meta: {"file": "/data/tomer/Sefaria-Export/txt_done/Mishnah/Seder Tahorot/Mishnah Oholot/English/Sefaria Community Translation.txt"}
text: Mishnah Oholot
  משנה אהלות
  Sefaria Community Translation
  
  
  Mishnah Oholot
  
  
  
  
  
  If two people become impure from a corpse, one becomes impure for seven days and one becomes impure until evening. If three people become impure from a corpse, two become impure for seven days and one becomes impure until evening. If four people become impure from a corpse, three become impure for seven days and one becomes impure until evening. How do two [become impure]? One person touches a corpse and becomes impure for seven days, and any person who touches him becomes impure until evening.
  How do three [become impure]? Vessels that touch a corpse, and vessels that touch those vessels, all become impure for seven days. The third [object that touches the second set of vessels], regardless of whether it is a person or a vessel, becomes impure until evening.
  How do four [become impure]? Vessels that touch a corpse, and a person who touches those vessels, and [more] vessels that touch that person, they are all impure for seven days. The fourth [object that touches the second set of vessels], regardless of whether it is a person or a vessel, becomes impure until evening. Rabbi Akiva said: I know of a case with a fifth. A tent-post that is stuck in a tent [in which there is a corpse], the tent and the post, and a person who touches the post, and vessels that touch the person, all are impure for seven days. The fifth [object that touches those vessels], regardless of whether it is a person or a vessel, becomes impure until evening. They said to him [to Rabbi Akiva]: The tent does not count.
  A person and vessels become impure by a corpse. [There is a way in which] a person is more stringent than vessels, and [in which] vessels are more [stringent] than a person, in that the vessels are [able to pass impurity to] three and the person are [able to pass impurity to] two. A person is more stringent, in that so long as the person is in the middle, they are [able to pass impurity to] four. And when the person is not in the middle, they are [able to pass impurity to] three.
  A person and items of clothing become impure by a <i>Zav</i> [a male who has certain types of atypical genital discharges, which render him impure]. [There is a way in which] a person is more stringent than garments, and [in which] garments are more [stringent] than a person, in that a person who touches a <i>Zav</i> [will in turn] make garments impure, but clothes that touch a <i>Zav</i> do not make other clothes impure. Clothes are more stringent, in that the clothes that carry a <i>Zav</i> make a person impure, but a person who carries a <i>Zav</i> does not make another person impure.
  A human does not impurify [others] until his life leaves him. And even someone dismembered or terminally ill, obligates in or exempts from levirate marriage, and qualifies or disqualifies one from eating <i>Terumah</i> [a portion of a crop given to a priest which becomes holy upon separation, and can only be consumed by priests or their household]. And so too domestic or wild animals do not impurify until their lives leave them. If their heads were cut off, even if they are convulsing, they impurify - like the tail of  a lizard which convulses [after being cut off].
  Limbs have no measure; even less than an olive's measure from a dead body, or less than an olive's measure from a dead animal, or less than a lentil's measure from a vermin - they impurify their impurity.
  There are two hundred and forty eight limbs in the body. Thirty in the foot - six in each toe, ten in the ankle, two in the shin, five in the knee, one in the thigh, three in the hip, eleven ribs, thirty in the palm - six in each finger, two in the forearm, two in the elbow, one in the upper arm, and four in the shoulder. One hundred and one of this [side of the body], and one hundred and one of that. And eighteen vertebrates in the spinal chord: nine in the head, eight in the neck, six in the openings of the heart, and five around its cavities. Each of these impurifies through touching, carrying, or sharing quarters. When is this true? When the limbs still have an appropriate amount of flesh on them. But if they do not have an appropriate amount of flesh on them, they will impurify through touching and through carrying, but not through sharing quarters.
  
  
  
  The following impurify through overshadowing: a corpse, an olive-sized piece of a corpse, an olive-sized piece of liquefied corpse, a ladleful of decomposed corpse, the spine, the skull, a limb from a corpse or a limb from a living person that has flesh on it as is appropriate, a <i>Rova</i> [specific unit of volume] of bones comprising the structural majority or the numerical majority, or the structural majority or numerical majority of a corpse, even without amounting to a <i>Rova</i>, impurify. How many is the numerical majority? One hundred and twenty five.
  A <i>Revi'it</i> [specific unit of volume] of blood and a <i>Revi'it</i> of mixed blood from one corpse [impurify through overshadowing]. Rabbi Akiva says: [even] from two corpses. The blood of a child that has flowed out completely: Rabbi Akiva says any amount, the Sages say a <i>Revi'it</i>. An olive-sized portion of worms, whether alive or dead, Rabbi Eliezer considers it impure like his flesh. And the Sages consider it pure. Ashes of cremated persons: Rabbi Eliezer says the measure [to impurify] is a <i>Rova</i>. And the Sages consider it pure. A ladleful and more of grave-dust is impure. Rabbi Shimon considers it pure. A ladleful of decomposed corpse kneaded with water does not combine to become impure.
  The following impurify through touching and carrying, but not through overshadowing: bone the size of a grain of barley, [earth from] foreign lands, a <i>Beit Pras</i> [a field in which a grave has been plowed over], a limb from a corpse or a limb from a living person that do not have flesh on them as is appropriate, the spine or the skull that are deficient. How much is a deficiency in the spine? The Beit Shammai say two vertebrae. Beit Hillel say even one vertebra. And in the skull? Beit Shammai say [the size of] a hole [made] by a drill, but Beit Hillel say as much as if it were taken from a living person he would die. Of what drill did they speak? Of the small one of doctors, these are the words of Rabbi Meir. The Sages say, the large one of the Temple-chamber.
  The covering stone and the supporting stone of a grave impurify through touching and through overshadowing, but not through carrying. Rabbi Eliezer says, they do impurify through carrying. Rabbi Yehoshua says, if there is grave-dust under them, they impurify through carriage, but if not, they do not impurify through carrying. What is the supporting stone? It is that upon which the covering stone is buttressed. The stone that buttresses the supporting stone, however, is pure. 
  These are pure if they are deficient: an olive-sized portion of a corpse, an olive-sized portion of liquefied corpse, a ladleful of decomposed corpse, a <i>Revi'it</i> of blood, bone of the size of a grain of barley, and a limb off a living person which has a bone that is deficient. 
  [With regards to] the spine or the skull of two corpses or a <i>Revi'it</i> of blood from two corpses, or a <i>Rova</i> of bones from two corpses, or limbs from two corpses, or limbs from two living people, Rabbi Akiva declares [that these make others] impure, and the Sages declares it [keeps them] pure.
  A bone the size of a grain of barley that is divided into two:  Rabbi Akiva declares it [makes others] impure, but Rabbi Yochanan ben Nuri declares it [does not change them from being] pure. Rabbi Yochanan ben Nuri says: they did not say "bones" the size of a grain of barley, but "bone" the size of a grain of barley. A <i>Rova</i> of bones that were crushed into small pieces, and there is not a single one of them that is the size of a grain of barley: Rabbi Shimon declares it [does not change others from being] pure, but the Sages declare them impure. A limb [severed] from a living person that was divided into two [does not change others from being] pure. Rabbi Yose declares it [makes them] impure; but he agrees that if it was taken by halves that it [does not change others from being] pure. 
  
  
  
  All objects that impurify through sharing a tent that were divided and then brought into a house: Rabbi Dosa ben Harkinas declares [the objects inside the house] pure. But the Sages declare [them] impure. How so?  One who touches two [pieces the size of] half an olive of carrion,  or carries them, or, in the case of a corpse, one who touches [a piece the size of] half an olive and overshadows [a piece the size of] half an olive, or if he touches [a piece the size of] half an olive and [a piece the size of] half an olive overshadows him, or if he overshadows two [pieces the size of] half an olive, or if he overshadows [a piece the size of] half an olive and another [piece the size of] half an olive overshadows him: Rabbi Dosa ben Harkinas declares him pure, and the Sages declare him impure. But if he touches a piece the size of] half an olive and another object overshadows him and a [piece the size of] half an olive, or if he overshadows [a piece the size of] half an olive and another object overshadows him and a [piece the size of] half an olive, he is pure. Rabbi Meir says: Even in this matter Rabbi Dosa ben Harkinas declares him pure and the Sages declare him impure. Every case is impure  except touching combined with carrying or carrying combined with overshadowing. This is the general principle: every object [whose defilement] comes from one type is impure, from two types is pure. 
  A ladleful of decomposed corpse that was scattered about in a house, the house is impure. But Rabbi Shimon declares it pure. A <i>Revi'it</i> [specific unit of volume] of blood that was absorbed in [the floor] of a house, the house is pure. If it was absorbed in a garment: if the garment is washed and a <i>Revi'it</i> of blood comes out of it, it is impure, if not, it is pure, since anything absorbed that cannot come out is pure. 
  [Blood] that was poured out in the open air: If the place it fell on was a slope and [a person or vessel] overshadowed part of it, he is pure. If it was a cavity, or if it congealed, he is impure. If it was poured out on a threshold, and it was sloped either inwards or outwards and the house overshadowed it, [the contents of the house] are pure. If it was a cavity, or if it congealed, [the contents of the house] are impure. Every thing that is part of a corpse is impure except the teeth, hair and nails. And when they are connected [to the corpse], everything is impure. 
  How so?  If the dead body is outside and its hair is inside, the house is impure. A bone that has an olive's volume of flesh on it, if he brought part of it inside and the house overshadows it, [the house] is impure. Two bones that have two half-olive volumes on them and he brought part of them inside and the house overshadows them, it is impure. If they were stuck together by human work it is pure because the connection of a person does not count as a connection. 
  What is mixed blood? The blood of a corpse of which a <i>Sheminit</i> [specific unit of volume] came out during his lifetime and a <i>Sheminit</i> after his death, the words of Rabbi Akiva. Rabbi Yishmael says: a <i>Revi'it</i> during his lifetime and a <i>Revi'it</i> after his death, he took a <i>Revi'it</i> from this and from that. Rabbi Elazar bar Judah says: both this and that are as water. What then is mixed blood? A crucified person whose blood is pouring out and under him there is found a <i>Revi'it</i> of blood—it is impure. But a corpse whose blood drips out and under him there is found a <i>Revi'it</i> of blood, [the blood] is pure. Rabbi Judah says: This is not so, but that which pours out is pure and that which drips out is impure.   
  An olive-sized piece of a corpse, an opening [in the room in which it is found] of one handbreadth, and for a corpse, an opening of four handbreadths [is enough] to save the impurity from [spreading to the other] openings; But for the impurity to go out, a handbreadth's space [is enough]. Greater than the bulk of an olive is [considered] like a corpse. Rabbi Yose says: the spine and the skull are [considered] like a corpse. 
  [Something that is] one handbreadth by one handbreadth and one handbreadth high [and] square conveys impurity and blocks impurity. How so? A drain that is covered beneath a house, if it has in it a handbreadth's space and it has in its outlet a handbreadth's space: If there is impurity inside it, the house remains pure; If there is impurity in the house, that which is inside it [the drain] is pure, for the manner of impurity is to go out and its manner is not to go in. If it has in it a handbreadth's space  and it does not have in its outlet a handbreadth's space: if there is impurity inside it, the house is impure; if there is impurity in the house, that which is within it is pure, for the manner of impurity is to go out and its manner is not to go in. If it does not have in it a handbreadth's space  and it does not have in its outlet a handbreadth's space: if there is impurity inside it, the house is impure; if there is impurity in the house,  that which is within it is impure. [These rules apply to] both a hole carved out by water or by creepy crawly things, or if it had been eaten out by salt. And similarly a row of stones or a pile of beams. Rabbi Judah says: any "tent" not made by a person is not considered a "tent." But he agrees that clefts and crags [are considered as ‘tents’].   
  
  
  
  A cupboard standing [outside] in the open air: If there is impurity within it, vessels in the thickness [of its walls] are pure. If there is impurity in its thickness, vessels inside [the cupboard] are pure. Rabbi Yose says: half and half. If it is standing inside a house: If there is impurity inside [the cupboard], the house is impure; If there is impurity in the house, that which is within [the cupboard] is pure, for the manner of impurity is to go out and its manner is not to go in. Vessels that are between [the cupboard] and the ground, or that are between it and the wall, or that are between it and the roof-beams: If there is a handbreadth's space there, they are impure. If not, they remain pure. If there is impurity there, the house becomes impure. 
  A drawer of a cupboard that has a handbreadth's space, but whose outlet does not have a handbreadth's space, if there is impurity inside it, the house becomes impure; if there is impurity in the house, that which is within [the drawer] is pure, for the manner of impurity is to go out and its manner is not to go in. Rabbi Yose declares [the house] pure, since he can remove [the impurity] in halves or burn it in its place. 
  If it [the cupboard] was standing in the opening and it opened outward, if there is impurity inside it, the house is pure. If there is impurity in the house, that which is within [the cupboard] is impure, for the manner of impurity is to go out and its manner is not to go in. If its wheeled base protruded three fingerbreadths behind it: if there was impurity inside directly underneath the roof-beams, the house is pure. About what case was this stated? When there is there a handbreadth's space, when it is not detachable, and when the cupboard is the normal measurement. 
  
  
  
  An oven that is standing in a house, with its outlet curved to the outside [of the house], and those burying a corpse overshadowed it: Beit Shammai says: everything is impure. Beit Hillel says: the oven is impure, but the house is pure. Rabbi Akiva says: even the oven is pure.   
  A hatch that is between the house and the upper story, and a pot was placed over it and it was perforated [by a hole large enough] to admit liquid: Beit Shammai says: everything is impure. Beit  Hillel says: the pot is impure but the upper story is pure.  Rabbi Akiva says: even the pot is pure. 
  If it was whole, Beit Hillel says it saves everything [from becoming impure], but Beit  Shammai says it only saves food, drink and earthenware vessels. Beit Hillel later retracted to rule like Beit Shammai.
  A flagon that is full of pure liquid, the flagon becomes impure for seven days but the liquid is pure. But if one emptied [the liquids out into another vessel, they are impure. A woman who was kneading in a trough, the woman and the trough become impure for seven days but the dough is pure. But if one emptied the dough out into another vessel, it is impure. Beit Hillel later retracted to rule like Beit  Shammai.
  If [over the hatch] there were vessels made of dung, stone vessels, or vessels of [unbaked] earth, everything [in the upper story] remains pure. If it was a vessel known to be pure for <i>Kodesh</i> [holy items] or for the <i>Chatat</i> [purifying waters of the red heifer], everything is pure, since everyone is trusted with regard to the <i>Chatat</i>. For the [above-mentioned] vessels are pure and earthenware vessels are pure (and) protect with the walls of tents. 
  How so? If there was a cistern or a cellar in a house and a large basket was placed over it, [the contents of the cistern or cellar] remain pure. But if it was a well level [with the ground] or a lessened basket and a large basket was placed over it, [the contents] are impure. If it was a smooth board or netting without rims, [the contents] are pure. For vessels do not protect with the walls of tents unless they themselves have walls. How much must the wall be? A handbreadth. If there was half a handbreadth on one side and half a handbreadth on the other, it is not [considered] a wall, until is a whole handbreadth from one object. 
  Just as they protect inside so they protect outside. How so? A large basket placed on pegs on the outside [next to a tent], if there was impurity under it, vessels in the basket are pure. But if it was [next to] the wall of a courtyard or of the wall of a garden, it does not protect. A beam placed from one wall to another and a pot hanging from it: if there was impurity under it, Rabbi Akiva declares the vessels inside the pot pure, but the Sages declare them impure. 
  
  
  
  People and vessels act like tents to impurify but not to protect purity. How so?  If four people were carrying a slab, if the impurity is under it, the vessels on top of it are impure.  If the impurity was on top of it, the vessels underneath it are impure, but Rabbi Eliezer declares [them] pure. If it was placed down on four vessels even if they are made of dung, stone, or earth, if the impurity is underneath the vessels on top are impure and if the impurity is on top the vessels underneath are impure.  If it was placed on four stones or on top of any living thing, if the impurity is underneath, the vessels on top of it are pure and if the impurity is on top the vessels underneath are pure. 
  Those who bury dead bodies that were passing through an alleyway if one of them closed the door and fastened it with a key, if the door can stand on its own it is pure, but if not it is impure.  Similarly a jug of dried figs or a basket of straw which were placed in a window [where a dead body was], if the dried figs or the straw could stand on their own they are pure, but if not they are impure.  A house [containing a dead body] which was partitioned by barrels and coated with plaster, if the plaster can stand on its own it is pure but if not it is impure.
  A wall that serves a house is ruled half and half. How so?  A wall which is open to the air and the impurity is inside it, from the midpoint inward the house is impure but one who stands above it is pure, from the midpoint outside the house is pure and one who stands on top of it is impure.  If it is halfway between, the house is impure and one who stands above it, Rabbi Meir declares him impure but the Sages declare him pure. Rabbi Yehuda says the whole wall [is ruled according] to the house. 
  A wall that is between two houses and there is impurity inside it, the house close to the impurity is impure and the house closer to the purity is pure. If it is half way between they are both impure. If there is impurity in one of them and vessels are in the wall, from the halfway point towards the impurity they are impure and from the halfway point to the pure side they are pure. If they are halfway between they are impure. If there is plaster between the house and the upper story, and there was impurity in it, from the midpoint down the house is impure and the upper story is pure, from the midpoint up, the upper story is impure and the house is pure. If it is halfway between they are both impure. If there was impurity in one of them and vessels in the plaster, from the halfway point towards the impurity they are impure and from the halfway point to the pure side they are pure.  If they are halfway in between they are impure. Rabbi Yehuda says the whole plaster area belongs to the upper story.
  If there was impurity between beams, and [the partition] underneath was [as thin] as a garlic peel, if there is a handbreadth's space, everything is impure. If there is not a handbreadth's space, we view the impurity as if it were blocked. If it is visible within the house in either case the house is impure. 
  A house which serves a wall [is ruled according] to the garlic peel. How so?  A wall between two crypts or between two caves, if there was impurity in the houses and vessels in the wall and [the partition] above them was [as thin] as a garlic peel, they are pure. If the impurity is in the wall and the vessels are in the house and [the partition] above them was as [thin as] a garlic peel they are pure. If the impurity was under a pillar the impurity pierces and goes up, pierces and goes down.
  Vessels that are under a flower [decoration on a column under which impurity was buried] are pure.  Rabbi Yochanan ben Nuri declares [them] impure. If the impurity and vessels were under the flower, if there was a handbreadth's space they are impure but if not they are pure. Two cabinets next to each other or one on top of the other, if one of them was opened, it and the house is impure but the other one is pure and we view the cabinets as if they were blocked - it is ruled [according to the rule of] half and half with regard to bringing the impurity into the house.
  
  
  
  If there was impurity in the wall and its place was a handbreadth by a handbreadth by a handbreadth height, all upper stories that are above it, even if they were ten, are impure. If there was one upper story above two houses it is impure and all the upper stories that are above it are pure. A second wall, the impurity pierces and goes up, pierces and goes down. A solid gravestone, if one touches it from the sides he is pure because the impurity pierces and goes up, pierces and goes down. If the place of the impurity was a handbreadth by a handbreadth by a handbreadth height, one who touches it in any place is impure because it is like a sealed grave. If he supported booths with it, they are impure, but Rabbi Yehuda declares [them] pure. 
  All sloping tents are like [other] tents. If the tent sloped downwards and ended less than a finger from the ground, if there was impurity in the tent, vessels underneath the slope are impure, if there was impurity under the slope vessels in the tent are impure. If there is impurity inside it, one who touches its inside is impure for seven days and [one who touches] its outside is impure until evening. If there is impurity outside it, one who touches its outside is impure for seven days and [one who touches] its inside is impure until evening. If there is [a piece the size of] half an olive inside and half an olive outside, one who touches it, whether he touches its inside or its outside, is impure until evening. If part of it is spread flat on the ground, if there is impurity underneath it or on top of it, the impurity pierces and goes up, pierces and goes down. A tent which is pitched in an upper story, and part of it is spread flat over the hatch that is between the house and the upper story, Rabbi Yossi says it protects [from spreading impurity], but Rabbi Shimon says it does not protect, until it is pitched like the pitching of a tent. 
  One who dies in a house that has many openings, they all become impure. If only one of them was open, it is impure and all the others are pure. If he thought to take out [the corpse] through one of them, or through a window that is four by four handbreadths, he protects all the other openings [from impurity]. Beit  Shammai say he must decide before the corpse dies, but Beit  Hillel say even after he dies. If it was sealed and he decided to open it, Beit  Shammai say once he opens four handbreadths [it protects the other openings] but the House of Hillel say [even] once he starts. And they agree that if he opens it in the beginning he must open four handbreadths.
  A woman who is having difficulty in childbirth [and gave birth to a stillborn], and was taken from one house to another, the first is impure by uncertainty and the second is certainly impure. Rabbi Yehuda says when is this so? When she is taken by her arms, but if she was walking, the first is pure because once her womb opens there is no ability to walk. Stillborn fetuses do not open the womb unless the head is rounded like a spindle. 
  If the first one came out dead and the second one alive he is pure, if the first one came out alive and the second dead he is impure. Rabbi Meir says if they were in one placenta he is impure, if they were in two he is pure. 
  A woman who was having trouble giving birth, they cut up the fetus inside her and take it out limb by limb, because her life comes before its life. If most of it had come out already they do not touch it because we do not push off one life for another. 
  
  
  
  There are those that spread impurity and block [impurity], those that spread but do not block, those that block but do not spread and those that neither spread not block. The following spread and block: a chest, a box, a cabinet, a straw basket, a reed basket, and the water tank of an Alexandrian ship - if they have a base and can contain forty <i>Se'ah</i> [specific unit of volume] of liquid, which is two <i>Kor</i> [specific unit of volume] of dry - a curtain, an apron, a bed cover, a sheet, an inferior mat, a mat - if they have been made into tents - a herd of cattle that is impure or pure, dens of beasts or nests of birds, a bird that is resting, someone who makes a place for her son among the stalks, the <i>Eirus</i> [plant with broad leaves, used for seasoning food], ivy, donkey greens and Greek gourds and pure food. Rabbi Yochanan ben Nuri did not agree regarding pure foods except for a pressed fig-cake. 
  [Other objects that spread and block impurity include:] ledges, balconies, dovecotes, cleft rocks and rocks, windows used for light, sharp rocks, canopies and protrusions, which can support light plaster, says Rabbi Meir. The Sages say medium plaster. What is a canopy?  A tree which is overhanging the ground.  What is a protrusion?  That which extends out of a fence. 
  The following spread but do not block [impurity]: a chest, a box, a cabinet, a straw basket, a reed basket, and the water tank of an Alexandrian ship - if they do not have a base or cannot contain forty <i>Se'ah</i> of liquid, which is two <i>Kor</i> of dry, a curtain, an apron, a bed cover, a sheet, an inferior mat, a mat - if they have not been made into tents - a domesticated or wild animal that died, and impure food. In addition to these things is the man powered mill. 
  The following block but do not spread: A loom ready for weaving, the ropes of a bed, garbage baskets and window bars.
  The following neither spread nor block: seeds and plants that are attached to the ground, except for those plants previously listed, hailstones, snow, frost, ice, salt, [an animal] that skips from one place to another, [a person] who jumps from one place to another, a bird which flies, a garment that flaps, and a ship that sails on the surface of the water. If the ship was tied to something that could hold it, or he pressed a stone on top of the garment, it can spread impurity. Rabbi Yosi says, a house on a ship does not spread impurity. 
  Two barrels which have two [pieces of corpse, each the size of] half an olive, which are sealed and sit inside a house, they are pure and the house is impure. If one of them was opened, it and the house are impure and the other [barrel] is pure. Similarly two rooms which are open to a house. 
  
  
  
  A basket that is in an opening and its mouth faces outside, if a [piece the size of] an olive of a dead body is placed underneath or on top of it outside, anything which is opposite the [piece the size of an] olive above and below is impure and anything not opposite the olive, its inside and the house is pure. If [the impurity] was in the house, only the house is impure. If it was inside [the basket] everything is impure.
  If it [the basket] was a <i>tefach</i> (hand-breadth) above the ground and there was impurity under it or in the house or on top of it, everything is impure except for its inside. [If the impurity was] inside it, everything is impure. 
  When does this case apply? When it is a hollow vessel. If it was broken and plugged with straw or if it was pressed - what is considered pressed? Anything that does not have a hand-breadth from another place - if a [piece the size of] an olive is placed beneath it, opposite it down to the depths is impure. If on top of it, opposite it up to the firmament is impure. If [it is] in the house only the house is impure, if [it is] inside it only inside it is impure.
  If it [the basket] was a hand-breadth above the ground and there was impurity beneath it or in the house, beneath it and the house is impure, but its inside and on top of it is pure. [If it was] inside it, only its inside is impure. [If it was] on top of it, opposite it up to the firmament is impure. 
  When is this the case? When its mouth faces outside. But if its mouth faces inside and a [piece the size of] an olive of dead body is placed beneath it or on top of it from the outside, anything opposite the [piece the size of] an olive, beneath it and on top of it (and its inside) are impure. Whatever is not opposite the [piece the size of] an olive, its inside and the house are pure. If it was inside [the hive] or the house, everything would be impure. 
  If it [the basket] was a hand-breadth above the ground and there was impurity beneath it, or in the house or inside it or on top of it, everything is impure.
  When is this the case? When it is a hollow vessel. If it was broken and plugged with straw or if it was pressed - what is considered covered? Anything that does not have a hand-breadth from another place - if a [piece the size of] an olive is placed beneath it, opposite it down to the depths is impure. If on top of it, opposite it up to the firmament is impure. If [it is] inside it or in the house, its inside and the house are impure.
  If it [a vessel] was a hand-breadth above the ground and there was impurity beneath it, or in the house or inside it, everything is impure except for on top of it. If it was on top of it, opposite it to the firmament is impure. 
  If it was filling the whole house and there was less than a hand-breadth between it and the beams, if there is impurity inside it, the house is impure. If there is impurity in the house, what is in it [the basket] is pure for the nature of impurity is to go out and not to go in, whether it was standing upright or lying on its side, or whether there were one or two [baskets].
  If it was standing in the opening and there was less than a hand-breadth's space between it and the lintel, if there is impurity inside it, the house is pure. If there is impurity inside the house, what is inside it is impure, for the nature of impurity is to go out and not to go in. 
  If it was lying on its side in the open air and a [piece the size of] an olive of a dead body was placed beneath or on top of it, anything which is opposite the [piece the size of an] olive beneath and on top of it is impure. Anything which is not opposite the [piece the size of an] olive, inside it is pure. If it were inside [the basket] everything is impure. 
  If it was a hand-breadth above the ground and there was impurity beneath or on top of it, everything is impure except for its inside. [If it was] inside it, everything is impure. When is this case? When it is a vessel. But if it was broken and plugged with straw or if it holds forty <i>Se'ah</i> according to the Sages, if a [piece the size of an] olive of a dead body is placed beneath it, opposite it down to the depths is impure. If it is on top of it, opposite it up to the firmament is impure. Inside it, only the inside is impure. If it was a hand-breadth above the ground, if the impurity was beneath it, [everything] underneath it is impure. If it was inside it, [everything] inside it is impure.  If it were on top of it opposite it up to the firmament is impure.
  If it was sitting on its base and it is a vessel, if there is impurity beneath it, inside it, or on top of it, the impurity pierces and rises, pierces and goes down. If it was a hand-breadth above the ground or covered or flipped on its mouth, if the impurity was beneath it, inside it, or on top of it, everything is impure. 
  When is this the case? When it is a vessel. But if it were broken and plugged with straw or if it holds forty <i>Se'ah</i> according to the Sages, if there is impurity beneath it, inside it, or on top of it, the impurity pierces and rises, pierces and goes down. Rabbi Eliezer and Rabbi Shimon say, the impurity does not rise above it nor go down from it. If it was a handbreadth above the ground, if the impurity is beneath it, [everything] beneath it is impure. [If it was] inside it or on top of it, opposite it up to the firmament is impure.
  A coffin which was wide at the bottom and narrow at the top and a dead body is inside it, one who touches it from the bottom is pure, but from the top becomes impure. If it was wide at the top and narrow at the bottom, one who touches it in any place is impure. If it was even, one who touches it in any place is impure, says Rabbi Eliezer. But Rabbi Yehoshua says, from a handbreadth and down is pure and from a handbreadth and up is impure. If it was made like a type of chest, one who touches it in any place becomes impure. If it was made like a type of case, one who touches it in any place is pure, except for the place of its opening. 
  A barrel that was sitting on its base in the open air and [a piece the size of] an olive of a dead body is placed beneath it or inside it opposite its rimmed bottom, the impurity pierces and rises, pierces and goes down, and the barrel is impure. [If the impurity was] underneath its wall outside, the impurity pierces and rises, pierces and goes down, and the barrel is pure. [If it was] underneath its wall inside, if there is a handbreadth's space inside the walls everything is impure but opposite its opening is pure, but if not, the impurity pierces and rises, pierces and goes down. When is this the case? If [the barrel was] pure, but if it was impure or a handbreadth above the ground or covered or flipped on its mouth and there is impurity underneath it, inside it, or on top of it, everything is impure. 
  
  
  
  A hatch that is inside a house and has in it a handbreadth's space, if there is impurity in the house, opposite the hatch is pure. If the impurity was opposite the hatch, the house is pure. Whether the impurity is in the house or opposite the hatch, if someone placed his foot on top of it, he combines the impurity. If part of the impurity was in the house and part of it was opposite the hatch, the house is impure and opposite the hatch is impure. 
  If the hatch does not have a handbreadth's space, if there is impurity in the house opposite the hatch is pure. If there is impurity opposite the hatch, the house is pure. If the impurity is inside the house and he placed his foot on top of it, he is pure. If the impurity is opposite the hatch and he placed his foot on top of it, Rabbi Meir declares him impure but the Sages say if the impurity preceded his foot he is impure, but if his foot preceded the impurity he is pure. Rabbi Shimon says, two feet, one on top of the other, that preceded the impurity, if the first withdrew his foot and the second foot was still there it is pure because the first foot came before the impurity. 
  If part of the impurity was in the house and part of it was opposite the hatch, the house is impure and opposite the impurity is impure, says Rabbi Meir. Rabbi Yehuda says, the house is impure but opposite the impurity is pure.  Rabbi Yosi says, if the impurity is large enough to split it up and make the house impure and opposite the impurity impure, it is impure, but if not, the house is impure and opposite the impurity is pure.
  Hatches, one on top of the other, that have a handbreadth's space, if there is impurity in the house, opposite the hatches is pure. If there is impurity opposite the hatches, the house is pure. Whether the impurity is in the house or opposite the hatches, if he put something which is susceptible to impurity whether above or below, everything is impure. Something which is not susceptible to impurity, below it is impure but above it is pure. 
  If there is not a handbreadth's space in the hatches, if there is impurity in the house, opposite the hatches is pure. If there is impurity opposite the hatches, the house is pure. If the impurity is in the house and he put something that is susceptible to impurity or something that is not susceptible to impurity, whether above or below, only the lower one is impure. If the impurity is opposite the hatches, and he put something that is susceptible to impurity, whether above or below, everything is impure. [If it was] something that is not susceptible to impurity, whether above or below, only the lower one is impure. 
  A hatch which is in a house and there is a pot placed beneath it so that, if raised, its edges would not touch the hatch, if there is impurity beneath it, inside it, or on top of it, the impurity pierces and goes up, pierces and goes down. If it was a handbreadth above the ground and the impurity was beneath it or in the house, beneath it and the house is impure and its inside and on top of it is pure. [If it was] inside or on top of it, everything is impure. 
  If it [the pot] was placed next to the doorway so that, if raised, it would touch the lintel a handbreadth's space, if there was impurity beneath it, inside it, or on top if it, the impurity pierces and goes up, pierces and goes down. If it was a handbreadth above the ground and the impurity is beneath it or in the house, beneath it and the house is impure and its inside and on top of it is pure. [If it was] inside it or on top of it, everything is impure. [If it was placed so that] if raised it would not touch the lintel a handbreadth's space or [if it was] attached to the lintel, if the impurity was beneath it, only what is beneath it is impure. 
  
  
  
  If a house was cracked, if there is impurity outside, vessels that are inside are pure. If there is impurity inside, vessels that are outside, Beit  Shammai says [they are pure] unless the crack is four handbreadths wide, but Beit  Hillel says any size[d crack]. Rabbi Yosi says in the name of the House of Hillel that it must be a handbreadth's space. 
  If a colonnade was cracked, if there is impurity on one side [of the crack], vessels on the other side are pure. If he put his foot or a reed on top of it, he has combined the impurity. If he placed the reed on the ground, he does not spread the impurity, until it is at least a handbreadth above the ground.
  A thick coat and a thick block do not spread impurity until they are a handbreadth above the ground. Folded garments on top of each other do not spread impurity until the top one is a handbreadth above the ground. If there was a person placed there,Beit  Shammai says he does not spread the impurity but Beit  Hillel says, a person is hollow and therefore the upper part spreads impurity. 
  If he was looking out a window and he overshadowed people who bury dead bodies, Beit Shammai say, he does not spread impurity, but Beit Hillel say he does spread impurity. And they agree that if he was wearing his clothing or if there were two above each other, they spread impurity. 
  If he was lying on the threshold and he overshadowed people who bury dead bodies, Beit Shammai say he does not spread impurity, but Beit Hillel say he does spread impurity. 
  If the impurity was in a house and pure people overshadowed it,Beit  Shammai say they are pure, but Beit Hillel say they are impure. 
  A dog who ate the flesh of a dead body, and the dog died and was lying on the threshold, Rabbi Meir says, if his neck has a space that is a handbreadth he spreads the impurity, but if not he does not spread the impurity. Rabbi Yosi says we check the impurity, [if it is found] from the threshold and inside, the house is impure, [if found] from the threshold and out, the house is pure. Rabbi Elazar says if his mouth faces to the inside, the house is pure, but if it faces to the outside, the house is impure, since the impurity leaves by way of his rear. Rabbi Yehuda Ben Betaira says in either case the house is impure. How long does it stay in his innards? Three days from the time [of day it was eaten] to that time [of day three days later]. By birds and fish, long enough for it to fall in the fire and be burned, says Rabbi Shimon. Rabbi Yehuda ben Betaira says by birds and fish it is from the time [of day it was eaten] to that time [of day one day later].
  If a cistern was in a house and a candlestick was inside it and its flower-shaped ornament was sticking out and a basket [which is unable to become impure] was placed over it in a way that if the candlestick would be taken out the basket would stand on the mouth of the cistern, the House of Shammai say the cistern is pure but the candlestick is impure. The House of Hillel say even the candlestick is pure. And they agree that [if the basket was placed in a way that] if the candlestick would be taken out the basket would fall, everything is impure. 
  Vessels that are between the rims of a basket and the rims of a cistern, even until the depths, they are pure. If there was impurity there, the house would be impure. If there was impurity in the house, vessels in the walls of the cistern, if there was in their place a space that is a handbreadth by a handbreadth by a handbreadth height, they are pure, but if not they are impure. If the walls of the cistern were thicker than the house, in either case they are pure. 
  
  
  
  If a board was placed over the mouth of a new oven and it extends from all sides by a handbreadth's space, if there was impurity underneath it, vessels that are on top of it remain pure. If there was impurity on top of it, vessels beneath it remain pure. If it was an old [oven], they are impure. Rabbi Yochanan ben Nuri declares them pure. If it was placed across the mouth of two ovens and there was impurity between them, they are impure, but Rabbi Yochanan ben Nuri declares them pure. 
  If an oven screen [which is not able to become impure] was placed over an oven which was sealed, if there was impurity beneath it or on top of it, everything is impure. But opposite the airspace of the oven is pure. If the impurity was opposite the airspace of the oven, everything opposite it up to the firmament is impure. 
  If a board was placed over the mouth of an old oven and it extends from both ends a handbreadth but not on all sides, if there is impurity on one side, vessels on the other side are pure.  Rabbi Yossi declares [them] impure. A windowsill does not spread impurity. If there was a protrusion, Rabbi Eliezer says it does not spread impurity but Rabbi Yehoshua says we view the windowsill as if it were not there, and the higher protrusion does spread impurity.   
  If the sandal of a cradle made an indentation in a house, if it had a handbreadth's space, everything is impure, but if not they count from it as they would from a dead body.
  The beams of the house and the upper story which do not have plaster on them and they are aligned, if there was impurity underneath one of them, underneath it is impure. [If it was] between the lower and the upper one, between them is impure.  If it was on top of the upper one, opposite it up to the firmament is impure. If the upper ones were as if between the lower ones and there was impurity under one of them, underneath all of them is impure. If it was on top of them, opposite it up to the firmament is impure. 
  If a beam was placed from one wall to another wall and there was impurity underneath it, if it had a handbreadth's space, it spreads the impurity underneath all of it. If not, the impurity pierces and goes up, pierces and goes down. How large must its perimeter be for it to have a handbreadth's space? When it is round, its perimeter must be three handbreadths. When it is square, four because the square is larger than the circle by a quarter. 
  A column which was standing in the open air, if it has twenty-four handbreadths in its perimeter, it spreads impurity underneath its sides, if not the impurity pierces and goes up, pierces and goes down. 
  If [a piece the size of] an olive of a corpse was stuck to a threshold, Rabbi Eliezer declares the house impure, but Rabbi Yehoshua declares [it] pure. If it was placed under the threshold, it follows the rule of half and half. If it was stuck to the lintel, the house is impure, Rabbi Yossi declares [it] pure. If it was placed inside the house, one who touches the lintel is impure.  One who touches the threshold, Rabbi Eliezer declares [him] impure but Rabbi Yehoshua says from a handbreadth down, he is pure, from a handbreadth up, he is impure. 
  
  
  
  One who makes a skylight initially, its size [to spread impurity] is the thickness of the drill of the Temple chamber. The remainder of the skylight is two fingers high by a width of one thumb. What is the remainder of the skylight? A window which was closed up but not completely finished. If it was bored away by water or vermin or if salt corroded it, its size is a fistful. If he thought he would use it, its size is a handbreadth's space, if [he wanted it just] for light, its size is that of a large drill. Lattices and gratings combine to make the thickness of a drill according to Beit  Shammai, but Beit  Hillel say until there is in one place the thickness of a drill. [This size is enough] to spread impurity and to allow for impurity to exit. Rabbi Shimon says to spread impurity, but to allow for impurity to exit requires a handbreadth's space. 
  A window which is used for air, its size is the thickness of a drill.  If he built a house outside it, its size is a handbreadth's space. If he put a roof in the middle of the window, the lower part is a handbreadth's space and the upper part is the thickness of a drill. 
  A hole in a door, its size is a fistful says Rabbi Akiva. Rabbi Tarfon says it is a handbreadth's space. If the carpenter left it on the bottom or on top, or if he closed it but did not finish it or if the wind opened it, its size is a fistful. 
  One who makes a place for a rod or for a spike or a candle, its size is even a minute amount, say Beit  Shammai, but Beit Hillel say it is a handbreadth's space. [If he wanted it] to satisfy his eyes, to talk to his friend, or to use, it must be a handbreadth's space. 
  The following reduce the size of a handbreadth. [A piece the size of] less than an olive of flesh reduces with a <i>Rova</i> [specific unit of volume] of bones, and a bone less than a barley grain reduces with [a piece the size of] an olive of flesh. [A piece the size of] less than an olive of a corpse or [a piece the size of] less than an olive of a carcass or [a piece the size of] less than a lentil of a vermin, or [a piece the size of] less than an egg of food, grain that is in a window, a spiderweb that has substance, the carcass of a bird which he did not decide [to eat], the carcass of an impure bird which he decided [to eat] but did not make susceptible to impurity or he made it susceptible but did not decide [to eat] it. 
  The following do not reduce: A bone does not reduce with other bones, nor does meat with other meat, nor [a piece the size of] an olive of a corpse or [a piece the size of] an olive of a carcass or [a piece the size of] a lentil of a vermin, nor [a piece the size of]  an egg of food, nor grain that is in windows, nor a spiderweb that does not have substance, nor the carcass of a pure bird that he decided [to eat], nor a carcass of an impure bird that he decided [to eat] and made susceptible to impurity, nor the warp or weft that have [impure] spots, nor a brick from a <i>Beit Pras</i> [a field in which a grave has been plowed over], says Rabbi Meir. The Sages say the brick does reduce because its dust is pure. This is the rule, what is pure reduces and what is impure does not reduce. 
  
  
  
  A protrusion spreads impurity in any size, a balcony and a canopy with a handbreadth's space. What is a protrusion? That which has its face [surface meant for use] down. And a balcony? That which has its face upward. When did they say the protrusion spreads impurity in any size? When the protrusion is three rows of stones above the opening which is twelve handbreadths. More than that, it spreads impurity with a handbreadth's space. Crowns and engravings spread impurity with a handbreadth's space. 
  A protrusion which is on top of a doorway spreads impurity in a handbreadth's space. One on top of a window two fingers high or on top of the thickness of a drill, [spreads impurity in a space that is] any size. Rabbi Yossi says [it spreads impurity in a space that is] its [the window's] thickness.
  A reed which is above an opening, even if it is one hundred cubits high, it spreads impurity in any size, says Rabbi Yehoshua, but Rabbi Yochanan ben Nuri says, it should not be treated more stringently than the protrusion. 
  A protrusion which surrounds the whole house and extends into the opening three fingers, if there is impurity in the house, vessels underneath it are impure. If the impurity were beneath it, Rabbi Eliezer declares the whole house impure, but Rabbi Yehoshua declares [it] pure, and similarly with a courtyard that is surrounded by a colonnade.
  Two protrusions one on top of the other, and they have in them a handbreadth's space and between them a handbreadth's space, if there is impurity beneath them, what is beneath them is impure. Between them, what is between them is impure.  On top of them, opposite it up to the firmament is impure. If the upper one extends over the lower one by a handbreadth's space, if the impurity is beneath them or between them, what is beneath them and between them is impure. On top of them, opposite it up to the firmament is impure. If the upper one extends over the lower one by less than a handbreadth, if there is impurity underneath them, what is underneath them and between them is impure. If it was between them or underneath the extended part, Rabbi Eliezer says beneath them and between them is impure but Rabbi Yehoshua says, between them and underneath the extended part is impure but underneath [both of] them is pure. 
  If they had in them a handbreadth's space but between them was less than a handbreadth's space, if there was impurity beneath them, what is beneath them is impure. Between them or on top of them, opposite it up to the firmament is impure.
  If they did not have in them a handbreadth's space, whether there was a handbreadth's space between them or whether there was not a handbreadth's space between them, if there was impurity beneath them, between them or on top of them, the impurity pierces and rises, pierces and goes down. Similarly, two curtains which are a handbreadth's space above the ground. 
  
  
  
  A thick coat and a thick [wood] block do not spread impurity until they are a handbreadth's space above the ground. Folded garments that are on top of one another, do not spread impurity until the top one is off of the ground by a handbreadth's space.  Wooden tablets that are on top of one another do not spread impurity until the top one is above the ground by a handbreadth's space. If they were made of marble, the impurity pierces and goes up, pierces and goes down.
  Wooden tablets that touch one another at their corners and they are a handbreadth's space above the ground, if there is impurity underneath one of them, one who touches the second one is impure for seven days. Vessels underneath the first one are impure but those under the second remain pure. A table does not spread impurity until it has in it a square that is a handbreadth's space. 
  Barrels that were resting on their bases or laying on their sides in the open air and they are touching one another by a handbreadth's space, if there is impurity under one of them, the impurity pierces and goes up, pierces and goes down. When is this the case? When they were pure, but if they were impure or above the ground by a handbreadth's space, then if there was impurity under one of them, the entire area beneath both of them is impure. 
  A house that was partitioned with boards or curtains from the sides or from the beams, if there was impurity in the house, vessels in the partitioned section are pure. If there was impurity in the partitioned section, vessels in the house are impure and vessels in the partitioned section, if [the section] is a handbreadth's space they are impure but if not they are pure.
  If he partitioned it from the ground and there is impurity in the partitioned section, vessels in the house are impure. If there was impurity in the house, vessels in the partitioned section, if there is in their space a handbreadth by a handbreadth by a height of a handbreadth, they are pure, but if not, they are impure because the land of a house is like it down to the depths. 
  A house which is full of straw and there is no handbreadth's space between it and the beams, if there is impurity inside, vessels opposite the exit are impure. If there was impurity outside, vessels inside, if there is in their space a handbreadth by a handbreadth by a height of a handbreadth, they are pure, but if not they are impure. If there was between the straw and the beams a handbreadth's space, in either case they would be impure. 
  A house that was filled with dirt or pebbles, and was nullified, and similarly a pile of grain or a mound of pebbles, even as large as the mound of Akhan, and even if there was impurity next to the vessels, the impurity pierces and goes up, pierces and goes down. 
  The courtyard of a graveyard, one who stands in it is pure until it is four square cubits, says Beit  Shammai. But Beit Hillel say, [it only needs to be] four square handbreadths. A beam which was made into a grave cover, whether it is standing or leaning on its side, only what is opposite the opening is impure. If he made its end into a grave cover, [one who touches it] only up to four handbreadths becomes impure, and when it is destined to be trimmed down. But Rabbi Yehuda says all of it is connected [and therefore impurifies]. 
  A barrel which was filled with pure liquid and sealed and made into a grave cover, one who touches it becomes impure for seven days but the jar and the liquid remain pure. An animal that was made into a grave cover, one who touches it becomes impure for seven days. Rabbi Meir says, anything that is alive does not become impure because of [being made into] a cover. 
  One who touches a dead body and then touches vessels or one who overshadows a dead body and then touches vessels, they are impure. If he overshadowed a dead body and then overshadowed the vessels or touched a dead body and then overshadowed the vessels, they are pure. If his hands have in them a handbreadth's space, they are impure. Two houses in which are two [pieces the size of] half an olive [of dead body], if he sticks both his hands into them, if his hands have in them a handbreadth's space, he spreads impurity, but if not, he does not spread impurity. 
  
  
  
  All movable objects spread impurity when they are as thick as an ox goad. Rabbi Tarfon says, May I strike my children if this is [not] a stricken law which the listener heard but erred, when a farmer passed with an ox goad on his shoulder and one side of his overshadowed a grave and they declared him impure because of vessels which overshadow a dead body. Rabbi Akiva says, I will fix it so the words of the Sages will endure: Any movable object spreads impurity to a person carrying them if it is as thick as an ox goad, and on themselves if it is any thickness and on other people and vessels if it is a handbreadth's space.
  How so? If a spindle was stuck into a wall and [a piece of dead body the size of] half an olive was below it and half an olive above it, even if they are not aligned, it is impure.  We see that it spreads impurity to itself in any amount. If a potter was passing with a basket on his shoulder and one side of his overshadowed a grave, vessels on the other side are pure. If there is in the basket a handbreadth's space, they are impure. Mounds of dirt which are close to a city or a road whether new or old are impure, those far, the new are pure and the old are impure. What is considered close? Fifty cubits. What is considered old? Sixty years, says Rabbi Meir. Rabbi Yehuda says close means there are none closer than it and old means that no one remembers [when] it [was created]. 
  One who found a corpse buried normally in the beginning, he may take it along with the surrounding dirt [to be reburied elsewhere]. If he found two [corpses], he may take them along with the surrounding dirt. [If] he found three, if there is between each of them from four to eight cubits, as much as a bier and its gravediggers, this is [considered] a graveyard [and cannot be desecrated]. [Therefore, he must] check from it and all around [for a distance of] twenty cubits. [If] he found one [corpse] a full twenty cubits away, [he must continue] to check from it and all around twenty cubits, because there is an established likelihood, for if in the beginning he found this [same corpse] he would have been able to take it along with the surrounding dirt.
  One who checks must check a cubit by a cubit and then may leave a cubit until he reaches a rock or virgin soil.  One who removes soil from an impure place can eat from his <i>Terumah</i> [A portion of a crop given to a Kohen which becomes holy upon separation, and can only be consumed by Kohanim or their household] but one who clears away a mound cannot eat from his <i>Terumah</i>.
  If he was checking and he reached a brook or a channel or a public road, he may stop. A field in which slain people were slain, he may gather bone by bone and everything is pure. One who removes a grave from his field, he may gather bone by bone and everything is pure. A pit into which miscarried fetuses or slain people were thrown, he may gather bone by bone and everything is pure. Rabbi Shimon says, if it was designated as a grave from the beginning, it has surrounding soil [that is considered impure and must also be collected].
  
  
  
  One who plows over a grave, this one makes a <i>Beit Pras</i> [a field in which a grave has been plowed over]. Up until where does he make it? A whole furrow, one hundred cubits long, four <i>Beit Se'ah</i> [a measure of area, equivalent to that area of land large enough to require a <i>Se'ah</i> of seeds to sow it]. Rabbi Yosi says, an area of five. On a downward or upward slope, he places a <i>Rova</i> [specific unit of volume] of vetch on the knee of the plow until the place where three vetches will sprout one next to the other, up until there he makes a <i>Beit Pras</i>. Rabbi Yossi says [this applies] on a downward slope but not an upward slope.
  If he was plowing and he hit a rock or a fence or if he shook the plow blade, until that point he makes the <i>Beit Pras</i>. Rabbi Eliezer says a <i>Beit Pras</i> can make a <i>Beit Pras</i>. Rabbi Yehoshua says there are times when it does make one, times when it does not make one. How so? If he plowed half a furrow and then plowed the other half and so too on the sides, this makes a <i>Beit Pras</i>, but if he plowed a whole furrow and then plowed it from there beyond, it does not make a <i>Beit Pras</i>.
  One who plows over a pit of bones or a pile of bones, a field in which a grave was lost in it, or in which a grave was found [after plowing], one who plows [a field] that is not his, and similarly a non-Jew who plowed, does not make it into a <i>Beit Pras</i> since there is no <i>Beit Pras</i> for Cuthites.
  If the <i>Beit Pras</i> field was above a pure one and rains washed from the <i>Beit Pras</i> to the pure one, even if the soil had been red and turned white or was white and turned red, it is not made into a <i>Beit Pras</i>. 
  A field in which a grave was lost, and they built a house with an upper story on top of it, if the doorway of the upper story was aligned with the doorway of the house, the upper story is pure, but if not the upper story is impure. Dirt of the <i>Beit Pras</i> and dirt of land outside the land of Israel which came in a vegetable combine [to become impure if their combined size is as large as] the seal of leather sacks says Rabbi Eliezer. But the Sages say [they do not become impure] until there is [the size of] the seal of leather sacks in one place. Rabbi Yehuda says, it once happened that letters came from overseas to the sons of the High Priests with a <i>Se'ah</i> or two <i>Se'ah</i> of seals but they [the Sages] were not concerned about their impurity. 
  
  
  
  How can one harvest grapes in the <i>Beit Pras</i> [a field in which a grave has been plowed over]? We sprinkle on the person and the vessels and repeat and they can harvest the grapes and take them out of the <i>Beit Pras</i>, and others receive from them and carry to the winepress. If these [people] touched those, they are impure according to the words of the House of Hillel.  The House of Shammai say, he holds the sickle with palm tree bark [which cannot become impure] or harvests the grapes with a rock and places them in a basket and take them to the winepress. Rabbi Yossi says, when is this the case? In a vineyard that became the <i>Beit Pras</i>, but if he planted in the <i>Beit Pras</i>, they should be sold in the market. 
  There are three types of <i>Beit Pras</i>, one who plows over a grave, it may be planted with any tree but cannot be sown with any seeds except for seeds which will be cut.  If he uprooted it, he must heap the threshing into it and sift it with two sieves, says Rabbi Meir. The Sages say, grain requires two sieves but legumes require three sieves. And he must burn the straw and the pea-stalks and it makes one impure by touching and by carrying but not by overshadowing. 
  A field in which a grave was lost, it may be sown with any seeds but cannot be planted with any tree, and trees are not maintained within it except for a shade-tree which does not bare fruits, and it makes one impure by touching and by carrying and by overshadowing.
  A wailing field may not be planted and may not be sown, but its soil is pure and they can make ovens for holy items out of it. And Beit  Shammai agree with Beit Hillel that it should be checked for [someone who passed through it and needs to bring] the Paschal offering but it does not need to be checked for [someone who passed through it and wants to eat] <i>Terumah</i> [a portion of a crop given to a Kohen which becomes holy upon separation, and can only be consumed by Kohanim or their household]. For a <i>Nazir</i> [person who has sworn to abstain from all alcohol-related items, haircuts, and impurity], Beit Shammai say they must check but Beit  Hillel say they do not need to check. How does one check? He brings soil that can be moved and puts it through a sieve with narrow perforations and crushes it, if he finds a bone the size of a barley grain it is impure. 
  How does one make the <i>Beit Pras</i> pure? They take from it three handbreadths [of soil] or they add three handbreadths. If he took three handbreadths from one half of it and placed on it, on the other half of it, three handbreadths, it is pure. Rabbi Shimon says even if he took one and a half handbreadths from it and added one and a half handbreadths on it from elsewhere, it is pure. If one paved over the <i>Beit Pras</i> with stones that cannot be moved, it is pure. Rabbi Shimon says even if one tills the <i>Beit Pras</i>, it becomes pure. 
  One who walks through the <i>Beit Pras</i> on stones that he cannot move, or on a person or animal who have strength that is good, he is pure. On stones that he can move, or on a person or animal who have strength that is bad, he is impure. One who walks through the land of the [non-Jewish] nations on mountains or rocks, he is impure. By the sea or on a bluff, he is pure. What is the bluff? Any place where the sea rises during its storm.
  One who buys a field in Syria next to the Land of Israel, if he can enter it in purity, it is pure and it is obligated in tithes and in [the laws of] the Sabbatical year. If he cannot enter it in purity, it is impure and it is obligated in tithes and in [the laws of] the Sabbatical year. The dwelling places of non-Jews are impure. How long must they live there to [make the place] require checking? Forty days, even if a woman is not with him. If there was a slave or a woman watching it, it does not need checking.
  What do they need to check? Deep drains and standing water. Beit  Shammai say even garbage dumps and loose soil, but Beit Hillel say any place where a pig or a weasel can walk does not require checking. 
  The porches do not have [the laws] of the dwelling place of a non-Jew. Rabban Shimon ben Gamliel says, a city of non-Jews which was destroyed does not have [the laws] of the dwelling place of a non-Jew. East Caesarea and West Caesarea are graveyards. East Akko was in doubt but the Sages purified it. Rebbi and his court voted on Keini and purified it.
  Ten places do not have [the laws] of the dwelling place of a non-Jew: Arab tents, huts, lean-tos, sheds, summer houses, a gate house, open space in a courtyard, a bath-house, a place of arrows and barracks.  