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text: English Explanation of Mishnah Berakhot
  ביאור אנגלי על משנה ברכות
  merged
  
  This file contains merged sections from the following text versions:
  -Mishnah Yomit by Dr. Joshua Kulp
  -
  
  English Explanation of Mishnah Berakhot
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  Mishnah 1
  
  Introduction
  Tractate Berakhot begins by discussing what time the Shema (only two paragraphs were recited at night, Deuteronomy 6:4-9 and 11:13-21) is recited in the evening.  It probably begins by discussing the evening Shema because in rabbinic thought the day begins at night.  This is also the order reflected in Deuteronomy 6:7 and 11:19, “Recite them…when you lie down and when you get up.”  In our mishnah the sages debate what the halakhic meaning of the words “when you lie down” really are.
  From what time may one recite the Shema in the evening?From the time that the priests enter [their houses] in order to eat their terumah until the end of the first watch, the words of Rabbi Eliezer.  The priests would immerse at dusk so that after the sun had set and the stars came out they could go into their homes and eat terumah. Rabbi Eliezer determines that until the sun has set the Shema cannot be recited.  The night is divided into three watches.  Rabbi Eliezer holds that once the first watch has passed (this would be about 10 PM, if the day and night are both 12 hours), one can no longer recite the Shema.  It seems that he interprets “when you lie down” to mean that the Shema must be recited at a time when most people go to sleep, that is between the time that the stars come out and the end of the first watch.
  The sages say: until midnight.  The sages say that he can read the Shema only until midnight.
  Rabban Gamaliel says: until dawn.  Rabban Gamaliel says that the Shema can be read until the sun rises the following morning.  As we shall see below, Rabban Gamaliel does not actually disagree with the sages but rather explains their opinion.
  Once it happened that his sons came home [late] from a wedding feast and they said to him: we have not yet recited the [evening] Shema. He said to them: if it is not yet dawn you are still obligated to recite.  In this story Rabban Gamaliel’s sons are out all night at a wedding party and they do not come home until early in the morning.  Being good rabbi’s children, the first thing they ask him upon their return is if they can still recite the evening Shema or whether they have missed the opportunity altogether.  Rabban Gamaliel answers that if it is not yet dawn, they may still recite the Shema.
  And not in respect to this alone did they so decide, but wherever the sages say “until midnight,” the mitzvah may be performed until dawn. The burning of the fat and the pieces may be performed till dawn. Similarly, all [the offerings] that are to be eaten within one day may be eaten till dawn. Why then did the sages say “until midnight”?  In order to keep a man far from transgression.  Here and in the following sections we see that Rabban Gamaliel holds that whenever the sages say that a certain mitzvah must be performed before midnight, in actuality it can be performed until the following morning. The sages said that the mitzvah should be performed before midnight so that the person would perform the mitzvah with plenty of time to spare and not miss his opportunity and thereby transgress.  The mishnah brings two more such cases where they said that the mitzvah should be performed before midnight but it could actually be performed until the following morning. Parts of sacrifices that were not offered during the day were offered at night.  While this should be done before midnight, if not done by then it can still be done up until the following dawn.  Similarly, some sacrifices can only be eaten for a day or two and the night that follows.  The sacrifice should be eaten before midnight, but if it is still leftover it can be eaten until dawn of the following morning.
  
  Mishnah 2
  
  Introduction
  Today’s mishnah proceeds to discuss when the morning Shema is recited.  The Torah says that it should be recited “when you get up,” so the debate in our mishnah is essentially over the meaning of this phrase.
  From what time may one recite the Shema in the morning?From the time that one can distinguish between blue and white. Rabbi Eliezer says: between blue and green.  Both opinions in the mishnah determine when one can recite the morning Shema by whether it is light enough to distinguish colors. This is probably connected to the wearing of tzitzit in the morning and the ability to recognize the colors of the threads.  The first opinion holds that one must be able to distinguish between blue and white, the two colors in one’s tzitzit.  Rabbi Eliezer holds that one must be able to distinguish between blue and green. Green is close to the color of tzitzit, so Rabbi Eliezer is saying that one must be able to tell that the tzitzit are blue and not green. This would require more light than distinguishing between blue and white.
  And he must finish it by sunrise. Rabbi Joshua says: until the third hour of the day, for such is the custom of the children of kings, to rise at the third hour. If one recites the Shema later he loses nothing, like one who reads in the Torah.  According to the first opinion one must finish reciting the Shema by sunrise.  This is the time of day when most people would get up. Rabbi Joshua holds that “when you get up” doesn’t refer to when an average working person rises, but to when the last people, the children of kings who do not have to work, get up. They rise at the third hour of the day, meaning when one quarter of the day has passed. Therefore, all of Israel has until this time to recite the Shema. Rabbi Joshua adds that after the third hour one who reads the Shema has not transgressed. We might have thought that by reciting a prayer which he was not obligated to recite he thereby recited God’s name in vain.  However, this is not so because the Shema is in the Torah and reading the Torah and pronouncing God’s name is not considered taking God’s name in vain.  Nevertheless, one who recites the Shema after the third hour has not fulfilled the mitzvah of reciting the Shema.
  
  Mishnah 3
  
  Introduction
  The Torah says that one should recite the Shema “when you lie down and when you get up.”  In our mishnah, Bet Shammai and Bet Hillel debate the meaning of this phrase.
  Bet Shammai say: in the evening every man should recline and recite [the Shema], and in the morning he should stand, as it says, “And when you lie down and when you get up” (Deuteronomy 6:7).  Bet Shammai reads the verse quite literally.  In the evening one must lie down and recite the Shema and in the morning one must stand up and recite it.
  Bet Hillel say that every man should recite in his own way, as it says, “And when you walk by the way” (.  Why then is it said, “And when you lies down and when you get up?” At the time when people lie down and at the time when people rise up.  In contrast, to Bet Hillel these words refer to the time when people lie down and the time when they rise up.  The words “and when you walk by the way” prove that the Torah does not really care what position a person is when he recites the Shema.
  Rabbi Tarfon said: I was once walking by the way and I reclined to recite the Shema according to the words of Bet Shammai, and I incurred danger from robbers. They said to him: you deserved to come to harm, because you acted against the words of Bet Hillel.  Rabbi Tarfon, a sage who lived after the destruction of the Temple, testifies that one time while going on the way in the evening (probably riding on his donkey), he went out of his way to lie down on the ground and he almost incurred danger from robbers. The rabbis to whom he is talking tell him that he deserved whatever trouble he got in for going out of his way to act like Bet Shammai. The halakhah is like Bet Hillel and a rabbi who acts against this halakhah is endangering his own life.
  
  Mishnah 4
  
  Introduction
  This mishnah deals with the blessings that come before and after the Shema in the morning and evening. It will help you understand this mishnah if you open a siddur while learning it.
  In the morning he recites two blessings before it and one after it; in the evening two before it and two after it, one long and one short.  In the morning the Shema is preceded by two blessings. The first is called “Yotzer Or” and it deals with the creation of light and darkness. The second is called “Ahavat Olam” (in the Sephardi tradition) or “Ahavah Rabbah” (in the Ashkenazi tradition) and in it we thank God for choosing us as worthy of the Torah.  The blessing after the Shema is called “Emet veYatziv” and it finishes with “Goel Yisrael.”  The general theme is one of gratitude to God for redeeming Israel. In the evening there are two before the Shema, both of which are similar in theme to the two morning blessings.  The first is “Hamaariv Aravim”, “who causes the sun to set” and the second is “Ahavat Olam,” similar to that in the morning.  The blessing after the Shema is also similar in theme to the blessing after the Shema in the morning.  It is called “Emet veEmunah” and it finishes with “Goel Yisrael” as does the morning’s blessing.  The major difference between the morning and the evening is that in the evening there is a second blessing after the Shema called “Hashkivenu” whose theme is peace and wellbeing and mentions going to sleep at night.  Of these two blessings the first is a long blessing and the second is short (according to Rashi’s explanation; for another explanation of “long and short” see below).
  Where they [the sages] said that a long one should be said, he may not say a short one; where they said a short one he may not say a long one  The mishnah now proceeds to give some general rules concerning blessings.  The basic gist is that if the sages said to recite a blessing in a certain way, the supplicant may not deviate from this prescribed manner.  If the sages said that the blessing should be long, then it must be long. Rashi explains that long refers simply to the length of the blessing hence the first blessing recited after the Shema is long and the second is short.  However, Maimonides explains that long refers to a blessing that begins and concludes with a blessing. This would be characteristic of the first blessing recited before the Shema in both the morning and evening but not of any of the other blessings. The first blessing of Birkat Hamazon would also be a long blessing.
  [Where they said] to conclude [with a blessing] he is not permitted to not conclude; where they said to not conclude [with a blessing], he may not conclude.  Some blessings conclude with a blessing formula “Barukh At Adonai.” This is true for all of the blessings surrounding the Shema.  However, other blessings begin with a blessing formula but do not end with an additional “Barukh” formula. This is true of blessings recited over food and other pleasures (smell, seeing things and others we will explore these blessing in chapter nine).  Again, one cannot deviate from these formulas.
  
  Mishnah 5
  
  Introduction
  In Eretz Yisrael during the time of the Mishnah people did not recite the third paragraph of Shema at night. This is the paragraph that talks about the tzitzit and about the Exodus from Egypt. The reason why it was not recited at night was that tzitzit, the central topic of the paragraph, are not worn at night. Our mishnah teaches that although the paragraph itself is not recited, the blessing after the Shema still makes mention of the Exodus.
  They mention the Exodus from Egypt at night.  The Exodus from Egypt is mentioned in the blessing that follows the Shema. In this prayer God is the redeemer of Israel redeeming us from Egypt and continuing to redeem us (we pray) in our time.  Although the third paragraph of the Shema is not recited, the mention of the Exodus is still made.  We should note that it might have been confusing for people to recite completely different blessings in the morning and at night, especially if major themes were different. After all, there were no siddurim in this period; prayers were recited from memory.  Therefore, the sages preserved some of the similarities between the morning and evening blessings.
  Rabbi Elazar ben Azaryah said: "Behold, I am almost a seventy-year old man and I have not succeeded in [understanding why] the Exodus from Egypt should be mentioned at night, until Ben Zoma explained it from a verse (Deuteronomy 16:3): ‘In order that you may remember the day you left Egypt all the days of your life.’ ‘The days of your life’ refers to the days.  ‘All the days of your life’ refers to the nights.  This section sounds, perhaps, familiar because it is contained in the Pesah Haggadah.  Ben Zoma, a colleague of Rabbi Akiva, offers a midrash, an exegesis on the word “all” from Deuteronomy 16:3.  It would have been sufficient for the Torah to state “the days of your life.”  The extra “all” comes to teach that the Shema should be mentioned at night. As an aside, the process of midrash is revealed well in this story. Rabbi Elazar ben Azaryah has been mentioning the Exodus all of his life in the evening blessings, but he doesn’t really know why he does so.  He would like a midrash, but in absence of one, his tradition is sufficient to maintain his practice.  Finally, when he is nearing the end of his life, he hears a midrash which supports that which he already does.
  And the sages say: ‘the days of your life’ refers to this world.  ‘All the days of your life’ includes the days of the Messiah.  The other sages offer a competing interpretation for “all.”  It refers to the Messianic period.  In other words, even when the ultimate messianic redemption comes, the original story of the Exodus from Egypt will not be entirely surpassed.  The previous redemption from Egypt will continue to serve as a reminder of God’s favor, even when it has been manifested in a more ultimate fashion. I like to compare this to the difference between the first time one realizes that one is in love with someone versus the day of the wedding.  Although the wedding far surpasses that initial moment in intensity and significance, one doesn’t forget that first moment of love. So too with God and the people of Israel Jews must continue to recall their first moment of love with God, the love with which God took us out of Egypt.
  
  
  
  
  
  Mishnah 1
  
  If one was reading in the Torah [the section of the Shema] and the time for its recital arrived, if he directed his heart [to fulfill the mitzvah] he has fulfilled his obligation.In the breaks [between sections] one may give greeting out of respect and return greeting; in the middle [of a section] one may give greeting out of fear and return it, the words of Rabbi Meir.Rabbi Judah says: in the middle one may give greeting out of fear and return it out of respect, in the breaks one may give greeting out of respect and return greeting to anyone.The first section of this mishnah deals with having proper intention when reciting the Shema. The second section deals with interrupting reciting the Shema to greet someone.Section one:  Someone is reading the Torah and he just happens to read the portions of the Shema at the time in the morning or evening when he is supposed to recite the Shema.  While this may seem extremely unlikely since the Shema’s three portions are not found consecutively in the Torah the mishnah is teaching a lesson. Merely reading the Shema as if one is simply reading from the Torah is not sufficient to fulfill one’s ritual duty to recite the Shema in the morning and in the evening. One must recite the Shema with the intention in mind of fulfilling one’s obligation to perform this mitzvah.  Only if one has such an intention in mind, has he fulfilled his mitzvah.Section two:  This section deals with being forced to interrupt someone to offer a greeting.  It seems that in ancient times people took greetings far more seriously than we take them today.  Not greeting someone properly was considered a serious insult.  Therefore, both Rabbi Meir and Rabbi Judah allow certain interruptions in the recitation of the Shema in order to greet people. Rabbi Meir rules more strictly.  In between the paragraphs one can greet and respond to someone to whom one owes respect.  In the middle of a paragraph one can interrupt but only to greet or respond to someone whom one fears, such as a king or other powerful official.  But one should never interrupt just to greet an ordinary person and in the middle of a paragraph one may interrupt only out of fear and not out of respect.Rabbi Judah is more lenient on each count.  In the middle of a paragraph he may initiate a greeting out of fear (Rabbi Meir agrees with this) and he may respond to one even out of respect (Rabbi Meir says only out of fear).  In between paragraphs he may initiate a greeting out of respect (this agrees with Rabbi Meir) and he may respond to anyone (Rabbi Meir disagrees).
  
  Mishnah 2
  
  Introduction
  The first section of this mishnah explain what counts as “between the breaks” such that it is more permissible to interrupt (see yesterday’s mishnah).
  In the second section a sage explains the order of the three paragraphs of the Shema.
  These are the breaks between the sections: between the first blessing and the second,   between the second and “Shema,” between “Shema” and “And it shall come to pass if you listen” between “And it shall come to pass if you listen” and “And the Lord said” and between “And the Lord said” and “Emet veYatziv” (true and. Rabbi Judah says: between “And the Lord said” and “Emet veYatziv” one should not interrupt.  There is a break between each of the blessings and between each paragraph of the Shema.  Rabbi Judah however holds that one should not interrupt between “And the Lord said”, the last paragraph of the Shema and “Emet veYatziv”, the first blessing after the Shema. By doing so he connects the word “Emet (truth)” to the last two words of the Shema “the Lord your God”, thereby creating the phrase from Jeremiah 10:10, “The Lord your God is truth.”  Today, the prayer leader recites these three words after completion of the Shema.
  Rabbi Joshua ben Korhah said: Why was the section of “Shema” placed before that of “And it shall come to pass if you listen”? So that one should first accept upon himself the yoke of the Kingdom of Heaven and then take upon himself the yoke of the commandments. Why does the section of “And it shall come to pass if you listen” come before that of “And the Lord said”? Because “And it shall come to pass if you listen” is customary during both day and night,   whereas [the section] “And the Lord said” is customary only during the day.  The first paragraph of the Shema, the one that begins “Hear O’ Israel, the Lord our God, the Lord is one” is concerned with the acceptance of the yoke of the Kingdom of Heaven.  This paragraph is about faith and it is this faith that must precede the acceptance of the commandments which is mentioned in the second paragraph. The opening words of the second paragraph hint at this step-by-step theology first you listen, “And it shall come to pass if you listen” then “to My commandments which I command you this day.” Finally, the second paragraph “And it shall come to pass if you listen” precedes the third paragraph because the third paragraph which is about tzitzit was recited only at night (today it is always recited).  This fits the general rule that something which is recited regularly (tadir) takes precedence over something recited less regularly (she’ayno tadir).  It also makes practical sense considering that the Shema was recited from memory.  It is easier to end a prayer earlier than at other times one ends the prayer, then to skip a section within the prayer.  Using myself as an example, if someone told me not to do the last paragraph of the Amidah (which I usually recite by heart) I would not have great difficulty. But if someone told me to skip a paragraph in the middle of the Amidah, I would have to concentrate hard to remember where that paragraph comes in order to skip it.  This is why it is easier to save the “And the Lord said” paragraph to the end of the Shema.
  
  Mishnah 3
  
  Introduction
  Our mishnah deals with the question of what does it mean to actually “recite” the Shema.
  One who recites the Shema without causing it to be heard by his own ear, he has fulfilled his obligation. Rabbi Yose says: he has not fulfilled his obligation.  According to the first opinion, one who whispers the Shema so faintly that he himself cannot hear what he said has nevertheless fulfilled his obligation.  Rabbi Yose says that he has not. The Talmud interprets Rabbi Yose as deriving his halakhah from the word “Shema (listen)” the word implies that one must hear the words of the Shema being recited.
  If he recited it without pronouncing the letters succinctly, Rabbi Yose says he has fulfilled his obligation. Rabbi Judah says: he has not fulfilled his obligation.  This refers to someone who recites the Shema quickly, blurring one word into another.  For instance he runs the word “bekhol” into the next word “levavekha”.  Rabbi Yose holds that he has fulfilled his obligation whereas Rabbi Judah holds that he has not.
  If he recites it out of order, he has not fulfilled his obligation.  If he recites the verses within a paragraph out of order, he has not fulfilled his obligation.  However, the halakhah is that if he recited the paragraphs out of order he has fulfilled his obligation.
  If he recites it and makes a mistake he goes back to the place where he made the mistake.  If while reciting the Shema he realized that he made a mistake, what he must do is go back to the beginning of the verse in which he made the mistake.
  
  Mishnah 4
  
  Introduction
  This mishnah deals with reciting the Shema in a place where having proper intention might be very difficult.
  Workers may recite [the Shema] on the top of a tree or the top of a scaffolding, that which they are not allowed to do in the case of the Tefillah. The mishnah describes a case of workers who go to work early in the morning and find themselves working in a tree or at the top of some scaffolding when the time to read the Shema comes.  The mishnah allows these people to recite the Shema without forcing them to come down and stand on the ground.  However, when it comes to the recitation of the Tefillah, which means prayer and refers to the Amidah prayer, they must come down. There are several reasons for this difference between the Shema and the Amidah. First of all, the Amidah is much longer and therefore will require more concentration. Second, the wording of the Shema was completely set by the Torah and there was no room for improvisations. While to fulfill one’s obligation one had to have the intent to perform a mitzvah, it would not have required a tremendous amount of focus.  In contrast, the wording of the Amidah was more fluid and probably less familiar. Therefore, when it comes to the Amidah they have to get down from the tree and only then can they pray.
  
  Mishnah 5
  
  Introduction
  This mishnah deals with a bridegroom reciting the Shema. The problem is that he may not be able to have the proper intention because he is focusing on other matters.
  A bridegroom is exempt from reciting the Shema on the first night until the end of the Shabbat, if he has not performed the act.  According to the first mishnah in Ketubot, virgins are married on Wednesdays.  Our mishnah teaches that the bridegroom is exempt from his obligation to recite the Shema from the first night of his wedding and for the next four nights, if he had not yet had sexual relations with her.  Until he has relations with her he will obviously be very nervous, especially since this may very well be his first sexual encounter.  This nervousness will prevent him from having the proper intention and hence the mishnah exempts him.  However, if he hasn’t had sex with her until after Shabbat, he must go back to reciting the Shema.
  It happened with Rabban Gamaliel who recited the Shema on the first night after he had married.  His students said to him: Our master, have you not taught us that a bridegroom is exempt from reciting the Shema. He replied to them: I will not listen to you to remove from myself the Kingship of Heaven even for a moment.  The story of Rabban Gamaliel seems to show that the previous clause means that the bridegroom is exempt from the Shema, not that he can’t recite it should he want to do so. Rabban Gamaliel’s love of God, his desire to say the Shema and thereby accept upon himself the Kingship of Heaven is so strong, that he cannot desist from reciting the Shema even on his wedding night.  [We don’t know how his bride reacted to this.]
  
  Mishnah 6
  
  Introduction
  In yesterday’s mishnah Rabban Gamaliel seemed to act counter to the halakhah when he recited the Shema on the first night of his marriage.  The mishnah now proceeds to bring up several other examples where he seems to act counter to the accepted halakhah and then explains his behavior.
  [Rabban Gamaliel] bathed on the first night after the death of his wife. His disciples said to him: Master, have you not taught us, that a mourner is forbidden to bathe. He replied to them: I am not like other men, I am very delicate. Mourners are not allowed to bathe during the shivah, the first seven days of mourning. Rabban Gamaliel bathes in any case and again his students question his non-halakhic behavior.  He answers that he is delicate and will suffer more than a normal person would if he didn’t bathe.  [Rabban Gamaliel’s relations to his wife don’t seem to be improving he recited the Shema on their wedding night and didn’t fully observe mourning for her]. The vision of halakhah that comes out of these two mishnayot is interesting.  The halakhah is geared toward the majority of people.  Most people cannot recite the Shema with intention on the first night of their marriage and therefore they are exempt.  Most people can live without bathing for a week and therefore, as a sign of mourning, bathing is forbidden. But an individual who does not fit these norms can deviate from them, as does Rabban Gamaliel.
  
  Mishnah 7
  
  Introduction
  This is the final case in which Rabban Gamaliel seems to behave not according to halakhic norms.
  When Tabi his [Rabban Gamaliel’s] slave died he accepted condolences for him. His disciples said to him: Master, have you not taught us that one does not accept condolences for slaves? He replied to them: My slave Tabi was not like other slaves: he was a fit man. Normally, one does not accord to slaves the same mourning practices that one does for a free person.  The community does not come to offer condolences to the master nor does the master open his house to people coming to console him.  However, Tabi was a special slave, one who kept all of the mitzvoth to which he was subject (see Sukkah 2:1, where Tabi sleeps under a bed inside a sukkah).  Hence, Rabban Gamaliel again broke the normal halakhah and accepted formal condolences upon the loss of this special slave.
  
  Mishnah 8
  
  Introduction
  In mishnah five we learned that Rabban Gamaliel recited the Shema on the first night of his marriage, even though he was exempt.  Today we read of a debate between later sages whether Rabban Gamaliel action sets a precedent for others who might wish to recite the Shema on their wedding night.
  If a bridegroom wants to recite the Shema on the first night [of his marriage], he may do so. Rabban Shimon ben Gamaliel says: not everyone who desires to take up the name of God may do so. According to the first opinion in the mishnah, just as Rabban Gamaliel recited the Shema on the first night of his wedding, so too anybody can.  Rabban Shimon ben Gamaliel,  Rabban Gamaliel’s own son, says that his father was an exception.  Not everyone can accept upon himself the responsibility of saying the Shema in a situation in which the sages exempted the person. Rabban Shimon ben Gamaliel seems to have an almost entirely different conception of halakhah. Whereas his father considered the halakhah to be geared to the “normal” or “typical” situation and allowed deviations under abnormal circumstances, his son limits these deviations. According to Rabban Shimon ben Gamaliel, halakhah is not just a descriptive norm, but a mandated norm, and even though one does not feel that he fits into this norm, the halakhah establishes that he must.  In our case, if one feels that he is capable of concentrating sufficiently to recite the Shema on his wedding night, he is still not allowed to do so. The halakhah mandates his exemption and doesn’t just allow him to not recite it. It seems to me that later halakhah is more often understood in the terms of Rabban Shimon ben Gamaliel.  Halakhah mandates laws across the board, usually not making exceptions for the individual psyche.  But this is far too broad a topic for this forum.
  
  
  
  
  
  Mishnah 1
  
  Introduction At the end of the last chapter we learned that some people might be exempt from reciting the Shema because they couldn’t have proper intention. There the mishnah referred to bridegroom’s celebrating his wedding night.  The first two mishnayot of the third chapter deal with exemptions due to participation in a funeral.
  One whose dead [relative] lies before him is exempt from the recital of the Shema and from the tefillah and from tefillin.  A person who has not yet buried his dead is called an “onen.”  He is exempt from reciting the Shema, the tefillah (the Amidah) and putting on tefillin.  In the Talmud they add that he is exempt from all of the mitzvoth in the Torah.  It is as if he, along with his unburied dead relative, are considered to be out of the realm of normal human beings who are obligated to the commandments.  Until he buries the dead, he can’t really participate in other normal societal interactions, including mitzvot.
  The bearers of the bier and their replacements, and their replacements’ replacement, both those in front of the bier and those behind the bier those needed to carry the bier, are exempt; but those not needed to carry the bier are obligated.  The onen is exempt from the Shema and other mitzvoth because there is just no way he can concentrate on fulfilling them until he has buried his dead. The pallbearers are exempt because they are too busy and concentrating on other matters and would not be able to have the proper intention.  The mishnah does not distinguish between those walking in front of the bier (the stretcher with the dead body on it) and those walking behind it. The only distinction it makes is between those who are needed to carry the bier and those not needed. The pallbearers are exempt from Shema only if they are needed. If they are not needed they can recite the Shema while walking with the bier.
  Both, however, are exempt from [saying] the tefillah.  In contrast, even those not needed to carry the bier are exempt from reciting the tefillah (the Amidah).  Some explain that this is because the Amidah is not from the Torah while the Shema is.  A different explanation, one that I think is more cogent, is that the tefillah requires greater concentration than does the Shema (see above, mishnah 2:4).  A third explanation is that one cannot walk while reciting the Amidah but one can stop long enough to recite the first line of the Shema and then recite the rest while walking with the bier.
  
  Mishnah 2
  
  Introduction
  This mishnah continues to deal with who is exempt and who is liable to recite the Shema at a funeral.
  When they have buried the dead and returned [from the grave], if they have time to begin and finish [the Shema] before they get to the row, they should begin, but if not they should not begin.  Once the dead has been buried, people proceed from the grave out towards the edge of the cemetery where they form a line to console the mourners.  If while going from the grave to the line they have time to recite the Shema, they should do so, but only if they can finish the Shema before they get to the line.  If they cannot, they should not begin. Rather they should wait to begin the Shema until they are done consoling the mourners.
  Those who stand in the row, those on the inside are exempt, but those on the outside are liable.  When standing in the row, only those on the inside, who actually see the mourners, are exempt from the Shema. Those on the outside who can’t see the mourners are obligated to say the Shema because they are not actually participating.
  
  Mishnah 3
  
  Introduction
  This mishnah deals with other categories of people who are exempt from the Shema and some other mitzvoth.
  Women, slaves and minors are exempt from reciting the Shema and putting on tefillin, but are obligated for tefillah, mezuzah, and Birkat Hamazon (the blessing after meals). The usual explanation for this mishnah is that women, children and slaves are exempt from time-bound positive commandments and obligated for non-time bound positive commandments, as well as all negative ones. The Shema is clearly time-bound and positive, as is tefillin (it is not worn at night, and according to most, not on Shabbat or Yom Tov).  The mezuzah is clearly a positive non-time bound commandment.  Birkat Hamazon is recited whenever someone eats, so it too is not time bound. The only problem with the list in the mishnah is that tefillah seems to be time-bound, as we shall learn in the next chapter. There are several answers to this. First of all, although each tefillah is time-bound, there is no time during the day when one could not recite the Amidah. When the time for reciting the morning Amidah is over, one can recite the Minhah (afternoon) Amidah, when Minhah time is over, one can recite the Maariv (evening) Amidah. Therefore, although each tefillah has its own set time, overall the mitzvah is not considered to be time-bound. A different explanation is that although the mitzvah is time-bound, women, children and slaves are obligated because every person is required to make requests and ask mercy directly from God.  Tefillah is about asking for one’s needs and praising God for the needs that have already been fulfilled and women, children and slaves have needs as do free adult men. While I certainly don’t have the definitive answer to why women, children and slaves are exempt from these positive time-bound commandments, it seems that a strong possibility is that they don’t have full control over their own lives.  They are, for the most part, subject to the free adult men with whom they live (father, husband, master). Since they don’t have control over their own lives, they are not subject to halakhot restricted in time.  One problem with this theory is that a divorcee and a widow are still exempt, even though they are not attached to any man.  My answer would be that the halakhah is addressed to the most common situation, and women are usually in some way attached to a man.
  
  Mishnah 4
  
  Introduction
  According to Leviticus 15:16 a man who has had a seminal emission is impure for one day.  This does not, however, impede his ability to recite blessings and study Torah.  According to the rabbis, Ezra added to the Torah’s ruling that men who had a seminal emission could not recite the words of the Torah or pray until they had immersed. The intention of this decree seems to have been to keep talmud scholars from having too frequent sex with their wives.  The Talmud states that this decree was already no longer observed by Talmudic times.
  Our mishnah talks about how one who has had a seminal emission should act when it comes to reciting the Shema and other prayers and blessings.
  One who has had a seminal emission utters the words [of the Shema] in his heart and he doesn’t say a blessing, neither before nor after.  One who has had a seminal emission and has not yet had the opportunity to go to the mikveh should recite the Shema in his heart and not say it out loud.  Since he can recite it “in his heart,” as we learned in 2:3, there is a way to recite it without transgressing Ezra’s decree.  However, the blessings before and after are only considered to be “derabanan”, of rabbinic authority. Hence, the rabbis did not require him to recite them at all, neither the blessings before the Shema nor those after.
  Over food he says a blessing afterwards, but not the blessing before. Rabbi Judah says: he blesses both before them and after them.  The blessings after the Shema are considered to be “deoraita” or Toraitic origin, due to Deuteronomy 8:10, “And you shall eat, and you shall be satisfied and you shall bless the Lord your God.” Since they are “deoraita” the authority of Ezra’s decree, considered to be “derabanan” does not uproot them. They must be recited by the one who has had a seminal emission.  In contrast, the blessing before is only derabanan and hence is not recited. Rabbi Judah disagrees with both of the above rules that the one who has had a seminal emission does not recite the blessings before or after the Shema.  He holds that he is still obligated to recite these blessings.  Commentators disagree over whether or not Rabbi Judah thinks that he recites the Shema out loud.
  
  Mishnah 5
  
  Introduction
  The first half of the mishnah continues to deal with various halakhot concerning a man who has had a seminal emission.
  The second half teaches that one must distance oneself from foul-smelling things before one recites the Shema.
  If a man was standing saying the tefillah and he remembers that he is one who has had a seminal emission, he should not stop but he should abbreviate [the blessings].  A person is in the middle of reciting the Amidah when he realizes that at some previous time he had a seminal emission and that he had not yet immersed.  According to Ezra’s decree he should not have recited the Amidah until he immersed.  Nevertheless, he shouldn’t stop his Amidah, because he has already started.  Rather he should recite a shorter version of each blessing, and just recite the introduction and the closing words.
  If he went down to immerse, if he is able to come up and cover himself and recite the Shema before the rising of the sun, he should go up and cover himself and recite, but if not he should cover himself with the water and recite.  A person who has had an emission goes down to a mikveh to immerse in the morning. When he comes up he is pure and can recite the Shema. The question is should he wait until he is dressed to do so, or is the covering provided by the water sufficient. The mishnah rules that if he can cover himself up properly before the rising of the sun, then he should do so before he recites the Shema. The best, or perhaps even mandated, time to recite the Shema is at the rising of the sun (see 1:2 above, which also implied that the Shema should be recited before the rising of the sun).  If he will not have enough time, then he can cover himself with the water and recite the Shema while still in the mikveh.
  He should not cover himself either with foul water or with steeping water until he pours fresh water into it.  One shouldn’t recite the Shema near any foul smelling thing, and one certainly shouldn’t stand in foul-smelling water and recite the Shema. If one is standing in foul-smelling water or in steeping water (water used to soften flax) he must add in fresh water until the smell has dissipated.
  How far should he remove himself from it and from excrement? Four cubits.  It is forbidden to recite the Shema while standing within close distance of feces or other noxious objects. Note that this must have been quite difficult in a time when they didn’t have indoor plumbing or any easy means to clear waste.  One must distance oneself four cubits (about 2 meters) from the feces or foul water before one recites the Shema.
  
  Mishnah 6
  
  Introduction
  This mishnah deals with people who are already impure who then have contact with semen, either a man through his own semen or a woman through intercourse with a man.
  A zav who has had a seminal emission and a niddah from whom semen escapes and a woman who becomes niddah during intercourse require a mikveh. Rabbi Judah exempts them. A zav is a man who has had an abnormal genital discharge.  He is impure for seven days (Leviticus 15:13). Similary, a niddah, a menstruating woman, is impure for seven days.  The mishnah says that if either of these people have contact with semen, the man through an ejaculation or the woman by discharging semen some time after intercourse, or through intercourse itself, they must go to the mikveh due to the contact with semen even though they will still be impure after the mikveh.  Ezra had decreed that anyone who had a seminal emission had to immerse in order to be allowed to study Torah and to pray. This immersion is mandatory even if the person will continue to be impure afterwards.  Furthermore, Ezra prohibited only people who were impure because of semen to study Torah and to pray.  The zav and the niddah are not prohibited even though they too are impure. Rabbi Judah says that since the immersion will not make them pure, there is no reason for them to immerse.
  
  
  
  
  
  Mishnah 1
  
  Introduction
  The fourth and fifth chapters of Berakhot are about the “Tefillah” the central prayer which we today call the “Amidah” or the “Shmoneh Esrei”, due to its eighteen benedictions (actually nineteen, one was added in later).  The Tefillah (henceforth I will refer to it as the Tefillah, the common term in rabbinic literature) is the central piece of rabbinically created liturgy. While its precise time of creation is not known, it seems to have coalesced into full fruition and taken prominence after the destruction of the Second Temple.  The first three blessings are praises of God, the next 13 are petitions and the final three are expressions of gratitude.  On Shabbat and holidays the petitions are not recited and there is rather one, or on Rosh Hashanah, three, intermediate blessings.
  The Tefillah is recited three times a day.  The earliest hint to praying three times a day can be found in Daniel 6:11.  There are various reasons to explain why thrice daily prayer but the one that strikes me as most convincing is that there are three natural times to the day: 1) sunrise; 2) midday, when the sun begins its descent; 3) nightfall.  Other reasons, such as to correspond to Abraham, Isaac and Jacob are probably best seen as reasons provided after the number had already been determined. The first two tefillot, Shacharit and Minchah, correspond to the two daily Tamid offerings, the Shacharit Tamid and the Minhah Tamid.  But there was no real offering at night, so the connection between three prayers and the Temple service is weak.
  Our mishnah begins by discussing when all three daily Tefillot (plural of Tefillah) must be recited.
  The morning Tefillah ( is until midday. Rabbi Judah says until the fourth hour.  The sages say that the morning Tefillah can be recited until midday (the sixth hour).  Note that this is long after the Shema had to have been recited, a topic discussed above in 1:4.  According to the first opinion there, the Shema had to be completed by sunrise, and according to Rabbi Judah by the third hour.  Neither of these times would connect the Shema with the Tefillah.  It seems that in mishnaic times the two prayers were not really connected. That connection began probably in the talmudic period.
  The afternoon Tefillah ( until evening. Rabbi Judah says: until the middle of the afternoon.  The Minhah Tefillah can be recited until evening, according to the first opinion. Rabbi Judah says it must be recited by the “middle of the afternoon.”  The “afternoon” begins at 9 ½ hours (this is the time that the Minhah sacrifice was offered) and continues until evening (the 12th hour).  Therefore, the middle of that time is 10 ¾ hours.
  The evening prayer has no fixed time.  Maariv, the evening Tefillah, has no time limit.
  The time for the additional prayers ( is the whole day. Rabbi Judah says:  until the seventh hour.  Additional prayers (Mussaf) are those recited on Shabbat, Rosh Hodesh and holidays (Pesah, Shavuot, Sukkot, Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur). According to the first opinion, they may be recited at any time during the day, and according to Rabbi Judah they can be recited only until the seventh hour.
  
  Mishnah 2
  
  Introduction
  In today’s mishnah we learn that Rabbi Nehuniah ben Hakaneh had a special prayer that he would say when he went in and out of the Bet Hamidrash (the rabbinic study hall).
  Rabbi Nehunia ben Hakaneh used to pray as he entered the Bet Hamidrash and as he left it a short prayer. They said to him: what is the reason for this prayer? He replied: When I enter I pray that that no mishap should occur through me, and when I leave I express thanks for my portion. The Babylonian Talmud (Berakhot 28b) gives a fuller reading of this blessing. It reads: “Our Rabbis taught: On entering what does one say? “May it be Your will, O Lord my God, that no mishap should occur through me, and that I may not err in a matter of halakhah and my colleagues rejoice in my [embarrassment], and that I may not call unclean clean or clean unclean, and that my colleagues may not err in a matter of halakhah and that I may rejoice in their [embarrassment].” On leaving what does he say? “I give thanks to You, O Lord my God, that You have place my portion with those who sit in the Bet Hamidrash and You have not set my portion with those who sit in [street] corners, for I rise early and they rise early, but I rise early for words of Torah and they rise early for frivolous talk; I labor and they labor, but I labor and receive a reward and they labor and do not receive a reward; I run and they run, but I run to the life of the world to come and they run to the pit of destruction.”
  
  Mishnah 3
  
  Introduction
  This and the next mishnah are perhaps the most important mishnayot in the two chapters concerning the Tefillah.  Here we see that there was some rabbinic opposition to the institution of fixed prayers.  We should recall that in biblical times there were no fixed prayers, by which I mean prayers fixed in time and wording. Rather, all prayers are spontaneous.
  The transition from spontaneous to fixed prayer seems to have been part of the transition to a post-Temple world. While there may have been some attempts to fix prayer formulas while the Temple still stood, they don’t seem to have attained much prominence in the literature.  The sacrificial service seems to have been sufficient to fill people’s spiritual needs.
  As always occurs when there is innovation, not all agree as with the innovation or with its particular details.
  Rabban Gamaliel says: every day a man should pray the eighteen [blessings].  Rabban Gamaliel seems to have held a position of political leadership among the rabbis and it is he who directs a liturgist to compose the Tefillah. He therefore mandates that every person recite these eighteen blessings three times a day.  Note that this would not have been easy in a time when they did not have siddurim (prayerbooks). The first siddurim were not composed until the Geonic period (8th-11th centuries).  Nevertheless, Rabban Gamaliel mandates that each individual recite the entire Tefillah.
  Rabbi Joshua says: an abstract of the eighteen.  Rabbi Joshua says that he need not recite the full eighteen but rather may recite an abbreviated form.  There are two different explanations to this. Both explanations hold that he must recite the first three and last three blessings in their normal fashion.  These are the blessings that are part of every Tefillah, even those on Shabbat and holidays.  One explanation holds that he recites the 12 intermediate blessings but abbreviates each one of them. The other explanation is that he combines the themes of all 12 blessings into one blessing.  In either case, while Rabbi Joshua agrees that one should recite these blessings every day, he doesn’t require the full formula.
  Rabbi Akiva says: if he knows it fluently he prays the eighteen, and if not an abstract of the eighteen.  Rabbi Akiva tries to mediate between the two previous opinions. If he is capable of reciting the full Tefillah, then he should do so.  If, however, he is not capable because he is not familiar enough with it, then he may recite the shorter version.
  
  Mishnah 4
  
  Introduction
  The first section of today’s mishnah continues the debate over the daily recitation of the Shmoneh Esrei.
  The second section deals with someone who cannot pray the full Shmoneh Esrei because he is in a dangerous place.
  Rabbi Eliezer says: if a man makes his prayers fixed, it is not [true] supplication.  Rabbi Eliezer objects to the entire institution of fixed prayer.  One who is given a fixed liturgy is not engaged in true supplication.  The only reason he is saying the prayer is that he is obligated to do so. This is always a present and potent danger when it comes to fixed prayer.  It seems that Rabbi Eliezer is espousing a traditional position. Traditionally prayer had been spontaneous, as we can see from the biblical record.  Rabbi Eliezer objected to Rabban Gamaliel’s innovation that every person would have to say a set formula three times a day. While Rabbi Eliezer lost out and the halakhah was established that one is obligated to recite a fixed formula, we would do well to heed his warning and remember that while reciting prayer, it is preferable to prevent it from becoming too fixed, as if one is reading a letter. This is in my opinion one of the greatest challenges when it comes to Jewish prayer.
  Rabbi Joshua says: if one is traveling in a dangerous place, he says a short prayer, saying: Save, O Lord, Your people the remnant of Israel.  In every time of crisis may their needs be before You. Blessed are You, O Lord, who hears prayer.  When someone is traveling in a dangerous place and cannot either concentrate or stay still long enough to recite the Shmoneh Esrei, he should recite this short prayer which basically asks God to provide one’s needs to make it through the current crisis.
  
  Mishnah 5
  
  Introduction This mishnah deals with a person who is traveling on a donkey when it comes time to recite the Shmoneh Esrei. As an aside, it is in this mishnah that we learn that while praying one should face Jerusalem and the Temple Mount. This is connected to I Kings 8:44, “When Your people take the field against their enemy by whatever way You send them, and they pray to the Lord in the direction of the city which You have chosen and of the House which I have built to Your name.”
  If he is riding on a donkey, he gets down [and prays.]  It is preferable, if possible, to pray while standing still.  Therefore, he should get off the donkey before praying.
  If he is unable to get down he should turn his face [towards Jerusalem], and if he cannot turn his face, he should direct his heart to the Holy of Holies.  If he cannot, he should at least try to face Jerusalem.  If he can’t even do this, he should at least direct his heart towards Jerusalem and to the Holy of Holies, the most important part of the Temple.
  
  Mishnah 6
  
  If he is traveling in a ship, on a wagon or on a raft, he should direct his heart toward the Holy of Holies.This mishnah reiterates that when praying one should face Jerusalem and if this is impossible, one should direct one’s heart towards the Holy City. The mishnah is simple and requires no explanation.
  
  Mishnah 7
  
  Introduction
  The final mishnah of the chapter deals with the musaf prayer, the additional prayer recited on Shabbat, festivals and Rosh Hodesh. This prayer corresponds to the musaf sacrifices offered in the Temple on the aforementioned days.
  Rabbi Elazar ben Azaryah says: The musaf prayer is said only with the local congregation.  According to Rabbi Elzazar ben Azaryah the musaf prayer is not an individual prayer but rather a communal one.  It is only said with the local congregation.  It seems that according to Rabbi Elazar ben Azaryah the musaf retains a connection to its Temple roots.  While the other regular prayers are only loosely connected to the Temple, the musaf prayer is strongly connected. Since the Temple was a public offering, the musaf prayer does not become an individual prayer.
  The sages say: whether with or with out the congregation.  The other rabbis do not make any distinction between the various recitations of the Tefillah.  All are equally obligatory upon the individual regardless of whether the community is reciting them.
  Rabbi Judah said in his name: wherever there is a congregation, an individual is exempt from saying the musaf prayer.  Rabbi Judah somewhat modifies Rabbi Elazar ben Azaryah’s position.  Individuals are obligated to recite the musaf tefillah, but only if there is no congregation in his community to recite the prayer.  If the community is reciting the prayer and he can’t be there for some reason, then he is exempt.
  
  
  
  
  
  Mishnah 1
  
  Introduction
  This mishnah deals with the mental/spiritual preparation one is supposed to have before one prays the Tefillah.
  One should not stand up to say Tefillah except in a reverent state of mind.  Today the introductory Psalms, called Psukei D’zimrah are supposed to fulfill the function of preparing a person to recite the Tefillah in a “reverent state of mind”, at least at the Shacharit (morning) service.   In mishnaic times the idea of reciting specific Psalms before the Tefillah did not exist.  The m
  The pious men of old used to wait an hour before praying in order that they might direct their thoughts to God.  The pious men, the “Hasidim” (no connection to the modern group with the same name) seem to be a group of especially fervent rabbis/Pharisees.  They took the commandment to pray not as a rote commandment to be fulfilled mechanically but as an opportunity to communicate with God.  To prepare themselves so that they would be in the right frame of mind and that they would know exactly what they were going to say, they would wait an entire hour before they began to pray.
  Even if a king greets him [while praying] he should not answer him: even if a snake is wound round his heel he should not stop.  I don’t believe that these statements are meant to be taken literally.  Rather they are meant to teach us how hard one should concentrate on Tefillah, so much so that he tunes out the rest of the world.  The Talmud is adamant that if one’s life is in real danger, either from a king not greeted or from a threatening snake, then one must interrupt the prayer and protect one’s life. For me the task of concentrating comes not when a snake is wrapped around my leg but when one (or more) of my children is.  As an aside, if your child is making noise while other people are davening the Amidah and this will disturb their Tefillah, you have permission to interrupt your Tefillah and take the child out.  This is preferable to leaving the child to disturb everyone.
  
  Mishnah 2
  
  Introduction
  This mishnah deals with three additions made to the basic Tefillah.
  They mention [God’s] power to bring rain in the blessing for the resurrection of the dead.  We mention God’s power to bring rain in the second paragraph of the Tefillah, the paragraph that ends “mehayeh hametim.”  Into this paragraph we insert the phrase, “mashiv haruah umorid hageshem” “He causes the wind to blow and the rain to come down.” This paragraph contains praises of God’s powers and as such it is a fitting blessing in which to mention a power which is traditionally considered one of God’s most significant powers, the bringing of rain.
  And they ask for rain in the blessing for [fruitful] years.  We petition God for rain in a different paragraph from the one in which we mention rain.  We petition for rain in the blessing in which we ask God for a good year, a year with a bountiful harvest.  This blessing ends, “mevarech hashanim.”  Into it we insert, “veten tal umatar” “grant dew and rain.” We should note that these two insertions only go into the Tefillah during the winter, which is the rainy season in Israel.  It does not rain at all in Israel during the summer.  We don’t ask God for the unusual, just that the world should work as “it is supposed to work.”
  And havdalah in “Who grant knowledge.” Rabbi Akiva says: he says it as a fourth blessing by itself. Rabbi Eliezer says: in the thanksgiving blessing.  Havdalah, the prayer that separates Shabbat or festivals from the rest of the week, is recited as part of the Tefillah, even though it is also recited independently afterwards.  According to the first opinion, it is part of the fourth blessing, the one that begins, “Atah honen daat,” “You grant knowledge.”  Havdalah is about having the knowledge to distinguish between different things, between that which is holy and that which is not holy. That is why it is appropriate to be stated here. Rabbi Akiva says that Havdalah is an independent blessing, one which comes right before “Atah Honen Daat” on Saturday night and at the end of festivals. Rabbi Eliezer holds that it is recited as part of the “thanksgiving” blessing, which is the blessing that begins, “Modim.”   It seems that Rabbi Eliezer’s objection with the other two opinions is that Havdalah is not a petition, as are the middle 13 blessings of the Tefillah. Rather it is an expression of gratitude, so it should be placed in the blessing in which we show our gratitude.
  
  Mishnah 3
  
  Introduction
  The first section of this mishnah deals with a person who adds in potentially heretical statements to his Tefillah.
  The second half of the mishnah deals with a person who makes a mistake while leading the Tefillah in public.
  The one who says, “On a bird’s nest may Your mercy be extended,” [or] “For good may Your name be blessed” or “We give thanks, we give thanks,” they silence him.  This section was also found, word for word, in Megillah 4:9.  My commentary here is the same as my commentary there (so it should sound familiar). There are three “heretical” saying in this mishnah.  I’ll try to explain them one at a time.  The mishnah says that for each “they silence him.”  This implies that the mishnah is describing one who “passes before the ark,” meaning one who leads the Amidah prayer.  If he tries to enter in one of these prayers they remove him as prayer leader. ““May Your mercy reach the nest of a bird:”  This line is explained in the Talmud in several different ways.  One is that he is complaining to God saying, “Your mercy is on the nest of this bird” but not on me.  God commanded shooing away the mother bird before taking the young, an act of mercy for the mother (Deuteronomy 22:6).  The person praying complains that God has not shown similar mercy to him. A different explanation is that this saying understands God’s commandments as being only about mercy, when really they are decrees which we are to obey without questioning their reasoning.  Another explanation is that he says “Your mercy reaches only to this nest” but cannot extend any further.  In such a way he limits God’s power. “May Your name be mentioned for the good:”   This implies that God’s name should not be connected with the bad or the evil.  As in the first section, this might imply some sort of dualism we thank God for the good and don’t mention the evil because its source is a different god. “We give thanks, we give thanks:” Again the problem seems to be one of dualism giving thanks twice sounds like it is being given to two different gods. However, in this section the dualism may not be of a good god and a bad god, but simply two gods.  There were ancient sects of Jews (including Christians) who while professing monotheism, gave divine roles to other characters, such as God’s word (the Logos), God’s spirit or Jesus.
  One who was passing before the ark and made a mistake, another should pass in his place, and he should not be as one who refuses at that moment.  This refers again to a person leading public prayer, one who passes before the ark. If he makes a mistake, for instance he loses track of what blessing he was reciting, or he says the wrong elements within a blessing, another person should replace him. We should remember that in the time of the Mishnah they did not have prayer books. The Tefillah would have been recited by memory.  Hence someone who made a mistake would probably have had a great difficulty getting back on track.  He couldn’t just look at his book, or be shown the place. The best option seems to have been to replace him. Normally, when a person is asked to lead prayer he should be modest and politely refuse, saying that there are others more worthy of him to lead the prayer.  However, in this case he shouldn’t refuse because the rest of the community is waiting.
  Where does he begin? At the beginning of the blessing in which the other made a mistake.  The second person picks up from the blessing where the first person began to go wrong.  Even if the first person began to make a mistake at the end of the blessing, the second guy must begin that whole blessing over again.
  
  Mishnah 4
  
  Introduction
  Towards the end of the next to last blessing of the Tefillah the priests raise their hands and bless the people with the “priestly blessing” (birkat hakohanim) from Numbers 6:24-26 (see also Sotah 7:6).  Our mishnah contains several rules regarding the priestly blessing and the one who is “passing before the ark” i.e. leading the Tefillah.
  The one who passes before the ark should not respond Amen after [the blessings of] the priests because this might confuse him.  After each of the three sections of the priestly blessing the congregation responds by saying Amen. The person passing before the ark should not respond Amen because that might confuse him and he might lose track of where he is in the Tefillah. We should note how concerned they were with the prayer leader losing track of his place because they didn’t have siddurim.
  If there is no priest there except himself, he should not raise his hands [to recite the priestly blessing], but if he is confident that he can raise his hands and go back to his place in his prayer, he is permitted to do so.  If the person leading the Tefillah is the only priest he should not recite the priestly blessing unless he is sure that it won’t confuse him.  However, if there are other priests he should let them do the priestly blessing and he should remain quiet.  I should note that this is a practical issue in many congregations in Israel where the priestly blessing is recited every day.  The normal practice is that when the person leading the service is the only priest, he does recite the priestly blessing.  There are debates about whether he recites the blessing even if there are other priests present.
  
  Mishnah 5
  
  Introduction
  This mishnah continues to deal with making mistakes while reciting the Tefillah.
  One who is praying and makes a mistake, it is a bad sign for him. And if he is the messenger of the congregation (the prayer it is a bad sign for those who have sent him, because one’s messenger is equivalent to one’s self.  Making a mistake while reciting the Tefillah is considered to be a bad omen, both for the person himself and if he is acting as prayer leader (the “one who goes before the ark”) then for the congregation as well.  Again, we must keep in mind that they did not have siddurim back then.  Reciting the Tefillah required one to know the Tefillah by heart.  It seems that they conceived of the Tefillah as flowing through the person reciting it as if it was coming from God, as if it was prophecy.  If the prayer flows well, then it is a sign of God’s presence and favor.  If the prayer does not flow well, it is a sign of disfavor.
  They said about Rabbi Hanina ben Dosa that he used to pray for the sick and say, “This one will die, this one will live.” They said to him: “How do you know?” He replied: “If my prayer comes out fluently, I know that he is accepted, but if not, then I know that he is rejected.”  The story in this section shows the magical/prophetic powers that they attributed to prayer and how well one recites it.  Rabbi Hanina believed that the flow of his prayer through him was an omen, for good or for bad, for the sick person over whom he was praying.
  
  
  
  
  
  Mishnah 1
  
  Introduction
  According to halakhah it is forbidden to derive any benefit from the world without first acknowledging that the world belongs entirely to God, as it says in Psalms 24:1, “The word in its entirety is the Lord’s.”  One acknowledges God’s ultimate ownership over the world by reciting a blessing before one derives benefit, mostly before one eats.  Hence, the sixth chapter of Berakhot details what blessings one recites before eating various produce:  fruits, vegetables, bread and wine.  In my commentary I will give transliterations of the blessings, which might be familiar to many of you.
  How do they bless over produce?Over fruit of the tree one says, “Who creates the fruit of the tree,” except for wine, over which one says, “Who creates the fruit of the vine.”  Over fruit one generally says, “Bore pri haetz.”  However, since wine is the quintessential product made from fruit, it is singled out for a special blessing, “Bore pri hagefen.”  Wine was pretty much the only beverage drunk in the ancient world and hence it was considered to be especially important.
  Over produce from the ground one says: “Who creates the fruit of the ground,” except over bread, over which one says, “Who brings forth bread from the earth.”  Over almost all foods that come from the ground one says, “Bore pri ha’adamah.”  The exception is bread, again the quintessential food that comes from the ground.  It is singled out for the special blessing of “Hamotzi lechem min haaretz.”
  Over vegetables one says, “Who creates the fruit of the ground.” Rabbi Judah says: “Who creates diverse species of herbs.”  According to the first opinion vegetables get the same blessing as do everything else that comes from the ground.  Rabbi Judah disagrees and distinguishes between foods like grains (not eaten as bread but as cereals or in cooked dishes), over which one would say “Bore pri ha’adamah” and vegetables over which one says, “Bore minei zeraim.”  This blessing is no longer recited because the halakhah is according to the previous opinion.
  
  Mishnah 2
  
  Introduction
  This mishnah deals with blessings that are valid in a default sense that is to say they are not the preferable blessing to be recited over various food items, but nevertheless if one recites them one has fulfilled his obligation to recite a blessing.
  If one blessed over fruit of the tree the blessing, “Who creates the fruit of the ground,” he has fulfilled his obligation. But if he said over produce from the ground, “Who creates the fruit of the tree,” he has not fulfilled his obligation.  Trees grow from the ground (didn’t need me to tell you that, did you).  Therefore, if one recites “Bore pri ha’adamah” over a fruit that grows from the tree, the obligation to recite the blessing has been fulfilled. This does not work in the opposite way. Things can grow from the ground without being from trees (I suppose you knew that as well). Therefore, if one recites “Bore pri haetz” over something that grows from the ground but not from a tree, say a cucumber, one has not fulfilled one’s obligation and he must go back and recite the correct blessing.
  If over anything he says “By Whose word all things exist”, he has fulfilled his obligation.  There is a default blessing that works for all foods “shehakol niheye bedvaro.”  In this generalized blessing, we acknowledge God as the source of everything in the world through the words God used at the moment of creation.  As we shall see in the following mishnah, this is also the blessing which we recite over foods that don’t grow from the ground.
  
  Mishnah 3
  
  Introduction
  Our mishnah completes the list of what blessings are recited over what foods.
  Over anything which does not grow from the earth one says: “By Whose word all things exist.” Over milk and cheese and eggs one says, “By Whose word all things exist.”  Over things that don’t grow from the earth such as meat, fish, cheese, milk, cheese, eggs etc. one recites, “Shehakol nihiye bedvaro.”
  Over vinegar, fallen unripe fruit and locusts one says, “By Whose word all things exist.” R. Judah says: over anything which is cursed they do not bless at all.  In this section there is a debate over three food objects that are “cursed.”  Vinegar is “cursed” because it is spoiled wine (they didn’t seem to use it as salad dressing as we do today, although they did put it to some use.)  “Fallen unripe fruit” can be eaten but it is “cursed” because it didn’t stay on the tree/vine until it had reached full ripeness.  Locusts, certain species of which are kosher and are to this day eaten by some Jews, are “cursed” because they destroy crops.  According to the first opinion, one recites “Shehakol” over all three.  One doesn’t recite “Hagefen” (“Who creates the fruit of the vine”) over vinegar because vinegar is not of the same status as wine.  He doesn’t recite “Bore pri ha’etz” over fallen fruit because it is not of the same status as fruit that stayed on the vine until maturation.  Locusts would be “Shehakol” in any case. Rabbi Judah disagrees and holds that one doesn’t recite any blessing over these foods.  We shouldn’t thank God for something that we generally consider to be cursed.
  
  Mishnah 4
  
  Introduction
  This mishnah deals with a case where a person has several different types of foods in front of him and wants to eat them all.  The question is which should he eat first so that its blessing will be recited first.
  There were several kinds of food before him: Rabbi Judah says that if there is among them one of the seven species, he blesses over that. But the sages say: he may bless over which ever one he wants. According to Rabbi Judah, he should first bless over any food that comes from one of the seven species with which the land of Israel is blessed (Deuteronomy 8:8):  wheat, barley, grapes (for wine), figs, pomegranates, olive (oil) and dates (used to make date honey).  In other words, certain foods have intrinsic value and therefore their blessing should be recited first. The other sages, on the other hand, hold that the value of the food is in the eye of the eater, therefore one can bless over which ever food one wishes to eat first.
  
  Mishnah 5
  
  Introduction
  This mishnah begins to deal with the idea that one can recite a blessing over one piece of food and have that blessing count for other foods as well.  Today it is customary to begin every traditional meal with bread, whose blessing exempts the other foods eaten during the meal. This does not seem to have been the custom in the time of the Mishnah.
  If he blessed over the wine before the meal he has exempted the wine after the meal.  Wine seems to have been drunk before the meal and after the meal but not usually during the meal.  One who blesses over the wine at the beginning of the meal need not recite another blessing over the wine at the end of the meal.
  If he blessed over the appetizer ( before the meal, he has exempted the dessert ( after the meal.  The word in Hebrew for appetizer and for dessert is the same.  One who blesses over an appetizer that comes before the meal has exempted a similar type of food that would come after the meal.  According to most commentators, this refers to a situation where he didn’t eat bread, because if he ate bread he need not bless in any case over the parperet, as we shall in the next section.
  If he blessed over the bread he has exempted the appetizer/dessert (, but if he blessed over the appetizer/dessert ( he has not exempted the bread. Bet Shammai say: [he has not even exempted] a cooked [grain] dish.  In this section the word parperet can refer either to the appetizer or the dessert.  In either case, the bread is considered to be more essential than the parperet and therefore one who has already blessed over the bread need not recite the blessing over the parperet.  However, if he recited the blessing over the parperet, the less central food item, he is still obligated to recite the blessing over the bread. Bet Shammai equates a cooked dish made with grains with the bread.  If one blessed over the parperet he must still bless over the cooked dish.
  
  Mishnah 6
  
  Introduction
  In ancient Greco-Roman custom, formal meals were eaten while reclining on couches. Indeed, a banquet was to a certain extent defined by reclining.  Today, the only time Jews recline, even symbolically, is at the Pesah seder.  In contrast, people sitting upright and eating together were not at a banquet, rather they were just putting food in their mouths so that they wouldn’t be hungry.
  If [those at the table] are sitting upright, each one blesses for himself.  People sitting and eating together are not really eating a meal together.  Hence, when the food arrives everyone blesses for himself.
  If they are reclining, one blesses for them all.  If they are reclining, then they are eating a formal banquet together and one person can bless on behalf of them all.
  If wine came during the meal, each one says a blessing for himself. If after the meal, one blesses for them all.  As I stated in yesterday’s mishnah, wine was generally not served during the middle of the meal. When it was, it wasn’t social wine but rather wine to help one digest one’s food.  Also, it would be drunk at different times and not everyone would drink together. Therefore, each person blesses for himself.  If the wine came at the end of the meal then everyone would drink together and one person could bless for them all.
  The same one says [the blessing] over the incense, even though the incense is not brought until after the meal.  At the end of a formal meal incense would be brought in front of the diners.  The person who blesses over the wine at the end of the meal also recites the blessing over the incense “Who creates the wood of incense” (Bore atzei besamim).
  
  Mishnah 7
  
  Introduction
  This mishnah continues to teach what blessing one recites when one is eating two foods that have different blessings.
  If they brought in front of him salted food at the beginning of the meal and bread with it, he blesses over the salted food and thereby exempts the bread, since the bread is ancillary to it. This is the general principle: whenever there is one kind of food that is the main [food] and another that is ancillary, he blesses over the main food and thereby exempts the ancillary. The general rule in this mishnah is straightforward.  If one has two foods to eat together, one recites the blessing over the food that is considered to be the main food and does not need to recite any blessing over the ancillary food.  This is true even if the ancillary food is generally deemed to be the more important of the two, such as bread.  We learned above in mishnah five that if one blesses over bread, he exempts the accompanying food.  Here we learn that if the function of the bread was ancillary to the main food, then he recites the blessing over the main food and thereby exempts the bread.
  
  Mishnah 8
  
  If one has eaten grapes, figs or pomegranates he blesses after them three blessings, the words of Rabban Gamaliel.The sages say: one blessing which includes three.Rabbi Akiva says: even if one ate only boiled vegetables and that is his meal, he says after it the three blessings.If one drinks water to quench his thirst, he says “By Whose word all things exist.”Rabbi Tarfon says: “Who creates many living things and their requirements.”Until now the Mishnah has been discussing blessings recited before eating.  This mishnah and the next chapter deal with the Birkat Hamazon, the blessing after food (I don’t really like the term, “Grace After Meals”). The concept of Birkat Hamazon is derived from Deuteronomy 8:10, “When you eat and you are satisfied you will bless the Lord your God.”  Today the Birkat Hamazon contains four blessings, but the Mishnah refers to it as “three blessings” the fourth blessing was a later addition.The full Birkat Hamazon, all three blessings, is recited only after eating certain foods or after eating a “meal”. After eating other foods which don’t constitute a “meal,” one blessing is recited.  This one blessing includes the themes in the three blessings of the full Birkat Hamazon. In our mishnah there is a debate over when one recites the full version of the Birkat Hamazon and when one recites the abbreviated one blessing version.Section one: According to Rabban Gamaliel the full Birkat Hamazon is recited over grapes, figs or pomegranates, all of which are among the seven species mentioned in Deuteronomy 8:8. This is the verse to which the blessing in verse 10 (see above in introduction) refers, and hence one recites the full Birkat Hamazon over these foods.  Rabban Gamaliel would also hold that the full Birkat Hamazon is recited over the other foods that are referred to in the verse, including bread.Section two:  According to the sages, one recites an abbreviated version of the Birkat Hamazon over these foods. Today this blessing is called, “Brakhah Acharonah” the “last blessing.”  One would recite the full Birkat Hamazon only over bread, because only bread constitutes a proper meal.Section three:  According to Rabbi Akiva what foods are eaten does not determine whether one recites a full or abbreviated Birkat Hamazon.  Rather what is determinative is whether or not something constitutes a “meal” or a “snack.”  If one eats boiled vegetables as one’s meal, then one says Birkat Hamazon.  This would have many ramifications for today’s practice, where many people don’t necessarily eat bread with every meal.  For instance, according to Rabbi Akiva, if one sat down for a meal of steak and potatoes, a hearty meal by most accounts, one would recite Birkat Hamazon afterwards, whereas according to the other sages in this mishnah, he would not.Section four:  The final section of this chapter returns to briefly discuss blessings recited before eating.  Water was sometimes drunk to quench thirst, and sometimes drunk merely in order to help digest food.  Our mishnah implies that if its function was just to clear the food from one’s throat, then no blessing is recited.  In such a case water is not “food” and therefore no blessing is recited. However, if the function was to quench thirst, then the water counts as food and a blessing must be recited. The first opinion holds that the blessing recited is, “By Whose word all things exist,” the default blessing referred to above in mishnayot 2-3.  Rabbi Tarfon says that a different blessing is recited, one which we today recite after eating foods over which we don’t recite a full Birkat Hamazon or even an abbreviated Birkat Hamazon. This blessing is generally called today “Bore Nefashot.”
  
  
  
  
  
  Mishnah 1
  
  Introduction
  The seventh chapter is all about the invitation to recite Birkat Hamazon together.  This is the short responsive refrain recited before the first blessing of Birkat Hamazon.  This invitation is called a “zimun” which literally means, “invitation.”
  Our mishnah teaches when a “zimun” is recited.
  Three that have eaten together, it is their duty to invite [one another to say Birkat Hamazon].  The minimum number of people required to recite a “zimun” is three.  This seems the minimum number to be considered a group.
  One who ate demai, or first tithe whose terumah has been separated, or second tithe or sanctified property which have been redeemed, or an attendant who has eaten as much as an olive’s worth of food, or a Samaritan may be included [in the three].  In order to be part of a “zimun” four requirements have to be fulfilled, three of which are listed in our mishnah (we will see the fourth tomorrow). First of all one must eat food permitted by the Torah.  We have already encountered the list in this mishnah on several occasions (Shabbat 18:1; Eruvin 3:2; Pesahim 2:5; Sanhedrin 8:2; Makkot 3:2).  It is basically a list of foods which can be eaten, at least according to toraitic law.  One who eats them can participate in a zimun.  The opposite is contained in the following section those foods are prohibited and hence one who eats them cannot join together with others in a zimun. The second requirement is that one needs to eat an olive’s worth of food.  The mishnah teaches this and at the same time teaches another halakhah that even the attendant, the one serving the food to the others, may aid in constituting the zimun, provided that he ate with them a minimum measure of food. The third requirement is that the person be Jewish.  For this issue, being a Samaritan counts enough toward being Jewish.
  But one who ate untithed produce, or first tithe whose terumah has not been separated, or second tithe or sanctified property which have not been redeemed, or an attendant who has eaten less than the quantity of an olive or a Gentile may not be counted.  This section is the opposite of the previous one.  One who eats prohibited foods, or doesn’t eat enough food, or is a Gentile, does not count in constituting a zimun.
  
  Mishnah 2
  
  Introduction
  This mishnah continues the topic of yesterday’s mishnah, when is a “zimun,” an invitation to Birkat Hamazon, recited.
  
  Women, children and slaves they do not recite an invitation over them.  The invitation to Birkat Hamazon is only recited for adult, free men.  In rabbinic thinking, as in the thinking of most of their contemporaries, only adult free men count as full “citizens” in the Greco-Roman sense of the word. Only they are full members of society and hence a formal meal is constituted by their presence and not by the presence of women, children and slaves.
  How much [must one have eaten] in order for them to recite an invitation? As much as an olive. Rabbi Judah says:  as much as an egg.  According to the first opinion, to count in a zimun one need only an olive’s worth of food. This accords with the opinion in yesterday’s mishnah, that if the attendant (not a slave) eats an olive’s worth of food, he may join in the zimun.  In contrast, Rabbi Judah sets a higher threshold of an egg’s worth.  One who eats less than an egg is not required to recite Birkat Hamazon and does not participate in a zimun.
  
  Mishnah 3
  
  Introduction
  In today’s mishnah we learn what words were recited as the “zimun,” the invitation to recite Birkat Hamazon.
  This mishnah is structured on two basic principles. The more people that join together in the zimun, the more elaborate the zimun is. Second, if the number of people is exactly the quota, three, ten, one hundred, a thousand or ten thousand, the leader includes himself in the zimun. But when there are more than the required quota, the leader tells the others to “Bless,” and he doesn’t include himself.  This shall become clearer as we proceed.
  How do they invite [one another to recite the Birkat Hamazon]?If there are three, he [the one saying Birkat Hamazon] says, “Let us bless [Him of whose food we have eaten].” If there are three and him he says, “Bless [Him of whose food we have eaten]”  As stated above, the minimum number for a zimun is three.  If there are exactly three he says, “Let us bless [Him of whose food we have eaten].” He does not say the word for God.  However, if there are three besides him, then he instructs the others to “Bless [Him of whose food we have eaten].”
  If there are ten, he says, “Let us bless our God [of whose food we have eaten].” If there are ten and he says, “Bless.”  When there are ten they add in the word “our God.”
  It is the same whether there are ten or ten myriads (ten ten.  This section is an introduction to what follows and to what has already been stated.  It matters not whether there are ten or ten thousand, the rule that if there is the precise number the leader say, “Let us bless” whereas if there is more than the number he says, “Bless,” remains the same.
  If there are a hundred he says, “Let us bless the Lord our God [of whose food we have eaten]. If there are a hundred and him he says, “Bless.”  When there are one hundred they add the word “the Lord.”
  If there are a thousand he says “Let us bless the Lord our God, the God of Israel [of whose food we have eaten].” If there are a thousand and him he says “Bless.”  When there are a thousand they add, “the God of Israel.”
  If there are ten thousand he says, “Let us bless the Lord our God, the God of Israel, the God of hosts, who dwells among the cherubim, for the food which we have eaten.” If there are ten thousand and him he says, “Bless.”  When there are ten thousand (don’t ask me if this ever happened) the fullest version is recited, “Let us bless the Lord our God, the God of Israel, the God of hosts, who dwells among the cherubim, for the food which we have eaten.”
  Corresponding to his blessing the others answer after him, “Blessed be the Lord our God the God of Israel, the God of hosts, who dwells among the cherubim, for the food which we have eaten.”  The response of the community is always a repetition of the instructions of the leader.  The mishnah illustrates this through the fullest version recited when there are ten thousand people, but the same would be true for the shorter versions of the zimun.
  Rabbi Yose the Galilean says: According to the number of the congregation, they bless, as it says, “In assemblies bless God, the Lord, O you who are from the fountain of Israel.” Rabbi Akiba said: What do we find in the synagogue? Whether there are many or few the he says, “Bless the Lord your God.” Rabbi Ishmael says: “Bless the Lord your God who is blessed.”  Rabbi Yose the Galilean affirms that which was stated above. The zimun goes according to the number of people who have joined together in a meal. Rabbi Akiva and Rabbi Ishmael disagree with the set up in the first seven sections. They both hold that the same zimun is stated no matter how many people participate. This is patterned after the “Barkhu,” the call to prayer recited in the synagogue. The prayer leader says, “Bless the Lord” or Rabbi Ishmael’s version, “Bless the blessed Lord,” whether there are ten or one thousand people present.  So too when it comes to the zimun, it matters not whether there are ten or ten thousand, the zimun is always the same. We should note that Rabbis Akiva and Rabbi Ishmael still agree that with less than ten one does not mention God’s name, because ten is the number required for a minyan.
  
  Mishnah 4
  
  Introduction
  Our mishnah teaches that if people are eating a meal together they may not separate to recite Birkat Hamazon if this will cause them to recite a lesser zimun , or no zimun at all.
  Three persons who have eaten together may not separate [to recite Birkat Hamazon]. Similarly four and similarly five.  A group of three, four or five people eating together cannot separate into two groups to recite Birkat Hamazon because that will leave some people without the ability to say any zimun.
  Six may separate, up until ten.  A group of six to ten, but not including ten, can separate because their zimun will not change, provided that each group still has at least three.
  And ten may not separate until there are twenty.  Once the group reaches ten it can’t separate because if it does, not everyone will be able to say God’s name as part of the zimun.  Since the zimun for ten is greater than the zimun for three, the group of more than ten people cannot split up until there are ten left for each group, meaning there are twenty.
  
  Mishnah 5
  
  Introduction
  The final mishnah of this chapter deals with two groups eating in the same room and whether or not they say a zimun together.
  Two eating companies that were eating in the same room: When some of them can see some of the other they combine [for a zimun], but if not each group makes a zimun for itself.  The rule here is quite simple if the two groups can see each other then they are “eating together” and they should do one zimun. Not everyone from every group has to see each the other group, rather it is sufficient that some from each group can see the other group.  If no one sees each the other group, then they each do a zimun for themselves.
  They do not bless over the wine until they put water into it, the words of Rabbi Eliezer. The sages say they bless.  Wine was generally mixed with water before it was drunk.  This would lower the alcohol level of the wine to around 5 %, a level similar to the beer that we generally drink.  [Today wine is usually about 12% alcohol.] According to Rabbi Eliezer if one drinks unmixed wine a blessing is not recited because civilized people don’t drink unmixed wine.  The other sages disagree and hold that he does recite the blessing over even unmixed wine.
  
  
  
  
  
  Mishnah 1
  
  These are the points [of difference] between Bet Shammai and Bet Hillel in regard to a meal.Bet Shammai says:  first he blesses over the day and then over the wine.Bet Hillel says:  first he blesses over the wine and then over the day.The eighth chapter of Berakhot deals with disputes between Bet Shammai and Bet Hillel concerning various customs and laws governing food and behavior during meals.The first mishnah contains a well-known debate over the blessings made during Kiddush on Friday evening or the eve of festivals.Bet Shammai and Bet Hillel debate the order of the blessings recited at Kiddush.  Bet Shammai says that we first recite the blessing over the day.  This blessing is “Who sanctifies Israel and the festivals.”  Afterwards we recite the blessing over the wine, “Who creates the fruit of the vine.”  The reasoning for this is that according to Bet Shammai the day causes the wine to be drunk.  Bet Hillel says that the wine is blessed first. There are two reasons for this.  First of all, the presence of the wine allows us to recite the blessing over the day.  Secondly, the blessing over the wine is a commonly recited blessing whereas the blessing over the day is rare.  The rule is that common things are recited before uncommon things.  The order which we follow today is, as is almost always the case, according to Bet Hillel
  
  Mishnah 2
  
  Introduction
  Our mishnah contains another debate between Bet Shammai and Bet Hillel about table manners.
  Bet Shammai says:  they wash their hands and then they pour the cup [of wine]. Bet Hillel says: they pour the cup [of wine] and then they wash their hands. According to Bet Shammai first they wash their hands in order to purify them and only afterwards do they pour the first cup of wine. Bet Shammai fears that if they pour before the hands are washed and purified, some of the wine might get on the outside of the cup and when the person drinking touches the cup he will make them impure and they will then cause the cup to be impure. Bet Hillel holds that first the cup should be poured and then the hands washed.  It seems that they hold that the hands must be washed immediately before the food is eaten and that there shouldn’t be any break in between. Today on days on which Kiddush is recited most people pour the wine, say Kiddush and then wash their hands before they say “Hamotzi,”, the blessing over the bread, and begin the meal.  However, there are some whose custom it is to wash hands before Kiddush and then proceed directly from Kiddush to Hamotzi.
  
  Mishnah 3
  
  Introduction
  Another debate between the two houses, a debate which again connected to matters of purity and impurity.  The mishnah refers to a towel which was used to dry one’s hands after washing them and to clean them off during eating (they ate with their hands since forks had not yet been invented).  The question is where to place the towel after one has used it to dry one’s hands. It is also important to remember that in mishnaic times they ate reclining on cushions and small tables were brought in front of them on which to serve the food.
  Bet Shammai says: he wipes his hand with a towel and then places it on the table. Bet Hillel says: on the cushion. After he has washed his hands, he dries them with a towel and he places the towel on the table. Bet Shammai says he shouldn’t place the towel on the cushion upon which he is reclining lest the cushion is impure and the cushion makes the water on the towel become impure and the water in turn impurifies his hands. Bet Shammai does not fear that the table is impure because they hold that it is forbidden to eat off an impure table. Bet Hillel holds that he should place the towel on the cushion and even if his hands become impure, impure hands is not a serious form of impurity.  However, he shouldn’t place the towel on the table lest the table is impure and causes the water in the towel to be impure which in turn causes the food on the table to be impure.  While Bet Hillel was not concerned lest one’s hands became impure, they were concerned about the purity of the food.
  
  Mishnah 4
  
  Introduction Today’s mishnah contains a debate concerning cleaning up after the meal.
  Bet Shammai says: [after the meal] they sweep the floor and then they wash their hands. But Bet Hillel says: they wash their hands and then they sweep the floor. According to Bet Shammai first they sweep the floor to gather up all the crumbs that might have fallen during the meal.  Evidently these crumbs would be eaten.  Food was quite scarce in those times and when we take into consideration how much work they had to put into making bread, it is no wonder that they didn’t want to waste anything, even a small amount of food.  Only after sweeping up the crumbs would they wash their hands.  This would prevent the crumbs from being ruined by the water. Bet Hillel holds that the first thing they should do is wash their hands so that they can bless and say Birkat Hamazon immediately.  In the time of the mishnah it was considered mandatory to wash one’s hands before reciting Birkat Hamazon.  Many Jews still observe this law on Shabbat and holidays.  According to the Talmud the servant would pick up all the pieces of significant size (more than an olive’s worth) before they would wash their hands so that those pieces could be saved.  It seems that to Bet Hillel it was important that they shouldn’t delay Birkat Hamazon any more than is absolutely necessary.
  
  Mishnah 5
  
  Introduction
  In this mishnah Bet Shammai and Bet Hillel debate the order of the various blessings recited as part of the Havdalah, the set of blessings that separates Shabbat or a holiday from the day that follows.  The specific situation under discussion is a case where people were eating a meal on Saturday night at nightfall and they wanted to combine Birkat Hamazon and Havdalah and say them both over the same cup of wine.
  Bet Shammai says: [the proper order is] candle, [Birkat Ha]Mazon, spices, and Havdalah. But Bet Hillel says: candle, spices, [Birkat Ha]Mazon, and Havdalah.  Bet Shammai holds that the candle’s blessing comes first because as soon as the candle is lit they immediately benefit from the candle’s light.  They then do Birkat Hamazon because they has already finished eating.  Finally they bless over the spices and Havdalah. Bet Hillel holds that since the candle and spices are both short blessings, they go together. In other words, he moves the blessing over the spices up to join it with the blessing over the candle. He then recites Birkat Hamazon and Havdalah.
  Bet Shammai says [the blessing over the candle concludes with the words], “Who created the light of the fire.” But Bet Hillel says: “Who creates the lights of the fire.”  This debate about the wording of the blessing over the candle is actually a deep theological debate.  According to Bet Shammai we bless over the original light that God created in the beginning of the world.  We are thanking God for something that happened in the past, for an act that was long ago completed. This is close, perhaps, to an Aristotelian conception of God as the prime mover. God created fire and henceforth, all fire stems from that original fire.  In contrast, Bet Hillel says that we thank God for continuously creating fire.  God is still acting as a creator in continuing the normal functioning of the world.
  
  Mishnah 6
  
  Introduction
  This mishnah teaches some laws concerning the candles and spices.
  They do not bless over the candles or the spices of non-Jews;  A Jew cannot use a candle that was lit on Shabbat by a non-Jew because the candle has to cease being used during the Shabbat for it to be used at Havdalah.  It too has to have a Shabbat. He can’t use the spices of non-Jews because we fear that they may have been used for idolatry.
  Or over the candles or the spices of the dead;  This section refers to candles that were lit to honor the dead or spices that were used to mask the odor of a dead body. Since these were intended to be used for the dead, they cannot be used for Havdalah.
  Or over the candles or the spices of idolatry;  It is forbidden to derive benefit from anything used for idolatry and hence it is forbidden to use the candle for light or the spices for smell.
  And a blessing is not said over the light until they benefit from its light.  It is not enough to light the candle, one must actually use it as well.  This is why people put their hands up to the candle today when doing Havdalah.
  
  Mishnah 7
  
  Introduction
  This mishnah deals with a person who has forgotten to recite Birkat Hamazon after eating.
  One who has eaten and forgotten to bless [Birkat Hamazon]: Bet Shammai says: he must return to the place where he ate and bless. But Bet Hillel says:  he should say it in the place where he remembered.  According to Bet Shammai one must return to the place one ate in order to recite Birkat Hamazon. Bet Hillel says that he can recite it wherever he might be.
  Until when can he bless? Until sufficient time has passed for the food in his stomach to be digested.  He may recite Birkat Hamazon as long as the food is still found in his stomach.  According to the Talmud the food is considered to be in his stomach as long as he is not hungry.  Once a person is hungry for a new meal we consider it as if the food is no longer in his stomach and he can no longer recite Birkat Hamazon.
  
  Mishnah 8
  
  Introduction
  The final mishnah of our chapter contains one more debate between Bet Shammai and Bet Hillel.
  If wine comes to them after the food, and there is only that cup: Bet Shammai says: he blesses over the wine and then he blesses over the food; But Bet Hillel says: he blesses over the food and then he blesses over the wine.  Bet Hillel’s position is more familiar so I will begin with it. Bet Hillel holds that if there is only one cup of wine left over at the end of the meal he should recite the Birkat Hamazon and then drink the wine and then bless over it. This way the Birkat Hamazon is recited over the cup of wine.  Many Jews still do this at every Shabbat meal and it is most traditional at the seder, at weddings and at circumcisions. Bet Shammai says that he may drink the wine first and that he does not need to recite the Birkat Hamazon over a cup of wine.  Alternatively Bet Shammai may hold that reciting Birkat Hamazon over a cup of wine means that he first drinks the wine and then recites Birkat Hamazon.
  They answer amen after a blessing said by an Israelite but they do not answer amen after a blessing said by a Samaritan, until he hears the whole blessing.  One answers amen to blessings recited by other Israelites but not to blessings recited by Samaritans unless one is sure that the blessing was recited properly. The concern is that the Samaritan may have recited an idolatrous blessing. Samaritans were originally an Israelite group but had long since separated themselves from the more mainstream Jews.  Hence, in some matters they were considered Jewish while in others they were considered to be Gentiles.  In our case they cannot assumed to be acting like Jews and reciting proper blessings unless it can be proven.
  
  
  
  
  
  Mishnah 1
  
  Introduction
  The final chapter of Berakhot deals with various blessings recited upon different occasions, such as seeing certain things or when certain unusual events happen.
  If one sees a place where miracles have been done for Israel, he says, “Blessed be the One who made miracles for our ancestors in this place.”  If one sees a place where miracles happened to Israel, for instance the Sea of Reeds, or the place where the Israelites crossed the Jordan (see Joshua 3:17) a blessing should be recited.
  [If one sees] a place from which idolatry has been uprooted, he should say, “Blessed be the One who removed idolatry from our land.”  This blessing refers to idolatry which was uprooted from the land of Israel.  According to the Talmud, if one sees a place outside of the land of Israel from which idolatry has been uprooted one should say, “Blessed be the One who removed idolatry from this place.”  To both blessings one should add, “Just as it has been removed from this place, so may it be removed from all other places and may God turn the hearts of idolaters to Your worship.”
  
  Mishnah 2
  
  Introduction
  This mishnah continues to list various blessings recited upon seeing or hearing things.
  [On witnessing] comets, earthquakes, thunder, or windy storms one says, “Blessed be He whose strength and might fill the world.”  These are phenomena that “fill the world” for people see them at many places at the same time.
  [On seeing] mountains, hills, seas, rivers or deserts one says, “Blessed be He who made creation.”  These are geological structures that were a part of God’s original creation.
  Rabbi Judah says: one who sees the Great Sea should say, “Blessed be He who made the Great Sea,” if he sees it at intervals.  This is the second time that we have seen Rabbi Judah rule that blessings have to be specific to the situation. The first was in 6:1.  Here too he distinguishes between the “Great Sea,” which is the Mediterranean and other seas.  Over the former he recites a specific blessing, whereas over other seas in rivers he recites a more generalized blessing.  However, he only recites this special blessing if he sees the Great Sea periodically, which the Talmud explains as being once in thirty days. One who sees the Great Sea every day does not bless every day.
  For rain and for good news one says, “Blessed be He that is good and grants good.”  Some commentators say that one blesses over rain only if it hasn’t rained for a long time.  However, others say that in Israel, a very dry country, people are so happy when it rains for the first time that they also recites the blessing the first time it rains in the rainy season.
  For bad news one says, “Blessed be the true judge.”  Today this is the blessing that a person recites upon hearing that someone has died.
  
  Mishnah 3
  
  One who has built a new house or bought new vessels says, “Blessed be He who has kept us alive [and preserved us and brought us to this season.]”One who blesses over the evil as he blesses over the good or over the good as he blesses over evil; one who cries over the past, behold this is a vain prayer.How so?  If his wife was pregnant and he says, “May it be his will that my wife bear a male child,” this is a vain prayer.If he is coming home from a journey and he hears a cry of distress in the town and says, “May it be his will that this is not be those of my house,” this is a vain prayer.Section one:  This is the familiar blessing “shehecheyanu” which we recite upon eating new foods, receiving new things, at the beginning of holidays and at certain other events.Section two: This is a difficult clause to explain. Albeck explains that this refers to one who tries to bless over something bad the blessing that he should say for the good, “Blessed be He that is good and grants good.”  What he is trying to do is be hopeful that from something bad will come something good.  Alternatively, he blesses the blessing for the bad, “Blessed be the true judge” because he fears that something bad will come from the good.  These are both vain prayers because after the event has already happened it cannot be changed.  Thus these are both specific cases of one who is crying over the past.  Prayers are legitimate only if they are recited in anticipation of an event that has not yet occurred.  The Rambam explains that this mishnah mandates reciting the blessing over the good for something that is now good even if it might eventually be bad.  Similarly, one must recite the blessing over bad for something that is now bad even though it might eventually be good. As in Albeck’s explanation, the focus is on the present and not something that might change in the future.Sections three and four: These are both examples of “crying over the past.”  Once the child’s sex has been determined it cannot change.  There is no use in crying out to God in hope that the house that is under distress is not one’s house because whatever house it is has already been determined.  Once something has already happened one must be reconciled with one’s fate.
  
  Mishnah 4
  
  One who enters into a large city should say two prayers, one on entering and one on leaving. Ben Azzai says: four two on entering and two on leaving, he gives thanks for the past and cries out for the future. The following passage in Berakhot 60a explains our mishnah and gives the wording of the prayer.  Some of this prayer might be familiar because it is part of the “tefillat haderekh,” the travelers’ prayer. Our Rabbis taught: What does he say on entering? 1. “May it be Your will, O Lord, my God, to bring me into this city in peace’. 2. When he is inside he says: “I thank You, O Lord, my God, that You have brought me into this city in peace.” 3. When he is about to leave he says: “May it be Your will, O Lord, my God, and God of my fathers, to bring me out of this city in peace.” 4. When he is outside he says: “I thank You, O Lord, my God, that You have brought me out of this city in peace, and just as You have brought me out in peace, so may You guide me in peace and support me in peace and make me proceed in peace and deliver me from the hands of all enemies and ambushers by the way.” This version has four prayers and hence it is the version of Ben Azzai (section two in the mishnah). According to the first opinion in the mishnah upon entering he would recite, “‘May it be Your will O Lord, my God, to bring me into this city in peace.” Upon leaving he would recite, “I thank You, O Lord, my God, that You have brought me out of this city in peace.” Ben Azzai also notes a general rule when referring to the past he uses the language of “thanking” and for the future he “cries out” which means he says, “May it be your will.”
  
  Mishnah 5
  
  Introduction
  The first half of the last mishnah of Berakhot contains halakhot concerning three different subjects.  1) Blessing God for bad things; 2) Proper respect due to the Temple; 3) Decrees the rabbis made concerning blessings said in the Temple and greeting others.
  One must bless [God] for the evil in the same way as one blesses for the good, as it says, “And you shall love the Lord your God with all your heart, with all your soul and with all your might” (Deuteronomy 6:5). “With all your heart,” with your two impulses, the evil impulse as well as the good impulse. “With all your soul” even though he takes your soul [life] away from you. “With all your might” with all your money. Another explanation, “With all your might”  whatever treatment he metes out to you.  This section teaches that just as one blesses over the good, so too one must bless over the evil, as we saw in mishnah two above.  The mishnah continues with a midrash, an exegesis of the first part of the Shema.  The last section of this midrash explains how the rabbis derive the commandment to bless over the evil, just as one blesses over the good.  It is because of this line that the entire midrash is brought here in our mishnah. The first line of the midrash is based on the two “bets” in the word “your heart (levav’kha)”  The two bets are understood by the rabbis as a hint that one must worship God with both of one’s impulses the good impulse and the evil impulse.  The other sections of the midrash should be clear.
  One should not show disrespect to the Eastern Gate, because it is in a direct line with the Holy of Holies. One should not enter the Temple Mount with a staff, or with shoes on, or with a wallet, or with dusty feet; nor should one make it a short cut, all the more spitting [is forbidden].  This section teaches various laws concerning acting in a proper manner on the Temple Mount.  We should note that according to the Rambam, even though the Bet Hamikdash, the Temple, lies in ruins, one must still act towards it with the same amount of respect that it was accorded when it existed.  The Eastern Gate would open in the direction of the Holy of Holies, hence one had to be extra respectful when entering this gate.
  All the conclusions of blessings that were in the Temple they would say, “forever [lit. as long as the world is].” When the sectarians perverted their ways and said that there was only one world, they decreed that they should say, “for ever and ever [lit. from the end of the world to the end of the world].  One of the central debates between the Sadducees and the Pharisees was over the concept of the next world, the “olam haba.” This was an important doctrine for the Pharisees, one that the Sadducees denied.  In earlier times blessings in the Temple would contain the word, “leolam,” usually translated as “forever” but here understood as “for as long as the world has existed.”  The Sadducees used this blessing as evidence that there is only one world.  The blessing makes reference to one world and hence there is only one world.  Therefore the Pharisees decreed that the blessing should read, “forever and ever (min haolom vead haolam)” which could also be translated as “for this world and for the next world.”
  They also decreed that a person should greet his fellow in God’s name, as it says, “And behold Boaz came from Bethlehem and said to the reapers, ‘May the Lord be with you.’ And they answered him, “May the Lord bless you’” (Ruth 2:. And it also says, “The Lord is with your, you valiant warrior” (Judges 6:12). And it also says, “And do not despise your mother when she grows old” (Proverbs 23:22). And it also says, “It is time to act on behalf of the Lord, for they have violated Your teaching” (Psalms 119:126). Rabbi Natan says: [this means] “They have violated your teaching It is time to act on behalf of the Lord.”  The sages also decreed that it was permitted, and even worthy, to greet one’s fellow human being by using the name of God, as did Boaz and the other reapers.  Usually decrees are meant to change a prior practice.  Here the historical background is slightly unclear.  My guess is that earlier generations thought that it was improper to use God’s name in greeting a mere human being.  In contrast, according to the sages, since human beings were created in the image of God, there is a little bit of divine in every human being.  In a sense then, greeting one’s fellow human being by using God’s name is like greeting God by using God’s name. Hence it is not only permitted, it is encouraged. The final two midrashim are not specifically related to the two decrees mentioned above but are rather general exhortations to heed the decrees of the sages.  “And do not despise your mother when she grows old” means that one should learn from the elders and one should learn from what previous generations did. The last midrash is brought because of Rabbi Natan’s interpretation of the verse.  Rabbi Natan switches around the order of the verse. When others, such as the Sadducees, have broken God’s laws, it is time to act for the Lord by making decrees. Congratulations!  We have finished Berakhot! It is a tradition at this point to thank God for helping us finish learning the tractate and to commit ourselves to going back and relearning it, so that we may not forget it and so that its lessons will stay with us for all of our lives. Berakhot is perhaps the most religious relevant of all the tractates because its three major topics, the Shema, the Amidah and blessings, are all still practiced today.  I hope that learning the roots of these rituals and prayers will enrich your own personal prayer experience, be it at the home or in the synagogue. We have only just begun Seder Zeraim.  Tomorrow we begin Tractate Peah.