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text: Mishnah Rosh Hashanah
  משנה ראש השנה
  Eighteen Treatises from the Mishna
  
  
  Mishnah Rosh Hashanah
  
  
  
  
  
  There are four  commencements of years: on the first of Nissan, it is a new year for [the computation of the reign of] kings, and for festivals; on the first of Elul, it is a new year for the <i>ma'aser behama</i> [the tithe taken from that year’s newborns of the flock or herd and brought to the Temple as a sacrifice]. Rabbi Eliezer and Rabbi Shimon say, "[That new year] is on the first of Tishrei." On the first of Tishrei it is a new year for civil years, and for [the computation of] the sabbatical years, and of the jubilees; for the planting of trees, and for vegetables. On the first of Shevat, it is a new year for trees, according to Beit Shammai. Beit Hillel says, "It is on the fifteenth of [Shevat]."
  The world is judged at four periods [each year]; on Pesach concerning produce; on Shavouot concerning the fruit of trees; on Rosh Hashanah, all [humans] pass like lambs [or foot-soldiers] before [God], as it is stated (Psalms 30:9), "He who fashioned all their hearts, He who understands all their actions;" and on Sukkot, [humans] are judged concerning the water [or rain].
  For the [following] six months were messengers sent out [to alert the communities about which day was declared to be the first day of the new month]: for Nissan, on account of Pesach; for Av, on account of the fast; for Elul, on account of Rosh Hashanah; for Tishrei, on account of the regulation of the festivals; for Kislev, on account of Chanukah; and for Adar, on account of Purim; and when the Temple was in existence, also for Iyar, on account of the little Pesach [Pesach Sheni]
  For two months [the witnesses] may desecrate the Sabbath: for Nissan, and for Tishrei;  upon which the messengers go out to Syria, and through which the festivals are regulated; and when the Temple was in existence, [the witnesses] would even desecrate [Shabbat] for any month, on account of the regulation of the sacrifice [on <i>Rosh Chodesh</i> - the first day of the new month, one which special prayers and sacrifices are offered].
  Whether [the moon] was clearly visible, or whether it was not clearly visible, Shabbat may be desecrated for [witnesses to testify to having seen] it. Rabbi Yose says, "If it was clearly visible, Shabbat may not be desecrated for [witnesses to testify to having seen] it."
  It happened once, that more than forty pairs of witnesses passed through on [Shabbat] and Rabbi Akiva detained them in Lod. Rabban Gamliel [then] sent word to him, [saying], "If you detain the multitudes [from passing through on Shabbat to testify], it will come out that you will be causing them to stumble in the future [and they will not come to testify about the new moon even when there is a need for it]."
  If a father and son saw the new moon, they must [both] go to the court [that will take their testimony to potentially confirm that sighting and ratify the new month accordingly]; not that they may be combined [together to act as witnesses], but rather that in the event that one of them be declared unfit, the other may join [to give evidence] with another [witness]. Said Rabbi Shimon, "A father and his son, and all relatives, are fit to [join together and] give evidence about the [appearance of the] new moon." Said Rabbi Yose, "It once happened that Toviah the physician, his son, and his freed slave saw the new moon in Jerusalem, [and when they testified before them,] the <i>Kohanim</i> [members of the priestly caste, a subgroup of tribe of Levi, which is uniquely responsible for maintaining and carrying out the sacrificial services in the Temple] accepted him and his son [as witnesses together], but declared  his slave unfit; but when they came to [testify before] the court, they accepted him and his slave [as witnesses together], but declared his son unfit."
  These are considered unfit [witnesses]: gamblers with dice, those that lend with interest, pigeon racers, those who trade in the produce of the Sabbatical year, and slaves. This is the rule: all testimony that a woman is not fit to give, these [above] are also not fit to give.
  One who has seen the new moon [on Shabbat], but is unable to walk [to the court to give evidence], must be brought mounted on an ass or even [carried by others] in a bed. If they are [concerned about possible] ambushers, [the witnesses] may take sticks with them; and if it was a long way [to go], they may take provisions with them, since we desecrate the Shabbat and go out to testify about the new moon [up to] the distance of a day and a night [on the road,] as it stated (Leviticus 23:4), "These are the feasts of the Lord, the holy convocations, which you shall proclaim in their appointed seasons."
  
  
  
  If [the judges] didn't know [the witness], others were sent with him to testify about him. At first, testimony about the new moon was received from any one; [but] from when the heretics corrupted [and bribed witnesses to lie], it was ordained, that [testimony] should be received only of those witnesses who were known.
  At first, bonfires were lighted on the tops of the mountains [to transmit the appearance of the new moon]; but when the Cutheans [the Samaritans] corrupted [the process], it was ordained that messengers should be sent out.
  How were these mountain fires lighted? They brought long staves of cedar wood, and shoots, and sticks from oil trees, and the scraps of flax, which were [all] tied on the top of [the staves] with twine; [with these, the court's agent] went to the top of the mountain, and lighted the fire; and waved them to and fro, upward and downward, until he could see his fellow, [and] that [the latter] was doing the same on the top of the next mountain; and so too, [this process was repeated with regards to the next fellow] on the top of the third mountain.
  And from where did they light these mountain fires? From the Mount of Olives to Sartava, and from Sartava to Grofina, and from Grofina to Havran, and from Havran to Beit Biltin; and from Beit Biltin, [the agents] did not move from there, but [rather] he would wave [the flaming brands] to and fro, upward and downward, until he could see the whole Diaspora in front of him [lit up] like a torch fire.
  There was a large courtyard in Jerusalem and it was called Beit Ya'azek; it was there that all the witnesses gathered, and the court would examine them there. Large meals were made for them, in order that they be accustomed to come [and testify]. At first, they did not move from [that courtyard] all day [on Shabbat. Later,] Rabban Gamliel the Elder ordained that they would [be permitted to] go two thousand <i>amot</i> [a specific unit of length] on every side; and it is not only [witnesses that were given this dispensation on Shabbat], but also the midwife, who comes to deliver [a baby]; and one who comes to save [others] from a fire, or from [the attack of a hostile] troop, or from a [flood], or from under the ruins of fallen buildings; behold they are considered as inhabitants of that town [to which they arrived on Shabbat], and [hence] they have two thousand <i>amot</i> on every side [of the town in which they are allowed to move].
  How were witnesses examined? The pair that came first were examined first. [The judges] would bring in the eldest of them, and say to him: "Say [to us], how did you see the moon; was it [with the crescent turned] towards the sun, or away from the sun? To the north or to the south [of the sun]? What was its elevation and towards which side was it inclining? And how wide was it?" If he said [the crescent was turned] towards the sun, he did not say anything [of value and is dismissed]. Afterwards, they would bring in the second witness and examine him; if their words were found to match, their testimony stood [and was accepted]. And [then] all the other pairs of witnesses would be asked [questions in outline form], not because the [judges] would need them, but only that they not leave with bitter spirits, in order that they be accustomed to come [and testify in the future].
  The head of the court [then] said, "[The new month is] consecrated" and all the people answered after him, "Consecrated, consecrated." Whether [the new moon] had been seen at its time [meaning, on the first of the two possible days] or whether it had not been seen at its time, it was consecrated. Rabbi Eliezer bar Tsadok, said, "If it had not been seen at its time, it was not consecrated, because it had already been consecrated by the Heavens [on the second day]."
  Rabban Gamliel had, on a tablet, and on the walls of his loft, various drawings of the moon, which he showed to simple witnesses, and said, "Was it like this [drawing] that you saw, or like [the other one]?" It happened once, that two witnesses came and said, "We saw [the moon] in the East in the morning, and in the evening in the West." [In that case,] Rabbi Yochanan ben Nuri said, "They are false witnesses." [But] when they came to Yavneh, Rabban Gamliel accepted [their testimony. It] also [happened once that] two witnesses came and said, "We saw the moon at its time [meaning, on the first of the two possible days], but it was not [to be] seen [afterwards] on the evening of its intercalation," and Rabban Gamliel  accepted [their testimony]. Rabbi Dosa ben Harkinus said, "They are false witnesses; how can they testify that a [certain] woman gave birth [on a certain day], and, on the next day that her 'womb was between her teeth' [and the fetus still inside]?" [Then] Rabbi Yehoshua said to him, "I perceive [the truth of] your words."
  [Upon hearing this,] Rabban Gamliel  sent [Rabbi Yehoshua] word, saying, "I decree upon you to come to me with your staff and your money on the day that comes out to be Yom Kippur, according to your calculation." Rabbi Akiva went to [Rabbi Yehoshua], and found him grieving; he said to him, "I have with what to teach, that all that Rabban Gamliel  has done is [bindingly] done, as it is stated (Leveticus 23:4), 'These are the feasts of the Lord, holy convocations which you shall proclaim;' whether at their [proper] time, or whether not at their [proper] time, I have no holy convocations except [for the ones proclaimed by the court." When Rabbi Yehoshua] came to Rabbi Dosa ben Harkinus, [the latter] said to him, "If we are to [question the decisions] of the court of Rabban Gamliel, we must [also question the decisions] of all the courts which have stood, from the days of Moshe until [today]; as it is stated, (Exodus 24:2), 'Moshe, Aharon, Nadav, Avihu, and seventy of the elders of Israel went up.' Why were the names of the elders not specified? Rather [it was] to teach, that every three men that form ‏a court [to be responsible] over Israel, behold [that court] is to be [considered]  like the court of Moshe." [After this], Rabbi Yehoshua took his staff and his money in his hand, and went to Yavneh to Rabban Gamliel on the day that came out to be Yom Kippur, according to his calculation. [At that point], Rabban Gamliel  stood up, and kissed him on his head, [and] he said to him, "Come in peace, my teacher and my disciple! My teacher — in wisdom; and my disciple — in that you accepted my words."
  
  
  
  [Even in the case that] the court and all of Israel saw [the new moon], if [after] they examined the witnesses, they didn't have time to [declare it] 'dedicated' before it became dark; behold the month will be intercalary. If only the court saw it, two [of its members] must stand up and testify before [the others], and [the latter] will say, "Dedicated, dedicated." If [only] three, forming a court, saw it, two of them must stand up, and conjoin [two] of their fellow [scholars] with the single one, and testify before them, and [the latter] will say, "Dedicated, dedicated;" since an individual is not [qualified to wield the authority of the court] by himself. 
  All shofars are fit [to be blown on Rosh Hashanah], except for that of a cow because it is [called] a horn [and not a shofar]. Rabbi Yose said, "But are not all shofars [also] called a horn, as it is stated (Joshua 6:5), 'upon a long blast from the ram’s horn'?” 
  The shofar of Rosh Hashanah – is to be from an ibex, [and] straight. Its mouth is to be coated in gold, and there are to be two trumpets, [one] on each side [of it]. The shofar [blast] is to be long and the trumpet [blast] is to be short, since the commandment of the day is with a shofar.
  On fast days, [the shofars used] are to be from male [rams, and] bent. Their mouths are to be coated in silver, and two trumpets are to be in the middle [of the shofars]. The shofar [blast] is to be short and the trumpet [blast] is to be long, since the commandment of the day is with trumpets.
  The [proceedings on Yom Kippur of the] Jubilee year [are] equivalent to Rosh Hashanah with regard to blowings and blessings. Rabbi Yehuda says, "On Rosh Hashanah – we must blow with those of male [rams], and on the Jubilee – with those of ibexes."
  If a shofar was cracked and one glued it, it is unfit. If one glued fragments of shofars, it is [also] unfit. If it was pierced and he sealed [the hole]; if [the hole] impedes the blast, it is unfit, but if not, it is fit.
  One who blows into a cistern, or into a cellar or into a barrel; if he heard the sound of the shofar, he has fulfilled [his obligation]; if he heard the sound of an echo, he has not fulfilled [his obligation]. And so [too], he who was passing behind a synagogue, or whose house was adjacent to a synagogue, and heard the sound of a shofar or the sound of [someone reading the] scroll [of Esther, on Purim]; if he [had intention for the commandment], he has fulfilled [his obligation], but if not, he has not fulfilled [his obligation]. Even though this one heard and that one heard, this one [had intention], and that one did not [have intention].
  “And so it was, when Moshe raised his hand, Israel prevailed…” (Exodus 17:11). And is it Moshe’s hands that make [success in] war or break [success in] war? Rather, [this comes to] tell you, [that] whenever Israel would look upward and subjugate their hearts to their Father in heaven, they would prevail; and if not, they would fall. Similar to this matter, you [can] say concerning the verse; “Make a [graven] snake and place it on a pole, and everyone bitten who sees it will live” (Numbers 21:8): And is it the snake that kills or [is it] the snake that [revives]? Rather, whenever Israel would look upward and subjugate their hearts to their Father in heaven, they would be healed; and if not, they would be harmed. A deaf-mute person, or a <i>shoteh</i>, or a minor, cannot relieve others from their obligation [for hearing the shofar they blew the shofar for them]. This is the general rule: all those who are not obligated to carry out a particular action, cannot release [others] from their obligation.
  
  
  
  The festival day of Rosh Hashanah which coincided with Shabbat: they would blow [the shofar] in the Temple, but not in the [rest of the] country. After the destruction of the Temple, Rabban Yochanan ben Zakai, ordained that they should blow in every place in which there is a court. Rabbi Eleizer said, "Rabban Yochanan ben Zakai only made this ordinance with respect to Yavneh alone." [The Sages] said [back] to him, "It was the same for Yavneh as for any other place in which there was a court."
  And also in this [respect], was Jerusalem greater than Yavneh: every city, [whose inhabitants] could see [Jerusalem] and hear [it], and [were] near [to it] and could get to [it], would blow [the shofar]; but in Yavneh, they would not blow [the shofar] except in the court alone.
  At first, the palm branch [along with its accompanying species] was held [and waved] in the Temple seven [days, meaning throughout Sukkot], and  in [the rest of the] country one day. After the destruction of the Temple, Rabban Yochanan ben Zakai ordained that the palm branch should be held [and waved] in [the rest of] the country seven [days], in commemoration of [what was done in] the Temple; and [also], that the whole day of the <i>henef</i>[the ritual of waving of barley sheaves which thereby permits the consumption of new grain] should be prohibited [regarding eating from the new grain].
  At first, testimony regarding the new moon was received the whole day [on the thirtieth day of Elul which would then become Rosh Hashanah if the testimony was accepted; but as it] once [happened that] the witnesses delayed in coming, and the Levites confounded the Song [of the day at the afternoon sacrifice], it was ordained that witnesses should be admitted only until [the time of] the afternoon sacrifice, and if witnesses came from [the time of] the afternoon sacrifice and onwards, that day and the morrow would be treated with sanctity [as if the first day were also Rosh Hasahnah]. After the destruction of the temple, Rabban Yochanan ben Zakai ordained that testimony regarding the new moon could be received the whole day [of the thirtieth of Elul once again].  Rabbi Yehoshua ben Korcha said, "This too did Rabban Yochanan ben Zakai ordain: even if the head of the court would be in any [other] place, the witnesses need not go anywhere [else], but to the place of meeting [of the court]."
  The order of the blessings [to be said during the silent prayer of <i>musaf</i> - the additional prayer service - on Rosh Hashanah is as follows]: one says  <i>avot</i> [the first blessing of the silent prayer, which focuses on the forefathers], and <i>gevurot</i> [the second blessing, which focuses on the power of God] and <i>kedushat Hashem</i> [the third blessing, which focuses on the holiness of God], and includes <i>malkhiot</i>‎ [a series of texts relating to the kingship of God] with them, and does not blow [the shofar; then] <i>kedushat hayom</i> [the standard middle blessing, which focuses on the holiness of the day], and [then] he blows; [then] <i>zikhronot</i> [texts relating to the kind remembrance of God to his creatures], and [then] he blows; [then] the ‏<i>shofarot</i>‎ [texts in which the sounding of the shofar is mentioned],  and [then] he blows [a third time]; and [then] he says, <i>avodah</i> [the first of the concluding blessings, which focuses on the service to God], and <i>hodaah</i> [the second of the concluding blessings, which focuses on thanksgiving to God], and <i>birkat Kohanim</i> ‏[the blessing given to the congregation by the priests, who are from the tribe of Levi and are responsible for the Temple service] - so says Rabbi Yochanan ben Nuri. Rabbi Akiva said [back] to him, "If he does not blow [the shofar after] <i>malkhiot</i>‎, why is it mentioned? Rather, [the proper order is as follows:] ‎ one says  <i>avot</i> and <i>gevurot</i> and <i>kedushat Hashem</i>,  and [then] includes <i>malkhiot</i> with <i>kedushat hayom</i>, and [then] blows [the shofar; then] <i>zikhronot</i> and [then] he blows; [then] the ‏<i>shofarot</i>‎ and [then] he blows [a third time]; and [then] he says, <i>avodah</i> and <i>hodaah</i> and <i>birkat Kohanim</i>."
  We may not have less then ten [verses] of <i>malkhiot</i>‎, ten of <i>zikhronot</i>‎ and ten of <i>shofarot</i>‎‎. Rabbi Yochanan ben Nuri says, "If one said three [verses] from each [category], he has fulfilled [his obligation]." We may not mention [verses] of <i>zikaron</i>, <i>malkhut</i>‎, ‎ or <i>shofar</i>, [associated with] calamity. One begins [the set of verses] with [verses] from the Torah and completes [the set] with [verses] from the Prophets." Rabbi Yose says, "It he completes [the set] with [a verse] from the Torah, he has fulfilled [his obligation]."
  He who [stands] before the reading-desk [to lead the prayers] on the festival of Rosh Hashanah; [it is] the second one [who does so, in order to lead the <i>musaf</i> service,] that leads the blowing [of the shofar; while on a day that Hallel is recited, it is] the first one [who stands before the reading-desk, in order to lead the morning service,] that leads the reading of the Hallel.
  [For the purpose of sounding] the shofar on Rosh Hashanah, we may not go beyond the ‏<i>techum</i>‎ [the area around a person or community within which it is permissible to travel on Shabbat], and we may not excavate it from a heap [of stones], we may not climb a tree, and we may not ride on the back of an animal, and we may not swim over the waters [to get a shofar], and we may not cut it; neither with any thing [that may not be used] on account of a <i>shevut</i> [‏restrictions established by the Sages regarding Shabbat to prevent violation of Torah-level Shabbat prohibitions, and to increase its sanctity], nor with any thing [that may not be used] on account of a of a negative commandment [of the Torah]. But if one wants, he may put water or wine into it. We may not prevent children from blowing, but [on the contrary,] we may occupy ourselves with them until they learn [how to blow the shofar]; one who occupies himself [by blowing the shofar without the intention to fulfill the commandment,] has not [thereby] fulfilled [his obligation], and one who listens [to shofar blows] from one who occupies himself [by blowing the shofar without the intention to fulfill the commandment, also] has not [thereby] fulfilled [his obligation].
  The order of sounding the shofar is [that] three [sets] of three blows  [are sounded] thrice; the required amount [of time] of the <i>tekiah</i> [long uninterrupted blow], is like [that of] three <i>teruot</i> [interrupted blows], and that of each <i>tekiah</i> is like [that of] three short blows [understood to be like sighs or cries]. If one blew the first <i>tekiah</i>, and prolonged the second, [so as to be] like two, he only has one [<i>tekiah</i> credited to him]. He who has blessed [all the blessings] of the <i>musaf</i> prayer, and [only] afterwards [obtained] a shofar, must blow [the sequence of] <i>tekiah</i>, <i>teruah</i>, and <i>tekiah</i> three times. Just like the [prayer leader] is obligated [to recite the prayers of the day for himself], so is every individual obligated [to do so]. Rabban Gamliel says, "The [prayer leader] releases the public from their obligation [by reciting the prayers out loud for them]."