H, K) or (G, K, H) for some triple (G, H, K) in rows 4–12
of Table 4.1.
Assume that L = PSL3 (3) as in rows 4–5 of Table 4.1. Then since Gα is 2transitive on Γ (α), we infer that Gα = 32 :2.S4 or AΓL1 (9) and in particular Gα < L.

8.4. PROOF

89

This yields G = L by Lemma 8.26(b), and so |V | = |G|/|Gα| = 13 or 39. As a
consequence, the valency of Γ is even, which restricts Gα = 32 :2.S4 and Gαβ =
32 :2.S3 . However, this causes NG (Gαβ ) = Gαβ < Gα and then hGα , NG (Gαβ ) = Gα ,
contrary to Lemma 8.26(c).
For L = PSL3 (4) as in row 6 of Table 4.1, since the quasiprimitivity of G on V
requires that there is no subgroup of index two in G containing Gα , the possibilities
for (G, Gα ) are (L.S3 , 7:3.S3 ), (L.(S3 × 2), 7:6.S3 ) and (L.S3 , 24:(3 × D10 ).2). Searching in Magma[6] for these candidates gives no such connected (G, 2)-arc-transitive
graph.
In the following we exclude rows 7–12 of Table 4.1. If Γ has valency at least
[1]
[1]
five, then since Gα is solvable, we have Gαβ = 1 by Theorem 8.7 and thus Gα E
Γ (β) ∼
Γ (α)
G
by Lemma 8.6. In particular, if Γ has valency at least five, then
=G
αβ

(8.18)

αβ

Γ (α)

Γ (α)
|Gα | = |G[1]
| divides |Gαβ ||GΓα (α) | = |GΓα (α) |2 /|Γ (α)|.
α ||Gα

Let L = PSL3 (8) as in row 7 of Table 4.1. Since Gα is 2-transitive on Γ (α),
we have Gα = 23+6 :72 :3 or 23+6 :72 :6. If Gα = 23+6 :72 :6, then |Γ (α)| = 7 and
G = PSL3 (8).6, which leads to a contradiction that both |Γ (α)| and |V | = |G|/|Gα |
Γ (α)
are odd. Thus Gα = 23+6 :72 :3, and so Gα = 23 :7:3. However, (8.18) requires |Gα |
Γ (α)
to divide |Gα |2 , a contradiction.
Let L = PSU3 (8) as in row 8 of Table 4.1. Since Gα is 2-transitive on Γ (α)
and G does not have a subgroup of index two containing Gα , we have (G, Gα ) =
(PSU3 (8).32 .O, 23+6 :(63:3).O) with O 6 C2 . As a consequence, |V | = |G|/|Gα | =
Γ (α)
513 is odd, and so |Γ (α)| is even. Hence |Γ (α)| = 26 and Gα = 26 :(63:3).O, but
this does not satisfy (8.18), a contradiction.
Assume next that L = PSU4 (2) and Gα = H or K as in rows 9–11 of Table 4.1.
For each candidate of Gα , let X be the maximal subgroup of G containing Gα ,
3
where X ∩ L = 24 :A5 , 31+2
+ :2.A4 or 3 :S4 . Then computation in Magma[6] verifies
that for any subgroup M of Gα such that Gα acts 2-transitively on [Gα :M], one has
NG (M) 6 X. This violates Lemma 8.26(c).
For G = M11 as in row 12 Table 4.1, Gα = M9 .2 = 32 :Q8 .2 and Gαβ = Q8 .2,
which makes |V | = |G|/|Gα | and |Γ (α)| = |Gα |/|Gαβ | both odd, a contradiction.
This proves the lemma.

Next we treat the candidates for (G, R, Gα) = (G, H, K) as described in part (b)
of Theorem 1.1.
Lemma 8.28. Under Hypothesis 8.25, if L = An with n > 7, then Γ = Kn .
Proof. The triple (G, R, Gα ) = (G, H, K) is classified in Proposition 4.3, which
shows that one of the following occurs.
(i) An E G 6 Sn with n > 6, and An−1 E Gα 6 Sn−1 .
(ii) An E G 6 Sn with n = pf for some prime p, and An−2 E Gα 6 Sn−2 × S2 .
(iii) An E G 6 Sn with n = 8 or 32, and An−3 E Gα 6 Sn−3 × S3 .
(iv) (G, R, Gα ) = (G, H, K) in rows 5–6 of Table 4.2.
First assume that (i) occurs. Then viewing Lemma 8.26(b) we have (G, Gα ) =
(Sn , Sn−1 ) or (An , An−1 ). It follows that G is 2-transitive on [G:Gα ], and hence
Γ = Kn .

90

8. CAYLEY GRAPHS OF SOLVABLE GROUPS

Next assume that (ii) occurs. For n = 7, 8 and 9, respectively, computation in
Magma[6] shows that there is no such connected (G, 2)-arc-transitive graph. Thus
n > 11.
Suppose G = An . Then either Gα = An−2 or Gα = (Sn−2 × S2 ) ∩ An ∼
= Sn−2 .
Assume that Gα = An−2 . Because Gα acts 2-transitively on [Gα :Gαβ ], so we have
Gαβ = An−3 . It follows that NG (Gαβ ) = (Sn−3 ×S3 )∩An . Thus for any 2-element g ∈
NG (Gαβ ) \ Gα , we have hGα , gi = hAn−2 , (1, 2)(n − 2, n − 1)i, hAn−2 , (1, 2)(n − 2, n)i
or hAn−2 , (1, 2)(n − 1, n)i, and hence hGα , gi ∼
= An−1 or Sn−2 . This is contrary
to Lemma 8.26(c). Now Gα = (Sn−2 × S2 ) ∩ An = hAn−2 , (1, 2)(n − 1, n)i. Since
Gα acts 2-transitively on [Gα :Gαβ ], we may assume Gαβ = hAn−3 , (1, 2)(n − 1, n)i
without loss of generality. It follows that NG (Gαβ ) = Gαβ < Gα , still contrary to
Lemma 8.26(c).
Suppose G = Sn . Then Gα = Sn−2 , An−2 × S2 or Sn−2 × S2 by Lemma 8.26(b).
This implies that L = An is 2-arc-transitive on Γ , which is not possible as shown in
the previous paragraph.
Now assume that (iii) appears. If n = 8, then searching in Magma[6] shows that
no such connected (G, 2)-arc-transitive graph arises. Therefore, n = 32. According
to Proposition 4.3, R = AΓL1 (32), which implies that |Gα | is divisible by 3|S29 |
[1]
since |Gα | is divisible by |G|/|R|. Hence A29 × C3 E Gα , and so C3 6 Gα , A29 6
Γ (α)
Γ (α)
[1]
Gα 6 S29 and A28 6 Gαβ 6 S28 . By Theorem 8.7(b) we conclude Gαβ = 1, and
[1]
[1]
Γ (α)
it then follows from Lemma 8.6 that Gα ∼
, not possible.
= (Gα )Γ (β) E G
αβ

Finally, for case (iv), computation in Magma[6] shows that there exists no such
connected (G, 2)-arc-transitive graph. This completes the proof.

The case where (G, R, Gα) = (G, H, K) as in part (c) of Theorem 1.1 is dealt
with in the next lemma.
Lemma 8.29. Under Hypothesis 8.25, if L is a sporadic simple group and Gα is
unsolvable, then either Γ is a complete graph, or Γ is the Higman-Sims graph and
(G, Gα ) = (HS, M22 ) or (HS.2, M22 .2).
Proof. By Proposition 4.4, either G acts 2-transitively on [G:K], or (G, K) lies
in rows 3–4 and 7–13 of Table 4.3. For the former, Γ is a complete graph. Since Gα
is 2-transitive on Γ (α), it is not possible for Gα = Sp4 (4).4 or G2 (4).2 as in row 12
or 13, respectively, of Table 4.3. Moreover, computation in Magma[6] shows that
there exists no non-bipartite connected (G, 2)-arc-transitive graph for rows 3–4 of
Table 4.3. Thus we only need to consider rows 7–11 of Table 4.3.
Let G = M23 as in row 7 of Table 4.3. If Gα = M22 , then G acts 2-transitively on
[G:Gα ] and so Γ = K23 . If Gα = PSL3 (4):2, then Gαβ = 24 :S5 and NG (Gαβ ) = Gαβ ,
contradicting Lemma 8.26(c). If Gα = 24 :A7 , then Gαβ = A7 , 24 :A6 or 24 :GL3 (2)
and NG (Gαβ ) = Gαβ , again contradicting Lemma 8.26(c).
If G = J2 .2 as in row 8 of Table 4.3, then Gα = G2 (2) and Gαβ = 31+2
+ :8:2 as Gα
is 2-transitive on Γ (α), but NG (Gαβ ) = Gαβ , violating the connectivity of Γ .
Now let L = HS as in rows 9–11 of Table 4.3. Viewing Lemma 8.26(b), we have
(G, Gα ) = (HS.O, M22 .O) with O 6 C2 . From the 2-transitivity of Gα on Γ (α)
we derive that Gαβ = PSL3 (4).O. Hence Γ has order |G|/|Gα | = 100 and valency
|Gα |/|Gαβ | = 22. This is the well-known Higman-Sims graph, see Example 8.12. 

8.4. PROOF

91

Finally we embark on the candidates for (G, R, Gα) = (G, H, K) as in part (d)
of Theorem 1.1.
Lemma 8.30. Under Hypothesis 8.25, if G is a classical group of dimension
greater than two and Gα is unsolvable, then Γ is the Hoffman-Singlton graph and
(G, Gα ) = (PSU3 (5), A7 ) or (PΣU3 (5), S7 ).
Proof. According to part (d) of Theorem 1.1, (G, R, Gα ) = (G, H, K) with
(L, H ∩ L, K ∩ L) described in Tables 1.1–1.2. Since Gα acts 2-transitively on Γ (α),
inspecting the candidates in Tables 1.1–1.2 we conclude that one of the following
occurs.
(i) L = PSLn (q), where n > 3 and (n, q) 6= (3, 2) or (3, 3), and Lα D
q n−1 :SLn−1 (q).
(ii) L = PSp4 (q), and PSL2 (q 2 ) E Lα 6 PSL2 (q 2 ).2 as in row 4 or 5 of Table 1.1.
(iii) L = PSU4 (q), and SU3 (q) E Lα as in row 6 of Table 1.1.
(iv) (L, H ∩ L, K ∩ L) lies in rows 6–21, 23 and 25–26 of Table 1.2.
Γ (α)

Case 1. Suppose that (i) appears. Then either Lα D q n−1 :SLn−1 (q) is affine
Γ (α)
with |Γ (α)| = q n−1 , or Lα D PSLn−1 (q) is almost simple with |Γ (α)| = (q n−1 −
1)/(q−1). Accordingly, Gαβ is the maximal subgroup of index q n−1 or (q n−1 −1)/(q−
1) in Gα . If G 6 PΓLn (q), then NG (Gαβ ) 6 P1 [G], which leads to hGα , NG (Gαβ )i 6
P1 [G], contrary to Lemma 8.9(c). Consequently, G PΓLn (q), and so G ∩ PΓLn (q)
has index 2 in G. Moreover, G ∩ PΓLn (q) contains Gα by Lemma 3.1. This implies
that G ∩ PΓLn (q) is not transitive on V , which is impossible as G is quasiprimitive
on V .
Case 2. Suppose that (ii) appears. In light of the graph automorphism of L
for even q, we may assume without loss of generality that Lα is a C3 subgroup of L.
Denote the stabilizer of a totally isotropic 1 or 2-space in L by P1 or P2 , respectively.
Since Lα E Gα and Gα is 2-transitive on Γ (α), we deduce from the classification of
2-transitive permutation groups that Lα is 2-transitive on Γ (α) and
Lαβ = Lα ∩ P2 = q 2 :

q2 − 1
q2 − 1
or q 2 :
.2.
(2, q − 1)
(2, q − 1)

Therefore, Γ is (L, 2)-arc-transitive, and then by Lemma 8.9 there exists g ∈ L
such that g normalizes Lαβ , g 2 ∈ Lαβ and hLα , gi = L. Let X = PSL2 (q 2 ).2
be the maximal subgroup of L containing Lα , and N = hgiLαβ = Lαβ hgi. Since
Op (Lαβ ) 6= 1, we know that Op (N) 6= 1 and hence N is contained in the parabolic
subgroup P1 or P2 of L by Borel-Tits theorem. Note that the intersection of P1 with
the C3 subgroup X has order |X||P1 |/|L| = 2q 2 (q − 1)/(2, q − 1) as the factorization
L = XP1 holds. If N 6 P1 , then Lαβ 6 P1 , which leads to a contradiction that
2q 2 (q − 1) > |P1 ∩ X| > |P1 ∩ Lα | > |Lαβ | > q 2 (q 2 − 1).
Consequently, N 6 P2 , from which we conclude
N = q2:

q2 − 1
.2 = X ∩ P2
(2, q − 1)

as |N|/|Lαβ | = 2. It follows that N 6 X, and then hLα , gi 6 hLα , Ni 6 X 6= L,
contrary to the connectivity of Γ .

92

8. CAYLEY GRAPHS OF SOLVABLE GROUPS

Case 3. Suppose that (iii) appears. In this case, Y E Lα 6 X, where Y =
SU3 (q) and X = GU3 (q)/d with d = (4, q + 1). Denote the stabilizer of a totally
isotropic 1 or 2-space in L by P1 or P2 , respectively. Since Lα E Gα and Gα is
2-transitive on Γ (α), we deduce from the classification of 2-transitive permutation
groups that Lα is 2-transitive on Γ (α) and Lαβ ∩ Y = q 1+2 :(q 2 − 1). Therefore,
Γ is (L, 2)-arc-transitive, and then by Lemma 8.9 there exists g ∈ L such that g
normalizes Lαβ , g 2 ∈ Lαβ and hLα , gi = L. Let N = hgiLαβ = Lαβ hgi. Since
Op (Lαβ ) 6= 1, we know that Op (N) 6= 1 and hence N is contained in the parabolic
subgroup P1 or P2 of L by Borel-Tits theorem. We conclude that
q+1
6X
d
as |N|/|Lαβ | = 2, but this implies hLα , gi 6 hLα , Ni 6 X 6= L, contrary to the
connectivity of Γ .
Case 4. Suppose that (iv) appears. For the candidates of (L, H ∩ L, K ∩ L) in
rows 6–11 of Table 1.2, searching in Magma[6] gives no such connected (G, 2)-arctransitive graph.
Let L = PSp4 (p), where p ∈ {5, 7, 11, 23}, as in rows 12–15 of Table 1.2. Then
Γ (α)
Γ (α)
Lα = PSL2 (p2 ):O with O 6 C2 , and since Gα
is 2-transitive, Lα
is also 2transitive. Therefore, Γ is (L, 2)-arc-transitive. By the 2-transitivity of Lα on Γ (α)
we derive that Lαβ = (p2 :(p2 − 1)/2).O and then NL (Lαβ ) < PSL2 (p2 ):2. However,
this implies that hLα , NL (Lαβ )i 6 PSL2 (p2 ):2 < L, contrary to the connectivity of
Γ.
Assume that L = Sp6 (2) as in row 16 of Table 1.2. Then G = L, and Gα = A8 or
S8 . If Gα = S8 , then G is 2-transitive but not 3-transitive on [G:Gα ], a contradiction.
Thus Gα = A8 , and we have Gαβ = 23 :GL3 (2) or A7 since Gα acts 2-transitively on
Γ (α). If Gαβ = 23 :GL3 (2), then NG (Gαβ ) = Gαβ < Gα , violating the connectivity
of Γ . If Gαβ = A7 , then S7 ∼
= NG (Gαβ ) < Gα , still violating the connectivity of Γ .
Let L = PSp6 (3) as in row 17 of Table 1.2. Then Lα = PSL2 (27).3 is also 2transitive on Γ (α), and hence Γ is (L, 2)-arc-transitive. Due to the 2-transitivity
Γ (α)
of Lα we deduce Gαβ = 33 :13:3. However, it follows that NL (Lαβ ) = Lαβ < Lα ,
contrary to the connectivity of Γ . The same arguments rules out rows 18 and 20 of
Table 1.2.
Now let L = PSU3 (5) as in row 19 of Table 1.2. Then Lα = A7 is also 2transitive on Γ (α), and hence Lαβ = PSL2 (7) or A6 . If Lαβ = PSL2 (7), then
NL (Lαβ ) = Lαβ < Lα , not possible. Consequently, Lαβ = A6 , and Γ has order
|L|/|Lα | = 50 and valency |Lα |/|Lαβ | = 7. This is the well-known Hoffman-Singleton
graph introduced in Example 8.11, where we see that Aut(Γ ) = PΣU3 (5) and so
(G, Gα ) = (PSU3 (5), A7 ) or (PΣU3 (5), S7 ).
Let L = PSU4 (8) as in row 21 of Table 1.2. Then Lα = 212 :SL2 (64).7, and
|V | = |L|/|Lα | = 4617 is odd. Since Gα is 2-transitive on Γ (α), it follows that
|Γ (α)| = 65 is odd, a contradiction. (We remark that the subgroup 212 :SL2 (64) of Lα
is not isomorphic to ASL2 (64) and does not have any 2-transitive affine permutation
representation.) The same argument excludes row 23 of Table 1.2.
Assume finally that L = Ω+
8 (2) as in rows 25–26 of Table 1.2, where Lα = Sp6 (2)
or A9 . Then Lα is also 2-transitive on Γ (α). If Lα = Sp6 (2), then Lαβ = S8 or
SO−
6 (2), but NL (Lαβ ) = Lαβ < Lα , violating the connectivity of Γ . If Lα = A9 ,
N 6 q 1+2 :(q 2 − 1).

8.4. PROOF

93

then Lαβ = A8 , but NL (Lαβ ) = Lαβ < Lα , still violating the connectivity of Γ . This
completes the proof.

Proof of Theorem 1.2: Let Σ be a non-bipartite connected (X, s)-transitive
graph and R be a solvable vertex-transitive subgroup of X, where s > 2 and the
valency of Σ is at least three. By virtue of Lemma 8.4 we may assume that X = G is
vertex-quasiprimitive and Σ = Γ . By Proposition 8.24, G is affine or almost simple.
If G is affine, then Γ is not (G, 3)-arc-transitive by [35, Proposition 2.3], and so
s = 2 as in part (b) of Theorem 1.2.
Now assume that G is almost simple. Then (G, Γ ) satisfies Hypothesis 8.25.
If PSL2 (q) 6 G 6 PΓL2 (q) for some prime power q > 4, then Γ is classified
in [23], from which we conclude that s = 3 if and only if Γ is the Petersen graph.
Thus assume that soc(G) 6= PSL2 (q). Then Lemmas 8.27–8.30 show that (G, Γ )
satisfies part (a), (d) or (e) of Theorem 1.2. Note that the complete graph is not
3-arc-transitive, the Hoffman-Singlton graph is 3-transitive by Example 8.11 and
the Higman-Sims graph is not 3-arc-transitive by Example 8.12. This completes the
proof of Theorem 1.2.


APPENDIX A

Tables for nontrivial maximal factorizations of almost
simple classical groups
Table A.1. L = PSLn (q), n > 2
row A ∩ L
1
ˆGLa (q b ).b
2
PSpn (q).a
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

B∩L
P1 , Pn−1
P1 , Pn−1

remark
ab = n, b prime
n > 4 even,
a = (2, q − 1)(n/2, q − 1)/(n, q − 1)
PSpn (q).a
Stab(V1 ⊕ Vn−1 ) n > 4 even, G PΓLn (q),
a = (2, q − 1)(n/2, q − 1)/(n, q − 1)
2
ˆGLn/2 (q ).2 Stab(V1 ⊕ Vn−1 ) n > 4 even, q ∈ {2, 4}, G PΓLn (q)
P1
A5
n = 2, q ∈ {11, 19, 29, 59}
P1
S4
n = 2, q ∈ {7, 23}
P1
A4
G = PGL2 (11)
D34
PSL2 (4)
G = PΓL2 (16)
PSL2 (7)
A6
n = 3, q = 4, G = L.2
31.5
P2 , P3
n = 5, q = 2

95

96

A. MAXIMAL FACTORIZATIONS OF ALMOST SIMPLE CLASSICAL GROUPS

Table A.2. L = PSp2m (q), m > 2
row
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

A∩L
PSp2a (q b ).b
Sp2a (q b ).b
O−
2m (q)
O−
2m (q)
Spm (4).2
O−
2m (2)
O−
2m (4)

B∩L
P1
−
O+
2m (q), O2m (q)
Pm
Spm (q) ≀ S2
N2
O+
2m (2)
O+
2m (4)

8
9
10
11

Spm (16).2
O−
2m (4)
O−
2m (16)
Sz(q)

N2
Sp2m (2)
Sp2m (4)
O+
4 (q)

12
13
14
15
16

G2 (q)
24 .A5
PSL2 (13)
O−
8 (2)
PSL2 (17)

−
O+
6 (q), O6 (q), P1 , N2
P1 , P2
P1
S10
O+
8 (2)

remark
ab = m, b prime
q even, ab = m, b prime
q even
m even, q even
m > 4 even, q = 2
q=2
q = 4, G = L.2, two classes
of factorizations if m = 2
m > 4 even, q = 4, G = L.2
q = 4, G = L.2
q = 16, G = L.4
m = 2, q = 2f , f > 3 odd,
two classes of factorizations
m = 3, q even
m = 2, q = 3
m = 3, q = 3
m = 4, q = 2
m = 4, q = 2

Table A.3. L = PSUn (q), n > 3
row
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12

A∩L
N1
N1
N1
N1
PSL2 (7)
A7
19.3
33 .S4
PSL3 (4)
N1
J3
Suz

B∩L
Pm
PSp2m (q).a
ˆSLm (4).2
ˆSLm (16).3.2
P1
P1
P1
P2
P1 , PSp4 (3), P2
PSU4 (3).2, M22
P1
N1

remark
n = 2m
n = 2m, a = (2, q − 1)(m, q + 1)/(n, q + 1)
n = 2m > 6, q = 2
n = 2m, q = 4, G > L.4
n = 3, q = 3
n = 3, q = 5
n = 3, q = 8, G > L.32
n = 4, q = 2
n = 4, q = 3
n = 6, q = 2
n = 9, q = 2
n = 12, q = 2

A. MAXIMAL FACTORIZATIONS OF ALMOST SIMPLE CLASSICAL GROUPS

Table A.4. L = Ω2m+1 (q), m > 3, q odd
row
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

A∩L
N−
1
G2 (q)
G2 (q)
PSp6 (q).a
F4 (q)
G2 (3)
N+
1
P3

B∩L
Pm
−
−
P1 , N+
1 , N1 , N2
N+
2
N−
1
N−
1
S9 , Sp6 (2)
S9 , Sp6 (2)
S9 , Sp6 (2), 26 .A7

remark
m=3
m = 3, q > 3
m = 6, q = 3f , a 6 2
m = 12, q = 3f
m = 3, q = 3
m = 3, q = 3
m = 3, q = 3

Table A.5. L = PΩ−
2m (q), m > 4
row
1
2
3
4
5

A∩L
P1
N1
P1
N+
2
A12

B∩L
ˆGUm (q)
ˆGUm (q)
2
Ω−
m (q ).2
GUm (4)
P1

remark
m odd
m odd
m even, q ∈ {2, 4}, G = Aut(L)
m odd, q = 4, G = Aut(L)
m = 5, q = 2

Table A.6. L = PΩ+
2m (q), m > 5
row
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13

A∩L
N1
N1
N1
N−
2
P1
N1
N1
N1
N−
2
N−
2
N+
2
Ω9 (q).a
Co1

B∩L
Pm , Pm−1
ˆGUm (q).2
(PSp2 (q) ⊗ PSpm (q)).a
Pm , Pm−1
ˆGUm (q).2
ˆGLm (q).2
2
Ω+
m (4).2
2
Ω+
m (16).2
ˆGLm (2).2
ˆGLm (4).2
ˆGUm (4).2
N1
N1

remark
m even
m even, q > 2, a = gcd(2, m/2, q − 1)
m even
G > L.2 if m odd
m even, q = 2
m even, q = 4, G > L.2
q = 2, G > L.2 if m odd
q = 4, G > L.2, G 6= O+
2m (4)
m even, q = 4, G = L.2
m = 8, a 6 2
m = 12, q = 2

97

98

A. MAXIMAL FACTORIZATIONS OF ALMOST SIMPLE CLASSICAL GROUPS

Table A.7. L = PΩ+
8 (q)
row
1
2
3
4

A∩L
Ω7 (q)
Ω7 (q)
Ω7 (q)
Ω7 (q)

5
6
7
8

Ω7 (q)
Ω7 (q)
P1 , P3 , P4
A9

9
10
11
12
13
14
15

B∩L
Ω7 (q)
P1 , P3 , P4
d
ˆ((q + 1)/d × Ω−
6 (q)).2
d
ˆ((q − 1)/d × Ω+
6 (q)).2

(PSp2 (q) ⊗ PSp4 (q)).2
1/2
Ω−
)
8 (q
d
ˆ((q + 1)/d × Ω−
6 (q)).2
Ω7 (2), P1 , P3 , P4 ,
(3 × Ω−
6 (2)).2
Ω7 (2)
(PSL2 (4) × PSL2 (4)).22
+
Ω8 (2)
Ω7 (3)
+
Ω8 (2)
P1 , P3 , P4
+
Ω8 (2)
P13 , P14 , P34
26 .A8
P1 , P3 , P4
Ω7 (4)
(PSL2 (16) × PSL2 (16)).22
−
(5 × Ω6 (4)).2 (3 × Ω+
6 (4)).2

remark
A = B τ for some triality τ
d = (2, q − 1), B in C1 or C3
q > 2, G = L.2 if q = 3,
d = (2, q − 1), B in C1 or C2
q odd, B in C1 or C4
q square, B in C5 or S
d = (2, q − 1), B in C1 or C3
q=2
q
q
q
q
q
q
q

= 2,
=3
=3
= 3,
= 3,
= 4,
= 4,

B in C2 or C3

G > L.2
G > L.2
G > L.2
G > L.2

APPENDIX B

Magmacodes
/*
Input : a finite group G
Output: sequence of pairs [H,K] such that G=HK with H and K both core-free
*/
_Factorizations:=function(G)
list:=[];
S:=[i:i in Subgroups(G)|#Core(G,i‘subgroup) eq 1];
T:=MaximalSubgroups(G);
while #T gt 0 do
K:=T[1]‘subgroup;
core:=Core(G,K);
if #core eq 1 then
for i in S do
H:=i‘subgroup;
if #H*#K eq #G*#(H meet K) then
Append(~list,[H,K]);
T:=T cat MaximalSubgroups(K);
end if;
end for;
else
T:=T cat MaximalSubgroups(K);
end if;
Remove(~T,1);
end while;
return list;
end function;

/*
Input : a finite group G
Output: sequence of pairs [H,K] such that G=HK with H solvable and K core-free
*/
_SolvableFactorizations:=function(G)
list:=[];
S:=SolvableSubgroups(G);
T:=MaximalSubgroups(G);
while #T gt 0 do
K:=T[1]‘subgroup;
99

100

B. MagmaCODES

core:=Core(G,K);
if #core eq 1 then
for i in S do
H:=i‘subgroup;
if #H*#K eq #G*#(H meet K) then
Append(~list,[H,K]);
T:=T cat MaximalSubgroups(K);
end if;
end for;
else
T:=T cat MaximalSubgroups(K);
end if;
Remove(~T,1);
end while;
return list;
end function;

/*
Input : a finite group G
Output: the maximal solvable subgroups as well as some other solvable subgroups
of G
*/
_MaximalSolvableCandidates:=function(G)
list:=[];
temp:=MaximalSubgroups(G);
while #temp gt 0 do
if IsSolvable(temp[1]‘subgroup) eq true then
Append(~list,temp[1]‘subgroup);
else
temp:=temp cat MaximalSubgroups(temp[1]‘subgroup);
end if;
Remove(~temp,1);
end while;
return list;
end function;

/*
Input : a finite group G
Output: sequence of pairs [H,K] such that G=HK with H maximal solvable and K
core-free
*/
_MaximalSolvableFactorizations1:=function(G)
list:=[];

B. MagmaCODES

101

S:=_MaximalSolvableCandidates(G);
T:=MaximalSubgroups(G);
while #T gt 0 do
K:=T[1]‘subgroup;
core:=Core(G,K);
if #core eq 1 then
for H in S do
if #H*#K eq #G*#(H meet K) then
Append(~list,[H,K]);
T:=T cat MaximalSubgroups(K);
end if;
end for;
else
T:=T cat MaximalSubgroups(K);
end if;
Remove(~T,1);
end while;
return list;
end function;

/*
Input : a finite group G and a subgroup A
Output: sequence of pairs [H,K] such that G=HK with H maximal solvable in A
and K core-free
*/
_MaximalSolvableFactorizations2:=function(G,A)
list:=[];
S:=_MaximalSolvableCandidates(A);
T:=MaximalSubgroups(G);
while #T gt 0 do
K:=T[1]‘subgroup;
core:=Core(G,K);
if #core eq 1 then
for H in S do
if #H*#K eq #G*#(H meet K) then
Append(~list,[H,K]);
T:=T cat MaximalSubgroups(K);
end if;
end for;
else
T:=T cat MaximalSubgroups(K);
end if;
Remove(~T,1);
end while;
return list;

102

B. MagmaCODES

end function;

/*
Input : a finite group G
Output: the core-free maximal subgroups of G
*/
_CoreFreeMaximalSubgroups:=function(G)
L:=MaximalSubgroups(G);
return [i:i in L|#Core(G,i‘subgroup) eq 1];
end function;

/*
Input : a finite group G
Output: sequence of pairs [H,K] such that G=HK with H maximal solvable and K
core-free maximal
*/
_MaximalFactorizations1:=function(G)
list:=[];
S:=_MaximalSolvableCandidates(G);
T:=_CoreFreeMaximalSubgroups(G);
for H in S do
for i in T do
K:=i‘subgroup;
if #H*#K eq #G*#(H meet K) then
Append(~list,[H,K]);
end if;
end for;
end for;
return list;
end function;

/*
Input : a finite group G and a subgroup A
Output: sequence of pairs [H,K] such that G=HK with H maximal solvable in A
and K core-free maximal
*/
_MaximalFactorizations2:=function(G,A)
list:=[];
S:=_MaximalSolvableCandidates(A);
T:=_CoreFreeMaximalSubgroups(G);
for H in S do
for i in T do

B. MagmaCODES

103

K:=i‘subgroup;
if #H*#K eq #G*#(H meet K) then
Append(~list,[H,K]);
end if;
end for;
end for;
return list;
end function;

/*
Input : a finite group G and a subgroup K
Output: sequence of conjugacy classes of subgroups M of K such that K=Gα and
M=Gαβ for an edge {α, β} of some (G,2)-arc-transitive graph
*/
_TwoArcTransitive:=function(G,K)
list:=[];
I:=[i:i in MaximalSubgroups(K)|Transitivity(CosetImage(K,i‘subgroup
)) gt 1 and sub<G|K,Normalizer(G,i‘subgroup)> eq G];
for i in I do
M:=i‘subgroup;
N:=Normaliser(G,M);
P:=Sylow(N,2);
R,_:=RightTransversal(N,Normaliser(N,P));
s:=0;
for x in R do
if exists(g){g:g in P^x|K^g meet K eq M and sub<G|K,g> eq G
and g^2 in K} then
s:=s+1;
end if;
end for;
if s gt 0 then
Append(~list,M);
end if;
end for;
return list;
end function;

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