meta: {"file": "/data/tomer/Sefaria-Export/txt/Halakhah/Peninei Halakhah/Peninei Halakhah, Prayer/English/merged.txt"}
text: Peninei Halakhah, Prayer
  פניני הלכה, תפילה
  merged
  
  This file contains merged sections from the following text versions:
  -Peninei Halakhah, English ed. Yeshivat Har Bracha
  -
  
  Peninei Halakhah, Prayer
  
  Introduction
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  Section 1
  
  Fundamentals of the Laws of Prayer / Prayer
  Prayer is one of the principal expressions of belief in Hashem. People are not perfect; they are flawed and long to improve themselves. They therefore turn to the Creator of the World in prayer.
  Human imperfection is apparent on two levels. Most people only feel a need to pray to Hashem when their daily routines are disrupted. For example, when someone is ill or injured and his pain intensifies, when he understands that all the doctors in the world cannot guarantee his health and well-being, and only HaKadosh Baruch Hu, in Whose hands is the soul of every living thing, can cure him and grant him a long happy life – then he prays to Hashem from the depths of his heart to heal him. So it is, whenever a calamity befalls a person, his livelihood suffers, enemies rise against him, or his close friends turn their backs on him. He then understands how the good things in his life hang in a balance and he turns to Hashem to help and save him. However, when daily routines function in their usual proper manner, most people do not detect anything missing and generally do not feel a need to pray to Hashem.
  Those who delve more deeply understand that even their everyday lives are not perfect. Even when they are healthy and earning a steady income, their family life is good, their friends are loyal and the situation in their country is stable, even then, perceptive people sense their existential inadequacy. They know that their lives are limited and even if all goes well, there will come a day when they die of old age. Now, too, when they are young and strong, they are unable to comprehend everything in their lives, and not everything turns out the way they intended. They cannot achieve all of their aspirations or fully attain even one goal. Out of this sense of inadequacy, they turn to HaKadosh Baruch Hu, the God of the heavens and the earth, the only One Who can redeem them from their imperfection. By connecting with God in prayer, people begin the process of fulfillment and redemption.
  
  Section 2
  
  Fundamentals of the Laws of Prayer / The Prayers of Our Ancestors and Prophets
  We learn in the Tanach that whenever our ancestors and the prophets needed help, they turned to Hashem in prayer.
  Avraham Avinu stood in prayer and begged that Sodom not be destroyed. Hashem answered him that if there were ten righteous people in Sodom the city would be saved. But ten righteous people were not to be found there, and Sodom was demolished (Genesis 18). Childless for many years, Yitzchak Avinu and Rivkah Imeinu, pleaded to Hashem in prayer and were answered with the birth of Yaakov and Eisav (Genesis 25). Yaakov Avinu prayed for Hashem to save him from his brother, Eisav, who set out against him with four hundred warriors, and he was answered and saved (Genesis 32). Following the sin of the Golden Calf, Hashem’s wrath rose up against the nation of Israel, and Moshe Rabbeinu prayed intensely until Hashem canceled the decree of disaster that He had threatened to bring on His people (Exodus 32). When Miriam, Moshe’s sister, fell ill with leprosy, Moshe stood and prayed, “Kel na refa na lah” (“O God, please heal her!”) and she was healed (Numbers 12). To turn back a Heaven-sent plague, Aharon used the incense to pray, and the plague ceased (Numbers 17). After the army of Israel was defeated by Ai, Hashem heard Yehoshua’s prayers and guided him to correct the sin of Achan, after which they won their next battles (Joshua 7). When the Philistines waged war against Israel, Shmuel cried out to Hashem for help on behalf of the nation. In answer, Hashem led him and Israel to defeat and conquer the Philistines (I Samuel 7). David, the king of Israel, would often pray to Hashem; his prayers eventually became the Book of Psalms. After Shlomoh finished building the Temple, he prayed that the Shechinah dwell therein, and that all people who pray there would be answered, and Hashem accepted his prayer (I Kings 8-9). When Eliyahu the Prophet fought against the false prophets of Ba’al on Mount Carmel, he prayed that fire would descend from the sky and so it transpired (I Kings 18). Likewise, Elisha the Prophet prayed to Hashem that He revive the son of the Shunamite woman, and the boy came back to life (II Kings 4). When Chizkiyah faced death from his disease, he too prayed to Hashem and was cured (II Kings 20).
  One of the prayers that left a lasting impression on all generations is the prayer of Chanah. Barren for years, she would often pray at the Tabernacle in Shiloh and was the first to refer to Hashem in her prayer by the holy name “Tzevakot.” Eventually, she merited a son, none other than Shmuel the Prophet (I Samuel 2). Shmuel the Prophet is said to have been equal to Moshe and Aharon. Through Moshe and Aharon, the word of Hashem was revealed in the transcendental miraculous life of the Jews in the desert and through Shmuel, the word of Hashem was revealed in the tangible reality of the nation of Israel living in Eretz Yisrael. Shmuel unified the nation, founded the kingdom of David, reared a generation of prophets in Israel, and through his inspiration the Temple was built. Shmuel’s great and lofty soul was difficult to bring it down to earth and Chanah needed to pray intensely until she was worthy of giving birth to him. Her prayer is so important that Chazal learn numerous laws from it (Berachot 31a).
  
  Section 3
  
  Fundamentals of the Laws of Prayer / The Effect of Prayer
  HaKadosh Baruch Hu established a law in Creation, that when we awaken in the world below to approach the Almighty and request a blessing from Him, He, in turn, is aroused from above to bring upon us an abundance of good, according to our needs and the requirements of the world. This is mentioned in the Zohar HaKadosh in many places.
  In other words, even when people are worthy that Hashem shower them with goodness, sometimes the giving is delayed until they feel the weight of their hardships and pray to Hashem from the depths of their hearts.
  There are two types of prayer. The first is for the continual existence of the world; without prayer, the world would cease to exist. This kind of prayer parallels the Tamid sacrifice, the merit of which sustains the heavens and the earth (see Ta’anit 27b).
  The second type of prayer concerns specific circumstances, such as when disaster strikes and people pray for salvation, or when people pray for something they desire.
  Every prayer has an influential effect, as Rabbi Chanina says, “Whoever lengthens his prayer, his prayers do not return unanswered” (Berachot 32b). Sometimes the effect is immediate, and other times in the distant future; sometimes the prayer is answered completely, other times partially. As Chazal say (Devarim Rabbah 8:1), “Great is prayer before HaKadosh Baruch Hu. Rabbi Elazar says, If you want to know the power of prayer – if it does not accomplish everything, it achieves half.” HaKadosh Baruch Hu is the One Who knows how to help and support a person. Sometimes, for various reasons, a person’s misfortune is for his own good, and therefore Hashem does not accept his prayer. Nevertheless, his prayer benefits him, and its blessing will be revealed in one way or another.
  Even the most righteous people, whose prayers were generally accepted, sometimes went unanswered. For instance, even though Hashem accepted Moshe Rabbeinu’s prayers to forgive the Nation and annul His decree of destruction when Israel sinned by creating the Golden Calf and sending out spies who returned with a negative report about the Land of Israel, (Exodus 32 and Numbers 14) when Moshe came to beg on behalf of himself to merit entering the Land, HaKadosh Baruch Hu said to him, “Enough! Do not talk to me further about this matter” (Deuteronomy 3:26).
  Therefore, a person must exert himself greatly in prayer, and not assume that since he is praying, HaKadosh Baruch Hu must fulfill his request. Rather, he should continue praying, knowing that HaKadosh Baruch Hu hears his prayers and that his prayers are most certainly doing some good, although how much, and in what way, are unknown.
  
  Section 4
  
  Fundamentals of the Laws of Prayer / Is Prayer a Biblical Obligation?
  The Rishonim disagree as to whether there is a biblical commandment (mitzvah m’d’oraita) to pray every day. According to the Rambam (Sefer HaMitzvot, mitzvah 5), there is a biblical commandment to pray daily, as it says (Exodus 23:25), “Serve God your Lord,” and (Deuteronomy 6:13) “Remain in awe of God, serve Him.” Although these verses contain a general commandment to serve Hashem, they also include a specific commandment to pray. The Chachamim interpreted ‘service’ (avodah) to mean prayer, as it is written (Deuteronomy 11:13), “Love God your Lord and serve Him with all your heart,” and they explained (Ta’anit 2a), “What is serving with the heart? You must say, [it means] prayer.” By praying once a day, a person fulfills his biblical obligation to pray. To fulfill one’s obligation, one must commence his prayer with praise to Hashem; after that ask for what he needs; and conclude by thanking Hashem for the good He has bestowed upon him. The Torah does not specify how long one’s prayers must be. Therefore, some shorten their prayers and others lengthen them, yet they all fulfill their biblical obligation (Rambam Tefillah 1:2-3).
  However, according to the Ramban (Hasagot on Sefer HaMitzvot), there is no biblical obligation to pray every day, because, in his opinion, the extrapolation from the verses that the Rambam mentions is not complete, but rather only an asmachta (reference). Anshei Knesset HaGedolah instituted the daily prayers. Only during times of trouble is there a biblical commandment to pray to Hashem, as we learn from the mitzvah of the trumpets (chatzotzrot), where it says (Numbers 10:9), “When you go to war against an enemy that attacks you in your land, you shall sound a teruah (short blasts) on the trumpets. You will then be remembered before God your Lord, and will be delivered from your enemies.”
  Hence, according to all opinions, there is a biblical obligation to pray in times of trouble. Therefore, anyone who finds himself, or his friend, in a state of crisis is required to add a special request for assistance in his prayer, since it is a biblical commandment to pray to Hashem that He save him from that trouble. All the more so when the public or the nation is in danger; it is a mitzvah for the tzibur (public) to pray a communal prayer; Chazal even instituted fast days for that reason.
  
  Section 5
  
  Fundamentals of the Laws of Prayer / The Institution of Prayer by Anshei Knesset HaGedolah
  Anshei Knesset HaGedolah instituted the prayers and the blessings (Berachot 33a). They established the wording of the Shemoneh Esrei and decided on the phrasing of all the berachot, including Birkot Keriat Shema and Birkot HaNehenin (blessings recited upon deriving pleasure from something). They also instituted the recital of the three daily prayers, Shacharit, Minchah, and Ma’ariv – Shacharit and Minchah as obligatory and Ma’ariv as optional.1<i class="footnote">In <em>Megillah</em> 17b, it is told that Shimon Hapakuli arranged the eighteen <em>berachot</em> before Rabban Gamliel in the proper order, and a <em>beraita</em> is brought which clarifies the order of the <em>berachot</em> according to scriptural verses. A question is raised there, 18a: After <em>Anshei</em> <em>Knesset</em> <em>HaGedolah</em> instituted them, what was left for Shimon Hapakuli to arrange? The Gemara answers that they were forgotten and Shimon Hapakuli went back and rearranged them. One may ask, how can it be that the wording of the prayer that they were obligated to recite every day had been forgotten? The <em>Shitah</em> <em>Mekubetzet</em> resolves this question in <em>Berachot</em> 28b saying that they merely forgot the order of the <em>berachot</em>, which is what Shimon Hapakuli then restored. In the <em>Rach</em>’s and <em>Me’iri</em>’s version there is no mention in the <em>Gemara</em> that Shimon Hapakuli arranged anything in the <em>Shemoneh</em> <em>Esrei</em>, and hence there is no question or answer about that.See further in this book 18:10, concerning the addition of the “LaMalshinim” berachah. Likewise, see further in this book chapter 2, note 1, in the words of the Mabit, the reason for the institution of the minyan by Anshei Knesset HaGedolah is that it replaced the Shechinah which was revealed through the sacrifices.</i>
  The members of the court of Ezra HaSofer, which was established in the beginning of the time of the Second Temple, are called Anshei Knesset HaGedolah. This was the biggest court ever founded in Israel. It was comprised of 120 elders, among them prophets and sages, such as, Chagai, Zechariah, Malachi, Daniel, Chananyah, Misha’el, Azariah, Nechemiah the son of Chachaliah, Mordechai, Bilshan, and Zerubavel, as well as many other sages, the last one being Shimon HaTzaddik (Rambam’s introduction to Mishneh Torah).
  During the time of the First Temple, Am Yisrael merited supreme spiritual accomplishments; the Shechinah dwelled in the Temple and the devoutly pious of Israel merited prophecy. Despite this, throughout most of the nation, grave sins including idol worship, forbidden relations and murder, were widespread and eventually caused the Temple to be destroyed and the nation of Israel to be exiled. Hence, when they were able to build the Second Temple, Anshei Knesset HaGedolah formed a supreme court, set boundaries to guard the laws of the Torah, instituted religious guidelines, and worded and arranged the prayers and berachot. They created a full framework for Jewish life which gave expression to the values of the Torah in an organized and established manner within everyday living, thereby distancing the nation from sin and bringing them closer to serving Hashem.
  Even in the time of the First Temple the nation of Israel prayed to Hashem and thanked Him for all the good and blessing they received. However, that prayer did not have an organized wording. Since there was no exact text, the righteous and devout people would pray and recite berachot with great kavanah (intent), but the masses of the nation would exempt themselves with superficial prayers. Indeed, passionate prayer from the heart in one’s own words is the ideal method of prayer. Yet, in actuality, the routine concerns of everyday life wear us out, and without regular organized prayers, the public gradually drifts away from prayer services and eventually from Hashem. Following the establishment of the prayers and their fixed wording, all of Israel started to pray, and as a result, faith in Hashem intensified. This is what preserved the nation’s devotion, which remained a burning flame in the darkness of exile for two thousand years
  Moreover, during the time of the First Temple, many people mistakenly thought that by offering sacrifices, their sins would be forgiven and they would merit Hashem’s blessing, even if they did not purify their hearts and correct their transgressions. The truth is that faith in Hashem, purification of the heart, and correcting one’s actions are of principal importance, as it says (Deuteronomy 10:12), “What does Hashem want of you? Only that you remain in awe of Hashem your God, so that you will follow all His paths and love Him, serving Hashem your God with all your heart and with all your soul.” The prophets severely condemned those who believed that the essence was to bring sacrifices without possessing and demonstrating true devotion to Hashem. As it is written (Isaiah 1:11-13), “‘Why do I need all your sacrifices?’ God asks. ‘I am sated with your burnt offerings of rams and the fat of fed beasts [brought without repentance or sincerity], and I have no desire for the blood of cattle, sheep, and goats. When you appear before Me, who asked you to do this, trampling My courts? Do not bring any more vain offerings; the incense of abomination they are to Me….’” By instituting the prayers, Anshei Knesset HaGedolah restored the proper order to serving Hashem, reminding us that faith, intent, and devotion are the basis of our lives, and they are expressed most appropriately via prayer, just as Rabbi Elazar said, “Prayer is greater than sacrifices” (Berachot 32b). With that in mind, we pray that we should be worthy of expressing our devotion to Hashem completely, both in prayer and in sacrifice.
  
  Section 6
  
  Fundamentals of the Laws of Prayer / The Standardized Wording (Nusach)
  Establishing a uniform wording, which repeats itself throughout the three daily prayers, created a certain disadvantage. As a result, prayer is liable to become routine and a person is apt to lose the kavanah that is aroused within him when he prays before Hashem in his own words. On the other hand, had Chazal not established a fixed wording, though the righteous would pray beautiful and sincere prayers from the depths of their hearts, most people would pray brief and inadequate prayers.
  The Rambam explains (Hilchot Tefillah 1:4) that especially after the destruction of the First Temple and the exile of Israel among the nations, the problem worsened. Many Jews lost their proficiency in Hebrew, the language of prayer.  At the same time, in other languages, no appropriate wording for prayer existed. Therefore, Anshei Knesset HaGedolah established the wording for all the berachot and prayers so that they would be fluent in every mouth, and so that the subject of every berachah would be clear to all.
  Another advantage to a fixed wording of prayer is that it includes all the general and specific requests for which it is proper to pray. Without an organized wording, every person would pray about a particular topic of personal importance. Doctors would pray for the health of their patients, farmers would pray for rain, and with time, every Jew would likely pray only for the matters close to his or her heart, while distancing oneself from the collective aspirations of the nation. Therefore, the Chachamim instituted eighteen berachot, which incorporate all of Am Yisrael’s goals, both material and spiritual. In so doing, every person praying three times each day balances his personal ambitions and unites them with the overall desires of the nation.
  In addition to the actual meaning of the content of our supplications, the wordings of the prayers possess innumerable profound meanings, a few of which are clarified in the wisdom of the Kabbalah. As Rabbi Chaim of Volozhin writes (Nefesh HaChaim 2:10), “And the wise person will understand on his own why 120 sages, among them prophets, were needed to institute a small plea or short prayer. Through Divine inspiration and supreme prophecy, they grasped the order of creation and the deep mysteries of the ‘pirkei merkavah.’ This is why they established and instituted a formula for the berachot and the prayers using these specific words – for they observed and understood in which way the light of each individual word would illuminate the powers of creations, and how each formula was absolutely necessary to properly rectify transcendental spiritual worlds, supreme forces, and the ‘siddur merkavah.’”
  Further, he writes (ibid., 2:13) that all the explanations which have been revealed to us by the Arizal and other holy figures are only a drop in the sea compared to the depth of the inner intentions of Anshei Knesset HaGedolah, who instituted the prayers. Through the prophecy and Divine inspiration that appeared to them when they established the wording of the prayers and berachot, they successfully included in concise form the rectification of all the worlds (tikun ha’olamot) in such a way that every day new repairs (tikunim) are amended.
  
  Section 7
  
  Fundamentals of the Laws of Prayer / Establishing Three Prayers
  In addition to the special prayers that our forefathers prayed during times of trouble, they also fixed set times when they prayed to Hashem (Berachot 26b). Avraham Avinu initiated the Shacharit morning prayer. He was the one who originally illuminated the world with his belief, and accordingly set the time of his prayer when the sun starts to rise. Yitzchak Avinu founded the Minchah afternoon prayer. Yitzchak had the unique ability to continue in the way of Avraham his father. Sometimes it is easier to break away onto a new path rather than carry on in the same one. Yitzchak’s strength was that he remained in the path of faith, corresponding to the Minchah prayer, which expresses continuity, for the whole day is sustained by the power of faith. Yaakov Avinu formulated the Ma’ariv evening prayer because Yaakov dealt with many hardships and complications, yet from each of them he emerged stronger. He therefore established the nighttime prayer, since, even in the dark when reality is clouded, it is possible to connect to HaKadosh Baruch Hu, thereby revealing the supreme eternal light.
  After the forefathers paved the way with these prayers, there were devout and righteous people who followed in their path and prayed Shacharit, Minchah, and Ma’ariv. As King David said (Psalms 55:17-18), “As for me, I call out to the Lord, and God saves me. Evening, morning, and noon, I express my grief and moan aloud, and He hears my voice.”
  Following in the custom of our forefathers, Anshei Knesset HaGedolah established the three prayers, Shacharit and Minchah as obligatory, and Ma’ariv as optional. They were set up to correspond to the communal offerings, since the prayers came to express the inner significance of the sacrifices. Since the prayers were established to correspond to the sacrifices, the times of the prayers were set according to the times of the offerings (as explained further in this book 11:4, 11:11, 24:3-4, and 25:2).
  Because the Tamid sacrifices of the morning and of the afternoon were obligatory, Shacharit and Minchah are obligatory prayers. Ma’ariv was established to represent the burning of the fat and organs, which were put on the altar at night. If one did not bring them, it did not prevent him from fulfilling the mitzvah of the offering. Therefore Ma’ariv was also deemed optional. However, as time passed, the nation of Israel took upon itself to recite Ma’ariv as an obligatory prayer (see further in this book 25:2). On Shabbat, festivals, and Rosh Chodesh, we were commanded to bring a Musaf sacrifice; hence, the Chachamim established the recital of the Musaf prayer to represent it.
  
  Section 8
  
  Fundamentals of the Laws of Prayer / Kavanah and Those Who Find It Difficult to Concentrate
  Prayer is considered avodah shebalev (service of the heart); therefore its essence is dependent upon kavanah (intent). There are two kinds of kavanah in prayer: one, a general kavanah, that the person praying is standing before the King of Kings and is filled with fear and love; and the second is a personal kavanah, that he concentrates in his heart on the words he is saying.
  People are innately different from one another. Some can concentrate effortlessly, and though they repeat the same words every day, it is easy for them to recite all the words and mean them. Others, by nature, find it difficult to concentrate, and the more familiar a subject is to them, the harder it is for them to concentrate on it. Try as they might to have kavanah, their thoughts wander from one matter to the next. Despite great effort to have kavanah in Birkat Avot, their reveries take over, and to their surprise they are already saying Birkat Selach Lanu. Again, they attempt to concentrate for another berachah, but their minds fly off on another journey, and suddenly they find themselves bowing at Modim.
  Even in the time of the Talmud there were Amora’im who complained about the difficulty of having kavanah while praying. The Yerushalmi (Berachot, chapter 2, halachah 4), teaches that Rabbi Chiya said of himself that he was never able to have kavanah throughout his entire prayer. Once, when he tried to concentrate during his prayer, he began to ponder who is more important before the king, this minister or that one. Shmuel said, “I counted newly hatched chicks while I was praying.” Rabbi Bon Bar Chiya said: “While I was praying I counted the rows of the building.” Rabbi Matanyah said, “I am grateful for my head, for even when I am not paying attention to what I am saying, it knows by itself to bow at Modim.” The commentary Pnei Moshe explains that these rabbis were busy learning Torah and therefore had trouble concentrating. In any case, we learn that it is difficult to have kavanah from the beginning of the prayer service until the end. Even though we must try as hard as we can to concentrate, one should not feel dispirited when he does not have the proper kavanah. Even a person who dreamt throughout most of his prayer should not despair; rather he should strive to have kavanah while reciting the remaining berachot.
  A person should not say, “If I do not have kavanah, perhaps it is better not to pray.” The very fact that he came to pray before Hashem expresses something very profound – his sincere desire to connect to Hashem and to pray before Him. Every person is measured according to his nature, and at times, someone who finds it difficult to concentrate, yet struggles and succeeds in having kavanah for a number of blessings, is more praiseworthy than someone who easily succeeds in concentrating throughout the entire prayer service. Additionally, people who find it easy to concentrate on the routine prayers generally pray without any particular passion, even on special occasions, or when a tragedy befalls them. However, those individuals who find it difficult to concentrate on the routine words usually succeed in attaining higher levels of kavanah in exceptional circumstances.
  It is said in the name of the Ari HaKadosh that kavanah is like wings upon which prayer soars heavenward and is accepted. When a person prays without kavanah, his prayer lacks the wings with which to fly upwards and it waits until the person prays with kavanah. When he succeeds in doing so, all the prayers that he recited without kavanah ascend to Hashem together with the prayer that achieved kavanah. The reason for this is clear: the very fact that the person initially came to pray demonstrates that he wants to connect to Hashem, praise Him, and asks Him for his needs. He simply failed to have kavanah. However, the moment he succeeds in having kavanah, he opens the gate for all his prayers to ascend.
  According to halachah, anyone who has kavanah in his heart while saying the first verse of Shema and the first berachah of the Shemoneh Esrei fulfills his obligation, even if he does not have kavanah while saying the rest of his prayers (Shulchan Aruch, 63:4, 101:1; further in this book 15:6 and 17:9).
  
  Section 9
  
  Fundamentals of the Laws of Prayer / Hearing the Words One Utters and the Law of Hirhur
  Some mitzvot are fulfilled through dibur (speech), such as prayer, the recital of Shema, and Birkat HaMazon. The Amora’im are divided on the question of whether one can fulfill these mitzvot b’dieved (after the fact), via hirhur (thought). According to Ravina, hirhur k’dibur (thought is like speech) and one who thinks the words of the prayer or berachah in his mind has fulfilled his obligation. In contrast to him, Rav Chisda asserts that thought is not equivalent to speech (Berachot 20b). Although some poskim maintain that hirhur k’dibur, (Rambam, Smag, Riaz), in practice, most Rishonim hold that the halachah follows Rav Chisda’s opinion that thought is not like speech (Rach, Talmidei Rabbi Yonah, Or Zarua, Rosh, Raavad, and more). This is also how the Shulchan Aruch rules regarding the recital of Shema (62:3) and berachot (185:2 and 206:3).2<i class="footnote">The poskim are divided regarding whether or not the Rambam and the Smag hold that hirhur k’dibur (thought is like speech) also concerning the recital of Shema or just regarding other mitzvot. (See Bei’ur Halachah 62:4, s.v. “Yatza.”)The Shulchan Aruch 62:4 states, “If, because of sickness or circumstances beyond his control, a person thought the Shema in his heart, he has fulfilled his obligation.” The Acharonim disagree as to what he means. According to the Pri Chadash and many other poskim, one who merely thinks the words does not truly fulfill his obligation, and this is what is written in Bei’ur Halachah, s.v. “Yatza.” Therefore, if the circumstances beyond his control have passed and the time to recite Shema has not yet passed, he must go back and verbally recite the Shema. However, the Birkei Yosef and the Pri Megadim are of the opinion that one who finds himself in circumstances beyond his control (annus) does fulfill his obligation by just thinking the words of Shema, and, even if the circumstances pass, he is not required to repeat them (the Hashlamah and Michtam hold this way as well). The Igrot Moshe, Orach Chaim, part 5, 4, explains that the Shulchan Aruch means to say that we rely on the minority opinion which states that hirhur is k’dibur, only in extenuating circumstances, but if the person is no longer in circumstances beyond his control, the situation is no longer extenuating and one must repeat the Shema (Yabia Omer, part 4, 3:19 agrees).Concerning the recital of Shema, which is a biblical commandment, one who mistakenly thought the words in his heart, is most certainly required to go back and verbally recite them. Regarding blessings, the Bei’ur Halachah writes that those who rely on the majority of the Rishonim and repeat them do not lose out. The Yalkut Yosef, part 3, 106:11, writes, safek berachot l’hakel (if there is doubt regarding the recital of blessings, we are lenient) and if, for example, he thought Birkot HaShachar, but did not say them, he need not go back and repeat them. However, regarding the blessing upon food, if he recited the words in his thoughts, he should think the words “Baruch Shem kevod malchuto l’olam va’ed” (“Blessed is the Name of His glorious kingdom for all eternity,”) and then go back and say the berachah verbally.</i>
  If a person mouthed the words, even though he did not hear the words he said, he fulfilled his obligation b’dieved because he moved his lips. However, l’chatchilah (from the outset), concerning every mitzvah that is fulfilled by speech, the person speaking must hear what he is saying.
  There are parts of prayer which are said by the whole congregation, such as the answering of Amen and the Kedushah, in which the congregation responds to the chazan. These sections of prayer are, l’chatchilah, said aloud. We must be especially careful to answer to the Kaddish out loud because when everyone says Amen in unison, kevod Shamayim (the respect of Heaven) is magnified (Shulchan Aruch 56:1). The Chachamim tell us that by answering “Amen, yehei Shemei rabba…” out loud, harsh decrees are erased. Similarly, it is customary to recite the first verse of Shema out loud, in order to arouse kavanah (Shulchan Aruch 61:4).
  We say the rest of the prayers, such as Pesukei d’Zimrah, the recital of Shema, Birkot Keriat Shema, and the remaining mizmorim (songs), in a regular voice, or at least in a volume that we are able to hear. However, even if a person only mouthed the words, and he did not hear what he was saying, he still fulfilled his obligation.
  The Amidah prayer, which is private and intense, is recited silently. According to most poskim, even the silent Amidah, l’chatchilah, must be heard by one’s ears, but one must be careful that the person praying next to him does not hear him (Shulchan Aruch 101:2; Mishnah Berurah 5-6). However, the custom of most Kabbalists is that l’chatchilah, a silent prayer must be recited only by mouthing the words and not by hearing them even with one’s own ears (Kaf HaChaim 101:8).
  It is possible to learn from this law a general concept: that thought alone is not sufficient, that good intention without action is not enough. For the soul, deep within the heart, is pure, and the challenge is to project its goodness outwards in order to mend the world. Therefore, it is necessary to say the prayers out loud, or at least to mouth the words (Maharal, Netiv HaAvodah, chapter 2).
  
  Section 10
  
  Fundamentals of the Laws of Prayer / The Language of Prayer
  The mitzvah of prayer is ideally performed in Hebrew, for that is the language in which Anshei Knesset HaGedolah composed the wording of prayer, and it is the Holy Tongue which was used to create the world. However, b’dieved, a person who does not understand Hebrew may fulfill his obligation in other languages (Sotah 32a; Shulchan Aruch 62:2).3<i class="footnote">Regarding the recital of Shema, there is disagreement. According to Rebbi, Shema may only be said in the Holy Tongue, whereas, according to the Chachamim, it may be recited in any language (Berachot 13a). Because in Sotah 32b there is a stam mishnah (a mishnah that does not specify who said it) in which it is written that the halachah is like the Chachamim who maintain that the recital of Shema, Birkat HaMazon, Birkat Kohanim, and other berachot may be said in any language, also here, the halachah is according to the Chachamim.Regarding prayer, it is the opinion of the Rif that only a person who prays in a minyan may pray in a different language, since the Shechinah (Divine Presence) dwells there and his prayer will be accepted. However, a person who is praying individually must specifically pray in the Holy Tongue, for his prayer will not be accepted in another language. Nevertheless, most poskim agree with the Rosh who is of the opinion that even while praying individually, one may also pray in a different language, with the exception of Aramaic, and that is the ruling in the Shulchan Aruch 101:4, in the concluding statement, “Yesh omrim.”</i>
  There is a fundamental difference between the person who prays in Hebrew and the person who prays in another language. The one who prays in a different language does not fulfill his obligation without understanding the meaning of the words he is reciting. However, one who prays in Hebrew fulfills his obligation even if he does not understand the meaning of the words. Still, even one who prays in Hebrew is obligated to understand the meaning of the first verse of Shema and the first blessing of the Amidah, because not having kavanah for those parts of prayer prevents him from fulfilling his obligation (Mishnah Berurah 101:14, 124:2; Bei’ur Halachah 62:2).
  In contrast to other languages, Hebrew has intrinsic value, since the Torah was given to us in Hebrew and it was used to create the world. Even a person who does not understand Hebrew can fulfill the mitzvah by praying in the Holy Tongue because of its inherent significance. However, the value of every other language derives from the fact that it expresses the person’s thoughts and feelings. Hence, a person who does not understand the language that he is saying renders the words useless, and therefore cannot use it to recite Shema and the rest of the prayers.
  In practice, a person who does not understand Hebrew is permitted to choose the language in which he wants to pray. Although the advantage of praying in a language that he understands is that he can concentrate on the words, on the other hand, one who prays in Hebrew has the benefit of praying in the Holy Tongue, for every Hebrew letter is directed towards the rectification of all the spiritual worlds (see Bei’ur Halachah 101:4; Kaf HaChaim 16).
  Permission to pray in any language is granted as a temporary concession (k’hora’at sha’ah), specifically for people who do not understand Hebrew. However, it is prohibited to establish a minyan that will regularly pray in a different language. This was one of the sins of the Reform Movement which translated the prayers to German and established prayer services in a foreign tongue, causing generations after them to forget the Holy Tongue, thereby giving way to the abandonment of Judaism and assimilation (Chatam Sofer, Orach Chaim, 84 and 86; Mishnah Berurah 101:13; see further in this book 17:8).
  The mitzvah of reciting Shema, in principle, may also be fulfilled with a translation. However, some doubt was raised regarding the accuracy of the translation of a number of words. Therefore, today, in the opinion of some eminent Acharonim (later Torah authorities), one cannot fulfill his obligation of reciting Shema by saying a translation of the words (Mishnah Berurah 62:3; further in this book 15:9).
  
  
  
  
  
  Section 1
  
  The Minyan / The Virtue of a Minyan
  When ten Jews are engaged in Torah or prayer, the Shechinah dwells among them, as it says (Psalms 82:1), “God is present in a Godly congregation.” Although the Shechinah dwells even with one Jew who prays or learns individually, nevertheless, different levels exist. The highest level is when ten Jews are engaged in a matter of sanctity (davar shebikedushah), for then holiness is revealed to the world (see Berachot 6a). Based on this, the Chachamim established that all matters of sanctity be recited in a minyan. These include: Chazarat HaShatz (the repetition of the Amidah), Birkat Kohanim (the priestly blessing), Barchu, Kaddish, and the Torah reading (Megillah 23b).1<i class="footnote">Megillah 23b and Masechet Sofrim 10:7 list the sections of prayer that necessitate a minyan for their recital. The source for this is the verse, “I will be sanctified among the Israelites,” meaning that holiness is revealed within a sect of Israel. The Chachamim teach that the Torah is referring to ten Jews. The laws of kiddush Hashem (the sanctification of God’s Name) are learned from here, specifically concerning a person who is forced to desecrate Hashem’s Name by sinning in public. If there are ten Jews present, he must refuse and sacrifice himself, but if ten Jews are not present, self-sacrifice is unnecessary. However, the Ran, as well as other Rishonim and Acharonim, write that the enactment of a minyan for matters of sanctity is a rabbinic ruling, for the obligation itself to recite these sections of prayer is rabbinic. Therefore, when there are doubts concerning rulings of prayer in a minyan, the halachah goes according to those poskim who are lenient, in keeping with the rule, sefeika d’rabbanan l’kula (when there is uncertainty regarding rabbinic rulings, we are lenient).The Mabit in Beit Elokim, Sha’ar HaYesodot, chapter 39, explains that from the time of Moshe Rabbeinu until the destruction of the Temple, wherever sacrifices were brought the Shechinah was revealed and there was prophecy among Israel; therefore, even the prayer of an individual was heard. After the destruction of the First Temple and sacrifices were no longer brought, Anshei Knesset HaGedolah instituted praying in a minyan so that the Shechinah would dwell among them, thereby facilitating the acceptance of their prayers.</i>
  The Chachamim state that a prayer recited together with the congregation (b’tzibur) is accepted, as is written (Psalms 55:19), “He redeems me unharmed from the battle against me, for those with me are many.” Even when a congregation prays without full kavanah, HaKadosh Baruch Hu does not turn away from the prayers of the many (Berachot 8a). Although any prayer recited amongst ten Jews is more meaningful and accepted, the essence of communal prayer is ten Jews jointly praying the Shemoneh Esrei, also known as the Amidah.
  Hence, praying in a minyan provides two benefits: first, in a minyan one may recite all those matters of sanctity that the Chachamim instituted; second, communal prayer is accepted on the merit of the congregation.
  Since the Shechinah dwells in the midst of a minyan, every person should try to be one of the first ten people to arrive for prayer. If a person cannot be one of the first ten people to arrive for Shacharit, he should try to be one of the first for Minchah or Ma’ariv (Shulchan Aruch, 90:14; Ben Ish Chai, Miketz 1).
  
  Section 2
  
  The Minyan / The Virtue of Prayer in a Minyan
  Upon first glance, one might think that prayer recited individually is more intense and passionate and better expresses one’s particular character and needs. However, despite the importance of the individual experience, our main objective in this world is to sanctify God’s Name and to connect all the components of the world to their spiritual root. That is why we need to work from within and on behalf of the collective whole. This sense of unity and belonging is also expressed by praying in a minyan. Similarly, in the wording of the Shemoneh Esrei, we make requests on behalf of everyone: “Heal us and we will be healed,” “Bless this year for us,” “Sound a great shofar for our freedom and raise a banner to gather our exiles,” “And to Jerusalem Your city, may You return in mercy,” and so too for the remaining berachot of the Amidah.
  Am Yisrael’s uniqueness lies in its ability to reveal kedushah (holiness) within the collective whole. Prominent righteous people exist among the gentile nations, but their holiness is limited to their individual lives. Kedushah in a national format is revealed solely through Am Yisrael. Therefore Am Yisrael received the Torah, and it is the nation that can build the Temple, through which the Divine light is revealed to this world. Even ten Jews who gather together for matters of sanctity manifest, to a certain extent, the holiness of the Jewish people.
  Therefore, if a person who prays in a minyan, connects to the congregation, identifies with its grief and pleads for its well-being, and wants to add personal prayers from his heart, it is indeed praiseworthy, since all of his personal prayers are connected to the collective whole.
  
  Section 3
  
  The Minyan / What Is Prayer in a Minyan?
  The essence of prayer in a minyan is praying Shemoneh Esrei together with ten Jews. One who does not succeed in praying Shemoneh Esrei together with the congregation should pray with the chazan when he repeats the Amidah (Chazarat HaShatz) since, according to most poskim, that is also regarded as prayer recited in a minyan.2<i class="footnote">Eshel Avraham Butshatsh 52 maintains that prayer with the chazan as he repeats Shemoneh Esrei is considered prayer in a minyan and that is also the opinion of the Chatam Sofer. So write Kaf HaChaim 90:63 and Yabia Omer, part 2, 7, as well as the majority of poskim. By contrast, the Pri Megadim (Eshel Avraham 52:1 and 109:4) writes that the essence of prayer in a minyan is that ten Jews pray the silent Shemoneh Esrei together (this can be inferred from the Rama 109:2 as well). So writes the Igrot Moshe Orach Chaim, part 3, 9, and is implied from the Mishnah Berurah 90:28 and 52:6, as well. However, Beit Baruch 19:35 attests to the fact that the Chafetz Chaim himself would pray with the chazan so that the chazan would not wait for him to finish his prayer. In conclusion, it is best to try to pray silently with the congregation in order to fulfill one’s obligation according to all opinions, but even praying with the chazan is considered prayer in a minyan according to the majority of poskim.Further, it is implied from the Mishnah Berurah 66:35 that the essence of prayer in a minyan is that one begins to recite the Amidah together with the congregation. However, most poskim write that even if a person is a few berachot ahead or behind, he is still considered to be praying in a minyan, as written in Yabia Omer, part 2, 7, based on the Pri Chadash and others. The Acharonim also disagree concerning whether or not the prayer of six people praying together with four who already prayed is considered prayer in a minyan. Yechaveh Da’at 5:7 considers it to be prayer in a minyan, whereas, Igrot Moshe, Orach Chaim, part 1, 28, writes that it is not considered prayer in a minyan, yet they are permitted to recite matters of sanctity. In conclusion, there are different levels regarding the status of prayer in a minyan.</i>
  Additionally, if a person arrives late to synagogue and recites the Amidah while the congregation is still reciting other parts of the prayer service, such as Aleinu Leshabe’ach, although he is not considered praying in a minyan, he does derive some merit, since he is praying in a holy place where ten Jews are singing songs of praise. If he recites the Amidah of Shacharit while the congregation is praying Musaf, he is considered to be praying in a minyan (Tzelach, Berachot 6a; Mishnah Berurah 90:30).
  A person who is unable to attend synagogue should try to coordinate the time he prays with the time the congregation prays, thereby partially engaging himself in the minyan’s prayer. This way, his prayer will be accepted, since the time the congregation prays is a favorable time (Berachot 8a; Shulchan Aruch 90:9). Lechatchilah, he should try to synchronize his prayer with the prayers of a specific congregation whose schedule he knows. If he does not know when a particular congregation is praying, he should have in mind to pray with any minyan, for surely any time he prays there is a minyan somewhere in the world that is standing in prayer.3<i class="footnote">Halichot Shlomo 5:18 writes that the virtue of coordinating his prayer to the time when the congregation is praying applies specifically when the individual praying intends to join a particular congregation. Therefore Rabbi Yitzchak suggested to Rav Nachman that he be notified when exactly the congregation was to begin Shemoneh Esrei, so that he could have in mind to coordinate his prayer with theirs (Berachot 8a). However, the Mishnah Berurah 89:33 writes in the name of the Chayei Adam that a person praying individually may pray immediately when the day begins, for surely in big communities there are minyanim at that time and if so, he will certainly be praying when a congregation is praying. It seems that when a person cannot be physically present with the congregation, there are different levels. The highest level is when an individual has in mind to coordinate his prayers with the prayers of the minyan in which he prays daily. The level below that is when a person coordinates his prayer with a different congregation in the area where he lives. An even lower level is when he synchronizes his prayer with a congregation praying in a different place. The lowest level is when he has in mind to coordinate his prayer with any minyan that is praying at that moment, for probably anytime he prays, there is a minyan praying then. See Avodah Zarah 4b and Rabbeinu Tam’s explanation in the Tosafot.</i>
  
  Section 4
  
  The Minyan / The Extent of One’s Obligation to Pray in a Minyan
  It is a rabbinic mitzvah (mitzvah mi’drabbanan) to pray in a minyan. The Chachamim obligate a person to make an effort to walk to a minyan, even if it is far from his house, approximately the walking distance of a mil (960 meters or approximately .597 miles), which takes about 18 minutes (Mishnah Berurah 90:52). If he is traveling, and within 72 minutes (approximately the time required to walk four mils) will arrive at a place that has a minyan, even if he planned to stop to rest, he must continue traveling in order to pray in a minyan. However, if the minyan is not on his way, he must only go out of his way up to a walking distance of 18 minutes in order to pray in a minyan (Shulchan Aruch 90:16)
  According to many poskim, whoever normally travels by car must, in order to pray, drive to a minyan as far as 18-minutes away. Similarly, someone who is traveling by car and knows that within 72 minutes he will arrive at a place that has a minyan, must continue onward to that minyan (see the note).4<i class="footnote">The question is whether the obligation of a mil is measured by time or distance, and from this we can derive whether or not there is an obligation to travel up to 18 minutes by car to a minyan. The Bei’ur Halachah 163:1, s.v. “B’richuk,” writes regarding attaining water for washing one’s hands (before eating bread) within the walking distance of four mils before him, that we measure by time and not by distance. That is also what is written in the Mishnah Berurah 249:1 concerning traveling on Erev Shabbat. By contrast, the Mishnah Berurah 92:17, on the subject of washing one’s hands before prayer, and 110:30, about tefillat haderech (the traveler’s prayer), writes that it is measured according to distance and that is also what is written in Pitchei Teshuvah, Yoreh De’ah 112:6. Tefillah K’Hilchatah 8:12 and Avnei Yashfeh 6:5-6 maintain that this obligation refers to time and whoever has a car must travel up to 18 minutes. In practice, one who is traveling on his way is obligated to continue up to 72 minutes, which is similar to what is written in Bei’ur Halachah 163:1. However, if he is in his house, there is disagreement as to whether or not he is obligated to travel 18 minutes by car. It is best to be stringent, though those who act according to the lenient opinion have on whom to rely. Nonetheless, all of these laws pertain only to a temporary situation, but in a permanent one, every Jew must set up his home no more than a distance of an 18-minute walk from a synagogue. If he has no choice and is compelled to live farther away, it is proper for him to accept upon himself to walk or drive farther in order to pray in a minyan.</i>
  A person, who must urgently secure his business or property or otherwise suffer monetary loss, is permitted to pray individually in order to prevent personal loss. However, businessmen and craftsmen must stop working in order to pray in a minyan, despite the fact that while they go to pray in a minyan they cannot continue to work and make money. Only if a mishap occurs, which if they do not handle, will cause them to lose a great deal of money, in that particular instance, they are permitted to pray individually (Mishnah Berurah 90:29).5<i class="footnote">The <em>Magen Avraham</em> 671:12 writes that when a person is preoccupied with thoughts of his business, he is exempt from going to pray in a <em>minyan</em>. This implies that if an opportunity arises to gain a large sum of money, far beyond what he usually earns, he is permitted to go according to those who are lenient and pray individually. However, even for a great profit he may not conduct business before he recites <em>Shacharit</em>. See <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 90:29.</i>
  A person who needs to travel in order to attend to urgent matters or for medical care and by praying in a minyan will not arrive at his desired destination on time, is permitted to pray individually, since otherwise he will suffer a loss.
  
  Section 5
  
  The Minyan / Priorities Pertaining to Prayer in a Minyan
  A person who finds it difficult to have kavanah when praying in a congregation, but succeeds in retaining the basic kavanah with which he fulfills his obligation, must pray in a minyan, even if he concentrates better while praying individually. As long as he has kavanah for the first berachah of Shemoneh Esrei, he must pray in a minyan (Igrot Moshe, Orach Chaim, part 3, 7). Moreover, in the long-term, consistent praying with a congregation usually strengthens one’s kavanah and connection to matters of sanctity.
  A talmid chacham (Torah scholar) whose learning is his profession, must try to pray in a minyan, even though the walk to synagogue to pray in a minyan causes him to lose time from his learning. Though, in principle, he is allowed to pray individually, he must be scrupulous to pray in a congregation, so that people will not learn from him to belittle the matter of communal prayer. Only on rare occasions, when he is in the middle of an important subject of study and the walk to a minyan will greatly disturb his learning, is he permitted to be lenient and pray individually (based on the Rama 90:18).
  With regard to one who teaches Torah to others and is unable to both pray in a minyan as well as teach his class, it is better that he pray individually and not cancel his class, for the communal learning of Torah overrides praying in a minyan (Mishnah Berurah 90:56).
  It is preferable to pray with a congregation rather than take part in the meal of a brit milah (Kaf HaChaim 90:67). However, in a case in which the host of the seudah (meal) is likely to be insulted if a particular person does not attend, it is better that he pray individually and participate in the seudat mitzvah in order to prevent a rift.
  When a person has two options: to pray individually “vatikin” at sunrise (netz) or to pray in a minyan later, most poskim maintain that it is preferable to pray in a minyan (see also further in this book 11:9).6<i class="footnote">When the question is whether to pray in a <em>minyan</em> before <em>netz</em> or individually at <em>netz</em>, the <em>Acharonim</em> are divided. I have written in chapter 11, note 12, that on a regular basis it seems preferable to pray in a <em>minyan</em>. When the <em>minyan</em> prays after the conclusion of the first four hours of the day according to the <em>Gra</em> (see further in this book 11:12), then it is preferable to pray individually prior to that time. If the <em>minyan</em> prays within the four hours according to the <em>Gra</em> and after the four hours according to the <em>Magen Avraham</em>, then the <em>Acharonim</em> disagree as to which is better. Even in that case it seems preferable on a regular basis to pray in a <em>minyan</em></i>
  
  Section 6
  
  The Minyan / Who Can Be Counted in a Minyan?
  A minyan is a gathering of ten male Jews of sound mind and responsibility to join together for matters of sanctity. A minor, who is not yet of full sound mind and competence, does not count as part of the minyan. When he reaches the age at which he is obligated to fulfill the mitzvot (bar mitzvah), he is counted as part of the minyan.
  There are some Rishonim who maintain that in extenuating circumstances (b’sha’at hadchak), nine adults may include a minor who is holding a Chumash in his hand as part of their minyan. However, in the opinion of most poskim, even in extenuating circumstances, a minor may not be considered part of the minyan, and that is how we practice. Nevertheless, in a situation in which the minyan will be canceled completely unless he is counted, possibly causing some of the members to distance themselves from Judaism, he can be counted as part of the minyan.7<i class="footnote">The Amora’im are divided as to whether or not a minor may be counted as part of the minyan. The Rishonim dispute this as well, as brought in the Beit Yosef, Orach Chaim 55:4. The overwhelming majority of the Rishonim, including the Rambam, Ramban, Rashba, and Rosh, write that he may not be counted. However, Rabbeinu Tam, the Razah, and others write that we may be lenient in extenuating circumstances. Yabia Omer, part 4, 9, summarizes the issue and concludes that it is prohibited for a minor to be included even in extenuating circumstances. Nonetheless, the Maharsham, responsa 3:164, and Igrot Moshe, Orach Chaim, part 2, 18, permit it in extenuating circumstances because the law of prayer in a minyan is rabbinic and in certain situations we can rely on a minority of poskim.The definition of an adult is one who has reached thirteen years of age and two hairs have grown in. Yet, practically we are not strict about this because praying in a minyan is a rabbinic obligation and we rely on the presumption that he has two hairs. Even if in actuality he does not, perhaps he did and they shed. See Mishnah Berurah 55, passages 31 and 40.</i>
  8<i class="footnote">According to the Tzemach Tzedek 73 and Divrei Chaim, part 2, Even HaEzer, 72, even if the deaf-mute is a very wise person, he is exempt from the mitzvot. According to Maharsham, part 2, 140, and Nachalat Tzvi, he is considered a competent person for all intents and purposes. A few Acharonim write that because minyan is a rabbinic ruling, we may rely on those who are lenient and count him, as it is written in the responsa of Nachalat Binyamin 31 and Yechaveh Da’at 2:6. In a minyan of this kind, it is better not to have the chazan repeat the Amidah, for some poskim maintain that if there are not nine people answering, the berachot are close to being in vain. See further on this topic in Nishmat Avraham, Orach Chaim 1, 55:2, and Encyclopedia of Jewish Medical Ethics, entry “deafness.” Additionally, if the person who is deaf-mute was taught to make sounds that are comprehensible to most people, according to all opinions, he may be counted in a minyan (Halichot Shlomo 22:26).</i>
  
  Section 7
  
  The Minyan / Is a Person Praying the Amidah Counted as Part of the Minyan?
  To comprise a minyan, it is not necessary for all ten men to be able to participate in saying the matters of sanctity. Even when a few of those participating cannot respond to the chazan, they still complete the minyan. For example, if a few of them have not yet finished reciting the Amidah of Ma’ariv, even though they cannot respond to Kaddish and Barchu, the Shechinah dwells among them because there are ten Jews present. As a result, they are permitted to recite matters of sanctity. Likewise, a deaf person who does not hear the chazan, or a mute person who cannot respond, can each still complete a minyan. There must be at least five people present who answer the chazan, since together with the chazan, they make up a majority.
  In the opinion of some prominent Acharonim, the ruling that even one who cannot answer may be counted as part of the minyan refers to Kaddish and other matters of sanctity. However, regarding Chazarat HaShatz, it is necessary to have nine people who will actually answer Amen to the chazan, for without nine, his berachot will be in vain (Shulchan Aruch HaRav 55:7; Ben Ish Chai, Vayechi 6). Nonetheless, according to many poskim, although l’chatchilah it is necessary that nine people answer Amen to Chazarat HaShatz, in principle, even those who do not answer Amen count, and the chazan may start Chazarat HaShatz even before all nine have finished praying. Similarly, it is permitted to repeat the Amidah in a minyan in which people regularly engage in idle chatter during Chazarat HaShatz, even if there might not be nine people answering Amen to the berachot, since b’dieved even those who do not answer still count as part of the minyan (Magen Avraham; Eliyah Rabbah).
  In order to avoid uncertainty, in a place where many people chatter and there is concern that there will not be nine people answering Amen to the chazan when he repeats the Amidah, the chazan should stipulate in his heart that if the ruling is according to those who maintain that nine people are needed to answer, then his Chazarat HaShatz will be considered a voluntary prayer (tefillat nedavah). Since a person is permitted to pray a voluntary prayer, according to all opinions his berachot will not be in vain (Mishnah Berurah 124:19).9<i class="footnote">At first glance it seems that there is a contradiction in what the <em>Shulchan</em> <em>Aruch</em> writes, for in section 55:6-8, he rules that a person who is praying, a person who is sleeping, and a deaf person are also counted in a <em>minyan</em>, despite the fact that they cannot answer <em>Amen</em> after the <em>chazan</em>. Whereas in section 124:4, he writes based on the <em>Rosh</em>, “And if there are not nine people who have<em> kavanah </em>during the <em>chazan</em>’s recital of <em>berachot</em>, his <em>berachot</em> are close to being said in vain.” In the opinion of most <em>poskim</em>, among them <em>Magen Avraham</em>, <em>Derishah</em>, and others, even those who cannot respond to the <em>chazan</em> are counted as part of the <em>minyan</em>. Therefore the <em>Shulchan Aruch</em> emphasizes “are close to being,” meaning that in actuality his <em>berachot</em> are not said in vain. That is what is implied from the <em>Beit Yosef</em> in section 55 who brings the words of the <em>Maharil</em> and the <em>Ram</em>, maintaining that a person who is sleeping and someone who is praying can be counted for <em>Chazarat HaShatz</em>. (There disagreement is about how many people that do not actually answer can be counted. The most lenient opinion allows up to four. Regarding one who is sleeping, we may not be lenient with more than one, <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 55:32.)In contrast to them, the <em>Taz</em> 55:4 and 124:2 is inclined to say that only those who answer are counted in the <em>minyan</em>. The <em>Graz</em> 55:7 and <em>Ben Ish Chai</em>, <em>Vayechi</em> 6, differentiate between all the matters of sanctity about which the <em>Shulchan Aruch</em> writes in section 55 that even one who does not answer counts, and <em>Chazarat HaShatz</em> about which the <em>Shulchan Aruch</em> writes in section 124 that it is necessary to have nine people answer.In extenuating circumstances, when there are people who extend their prayers and it is difficult to wait for them to finish, it is possible to heed the advice of the Mishnah Berurah 124:19 – that the chazan stipulates that if the ruling is according to those who maintain that it is necessary for nine people to answer, then his prayer is considered a voluntary prayer (tefillat nedavah). In the Musaf prayer and Shabbat and festival prayers, the chazan cannot make this stipulation because on Shabbat and festivals a voluntary prayer may not be recited. Instead, when he is concerned that nine people will not respond to him, either he should rely on the majority of poskim who say there is no need to have nine people answer or he should not pray the silent Amidah with them and this way he can recite the Amidah repetition without doubt, for he himself is fulfilling his obligation through this prayer.On weekdays, when the minyan is smaller, we can rely on the advice given further in this book (19:5) that the minyan may pray the abridged Chazarat HaShatz and the chazan recites the first three berachot out loud in order to say Kedushah.According to almost all opinions, a person who prays word for word with the chazan is counted as part of the minyan even though he does not answer Amen.</i>
  
  Section 8
  
  The Minyan / Religious Jew as Part of the Minyan
  A Jew who has sinned, for example, by eating forbidden foods, committing adultery, or transgressing other biblical commandments, is still counted as part of the minyan. Despite the fact that he sinned, in his inner core he surely desires to be a part of the holy objectives of Am Yisrael. As the Chachamim say (Sanhedrin 44a), “A Jew, even one who has sinned, is still a Jew.” However, a person who sins in order to purposely incite God’s wrath does not count as part of a minyan, since he himself demonstrates that he does not belong to the Torah or to Israel (Mishnah Berurah 55:46-47).
  According to some poskim, one who desecrates the Shabbat in public, even if he does it for his own pleasure, is considered an idol worshiper and does not count as part of the minyan (Mishnah Berurah 55:46). However, in recent generations, a few prominent poskim have taught that if a person who desecrates the Shabbat wants to be part of a minyan, we can include him. This is because today, the status of one who desecrates the Shabbat is different. In the past, when all of Israel observed the Shabbat, anyone who dared to publicly desecrate the Shabbat, even if he did it for his own pleasure, outwardly defied all of Israel and was therefore deemed as one who sins intentionally to arouse anger. However, in recent times, when unfortunately many Jews do not keep the Shabbat, its observance is not a measure of a Jew’s identification with his heritage, and therefore, if he himself wants to be part of the minyan, he may be counted. Still, it is not proper to appoint him as chazan.10<i class="footnote"><em>Melamed L’hoil</em>,<em> Orach Chaim</em> 29 and <em>Binyan Tziyon HaChadashot</em> 23 rule to count a person who desecrates the Shabbat as part of a <em>minyan</em>. That is also how my teacher and rabbi,<em> </em>Rav Avraham Elkanah Shapira,<em> ztz”l</em>, ruled in practice. The foundation for their rationale is brought in <em>Igrot Ra’ayah</em>, part 1, 138, that the atmosphere of these generations entices people to sin almost against their will and therefore, sinners today are considered nearly <em>annusim</em>. Similarly, the <em>Chazon Ish</em>,<em> Orach Chaim</em> 87:14 and <em>Yoreh De’ah</em> 2:28, writes that most non-religious Jews have the status of <em>tinok shenishbah</em> (a child who was captured and raised among gentiles) and not <em>mumar lehachis</em> (a sinner who intentionally defies the Torah). Many other <em>Acharonim</em> have also dealt with this issue. There are those who are stringent, see <em>Ishei Yisrael</em> 15:16. Nevertheless, we have already learned that prayer in a <em>minyan</em> is a rabbinic ruling and the halachah goes according to those who are lenient.</i>
  
  Section 9
  
  The Minyan / How Is a Person Counted in a Minyan?
  As we have learned, a minyan is a gathering of ten Jewish males who are of sound mind. In order for them to join as a minyan, they must be together in one place. If nine of them are in the synagogue and one is outside or in an adjacent room, they are not considered a minyan. If the person outside the synagogue is standing next to the door or window, and his face is visible, according to most poskim he can be counted as part of the minyan, because their eye contact unites them. It is not necessary for everyone to see him, rather it is sufficient for only some to see him. Nevertheless, there are poskim who maintain that eye contact cannot be used to link a person to a minyan, and only if he inserts his head into the window will he be considered present with them and thus be counted in the minyan. L’chatchilah, we are to be stringent about this, but in extenuating circumstances, when he cannot come inside and join them, we may rely on most poskim who are lenient and count him as long as his face is visible.11<i class="footnote">It is implied in the <em>Shulchan Aruch</em> 55:14, that anyone who is visible, even if he is in a different domain, can be counted. That is what the <em>Beit Yosef</em> says in the name of <em>Orchot Chaim</em> who quotes <em>Rav Hai Gaon</em> and the <em>Rashba</em>. Additionally, it is enough that a few of them can see him, as is clarified in the ruling of <em>zimun</em> (literally, invitation, three people blessing <em>Birkat HaMazon</em> together) <em>Orach Chaim</em> 195:1. However, the <em>Sheyarei Knesset HaGedolah</em><em> Hagahot </em>on the<em> Beit Yosef </em>6, writes that according to the <em>Shulchan</em><em>Aruch</em>, only if he brings his face into the space of the window can he be counted. So it is written in <em>Kaf HaChaim</em> 55:70, based on some <em>Acharonim</em>. The <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 55:52 essentially rules according to the lenient opinion, and therefore, one who prays in the women’s section, if his face is visible, is counted as part of the <em>minyan</em>. However, he writes that <em>l’chatchilah</em> it is good to follow the stringent opinion, and hence it is better that he actually enter the synagogue in order to complete the <em>minyan</em></i>
  Someone whose face is not visible to those praying inside the synagogue, but is in the ancillary room of the synagogue, does not complete the minyan. Even so, if a minyan already exists without him, when he prays with them he is considered to be praying in a minyan.12<i class="footnote">The <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 55:58 writes, based on the <em>Radbaz</em>, that one who prays in a room in which the only entrance is through the synagogue, even if he is not visible to those praying and therefore does not complete the <em>minyan</em>, he is indeed considered as praying in a <em>minyan</em> since the room in which he is present is ancillary to the room in which they are praying. According to this, a person who prays in the women’s section, even though he does not show his face and he does not complete a <em>minyan</em>, is considered to be praying in a <em>minyan</em>. The reason for this is that the women’s section is auxiliary to the synagogue, and although it has its own separate entrance, in its essence it is subsidiary to the synagogue. However, <em>l’chatchilah</em>, it is good to actually enter the synagogue to pray because there are those who are stringent concerning this matter and do not equate the women’s section with the inner room to which the <em>Radbaz</em> refers (<em>Halichot Shlomo</em> 5:12).</i>
  Ten people who are standing in a field, as long as they can see and hear one another, are considered a minyan (Minchat Yitzchak 2:44).
  When there is a minyan of ten inside the synagogue, anyone who hears the chazan may respond. For instance, a sick person who is bedridden and hears the congregation’s prayers from his house, though he is not regarded as one who is praying in a minyan, he may answer Amen, since not even a steel barrier can separate a Jew from the Shechinah that dwells with the minyan (Shulchan Aruch 55:20). Similarly, if he hears the sound of the shofar blowing or the megillah reading from the synagogue, he can have kavanah to fulfill the mitzvah by hearing it.
  A person who hears a chazan via a live broadcast on the radio or television may answer Amen after him. However, he cannot fulfill his obligation by listening to the megillah reading on the radio or television, because he is not hearing the actual voice of the chazan himself.13<i class="footnote">em&gt;Yechaveh Da’at 2:68. <em>Ishei Yisrael</em> 15, note 69, writes that<em> Rabbi Shlomo Zalman Auerbach </em>extracts from the <em>Shulchan Aruch</em> that whoever is not present with them “may answer,” but is not obligated to answer. However, in the name of the <em>Chazon Ish</em>, he writes that one is obligated to answer. If there is an idol worshiper or a statue of idol worship standing between the <em>chazan</em> and the one who hears him, or if there is excrement located there, he may not answer <em>Amen</em> after the <em>chazan</em>. But if he listens to the radio, we do not fear that the radio waves pass through filthy places, since the voice is recreated through a receiver. That is also the reason why we may not fulfill our obligation of prayer or hearing <em>megillah</em> reading by listening to the radio, because the sound that is coming out of the radio is considered a different voice.</i>
  In summary, there are four levels of joining together for matters of sanctity: 1. When a person is situated in the same place as the people praying or he is visible to them (according to most poskim) he can complete a minyan. 2. A person who is in the ancillary room of the synagogue but is not visible to the people praying cannot complete the minyan. If, however, there is a minyan without him, he is considered to be praying in a minyan. 3. One who is in a different room or outside the synagogue is not considered praying in a minyan, but may fulfill his obligation by hearing the chazan. 4. One who hears the chazan on the radio may answer Amen, but cannot fulfill his obligation by hearing him.
  
  Section 10
  
  The Minyan / A Diminished Minyan
  When the recital of Kaddish in a minyan has begun, and a few men leave in the middle, if most of the minyan remains (at least six including the chazan) the Kaddish may be completed. This rule applies to all prayers that require a minyan; if they started to pray with ten people and most of the minyan remained, they conclude the prayer that they started, but do not begin a new prayer (Shulchan Aruch 55:2). It is prohibited to walk out and disband the minyan in the middle of matters of sanctity. However, in situations in which it is necessary, one is permitted to leave before the start of the next part of the prayers.
  If a minyan began Chazarat HaShatz, and part of the minyan left but most remained, those remaining may say Kedushah and conclude the repetition of the Amidah. However, they do not say Birkat Kohanim because it is a mitzvah by itself. Concerning Kaddish Titkabal after the prayer service, the poskim are divided. The Sephardic custom is not to recite it since it is considered to be the start of a new prayer. According to the Ashkenazic custom it is considered to be the end of the prayer service because in it, we ask that our prayers be accepted. Therefore, in Shacharit and Minchah, if there are ten men at the start of Chazarat HaShatz, they may recite Kaddish Titkabal. (In Shacharit they also recite the Half Kaddish before Ashrei.) In Ma’ariv, if there is a minyan at the beginning of the silent Shemoneh Esrei and six men remain, they recite Kaddish Titkabal (Shulchan Aruch 55:3; Mishnah Berurah there).
  
  
  
  
  
  Section 1
  
  The Place of Prayer / The Mitzvah to Pray in a Synagogue
  When a person prays in a synagogue with a congregation, his prayer is heard (see Berachot 6a). Even someone who missed praying in a minyan has a mitzvah to pray in the synagogue, since it is a permanent and special place of holiness in where prayer is more accepted (Shulchan Aruch 90:9).
  However, when the minyan is held in a different place, it is preferable to pray with the minyan rather than individually in the synagogue. If there is a small minyan in the synagogue and a larger minyan elsewhere, although there is merit to praying in the company of many, the value of praying in a synagogue is greater (Pri Megadim; Mishnah Berurah 90:27-28).
  Every community has an obligation to fulfill the mitzvah of building a synagogue which will be their mini-sanctuary (mikdash me’at) and where people can pray in a minyan. As it is written (Ezekiel 11:16), “I have been for them a small sanctuary,” and Rabbi Yitzchak interpreted, “These are synagogues and study halls” (Megillah 29a).
  Reish Lakish says whoever has a synagogue in his city and does not pray there is called a bad neighbor. Moreover, he brings exile upon himself and his descendants. Those who arrive early to synagogue to recite Shacharit and are late to leave after praying Ma’ariv merit long life (Berachot 8a; Shulchan Aruch 90:11).
  It is a mitzvah to run to synagogue just as it is a mitzvah to run to perform every mitzvah, in order to express one’s passion for matters of sanctity, as it says (Hosea 6:3), “We will race on in order to know Hashem.” Likewise, when one leaves the synagogue, he should walk slowly, so that he not appear happy to leave the synagogue (Shulchan Aruch 90:12).
  
  Section 2
  
  The Place of Prayer / Establishing a Regular Place to Pray
  It is a mitzvah to choose a synagogue and pray there regularly. One should not change his place of prayer needlessly. This was the custom of Avraham Avinu who designated a place to pray, as it is written (Genesis 19:27), “Avraham woke up early in the morning [to go] to the place where he had stood before God,” implying that he had a regular place where he would stand before Hashem. The designation of a place of prayer illustrates that one’s connection to Hashem is absolute. Everything else in the world can change, but one’s connection to Hashem is the most permanent and stable reality and should therefore transpire in a permanent place. The Chachamim say, “Whoever assigns a set place to pray, the God of Avraham helps him, and his enemies fall beneath him” (Berachot 6b, 7b; see Maharal, Netiv HaAvodah, chapter 4).
  However, it is not sufficient to designate a synagogue in which to pray. According to most poskim, even within the synagogue, every person must designate a permanent place to pray (Shulchan Aruch 90:19). The primary importance of establishing a place to pray pertains to the recital of the Amidah prayer (Ben Ish Chai, Miketz 4). When there are benches that move back and forth slightly, it is not necessary to measure one’s seat in centimeters, rather the whole radius of four amot (approximately two meters; approx. 6.56 ft) is considered one place. However, when every person has his own chair, l’chatchilah it is best to sit specifically in one’s regular seat and to pray the Amidah near it.1<i class="footnote">The <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 90:60, based on the <em>Magen Avraham</em>, writes that within four <em>amot</em> is considered one place, because ones place cannot be measured exactly. However, it seems that when each person is assigned his own specific seat, the feeling of the permanent place pertains to that particular chair, as is written in the responsa of <em>Yosef Ometz</em>, 30. Nonetheless, if a guest takes a person’s place and there is an empty seat next to him, in order not to make the guest feel bad, he should sit in the empty seat alongside the guest, since as long as he is within four <em>amot</em>, he is considered to be sitting in his regular seat.</i>
  Sometimes a guest sits in the seat of one who prays in the synagogue regularly. If there is no reason to suspect that the guest will be insulted, he may be asked to move to another seat. However, if there is a chance he may be hurt, it is better to sit elsewhere instead of possibly humiliating him. Ideally, the gabba’im (synagogue coordinators) should greet the guests and find them seats.
  The mitzvah to establish a set place to pray does not obligate a Jew to live his whole life in the same location in order to continue praying in his designated seat. Rather, if a person needs to move to another home, or thinks he may be able to pray with more kavanah in a different synagogue, he should change his place of prayer, and choose a new regular seat for himself.
  If a minyan does not assemble in one’s regular place of prayer, he should go pray elsewhere, for the virtue of praying in a minyan is more important than the virtue of establishing a regular place to pray.2<i class="footnote">However, the <em>Eshel Avraham Butshatsh</em>, Tinyana Edition, 90:19, is uncertain about this ruling. In extenuating circumstances, one may rely on that uncertainty and pray in his permanent place rather than in a <em>minyan</em>. Also see <em>Halichot Shlomo</em> 5:2, who writes that if a person is late for prayer, it is preferable that he skip <em>Pesukei d’Zimrah</em> in order to pray in his regular synagogue, instead of going to a different place where he could pray all of <em>Pesukei d’Zimrah</em>.</i> If, while one is praying in his regular seat, his concentration is disrupted by children playing nearby, it is preferable to switch to a different seat for the duration of that prayer service (Aruch HaShulchan 90:22; Kaf HaChaim 118).
  A person who needs to recite Shacharit in one area and Minchah and Ma’ariv in another and designates one place to pray Shacharit and a different place for Minchah and Ma’ariv is still considered one who has established a place for prayer. Similarly, one who needs to designate a place in one synagogue on Shabbat and in another on weekdays is still considered establishing a place for prayer (Halichot Shlomo 5, note 2).
  
  Section 3
  
  The Place of Prayer / In Which Synagogue Is It Preferable to Pray? 
  When a person chooses a permanent synagogue, he must take into consideration several factors. If the choice is between a beit midrash (study hall) and a synagogue, it is better that he establish his place in a beit midrash, for it is holier, and prayers recited there are more accepted (Shulchan Aruch 90:18). Even when there are fewer people praying in the beit midrash than in the synagogue, the beit midrash is preferable (Mishnah Berurah 90:55). However, if he cannot assign a set seat for himself in the beit midrash, it is better that he designate a place in the synagogue.
  When he has the option of praying in either of two synagogues, he should choose the one that offers more Torah classes, since it is considered more like a beit midrash. In addition, it is preferable to join the congregation that places greater emphasis on Torah study.
  If there are two synagogues, one in which many people pray and the other in which few pray, a person should prefer the one with many, for “B’rov am hadrat Melech” (“In a multitude of people is a King’s glory.”) However, if it is difficult to hear the chazan clearly in the larger synagogue, it is better to choose a synagogue in which one can properly hear the chazan (Mishnah Berurah 90:28). Therefore, as a general rule, it is best that synagogues be as large as possible, so as to augment the respect of Heaven. Nevertheless, there is a limit, since when there are more than a few hundred congregants it is difficult to hear the chazan clearly.
  If in one synagogue people regularly chatter during prayer and in another they don’t, a person should opt for the synagogue that shows more respect for prayer, for he will be able to concentrate better there (Sefer Chassidim 770).
  The most important element of prayer is one’s kavanah. Therefore, above all other rules established by the Chachamim, the place in which one can personally concentrate better is the appropriate place to choose (see Radvaz, part 3, 472).
  Similarly, it is proper for a person to pick a synagogue in which the congregation prays in his family’s nusach. However, if he knows that in a different synagogue he will have more kavanah, he should choose the synagogue in which he can have proper kavanah (see further in this book 6:3).
  A person is rewarded for every step he takes on his way to synagogue. Therefore, even if the preferred synagogue is farther away from his house, he should not be concerned with the trouble that it takes to walk there, because he is rewarded greatly for each step.3<i class="footnote">We learn about the reward gained for steps taken to come to pray from the story of a widow who walked to Rabbi Yochanan’s distant <em>beit midrash</em> (<em>Sotah</em> 22a). It is implied from many <em>Acharonim</em>, among them the <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 90:37, that if a person has to choose between two synagogues, all things being equal, there is an enhancement of the mitzvah in opting for the one farther away in order to merit the reward for steps taken. However, some <em>Acharonim</em> write that only if the farther synagogue is preferable anyway – whether it is because it has more people, or because it is a <em>beit midrash</em>, or because he can concentrate better there – he gains the reward for steps taken to walk there. However, when there is no advantage in going to the farther one, he does not receive reward for his steps taken to walk there (<em>Petach Einayim</em>, <em>Sotah</em> 22a; <em>Divrei Malkiel</em> 5:19; <em>Maharshag</em> 1:27).</i>
  
  Section 4
  
  The Place of Prayer / One May Not Pray in a High Place
  A person who stands before HaKadosh Baruch Hu in prayer should know that his life is dependent on Hashem’s kindness, and should therefore stand before Him humbly. That is what the Chachamim meant when they said (Berachot 10b), “A person may not stand on a chair, on a stool, nor on any other high place and pray, because there is no haughtiness before the Omnipresent, as it says (Psalms 130:1), ‘From the depths I called You, Hashem.’” In contrast, a synagogue must be built on the highest location in the city, in order to confer respect and superiority to the synagogue (Shabbat 11a; Peninei Halachah Likutim I 6:4). However, the person praying must stand before God in humility, and therefore standing on a high place is forbidden. The Talmud (Ta’anit 23b) relates a story about Rabbi Yonah who was known as a righteous person whose prayers were answered. When he was requested to pray for rain, he went to a low place in order to fulfill the words, “From the depths I called You, Hashem.” There he prayed until he was answered and rain began to fall. For that reason it is customary in some congregations to lower the chazan’s place, which explains why the chazan is described as “descending before the ark.”
  As a rule, the Chachamim prohibited an elevated place higher than three tefachim (24 cm; approx. 9.45 in) above the ground. However, in practice, it is forbidden to pray even on a less elevated place, for two reasons. First, a person standing on a stepstool or rock, even only one tefach in height, is worried about losing his balance and cannot have the proper kavanah while praying. Second, if the floor is even, elevating oneself on pillows, cushions, or anything else, suggests a sense of haughtiness and it is improper to pray in such a manner. Nevertheless, praying on rugs and mats which are normally laid out on the floor is permitted l’chatchilah. Likewise, whoever prays on uneven ground may stand on the elevated parts, as long as they are not three tefachim higher than the rest of their surroundings.4<i class="footnote">The <em>poskim</em> are divided regarding whether or not it is permitted to stand on a utensil, bench, or anything similar, less than three <em>tefachim</em> high. The <em>Bach</em> and <em>Taz</em> say it is allowed, while <em>Mahari Abuhav</em><em>Eliyah Rabbah</em>, and others maintain that it is prohibited. See the <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 90:2 and <em>Kaf HaChaim</em> 3. According to all <em>poskim</em>, when there is a feeling of fear and instability one may not pray. If he is on cushions and pillows most <em>poskim</em> say it is prohibited because it looks like haughtiness, as brought by the <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 614:9 and <em>Kaf HaChaim</em> 21, and even the <em>Bach</em> agrees with this. When the ground is not level, there is no prohibition against praying on any spot lower than three <em>tefachim</em> as long as there is no feeling of instability. <em>B’dieved</em>, even one who prays on a high place (more than three <em>tefachim</em>) fulfills his obligation, as explained by the <em>Pri Megadim</em><em>Mishbetzot Zahav</em> 90:1, based on the <em>Rambam</em>. According to this, it is clear why the law permits the <em>chazan</em> to stand on a chair and make his voice heard when necessary (<em>Shulchan Aruch</em> 90:1).</i>
  A sick or elderly person who has trouble getting out of bed may pray in bed, even though it is elevated from the ground.
  If the high place stands on its own – for instance, it is wider than four amot by four amot (approximately two meters by two meters or 6.56 ft x 6.56 ft) – one is permitted to pray on it, because it is not measured in relation to other places, rather it is considered its own domain. Therefore, when a synagogue has two levels, if the higher floor is at least four amot by four amot, it is permissible to pray on it.
  Even an area which is smaller than four amot is considered to be its own domain if it is surrounded by partitions, and it is permissible to pray on it. This is the law regarding congregations in which it is customary to build a bimah (pulpit) in the center of the synagogue on which the chazan stands. If the bimah is surrounded by partitions, or is larger than four amot by four amot, then it is permissible to pray on it, since we do not measure its height in relation to other parts of the synagogue. However, someone who prays there does not fulfill the enhancement of the mitzvah in the verse, “From the depths I called You, Hashem.” Even so, these congregations prefer to build a bimah for the chazan and forsake the enhancement of “descending before the ark” so that the congregation can hear the chazan’s voice clearly.5<i class="footnote">em&gt;Kaf HaChaim 90:14 writes that according to the <em>Rambam</em>, the <em>bimah</em> must be surrounded by four partitions, and according to<em> Ben Ish Chai</em><em> Yitro</em> 3, three are sufficient. The <em>Aruch HaShulchan</em> 90:3 writes that even if it is only surrounded by partitions on two sides, it is permissible to pray there, for it looks like a place of its own.</i>
  
  Section 5
  
  The Place of Prayer / One Should Enter Two “Doorways”
  The Chachamim teach, “A person should always enter through two doorways in the synagogue… and then pray” (Berachot 8a). There are three interpretations of this statement and all were accepted as halachah (Shulchan Aruch 90:20).
  The first explanation of Chazal’s words is that one must enter inside the synagogue at least a distance equal to the width of two small doorways (approximately 64 cm or 25.2 in), since one who prays next to the entrance makes it seem that prayer is a burden to him and that he is standing there in order to leave immediately (Rashi). However, if a person’s permanent seat is near the entrance, he is permitted to pray there, for everyone knows that that is his spot and he is not standing there in order to exit quickly (Talmidei Rabbeinu Yonah).
  Based on this, it is clear that l’chatchilah one should not pray in the entrance hall of the synagogue, for if Chazal say not to pray inside the synagogue near the entrance, all the more so, one should not pray in the hallway adjacent to it.
  The second explanation is that one should not sit close to the entrance, so as not to look outside and be distracted from ones prayers (Maharam of Rotenberg). Accordingly, it is also not proper to sit next to a window facing outside.
  The third explanation is that the person coming to pray must pause a few seconds, equivalent to the amount of time it takes to enter two doorways, before beginning to pray, in order to devote his thoughts to prayer (brought by the Rosh).
  Additionally, Chazal’s words here allude to two spiritual doorways through which a person must pass before he starts praying. In the first doorway, he must rid his mind of worldly matters troubling him, and in the second doorway, he must direct his kavanah to serving Hashem (see Maharal Netiv HaAvodah, chapter 5).
  
  Section 6
  
  The Place of Prayer / Nothing Should Separate a Person from the Wall While Praying
  Ideally there should be nothing standing between a person praying the Amidah and the wall, so that nothing distracts him from praying. Permanent furniture standing against the wall, such as a cupboard, is not considered to be a partition, and l’chatchilah, one may pray next to it (Shulchan Aruch 90:21; Mishnah Berurah 63:65).
  Pieces of furniture which were made for praying purposes, like tables and shtenders (lecterns), are not considered partitions (Mishnah Berurah 90:66).6<i class="footnote">The <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 90:64 writes that even if the object separating the person from the wall is at a distance of four <em>amot</em> from him, it is still considered a partition. However, according to the <em>Pri Megadim</em> and the <em>Magen Giborim</em>, it is not. The <em>Rama</em> 90:20 holds that only something higher than ten <em>tefachim</em> (80 cm; approx. 31.5 in) and wider than four <em>tefachim</em> (30 cm; approx. 11.81 in) can be considered a partition. The <em>Kaf HaChaim</em> writes in the opinion of the <em>Shulchan Aruch</em> that even something smaller than that is a partition. The <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 68 cites the opinions of the <em>Pri Chadash</em> and <em>Ma’amar Mordechai</em> who also disagree with the <em>Rama</em>.Regarding what the Taz writes, that all furniture connected to prayer are not considered partitions, the Or L’Tzion, part 2, 7:10, writes that this is true only when they are being used for prayer. However, if a person is not using the shtender in front of him, it is indeed considered a partition. Nevertheless, it is customary not to rule this way since shtenders are made to be used in prayer and they are considered permanent furniture, as written in the Mishnah Berurah 90:68.</i>
  There are those who say that people can also be considered partitions. However, this opinion is nothing more than an enhancement of the mitzvah, for it is impossible for all the congregants in the synagogue to pray facing a wall (see Mishnah Berurah 90:69). Rav Avraham Yitzhak HaCohen Kook, interpreted this ruling as not to pray behind a person who is not engaged in prayer; however, praying behind one who is engaged in prayer is permitted l’chatchilah (Tov Ra’ayah Berachot 5b).
  It is not proper to pray in front of artwork lest it be a distraction (Shulchan Aruch 90:23). Therefore, the synagogue wall across from which people pray should not be decorated with artwork. However, if the artwork is above eye level it is permitted, for then there is no concern that people will be distracted by it while praying (Magen Avraham 90:37; Mishnah Berurah 71).
  It is permissible to decorate the parochet (curtain) and the aron kodesh in the accepted manner, for people are accustomed to the decorations on them and the artwork does not distract them from praying.
  It is forbidden to pray in front of a mirror, so as not to appear as one who is bowing down to his own image. Therefore, even if a person were to close his eyes, it is still forbidden to pray in front of a mirror (Mishnah Berurah 71). L’chatchilah, one should not pray at night in front of a window in which his image is reflected, since looking at his image will likely disturb his kavanah. However, if he were to close his eyes or look into the siddur, he would be permitted to pray there. Since the window does not reflect his image clearly, he does not appear to be bowing down to his reflection. In any case, it is good to install curtains over the windows facing the people praying, in order to cover the windows before the Ma’ariv service.7<i class="footnote">The source for not praying in front of a mirror so as not to appear as bowing down to his own image is in the <em>Radbaz</em> 106. Many <em>Acharonim</em> cite it, including the <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 90:71 and <em>Kaf HaChaim</em> 138. However, <em>Maharsham</em> in <em>Da’at Torah</em> 90:23 is uncertain regarding this prohibition because when praying in front of a mirror, one’s reflection is also bowing down to him, and therefore he is lenient in extenuating circumstances. As for a window in which the reflection of a person’s image is not clear, even according to the <em>Radbaz</em>, there is no prohibition. So writes <em>Or L’Tzion</em>, part 2, 7:11 and this is what we practice as well. See <em>Yalkut Yosef</em>, part 2, pp. 227-229.</i>
  
  Section 7
  
  The Place of Prayer / One May Not Pray Near His Primary Rabbi
  A person may not recite the Amidah prayer too close to his primary rabbi, for if he prays alongside him, he presents himself as his rabbi’s equal. An even greater prohibition exists against praying in front of one’s rabbi, so as not to appear arrogant (yohara). Nor may one pray behind his rabbi, for should the rabbi finish praying before he does, the rabbi will feel uncomfortable when he cannot take three steps backwards. Furthermore, the student may appear as though he is bowing down to his rabbi (Shulchan Aruch 90:24; Mishnah Berurah 74).
  Who is considered a person’s primary rabbi? The one who teaches him most of his wisdom.8<i class="footnote">is primary rabbi is the person from whom he gained most of his wisdom. The <em>Rambam</em> implies that this means most of his Torah learning. <em>Maharik</em> 169, explains that the person who showed him the path of truth and integrity and taught him how to decide halachic issues is considered his primary rabbi. The <em>Shach</em>,<em> Yoreh De’ah</em> 242:12, based on the <em>Rivash</em> and the <em>Shulchan Aruch</em>, explains that a person can have a number of primary rabbis in different areas of Torah, such as <em>Tanach</em>, <em>Gemara</em>, and <em>Agadah</em>. Similarly, the <em>Aruch HaShulchan</em> 242:19 writes that a person can have a few primary rabbis, one that taught him his comprehensive knowledge, and another, his sharpness, and a third, how to bring matters to a proper halachic conclusion.The responsa of <em>Divrei Malkiel</em> 2:74 clarifies that the entire distinction between a primary rabbi from whom one gained most of his knowledge and a non-primary rabbi only applies when he is not learning from him, but during the time period that a person is learning from a certain rabbi, that teacher has the status of his primary rabbi. According to this, the <em>rosh</em><em>yeshivah</em> and the <em>ram</em> who teaches him are thought of as his primary rabbis (see the <em>Rama</em><em> Yoreh De’ah </em>242:6). Consequently, the <em>Aruch HaShulchan</em><em>Yoreh De’ah</em> 242:29, writes that a primary rabbi who has been appointed the <em>mara d’atra</em>, the local rabbi to teach and to judge, is considered by the people of that place to be the primary rabbi.</i> The same ruling applies in relation to a prominent Torah leader of the generation.
  If the student distances himself by four amot (approximately two meters or 6.56 ft), it is permissible. However, if he prays behind his rabbi, he must distance himself four amot and another three steps (approximately 60 cm or 23.62 in), so that even if he were to extend his prayer, his rabbi would be able to take three steps backwards.
  There are those who say that all these rulings refer to a situation in which the rabbi and his student are praying individually, or in a congregation where the student is the one who chooses to pray next to his rabbi. But if the gabba’im seat the student near his rabbi, or if that is the only vacant seat left in the synagogue, he is allowed to pray there, and there is no question of arrogance on the part of the student. In extenuating circumstances, one may rely on this opinion, but l’chatchilah, a person should try not to establish his seat close to his rabbi.9<i class="footnote">he <em>Rama</em> 90:24 mentions the opinion of the <em>Sefer HaMeorot</em> and <em>Ohel Mo’ed</em> who say that when his permanent seat is near his rabbi, it is permissible. In practice, the <em>Rama</em> writes that it is good to be stringent and not to pray behind one’s rabbi, in order not to cause him grief. However, the custom is to be lenient, as written in the <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 77. The <em>Bei’ur Halachah</em> cites the <em>Eliyah Rabbah</em> based on the <em>Levush</em>, that in practice it is correct to be stringent. The <em>Beit Yosef</em> writes that the stringent opinion should be taken under consideration with regard to prayer in a congregation (where there are permanent seats) and he therefore does not mention the lenient opinion in the <em>Shulchan Aruch</em>. This is also what the <em>Kaf HaChaim</em> 143 writes.If his rabbi is behind him, the <em>Beit Yosef</em><em> Orach Chaim</em> 90:24, writes that one must be stringent even farther away than four <em>amot</em>, since even then this can be expressed as arrogance (<em>yohara</em>) towards his rabbi. The <em>Shulchan Aruch</em> in<em> Orach Chaim</em> does not mention this, but in <em>Yoreh De’ah</em> 242:16, states explicitly that even when his rabbi is behind him, four <em>amot</em> are sufficient. That seems to be the opinion of the <em>Rama</em> as well who refers to <em>Yoreh De’ah</em>. Therefore, in practice, the <em>Shulchan Aruch</em> retracted what he wrote in the <em>Beit Yosef</em>. However, the <em>Kaf HaChaim</em> 144 writes that one should be stringent when he can.Additionally, the ruling regarding one’s father is like the law concerning one’s primary rabbi, as brought by the <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 73, in the name of the <em>Chayei Adam</em>. However, fathers are usually happy that their children pray next to them. Therefore, anyone who knows that his father wants him to sit next to him is permitted to sit there and fulfills a mitzvah by doing so, for when a father relinquishes his honor, his honor is relinquished. But one may not pray behind his father or in front of him, unless his father explicitly tells him he may pray there.</i>
  
  Section 8
  
  The Place of Prayer / A Proper Place to Pray
  One should pray in a room with windows, and l’chatchilah it is good that a window facing Jerusalem be open (Shulchan Aruch 90:4). When someone is in a place with no windows, he should pray in a well-lit place, since some explain that the reason for praying in a room with windows is that the light settles the thoughts of the person praying (Talmidei Rabbeinu Yonah).
  In a synagogue, there are those who enhance the mitzvah by building twelve windows (Shulchan Aruch 90:4). The windows should be high, so that it is possible to see the sky and not see things that may distract people from the prayer service.
  A person should not recite the Amidah in open areas, and one who prays in an open place is called insolent (Berachot 34b). The reason for this is that in an open area one’s thoughts scatter, and in a closed and modest place the King’s awe is upon him, and his heart is humbled (Shulchan Aruch 90:5). Furthermore, in an open space, people may pass by him and disturb his concentration.
  Those who are traveling are allowed to pray along their way, and if there are trees there, it is better to pray between them (Mishnah Berurah 90:11). Similarly, it is preferable to pray next to a wall and not in a completely open area (Eshel Avraham Butshatsh 90:5). It is even better to pray in a courtyard surrounded by walls, since the main principle is to have a nearby partition, even without a ceiling (Mishnah Berurah 90:12).
  One may pray in the plaza of the Kotel (the Western Wall) because it is surrounded by walls on three sides. Moreover, the exalted holiness of the site strengthens one’s love and awe of Hashem causing one’s prayer to be said with more kavanah. Yitzchak Avinu practiced this way as well. He recited Minchah on Mount Moriah, the gateway of prayer, which was then an open field, as it says, “Yitzchak went out to meditate in the field” (Genesis 24:63; Berachot 26b).
  When it is not possible to pray in a synagogue, for instance, when it is occupied by a different minyan, it is permitted to pray behind the synagogue, on condition that one faces the direction of the synagogue and Jerusalem. It is also permitted to pray alongside the synagogue when facing Jerusalem. However, it is forbidden to pray in front of the synagogue because if he faces the direction of Jerusalem, his back will be disrespectfully turned towards the synagogue, and if he faces the synagogue, his back will be turned to Jerusalem (Shulchan Aruch 90:7).
  
  Section 9
  
  The Place of Prayer / Areas Free from Excrement and Foul Odors
  It is forbidden to say or think matters of sanctity in a place that contains feces or other foul smells, as it is written (Deuteronomy 23:14-15), “You will return and cover your excrement. This is because God your Lord walks among you in your camp…Your camp must therefore be holy.” This law consists of many details, and we will learn a few of them.
  Anything within four amot (approximately two meters or 6.56 ft) of a person is considered to be within the confines of his camp. Hence, if there is excrement in his four amot, his camp is not holy and he is forbidden to pray there. If the excrement is in front of him, as long as he sees it, he is not allowed to pray. If the smell spreads, he must distance himself by four amot from where the smell ends.10<i class="footnote">When the odor spreads to another domain, or when the excrement is covered (for example, feces in a diaper), it is forbidden to recite matters of sanctity in any place that it can be smelled. The <em>poskim</em> disagree as to whether or not one must move four <em>amot</em> away from the place that the smell dissipated. The <em>Rashba</em> says that it is not necessary to move four <em>amot</em> away because it is considered a foul odor that does not have substance, but according to the <em>Roke’ach</em>, it is a bad smell that does have substance. The <em>Acharonim</em> also differ on this matter. (The <em>Yalkut Yosef</em>, part 1, p. 130, note 16 writes that one may be lenient, for that is the opinion of most <em>Acharonim.</em>) Additionally, see the <em>Mishnah Berurah</em>’s introduction to section 79, the seventh law, as well as <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 79:17, 76:3, and <em>Kaf HaChaim</em> 79:1, where it is implied that <em>l’chatchilah</em> one should be stringent.</i> Even one whose sense of smell is impaired is required to distance himself like others who smell the odor (Shulchan Aruch 79:1).
  The above law regarding human excrement applies to anything rancid whose stench causes people to be revolted. Therefore, one must distance himself from a carcass and from malodorous animal excrement, just as he must distance himself from human feces (Mishnah Berurah 79:23). Foul-smelling vomit follows the same law as excrement. But if the vomit does not smell bad, there are those who are lenient and do not consider it like feces (see Mishnah Berurah 76:20 and Ishei Yisrael 51:12).
  If a person recited Shema or the Amidah within four amot of feces, he did not fulfill his obligation and the Shema or the Amidah must be repeated. Even if he was unaware that there was excrement there, but there was a fair chance that the place would contain excrement, and he neglected to check its cleanliness before beginning to pray, he did not fulfill his obligation. However, if the place was unlikely to contain excrement, b’dieved he fulfilled his obligation (Shulchan Aruch 76:8; Mishnah Berurah 31).
  The poskim are divided regarding a person who recited the berachot of Keriat Shema and other berachot within four amot of excrement. Some say that because he transgressed a biblical prohibition, he did not fulfill his obligation and he must go back and recite the berachot again (Mishnah Berurah 185:7; Bei’ur Halachah there). Others maintain that it is only necessary to be stringent concerning the recital of Shema and the Amidah, but concerning other berachot, b’dieved he fulfilled his obligation (Chayei Adam 3:33; Kitzur Shulchan Aruch 5:10; Kaf HaChaim 76:37, 185:14). Since it is a matter of dispute, one may not go back and repeat the berachah.
  
  Section 10
  
  The Place of Prayer / Additional Laws
  A person is permitted to pray facing the bathroom, as long as the door is closed and no foul odor reaches him. However, if the door is open, he is prohibited from praying there (Mishnah Berurah 83:5).
  Feces of young infants do not emit a stench and therefore the law regarding them is unlike that of excrement. When a child reaches the age that he can eat a kezayit (an olive’s volume of food) produced from grain in the amount of time it takes to eat half a loaf of bread (approximately 6-7 minutes), it is necessary to distance oneself from his excrement, just as one is obligated to do regarding an adult’s feces (Shulchan Aruch 81:1). There are those who write that this starts at one year of age. All this pertains to extenuating circumstances; l’chatchilah it is good to distance oneself from the excrement of a baby of any age, even one who is eight days old (Mishnah Berurah 81:3; Kaf HaChaim 1:6).
  When praying near a baby at least one year old who defecates in his diaper, it is proper to initially verify that no foul odor is present. As long as no foul odor exists, it is permissible to pray next to him, for even if he did defecate, since he is covered in a diaper and clothing, and no scent reaches the person reciting matters of sanctity, there is no prohibition to pray there (see Halichot Shlomo, Tefillah 20:4-5). If a bad smell did reach the one praying and despite this he continued to pray, he must go back and repeat his prayer.
  At times, a sewer near the synagogue emits a bad smell which may reach the synagogue, in which case it is prohibited to pray inside. Occasionally, closing the windows that face the sewer helps, but when the foul odor lingers, spraying air freshener can be used to eliminate it. In the past, people would offset the smell by burning a garment (Kaf HaChaim 79:20).
  The laws concerning distancing oneself from different odors depend on the accepted local norms. In the past, sewage, including feces and urine, would flow down the sides of the streets and the air in the densely populated cities was full of foul odors. Even so, prayers would be recited in the synagogues and in the houses near the sewage canals. Because everyone was accustomed to them, those routine smells were not considered foul. Only on summer days, or when the sewage canals were blocked, would the foul odor intensify and people would not pray where it existed (see Mishnah Berurah 79:5). However, nowadays, sewage is drained, the air is purer, and we are more sensitive to bad smells, hence, wherever we sense a foul odor by today’s standards, it is forbidden to pray.
  In rural areas with barns, the smell that wafts from the barns to the houses and the synagogue is not offensive to those who live there. However, in the city, this odor may be considered foul, and it would be prohibited to pray as long as it persists. Those who are guests in communities like these should follow the custom of the place.
  People who pray outside must be careful not to pray in close proximity to garbage bins that smell. Even when the garbage cans do not emit a foul odor, it is proper not to pray within four amot of them or when they are directly in front of the person.
  
  Section 11
  
  The Place of Prayer / The Prohibition of Reciting Matters of Sanctity in Front of “Ervah”
  It is prohibited to recite matters of sanctity in front of ervah (nakedness), as it says (Deuteronomy 23:15), “Your camp must be holy. Let Him not see any ervah among you and turn away from you.” Regarding a man who sees another man, or a woman who sees another woman, it is prohibited to recite matters of sanctity only in front of the specific organs of ervah itself (the private organs). However, concerning a man who sees a woman, the Chachamim teach (Berachot 24b), “A tefach of a woman is considered ervah.” What they meant is that it is forbidden to reveal any part of a woman’s body which is normally covered, and that if a part is exposed, one is prohibited from reciting matters of sanctity in front of it. (The specifications of this law are explained in Shulchan Aruch, Orach Chaim section 75 and in Penieni Halachah, Likutim Mishpachah 6:3-6).
  Although we must educate girls to dress modestly starting from a young age, the prohibition against reciting matters of sanctity in front of a tefach that is normally covered begins from the time the girl starts to mature.
  Likewise, regarding the hair on one’s head, the Chachamim teach (Berachot 24a), “A woman’s hair is ervah.” This refers to a married woman, for if her hair is not covered, one may not recite matters of sanctity before her. (The specifications concerning the laws of hair covering are clarified in Peninei Halachah, Likutim Mishpachah 6:14-15.)
  Regarding one who must pray, recite berachot, or learn Torah, and there is a woman facing him who is revealing a tefach of areas that are normally covered, l’chatchilah, he should turn away so that he cannot see her. If he cannot turn away, he must look into his siddur, or close his eyes, and only then say the matters of sanctity (Shulchan Aruch 75:6; Mishnah Berurah, paragraphs 1 and 29).
  Concerning hair covering, some Acharonim write that since, unfortunately, many married woman do not cover their hair, uncovered hair does not arouse impure thoughts, and b’dieved one may recite matters of sanctity in front of it. This only pertains to hair, regarding which the rule is more lenient than other normally covered parts, as single women are not obligated to cover their hair. However, concerning the normally covered parts of the body, as we have learned, one may not be lenient. Only in extenuating circumstances may one close his eyes or look in a siddur without looking at the exposed part (Aruch HaShulchan 75:7; Ben Ish Chai, Bo 12; Igrot Moshe, part 1, 44; see Peninei Halachah, Likutim Mishpachah 6:16).
  Similarly, one may not recite matters of sanctity near a woman who is singing (Shulchan Aruch 75:3). However, according to some Acharonim, b’dieved, hearing a female singer on the radio does not prohibit reciting matters of sanctity (see Peninei Halachah ibid., 6:11).
  
  
  
  
  
  Section 1
  
  The Chazan and the Mourner’s Kaddish / An Appropriate Prayer Leader
  The chazan leads the prayer service. Sometimes, the whole congregation says the prayers together with him while he sets the pace; other times, he recites the prayers and the congregation responds Amen, such as in Chazarat HaShatz (repetition of the Amidah) and the recital of the Kaddish prayers. Hence, the chazan must be an upright, highly regarded, humble, amiable person, who has a pleasant voice and is accustomed to reading the Torah, Nevi’im (Prophets) and Ketuvim (Sacred Writings) (Ta’anit 16a; Shulchan Aruch 53:4).
  We must be especially meticulous about this on the High Holy Days, and on fast days, when we pray to Hashem and beg Him to forgive us for our sins, save us from our troubles, and bring our redemption closer. For if there is fault in the chazan, the congregation’s prayer will not ascend properly (Rama 581:1).
  During Chazal’s time, it was forbidden to write siddurim because only the written Torah (Torah Shebichtav) was permitted to be written down. Anything that was transmitted by word of mouth, including the prayers and blessings instituted by the Chachamim, was forbidden to be put into writing (Temurah 14b). At that time the chazan’s task was very important because all the prayers had to be recited aloud in order to fulfill the obligations of the congregation. Therefore, the congregation designated one chazan for this honorable task, and all the laws that apply to appointing the chazan on fast days also pertained to the regular chazan. L’chatchilah, each and every person in the congregation would have to agree to the chazan‘s appointment, since he fulfilled everyone’s obligation. However, today, when everyone has a siddur, the chazan‘s job is less important and selecting a permanent chazan for the whole year is no longer customary. Instead, every day a different person can lead the prayer service; therefore we are less meticulous in choosing a chazan (Shulchan Aruch 53:19; Mishnah Berurah 53:53).
  Even so, when appointing chazanim, the gabba’im (synagogue coordinators) must try to choose decent people who abide by the Torah and observe the mitzvot. They should be people whom the congregation agrees to have as its prayer leaders, for the chazanim are the ones who repeat the Amidah and recite the Kaddish prayers on its behalf (see Kaf HaChaim 53:86). Additionally, on Shabbat and festivals, when it is customary that the chazanim sing and chant part of the prayer service, the chazanim should be musically gifted with pleasant voices.
  
  Section 2
  
  The Chazan and the Mourner’s Kaddish / Chazanut for the Sake of Heaven
  While singing, the chazanim must have kavanah for the sake of Heaven, but if they prolong their chazanut (cantillation) and their only intention is to show off their beautiful voices, the Torah writes about them, “It raises its voice against Me, therefore I have hated it” (Jeremiah 12:8). They are using the holy prayer service to arrogantly boast as if on a stage. Even a person whose only intent is for the sake of Heaven should not excessively extend his cantillation so as not to burden the congregation (Rashba; Shulchan Aruch 53:11).
  While chanting the prayers, the chazanim are prohibited from repeating any words of the berachot and Kaddish, because doing so changes the nusach that the Chachamim established. If the repetition of the words alters the meaning of the berachah, those words are considered to be an interruption (hefsek) and the chazan must recite the berachah again from the beginning. However, if the meaning does not change, b’dieved he does not need to recite the berachah again, because he did not interrupt its recital with another matter (see Igrot Moshe, Orach Chaim, part 2, 22; Yabia Omer, part 6, 7).
  One must be strict not to appoint a singer who is accustomed to singing indecent songs to be a regular chazan, or a chazan for the High Holy Days (Rama 53:25).
  The poskim disagree whether or not it is permitted to use melodies of offensive songs for prayers and liturgy. In practice, when the congregation is not familiar with the vulgar song’s lyrics, it is customary to be lenient and adjust the melody to suit the prayer. But if the congregation recognizes the song, its tune may not be used for prayer, because when people sing it, they will be reminded of the crude theme of the song and their concentration is likely to be disrupted.1<i class="footnote">em&gt;Yabia Omer, part 6, <em>Orach Chaim</em> 7, summarizes that according to the <em>Ma’aseh Roke’ach</em> and <em>Rabbi Chaim Palaggi</em> , it is forbidden to use non-Jewish tunes for prayer. By contrast, <em>Maharam Lunzanu</em> and the <em>Birkei Yosef </em>(section 570) permit it, and this was done by many great Jewish leaders. That is also what the <em>Yabia Omer</em> rules in practice. Still, the <em>Tzitz Eliezer</em> 13, 12 is stringent in this matter. Regarding melodies that were composed for the sake of idol worship, most <em>poskim</em> rule stringently (<em>Sefer Chassidim</em> 238; <em>Bach</em>, old responsa 127). However, the responsa of <em>Krach shel Romi</em> is lenient and relays that there were prominent leaders who listened to Christian melodies and employed them even for the High Holy Days’ prayers, but as mentioned, most <em>poskim</em> are stringent against this. See <em>Tzitz Eliezer</em> there, who emerges strongly against his words. In summary, most <em>poskim</em> are of the opinion that if the secular vulgar songs are not familiar to the congregation, there is no prohibition against using their melodies. However, melodies of decent secular songs, although recognized, are permissible to use.</i>
  
  Section 3
  
  The Chazan and the Mourner’s Kaddish / Appointing a Chazan
  The chazan is the emissary of the congregation, and therefore a person is prohibited from taking hold of the chazanut unless he is asked to do so by the congregation or by the gabbai as its representative. Hence, one may not respond Amen to a person who appointed himself to be chazan against the congregation’s wishes (Rama 53:22).
  When the gabbai asks someone in the congregation to lead the prayer service, it is polite to initially decline, so as not to appear as one who desires to flaunt his voice. However, when the gabbai insists, he should prepare himself to ascend, but wait to see if there is another person more appropriate than he. If he is asked a third time, he should comply and begin to pray. However, if an important person asks him to ascend, he should accept immediately, for it is not proper to refuse a distinguished individual (Shulchan Aruch 53:16). Additionally, when the gabbai asks a person who declined in the previous prayer service to ascend, he should consider it a second request and ready himself to stand, but wait to see that there is no one more appropriate. If asked again, he should concur immediately.
  If a person is able to lead the prayer service but declines more than the Chachamim instructed, he offends the respect due to the prayer and to Heaven (kevod Shamayim). Likewise, a person whom Hashem endowed with a talent for singing and a pleasant voice should not decline on Shabbat and festivals since the prayers on those days are rich with song and melody. If he refuses to pray out of stubbornness or laziness, and does not praise Hashem with his voice, it would have been better for him not to have come into this world (Sefer Chassidim 768). The Chachamim said about Navot the Israelite, who had an exceptionally pleasant voice, that he would ascend to the Temple in Jerusalem for the three pilgrimage festivals (shalosh regalim) and all of Israel would gather to hear him. The one time he stayed home to guard his vineyard, he was punished – lawless people testified that he rebelled against the king and he was put to death (Pesikta Rabbati 25).
  
  Section 4
  
  The Chazan and the Mourner’s Kaddish / Indecent Attire and the Importance of a Beard
  The Chachamim say (Megillah 24a) that a poche’ach, a person whose clothes do not cover his body in a respectable manner, may not read from the Torah nor lead the prayer service. Therefore, a person wearing a sleeveless shirt or shorts may not be appointed chazan.
  If his sleeves are very short and do not reach near his elbow, he should cover his arms until his elbow with his tallit. However, one whose short sleeves almost reach his elbow may serve as chazan.2<i class="footnote"><em>Rashi</em> interprets “<em>poche’ach</em>” as one whose thighs are showing. It is from here we learn that one’s legs must be covered at least until the knee. I do not distinguish here between above the knee and below it, because today most people do not usually stand in front of important individuals with knee-length pants, and therefore the <em>chazan</em> is prohibited from wearing such pants. However, in <em>kibbutzim</em> or youth organizations, where the people regularly wear shorts even when they approach respected people, it is permissible for the <em>chazan</em> to wear pants that only reach the knee.Concerning the upper limbs: The Rif, Rambam, and Tur maintain that a poche’ach is one whose shoulders are exposed. Therefore, if one wears a shirt with very short sleeves yet his shoulders are covered, he may be appointed chazan. That is how the Mishnah Berurah 53:39 rules. However, the Shulchan Aruch 53:13 rules based on the Itur, and so rules the Bach, that even if one’s arms are showing, he is considered a poche’ach. According to this, the chazan must be wearing sleeves that reach his elbow. However, it seems that even according to the Shulchan Aruch it is not necessary to measure exactly, but near the elbow is also considered until the elbow itself. There are those who are stringent that the chazan must wear long sleeves because it is accepted and modest to go before prominent people in that manner (Yaskil Avdi, part 7, p. 329). Nevertheless, since the Rif, Rambam, and most poskim are completely lenient regarding arms, one may be lenient and permit sleeves that reach close to the elbow. Those who seek to glorify the mitzvah cover their entire arm with a long sleeve. My rabbi and teacher, HaRav Tzvi Yehudah HaKohen Kook, would meticulously insist that the chazanim wore long sleeves.</i>
  Likewise, the Chachamim state that a person whose beard is not yet full may not be appointed a regular chazan, since it is disrespectful towards the congregation and the prayer service to select someone who has not yet completely matured. However, on a temporary basis, even an adolescent whose beard has not yet started to grow may lead the prayer service.
  An eighteen year-old whose beard has started to grow slightly may be appointed a regular chazan. Similarly, appointing a twenty year-old whose beard has not yet sprouted is permissible, since it is clear to all that he is an adult and there is no disgrace to the congregation or to the prayer service (Shulchan Aruch 53:6-8).
  Based on this, some Acharonim write (Pri Megadim; Bei’ur Halachah) that a young boy who has lost one of his parents may not be a regular chazan for Shacharit and Minchah, rather he should suffice with saying Kaddish. But for Ma’ariv, in which there is no Chazarat HaShatz, even one whose beard has not yet grown in completely may lead the prayer service regularly.3<i class="footnote">In <em>Chullin</em> 24b it is written, “Once a person’s beard has filled in he is fit to become an emissary of the community and descend before the ark.” The <em>Tosafot</em> ask: but didn’t we learn in <em>Megillah</em> 24a that even a 13-year-old boy may descend before the ark? They answer that he may be a <em>chazan</em> temporarily, but not on a regular basis, nor for fast days. That is also the opinion of most of the <em>Rishonim</em>. However, the <em>Ramban</em> and the <em>Ran</em> maintain that one whose beard has not yet filled in may not serve as <em>chazan</em> even temporarily, and only if no one else there can lead, a 13-year-old may be appointed. Additionally, although one who shaves is considered someone whose beard has filled in, my rabbi and teacher, Rav Tzvi Yehudah Kook, was accustomed to enhance the mitzvah by only appointing a fully bearded person to be <em>chazan</em>. (Perhaps in doing so he also intended to encourage the yeshiva boys to grow beards of their own).Concerning a young boy who is mourning the death of one of his parents, the Pri Megadim and Bei’ur Halachah 53:6 s.v. “Yuchal,” write that he may not be a regular chazan. Shut Shivat Tzion 18 writes that where he lived the minhag was not to be strict about this. Instead they let the mourning youths lead the services throughout the whole year, since the congregation relinquishes its honor. However, it should be noted that only according to the Rambam a congregation can relinquish its honor, but according to the Rosh, a congregation does not have the authority to do so (because there is also the matter of the respect of Heaven, kevod Shamayim). Furthermore, the Acharonim discuss the case of a yeshiva of young adults. Beit Baruch 29:45 maintains that because all of them are young, they surely relinquish their honor. Again, his words are justified based solely on the opinion of the Rambam. Moreover, if there are 15 and 16-year-olds present, there are almost always some there whose beards have filled in. Since this is a matter of uncertainty, the rabbi of the yeshiva must determine what is best according to the situation at hand.The Magen Avraham, brought by the Mishnah Berurah 53:25, writes that it is not necessary to testify whether or not a 13-year-old has two hairs, for we rely on the presumption (chazakah) that he has. However, the Pri Megadim writes that according to the Rambam, who maintains that prayer is a biblical commandment, testimony is necessary. Nevertheless, it seems that since today the chazan does not fulfill a person’s obligation to pray for him, all poskim agree that testimony is unnecessary.</i>
  
  Section 5
  
  The Chazan and the Mourner’s Kaddish / The Mourner’s Prayer
  A person mourning the death of one of his parents says Kaddish during the first year. Saying Kaddish is of great value to the deceased; it saves him from the judgment of Gehinnom, for since his son, whom he left behind in this world, is sanctifying God by reciting this prayer, his merits increase. One must say Kaddish even for completely righteous parents, as well as for someone who was killed for the sanctification of God’s Name. Concerning righteous parents, though they are already promised life in the next world, their sons’ Kaddish elevates their souls and causes them to be at peace. Certainly, one must recite Kaddish for evil parents since they are in great need of Kaddish which diminishes the judgment of Gehinnom. We even say Kaddish for someone who committed suicide. Although the Chachamim teach that we do not mourn for him and he does not have a share in the next life, the Kaddish that his sons recite for him helps repair his soul slightly.4<i class="footnote">In <em>Masechet Sofrim</em>, chapter 19, it is written that people in mourning say <em>Kaddish</em>. <em>Or Zarua</em>, part 2, end of section 50, brings a story about a dead person who suffered greatly because of the sins he committed while he was alive. Rabbi Akiva saw him and wanted to save him from his suffering. He found out that he had a son who was completely uneducated, so Rabbi Akiva put great effort into teaching him until he could say <em>Kaddish</em> for his father. Afterwards, the dead person appeared to Rabbi Akiva and said to him, “Rabbi, let your mind be at ease in the Garden of Eden just like you put my mind to rest and saved me from the judgment of <em>Gehinnom</em>.” Here we see that the <em>Kaddish</em> indeed helps evil people (<em>Beit Yosef</em>, <em>Yoreh De’ah</em> 376). The <em>Chatam Sofer</em> (<em>Even HaEzer</em>, end of section 69), writes that a person who commits suicide does not have a share in the World to Come, but can be saved from the judgment of <em>Gehinnom</em> through prayer, in the same manner that David prayed for his son Avshalom (See <em>Yabia Omer</em> part 6, <em>Yoreh De’ah </em>36). On a parallel but distinct note, the <em>Maharil</em> (responsa 96) writes that <em>Kaddish</em> is said for righteous people as well.One who needs to say Kaddish but arrives late to pray: if the congregation finished the Shir Shel Yom (Psalm of the Day) while he is still in the middle of saying Pesukei d’Zimrah, he may interrupt to recite Mourner’s Kaddish, if there will not be another chance to say it. However, for Kaddish d’Rabbanan one may not interrupt (Maharshag 1:48; Yabia Omer, part 7, 10).</i>
  If the son knows how to lead the services, he should be the chazan on weekdays, since this benefits the deceased even more. If it is difficult for him, he should try to lead the prayer service from Ashrei after Tachanun until the end of the service. It is especially good for him to be the chazan for Ma’ariv, since at that time the judgments from Gehinnom intensify. This is particularly true on Motza’ei Shabbat, when the souls return to Gehinnom after their respite during Shabbat. It is important to note that according to the Ashkenazic minhag, on Shabbat and festivals, those in mourning say Kaddish but do not lead the services (Rama, Yoreh De’ah 376:4). Even on Rosh Chodesh and Chanukah, it is customary that the mourners do not lead the services.5<i class="footnote">The <em>Bei’ur Halachah</em> section 132 writes that on days that we do not say <em>Lamenatze’ach</em>, mourners do not lead the prayer service (<em>Maharil</em> 22). By contrast, the <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> writes in section 581:7 that on <em>Rosh Chodesh</em> a mourner may lead the <em>Shacharit</em><em>Minchah</em>, and <em>Ma’ariv</em> services, but for <em>Hallel</em> and <em>Musaf</em>, someone else should be the <em>chazan</em>. However, he wrote regarding Chanukah in section 683:1, that a mourner should not lead the <em>Shacharit</em> service. There are those who have the custom that even on Tu B’av, Tu Bishvat, Purim Katan, and Lag BaOmer, mourners do not serve as <em>chazan</em>, but the widespread <em>minhag</em> is what I wrote above.</i>
  This only applies when the son knows how to be the chazan, but if he does not know how to say the words properly, or his voice is unusual, or he excessively shortens or extends his prayer, it is preferable for him not to be the chazan. Rather, he should suffice with saying Kaddish. If he insists on being chazan against the wishes of the congregation, instead of sanctifying God’s Name, he desecrates the Name of Heaven and causes pain to the deceased. In general, mourners must know that despite the importance of serving as the chazan and the recital of Kaddish, the most meaningful and beneficial acts children can do in order to aid the ascent of their dead parents’ souls are to increase their Torah learning, their giving of charity, and their fulfillment of other mitzvot.
  There were certain communities in which, over time, more and more people did not know how to lead the prayer service, and therefore they established that mourners should not lead the services. However, for Ma’ariv, it is proper not to prevent mourners who are capable of being chazanim from leading the prayer service (Mishnah Berurah 53:61).
  
  Section 6
  
  The Chazan and the Mourner’s Kaddish / The Duration of the Kaddish Recital and the Yahrtzeit Day
  According to Ashkenazic custom, a mourner leads the services and says Kaddish for eleven months after a parent’s death. This is because the judgment of evil people in Gehinnom is twelve months, and if a mourner recites Kaddish for the deceased for a full twelve months, it will seem as though he was considered evil (Rama, Yoreh De’ah 376:4). The Sephardic custom is to stop for the first week of the twelfth month and then continue to lead the services and say Kaddish until the anniversary of the death (yahrtzeit) (Birkei Yosef there). Kaddish recited after learning, which is not within the framework of prayer, may be said by the mourners throughout the whole twelfth month (Rav Pe’alim, part 4, Yoreh De’ah 32). However, for one who was known to be an evil person, such as someone who committed suicide or an apostate, Kaddish is recited for the full twelve months (Pitchei Teshuvah, Yoreh De’ah 376:9).
  It is also customary to say Kaddish and lead the prayer service on the day of the yahrtzeit. According to Sephardic custom, one begins to say Kaddish from the Friday prior to the anniversary until the yahrtzeit day. Additionally, one who is well-liked by the congregation should also be chazan (Kaf HaChaim 55:23). Even among Ashkenazim there are those who have the custom of leading the services on the Shabbat before the yahrtzeit and for the Ma’ariv prayer at the close of that Shabbat (Pnei Baruch 39:2). However, they cannot preempt a mourner in his year of mourning or someone who has a yahrtzeit on that specific day (Piskei Teshuvot 132:26). The yahrtzeit is set according to the day the person died and not the day he or she was buried. Even at the end of the first year, the yahrtzeit is established based on the day of the person’s death.6<i class="footnote">Whereas for mourning purposes the day of the burial starts the count of the seven days of <em>shivah</em>, the 30 days (<em>sheloshim</em>), and the 12 months of mourning, the <em>yahrtzeit</em> is always the date on which the person died. There are those who have the custom to commemorate the first <em>yahrtzeit</em> on the burial date. However, the primary <em>minhag</em> is to commemorate it on the date of the person’s death even that first year, as brought by <em>Pnei Baruch</em> 39:35 and <em>Yalkut Yosef</em>, chapter 7, 22:3. In a leap year, according to the <em>Shulchan Aruch</em><em>Orach Chaim</em> 568:7), the <em>yahrtzeit</em> is in Adar II, and according to the <em>Rama</em> it is in Adar I. When a person dies on the first day of <em>Rosh Chodesh </em>Adar II, which is the 30th of Adar I, in a non-leap year, the <em>yahrtzeit</em> falls out on the first day of <em>Rosh Chodesh </em>Adar, which is the 30th of Shevat (<em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 568:42, and see <em>Pnei Baruch</em> 39:36-37). For the remaining <em>halachot</em> regarding the recital of <em>Kaddish</em>, see <em>Pnei Baruch</em> 34 and <em>Yalkut Yosef</em>, part 7, 23.</i>
  
  Section 7
  
  The Chazan and the Mourner’s Kaddish / Order of Precedence
  In the past, it was customary in Ashkenaz that only one person recited Kaddish. When there were several mourners who needed to say Kaddish, it became necessary to establish an order of precedence. However, today most Ashkenazim and all Sephardim follow the custom that everyone who must say Kaddish recites it together. Even if the entire congregation recites Kaddish and there is no one there to answer Amen, that does not invalidate the Kaddish. However, lechatchilah it is preferable that there be at least two people there who can respond Amen (Kaf HaChaim 55:31). When two or more people recite Kaddish, they should try to say it in unison and should therefore stand next to each other. If the synagogue is large and it is difficult for them to gather in one place, each person may recite Kaddish in his place and those around him answer Amen.
  When there are two mourners who know how to lead the prayer service and both are acceptable to the congregation, it is necessary to follow an order of precedence. This is the rule: one who is in the middle of the first seven days of mourning (shivah) takes precedence over one who is in his first thirty days (sheloshim), and someone who is in his first thirty days has priority over one who is in his year of mourning. One who is commemorating a yahrtzeit is equivalent to being in the first thirty days of mourning. If there are two mourners who are equal in status, they should divide the three daily prayers between them. They can even split the Shacharit service in such a way that one recites the main part of the prayer until after Tachanun, and the other leads from Ashrei until the conclusion of the prayer service, and then the following day they switch (Bei’ur Halachah 132, Ma’amar Kaddishin).
  
  Section 8
  
  The Chazan and the Mourner’s Kaddish / Saying Kaddish for a Person Who Does Not Have an Adult Son
  A minor whose mother or father died says Kaddish for his parent though he has not yet reached the age of mitzvot (bar mitzvah).  Mourner’s Kaddish was instituted for that purpose, since a child cannot lead the prayer service in order to facilitate the ascent of his parent’s soul. Therefore, the Chachamim instituted Kaddish (Rama, Yoreh De’ah 376:4). Even if the minor has not yet reached the age of understanding, the Kaddish is read to him; the young orphan repeats the Kaddish word for word, and the congregation answers Amen. (According to the Ari, it is important to be strict and have an adult say the Mourner’s Kaddish with the minor, because that Kaddish is included in the twelve Kaddishim that are necessary to hear every day. See further in this book 23:10.)
  In the case of a man or woman who was not privileged to leave behind a son, a God-fearing grandson may say Kaddish for him or her the whole year. This is possible even if the deceased has a son who is not God-fearing and does not go to synagogue to recite Kaddish. A grandson from a son takes precedence over a grandson from a daughter. If the deceased does not have a grandson yet, but has a son-in-law, the son-in-law should say Kaddish. The grandson and son-in-law are permitted to say Kaddish only when one of their own parents is deceased, or if their parents agree to his reciting Kaddish while they are living. However, someone whose parents are strict that he not say Kaddish while they are both alive may not recite the Kaddish for his grandparent or in-law.
  When the deceased does not have a son, grandson, or son-in-law, the father of the deceased recites the Kaddish. If his father is also dead, the brother or nephew says Kaddish.
  When none of these relatives can say Kaddish for the deceased, part of the inheritance money should be used to hire a God-fearing person to recite Kaddish for him. It is good to hire someone who is engrossed in Torah. If there is someone in the family who is occupied with Torah study, he takes precedence over a stranger. The monetary compensation for the Kaddish is important in order to ensure the fulfillment of its recital. Furthermore, by employing someone who is involved in Torah or a poor person who has children to support, the deceased will acquire more merit.7<i class="footnote">Even when the deceased has a daughter, a man should be hired to say <em>Kaddish.</em> However, throughout the generations, there were places where the daughter would say <em>Kaddish</em>, either in her home or in the room adjacent to the synagogue, if there were no living son. Additionally, there are those who ruled that if the daughter is younger than 12 years of age, she should recite <em>Kaddish</em> in the synagogue. Nevertheless, the accepted <em>minhag</em> (custom) is that women do not say <em>Kaddish</em>. The <em>Chavot Yair</em>, responsa 222 states that we must object to women saying <em>Kaddish</em> so as not to undermine the power of <em>minhagim</em>, as also written in <em>Yalkut Yosef</em>, part 7, 23:11, <em>Pnei Baruch</em> 34:20, and <em>Piskei Teshuvot</em> 132:33.</i>
  If a minor who already reached the age of understanding passes away, his father must say Kaddish for him or her (Pitchei Teshuvah, Yoreh De’ah 376:3). There are those who have the custom to say Kaddish even for a small baby (see Pnei Baruch 34:30).
  One who hires himself out to recite Kaddish may do so for a number of people, on condition that he ends up saying at least one Kaddish a day for each of the deceased (Igrot Moshe, Yoreh De’ah, part 1, 254, and see Pnei Baruch 34:23-28).
  It is proper for an adopted son to say Kaddish for his adoptive parents. All the more so, if the adoptive parent does not have another son, it is a mitzvah for the adopted son to say Kaddish (Yalkut Yosef, part 7, 23:13). It is also good for a righteous convert (ger tzedek) to say Kaddish for his gentile parents (Yalkut Yosef, part 7, 23:14, and Piskei Teshuvot 132:20).
  
  
  
  
  
  Section 1
  
  Preparations for Prayer / Emotional Preparation
  Prayer is intended to elevate and strengthen people. Therefore, knowing that one is about to be uplifted and brought closer to Hashem, a person must approach prayer out of joy and not while in a state of sadness or apathy.
  The Chachamim teach (Berachot 31a; Shulchan Aruch 93:2), “One should not pray out of laughter,” because laughter nullifies one’s awe for God, and a person must pray out of fear and submission. “Nor amidst talk,” because chatter distracts a person from his inner world and prayer is supposed to emerge from the depths of one’s soul. “Nor from lightheadedness and idle words,” because prayer is based on the recognition of one’s ability to do wonders with his speech, and if a person comes to prayer with idle words, he demonstrates that he does not value his speech (see Olat Ra’ayah, part 1, p. 29).
  It is good to give tzedakah before praying (Shulchan Aruch 92:10), for by doing so one approaches prayer pleased and uplifted from the mitzvah he just performed. Furthermore, when we come to pray and request kindness and compassion from Hashem, it is proper that first we ourselves show mercy on the poor. The Ari HaKadosh says that before prayer it is good to reflect upon the mitzvah, “V’ahavta l’re’acha kamocha” (“Love your fellow Jew like yourself,”) for this is a great Torah principle. The prayers are written in the plural because we are praying for the nation as a whole.
  One should not begin to pray when his mind is preoccupied. Even someone who has the privilege to learn Torah before praying should try not to come to prayer immediately after learning a very complex subject of study. His mind is liable to be absorbed in thoughts of the topic that he has been studying, and he will not be able to concentrate properly on his prayer. Instead, before praying, he should learn straightforward matters of halachah, or uplifting essays on emunah (faith). B’dieved, one should not avoid praying in a minyan, even if he is preoccupied with matters of Torah or has other concerns (Shulchan Aruch 93:3; Mishnah Berurah 6).
  The Chachamim instituted the recital of uplifting verses prior to praying the Amidah, so that before the Amidah people would be engrossed in inspiring and elating matters. Before Shacharit and Ma’ariv, we recite the berachah, “Ga’al Yisrael,” and before Minchah we say Ashrei (Shulchan Aruch 93:2).
  The Talmud records that devout people paused to meditate a full hour before praying so that they could properly direct their hearts to their Father in Heaven (Berachot 30b; Shulchan Aruch 93:1; Mishnah Berurah 1).
  
  Section 2
  
  Preparations for Prayer / Washing One’s Hands
  A person who prays must be in a state of purity. It is therefore a mitzvah to wash one’s hands before engaging in prayer. However, a distinction is made between a situation in which a person knows that his hands are unclean, and one in which he does not know if his hands have been dirtied.
  For example, if one knows that his hands are dirty because he relieved himself, or touched normally covered parts of his body which have become soiled from perspiration, he must wash his hands before praying. According to many poskim, he must recite a berachah on this washing even before Minchah and Ma’ariv (Rambam, Rosh, Gra). However, the accepted custom is to recite a berachah solely on the washing before Shacharit, because when a person awakens in the morning, it is as if he is created anew. Regarding washing one’s hands before Minchah and Ma’ariv, even one whose hands are dirty does not recite a berachah (according to the Rashba, see further in this book 8:1).
  In any case, according to all opinions, a person who dirtied his hands is obligated to wash them before he prays. L’chatchilah, he should pour water over his entire hand with a vessel. However, if he does not have a vessel, it is sufficient that he rinse his hands with water from a faucet.1<i class="footnote">According to the <em>Rishonim</em> who maintain that it is necessary to wash one’s hands with a <em>berachah</em> before all prayers, one must use a washing vessel, for the <em>Chachamim</em> instituted the <em>berachah</em> of washing for prayer following the example of washing before a meal (see <em>Rambam</em> <em>Berachot</em> 6:2; <em>Ra’ah</em>, <em>Rabbeinu Yerucham</em>, and <em>Rosh</em> who are brought by the <em>Beit Yosef</em>; see <em>Shulchan Aruch</em> 4:7 as well). In practice we do not recite the “<em>Al netilat yadayim</em>” <em>berachah</em> before <em>Minchah</em> and <em>Ma’ariv</em>, because the rule is that when there is doubt regarding the recital of <em>berachot</em>, we are lenient and do not recite them (<em>safek berachot l’hakel</em>). Nevertheless, it is the opinion of most <em>poskim</em> that it is correct to be stringent and perform all the other requirements connected to washing one’s hands before a meal. Therefore, it is proper for a person whose hands are dirty to wash them with a vessel. Even a person whose hands are not dirty can enhance the mitzvah by washing them with a vessel, for perhaps the <em>Rishonim</em> who maintain that even a person who does not know if his hands are clean or dirty need to wash them, require using a vessel designated for pouring water over the hands. However, those who follow the lenient opinion and wash their hands without a washing cup have on whom to rely, for even concerning the washing before <em>Shacharit</em>, the use of a vessel is only <em>l’chatchilah</em>. All the more so before the other prayers, when one does not recite a <em>berachah</em> on the washing, and even more so when one does not know if his hands are dirty.</i>
  In order to wash his hands before praying, if there is no water close to him, he must trouble himself and walk up to the distance of a mil, which is approximately a kilometer (960 meters or approx. .597 miles). However, if, as he is walking, the designated time for prayer will pass, or he will miss the opportunity to pray with a minyan, he can rub his hands with sand or on his clothing, in order to remove any trace of dirt from them – and then he may pray (Shulchan Aruch 92:4; Mishnah Berurah 92:20).2<i class="footnote">If he is walking on his way and within the four <em>mil</em> ahead of him there is water, he must walk to it and only afterwards pray. The <em>Shulchan Aruch</em> 92:7 writes, “A dirty area is [defined as] the [normally] covered parts of a person’s body, because they contain beads of sweat. For instance, scratching one’s head [is considered touching a dirty place].” This refers to rubbing the roots of one’s hair, but if someone only touches the top of his head, he does not need to wash his hands (<em>Shulchan Aruch HaRav</em>; <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 162:58, 164:10). <em>Kaf HaChaim </em>4, small paragraphs 75 and 98, is lenient even if one scratches the roots of his hairs which are not covered with a hat, because there is no sweat there. <em>Tzitz Eliezer</em>, part 7, 2:14 concludes that if he washed his head and his hair is clean, even a person who scratches the roots of his hairs does not need to wash his hands.Concerning a person who touches other normally covered parts of the body: if his body is washed clean and does not have beads of sweat on it, the Acharonim disagree as to whether or not he must wash his hands. Eshel Avraham Butshatsh 4:21 is stringent, and Yabia Omer, part 5, 1:4-5, cites poskim who are lenient. According to the Minchat Yitzchak, part 3, 26:10, those who wear short sleeves and touch their skin above their elbows need not wash their hands because that part of the body is not one which is normally covered. However he also refers to the Chazon Ish who writes that this place is defined as a normally covered part, and that people who wear short sleeves should not be taken into consideration. Mor U’Ketziah, section 4 writes that for those who wear short sleeves, above one’s elbow is not considered a normally covered part. And that is the custom.The Rama 92:7 maintains that earwax is considered a covered part and one who touches it is obligated to trouble himself to walk up to a mil to wash his hands. The Mishnah Berurah writes that the Gra is lenient concerning this. However, Otzrot HaGra, p. 219 interprets the Gra differently, saying that he is not lenient regarding this. Similarly, one who touches mucous from his nose is surely considered someone who touches a normally covered part and must wash his hands.Concerning learning Torah and reciting berachot: one who touched normally covered parts can b’dieved rub his hands on his clothes and subsequently learn or recite berachot, as clarified by the Shulchan Aruch 4:23 and Mishnah Berurah 4:61.</i>
  Regarding someone who does not know if his hands are dirty, since he doesn’t remember if he touched the parts of his body which are normally covered, the poskim are divided as to whether or not he must wash his hands before prayer. Hence, if there is water available, he should wash his hands. However, if there is no water near him, he does not need to wash his hands and he may rely on the poskim who maintain that it is only necessary to wash one’s hands before prayer if they are unclean. To be certain, one should rub his hands on his clothing (Shulchan Aruch 92:5, 233:2; Mishnah Berurah 92:26; Bei’ur Halachah s.v. “V’im”).
  Concerning one who relieves himself, washes his hands in his house, and afterwards is careful not to touch the parts of his body which are normally covered, and then goes to synagogue, he need not wash his hands again before praying. Similarly, if someone who arrives at synagogue to learn and pray washes his hands before learning, and is careful not to touch the parts of his body that are normally covered, it is not necessary to wash his hands again before praying.
  
  Section 3
  
  Preparations for Prayer / Kippah and Belt
  A person must prepare himself for prayer, feel awe towards God’s majesty and glory, and be happy that he is about to stand before the King of Kings in prayer. This should also be apparent in his dress; one’s clothes should be respectable, fitting for one who stands before the King.
  Men are obligated to cover their heads while praying, while reciting the name of Heaven, and before entering a synagogue (Shulchan Aruch 91:3). However, in practice, based on the custom accepted in Judaism, men are careful to wear a kippah (yarmulke) all day long (Shulchan Aruch 2:6). In any case, the obligation to wear a kippah while praying, when reciting God’s name, and while in a synagogue is greater, for it is rooted in law and not just in custom.3<i class="footnote">A person whose <em>kippah</em> fell off and was blown to a distance farther than four <em>amot</em> may cover his head with his hand while walking to pick it up. However, while praying and reciting <em>berachot</em> it is not enough merely to cover one’s head with one’s hand. Since he is obligated to cover his head, one part of his body cannot be used to cover another part; although his friend’s hand may be used (<em>Shulchan Aruch</em> 91:4; <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 91:10; <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 6:11-12). Concerning the size of one’s <em>kippah</em>: the <em>Igrot Moshe</em><em>Orach Chaim</em>, part 1, 1, writes that one can fulfill his obligation by wearing a <em>kippah</em> that does not cover the majority of his head even when saying Hashem’s Name. By contrast, the <em>Or L’Tzion</em>, part 2, 7:13 and <em>Yabia Omer</em>, part 6, 15:5 write that when praying and mentioning Hashem’s Name, which by law requires a head covering, one must wear a <em>kippah</em> that covers the majority of one’s head. Nonetheless, in practice, one who is lenient has on whom to rely, since it is a rabbinic ruling and regarding rabbinic rulings, the halachah follows the lenient opinion. Furthermore, in <em>Masechet Sofrim</em> 14:15 there is a dispute concerning whether or not one is obligated to cover one’s head when reciting a <em>berachah</em><em>Or Zarua</em>, part 2, 43, writes that the custom of our ancestors in France was to recite <em>berachot</em> bareheaded. Although according to most <em>poskim</em> the halachah is that we are obligated to cover our heads while reciting a <em>berachah</em>, in any case, the lenient opinion is incorporated to strengthen the opinion expressed in<em> Igrot Moshe. </em>Even so, it is good to be stringent out of respect for the prayer service. Moreover, if one wears a larger <em>kippah </em>during the prayer service,<em> </em>this is likely to cause a person to wear it throughout the whole day, thereby sanctifying God’s Name and accepting the responsibility to observe the Torah and <em>mitzvot</em></i>
  Additionally, although there are those who say that single women must also cover their heads while praying and reciting berachot, it is customary for women not to be strict about this.4<i class="footnote">em&gt;Shut Ish Matzliach 1:24-25 obligates women just the same as men in terms of head covering when reciting God’s name. The <em>Yabia Omer</em>, part 6, 15 writes that single women should not be prevented from reciting a <em>berachah</em> bareheaded; however, it is proper for them to cover their heads while praying. As we already learned in the previous note, there are even those who say that there is no obligation for a man to cover his head while praying and mentioning God’s name. Since it is a rabbinic ruling, and it is customary for women to be lenient regarding this matter, they need not change their practice. <em>Tzitz Eliezer</em> 12:13 writes that according to the <em>minhag</em>, women do not need to cover their heads. He cites the explanation given by the <em>Chatam Sofer</em> that since gentile women were accustomed to cover their heads in their houses of worship, there is reason to refrain from practicing as they did. All this may be further studied in <em>Peninei Halachah</em><em>Tefillat Nashim</em>, 10:6, note 6.</i>
  One should wear a belt while praying, for the belt creates a division between one’s upper body, including the head and heart, and one’s ervah (nakedness). In that regard, prayer is superior to other matters of sanctity, for concerning other matters of sanctity it is unnecessary to wear a belt specifically, rather any separation between one’s heart and one’s nakedness is acceptable. Therefore anyone wearing underwear has a divider between his heart and his ervah. However, out of respect for the prayer service, it is a mitzvah to wear a belt, for that is the respectful way to pray, as it is written (Amos 4:12), “Israel, prepare to meet your God.” Nevertheless, someone who normally walks around the whole day without a belt need not put one on before praying.
  It is an extra pious act to always put on a belt for prayer because a belt signifies the separation between the lofty side of a person, comprised of the brain and the heart, and the lowly part of a person, containing his ervah and legs. Most people are deeply involved in their bodily desires, their brains and hearts occupied solely with matters of the moment and materialism. However, the Jewish people, who received the Torah from Heaven, are capable of overcoming their baser inclinations. They can direct their minds and hearts to superior matters, subsequently returning to the world of materialism and action in order to repair it. That is what the belt worn during prayer represents. The Chachamim even instituted a special berachah concerning this in the morning blessings – “Ozer Yisrael bigevurah” (“Who girds Israel with strength”). This explains why Chassidim enhance the mitzvah by wearing a special belt for prayer (a gartle).5<i class="footnote">The <em>Rishonim</em> are divided into three opinions. The <em>Terumah</em><em>Ran</em>, and <em>Hagahot Maymoniyot</em> maintain that no matter what the situation, one must wear a belt while praying. In contrast to them, <em>Rashi</em> holds that one need not wear a belt at all for prayer; rather the important thing is that there be a divider between one’s heart and his <em>ervah</em>. The intermediate opinion is that of <em>Rabbeinu Yerucham</em> who maintains that one who normally wears a belt the whole day must also wear one while praying. So it is written in <em>Shibolei</em><em>Haleket </em>17, in the name of <em>Rav Sa’adyah Gaon</em>, as well as in <em>Magen Avraham</em> 91:1, whom many <em>Acharonim</em> cite as the way to practice. From the <em>Shulchan Aruch</em> 91:2 it can be inferred that he rules according to the stringent opinion, which is how the <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 91:4 is inclined to rule as well. In any case, the <em>minhag</em> is according to those who are lenient, and since it is a rabbinic ruling, the ones who are lenient have the advantage. The <em>Or L’Tzion</em>, part 2, 7:13 explains that in the past when people wore robes without belts, they looked unkempt, but today we wear pants, and therefore it is unnecessary to be stringent regarding this. Hence, it is an extra pious act to be careful to always wear a belt while praying. The <em>Chassidim</em> enhance the mitzvah even more by wearing a special belt for prayer.</i>
  
  Section 4
  
  Preparations for Prayer / The Appropriate Dress for Prayer
  A person who finds himself in a situation in which he has no clothes is obligated to wear at least shorts and an undershirt for prayer (Berachot 25a; Shulchan Aruch 91:1). Although while reciting Shema and berachot it is sufficient, b’dieved, to only cover one’s ervah (Shulchan Aruch 74:6), while praying the Amidah before the King, one must at least cover his ervah and his heart (meaning, his front and back).6<i class="footnote">em&gt;B’dieved, if he mistakenly prayed without an undershirt, as long as he covered his <em>ervah</em> he fulfilled his obligation. However, the <em>Acharonim</em> disagree as to whether or not a person who does not have an undershirt should pray<em> l’chatchilah</em>. The <em>Bei’ur Halachah</em> 91:1, s.v. “<em>Yatza</em>” maintains that he may not. The <em>Kaf HaChaim</em> 3 is inclined to agree with the <em>Levush</em> who rules that he should pray since he is considered to be in circumstances beyond his control (<em>annus</em></i>
  All this is b’dieved, but l’chatchilah one should enhance the mitzvah by wearing respectable clothing for prayer, so that one show at least as much honor to God as he does to human beings. Just as a person is careful to wear dignified clothing when meeting important people, so too, he must dress at least as respectably before praying. Indeed, a person who goes out once in his life to greet a king makes sure to wear his nicest clothing. However, a person who sees the king every day does not wear his fanciest garments; but he does make sure to wear clothes that suit his profession and status. Similarly, we come before the King three times a day, and we therefore dress nicely for prayer, but we save our finest apparel for Shabbatot, festivals, and joyous celebrations.
  Everything depends on the custom of the place and the person. There are communities where everyone is accustomed to wearing a suit and hat to significant events, and thus they are required to dress that way for prayer as well. Likewise, in a place where it is not accepted to appear before important people in sandals without socks, certainly one must wear socks with his sandals while praying as well. Yet in places where people usually walk around in sandals without socks, and do not wear ties and hats even when approaching important people, they need not adopt different garb for prayer (based on Shulchan Aruch 91:5).
  However, praying in a minyan is more important than wearing respectable clothes. Therefore, if someone who usually prays in a suit and hat finds himself in a situation in which going to his house to bring his suit and hat will cause him to miss praying in a minyan, it is better that he pray in simple attire in a minyan, for the mitzvah to pray in a minyan takes precedence over enhancing the mitzvah by wearing nice clothing (Avnei Yashfeh 1:7).
  If one is wearing disgraceful clothes, normally not worn on the street, such as dirty work clothes or shorts which he put on to work in his yard, it is better that he change his clothes, even if he will miss praying with a minyan. If he wears such clothing to pray, he will offend the respect of Heaven. Additionally, there is concern that he will not be able to concentrate on his prayer, since he will be thinking that everyone is staring at his disgraceful dress.
  
  Section 5
  
  Preparations for Prayer / Detailed Laws of One’s Dress for Prayer
  Those whose profession requires them to wear work clothes and it is difficult for them to change before praying are permitted to pray in their work clothes, because for them, these articles of clothing are not considered disgraceful. Nevertheless, in situations in which they have time to change their clothes, they should try to come to prayer in more respectable attire.
  One should not pray in pajamas (Mishnah Berurah 91:11). However, a person who is ill is permitted to pray in pajamas, because it is accepted that one who is not feeling well wears pajamas, even when important people come to visit him.
  One should not stand in prayer wearing a raincoat, boots and gloves, because that is not the way to stand in front of important people (Mishnah Berurah 91:12). Yet, when it is very cold, it is permissible to pray in a raincoat and gloves, because this does not offend the respect due to prayer. Additionally, in a place where everyone regularly wears boots, one may wear them while praying.
  Young boys and members of kibbutzim, who regularly walk around in shorts, even when important people come to visit them, are permitted to pray in that manner. However, the chazan must cover his legs until below the knee, because a person who wears shorts is called a poche’ach and is not allowed to lead the prayer service (see chapter 4:4).
  Sometimes, a person is in a place where people normally dress less formally, such as a vacation spot; there, even those who always wear suits may wear just shirts without a jacket. In such a situation, whoever is not embarrassed to walk around without a suit, even before distinguished people, may also pray that way.
  
  Section 6
  
  Preparations for Prayer / One May Not Bring to Synagogue Children Who Are Likely to Disrupt
  It is forbidden for a person praying to seat a baby down in front of him because there is concern that the baby will disturb his concentration (Mishnah Berurah 96:4). All the more so, during times of prayer services, one may not bring babies and small children who do not know how to pray, since they are liable to distract the people praying. Although there is an extra pious custom to bring babies to synagogue so that they can absorb the holy atmosphere of the place, that custom refers specifically to times when prayer services are not being held.
  In order to emphasize the importance of this matter, I will cite the words of the Shlah HaKadosh who writes in the name of the Orchot Chaim: “Children’s chatter in synagogue is a severe prohibition. Nowadays, their coming to synagogue brings punishment on those who bring them there, for they come to desecrate the holiness of our God’s house and to laugh in it as they do in city streets. They get up to play with one another; this one plays with that one and that one hits the other. One is happy, another crying. One is talking, another screaming. One runs here, the other, there. One relieves himself in the synagogue and everyone screams, ‘Water, water!’ There is one whose father gives him a book and he throws it down on the floor or tears it into twelve different pieces. Consequently, the noise their nonsense produces causes the people praying to lose concentration and results in the desecration of Heaven’s name. Anyone who brings children to synagogue in this way does not deserve to receive a reward for this; instead, he should fear punishment. Worst of all, the children will be raised on this bad custom and foreign habit. As they grow older, they will increase their contempt for the synagogue and its sanctity, and they will show no respect for the Torah. Additionally, when a person repeatedly sins, [in his eyes] the sin becomes permitted. Therefore, when he ages, he will not abandon his ways. In conclusion, it is proper for a person not to bring very small children to synagogue, because he will [only] lose from it and not gain. However, when the child reaches the age of understanding, on the contrary; the father must bring the child to synagogue, teach him to sit in awe and fear, not let him move from his seat, and instruct him to answer Amen and [respond to] Kaddish and Kedushah” (Shnei Luchot HaBrit, Masechet Tamid Ner Mitzvah, also brought briefly by Mishnah Berurah 98:3).
  One whose child begins to disrupt the congregation’s prayer must take him by the hand, bring him outside, and continue to pray there, even if he is in the middle of reciting the Amidah (see further in this book 17:15).
  
  Section 7
  
  Preparations for Prayer / Preventing Possible Disruptions in Prayer
  While reciting the Amidah, one may not hold an object that he fears will fall, such as tefillin, a book, a full bowl, a knife, coins, or food, because he will worry that it may  drop, and thus his kavanah will be disrupted (Shulchan Aruch 96:1). Even in other parts of the prayer service, like Shema and Pesukei d’Zimrah, one must be careful about this. L’chatchilah, one should not hold anything in his hand while reciting the Amidah, for it is not respectful to stand in front of Hashem while holding something extraneous (see Mishnah Berurah 96:1 and 5, based on Talmidei Rabbeinu Yonah, Taz).
  Nonetheless, holding a lulav on Sukkot is permitted because it is a mitzvah to do so and it does not disrupt the kavanah in one’s prayer. Similarly, one is permitted to hold a siddur because it is necessary for prayer (Shulchan Aruch 96:1-2).
  L’chatchilah, one should not recite the Amidah while standing with a knapsack on his back, for that is not a respectful way to appear before important people, and all the more so, it is not respectful to pray in that manner. However, if he is already traveling with a knapsack on his shoulders and it is more comfortable to leave it on, he may pray with it on him if it weighs less than four kabin (approximately 5.5 kilograms or 12 lbs, 1.5 oz). If the knapsack is heavier than four kabin, he is prohibited from praying while wearing it because such a load is liable to impair his kavanah (Shulchan Aruch 97:4).
  Additionally, if someone holding tefillin or money fears that if he puts these items down they will be stolen, and he does not have a friend there to watch them, nor pockets in which to put them, it is preferable, b’dieved, to keep them in his hands while praying, so that he will be less troubled (Mishnah Berurah 96:6; Kaf HaChaim 7). Likewise, if someone carrying a heavy knapsack on his back is worried that it will be stolen, and he has no other choice than to carry it, he is permitted to pray while wearing it.
  A soldier carrying a gun, l’chatchilah should not pray with his weapon on him, nor enter the synagogue with it, for it is inappropriate for him to pray about life and peace while wearing an instrument intended for killing. However, he may pray with it on him if he is carrying it for security reasons or guarding it from theft. If possible, he should take the magazine out of the gun, so that it will be considered less of a weapon. When, for security reasons, it is best that the gun be loaded, he is permitted to pray with the magazine inside (see Tzitz Eliezer 10:8).
  A person who has a cold must wipe his nose before praying so that he needn’t do so during the prayer service. If phlegm in his throat bothers him, he should expel it before praying so that it will not distract him during the prayer service (Shulchan Aruch 92:3). If he must wipe his nose while praying, he should do so in the politest way possible. Similarly, if he needs to yawn, he should cover his mouth with his hand. This is because a person who stands in prayer must be very careful to show respect for Heaven, and all actions that are considered impolite before people are also prohibited during prayer (see Shulchan Aruch 97:1-2).
  
  Section 8
  
  Preparations for Prayer / One Who Must Relieve Himself While Praying
  The Chachamim teach that one who needs to relieve himself, be it to urinate or to defecate, is prohibited from praying (Berachot 23a), since the need to relieve himself is likely to disrupt his kavanah. In addition, it is not proper to come to pray before HaKadosh Baruch Hu when one’s body is made repulsive by the excrement inside him. Even if he is uncertain as to whether or not he needs to relieve himself, it is proper that he try before beginning to pray (Berachot 15a). The Chachamim support their statement with the verse (Amos 4:12), “Israel, prepare to meet your God.” It is also written (Ecclesiastes 4:17), “Guard your foot when you go to the House of God,” meaning, make sure you do not need to relieve yourself at the time that you are standing to pray.
  There are two levels of need: 1) a need so pressing that it is impossible to wait even the amount of time it takes to walk a parsah, which is approximately 72 minutes; 2) a need to relieve oneself, but which can be controlled for longer than 72 minutes.
  If a person begins to recite the Amidah when he cannot control his need to defecate for 72 minutes, his prayer is considered an abomination and he does not fulfill his obligation. Instead, he must go back and repeat his prayer after he relieves himself. However, if he recites the Amidah when he cannot control his need to urinate for 72 minutes, although it is clear that he did not act in accordance with the law, the Acharonim are divided as to whether or not his prayer is considered an abomination. Due to the fact that it is not in our power to settle this dispute, there is no obligation to repeat the prayer, but it is good to go back and pray a voluntary prayer (tefillat nedavah) (see Bei’ur Halachah 92:1, s.v. “V’tzarich lachzor”).7<i class="footnote">According to the <em>Magen Avraham</em>, it is not necessary to go back and repeat the prayer. However, according to the <em>Eliyah Rabbah</em>, one must. Many <em>Acharonim</em> are lenient like the <em>Magen Avraham</em>, such as the <em>Shulchan Aruch HaRav</em> 92:1 and the <em>Aruch HaShulchan</em> 92:1. The <em>Kaf HaChaim</em> 92:4 is inclined to rule this way as well. Nevertheless, the <em>Bei’ur Halachah</em> writes that we do not have the power to resolve this disagreement. The subsequent conclusion is that it is good to recite a voluntary prayer (<em>tefillat nedavah</em>).As for the reason behind this controversy, there are those who maintain that it is contingent upon the root of the prohibition. According to the <em>Rambam</em>,<em> Hilchot Tefillah</em> 4:1, it is because the need to relieve oneself disturbs one’s <em>kavanah</em>. If so, no distinction is made between urine and excrement and his prayer is considered an abomination. According to <em>Rabbeinu Simchah</em>, who is cited by the <em>Hagahot</em> <em>Maymoniyot</em>, it is because his body is in a state of repugnancy. Therefore, the prayer of a person who only needs to urinate is not considered an abomination, since urine does not have as much contamination. Likewise, the prohibition to distance oneself from urine is rabbinic, and from excrement, biblical, as written in <em>Or L’Tzion</em>, part 2, chapter 7, 15. <em>Or L’Tzion</em> links this dispute to the argument regarding whether or not one who needs to relieve himself is prohibited from learning Torah and reciting <em>Shema</em>. If it is because the need is a disturbance, he is only prohibited from praying the <em>Amidah</em>. However, if it is because his body is considered an abomination, the prohibition applies to all matters of sanctity. (Nevertheless, an argument can be made that one fulfills his obligation <em>b’dieved</em> if he recites matters of sanctity when he cannot control himself for 72 minutes, even according to the opinion that his body is an abomination, because he is not considered one who is standing before the King, as is explained later on.) In practice, we are careful to follow both interpretations.</i>
  If a person is able to control himself for 72 minutes, and he recites the Amidah, his prayer is considered valid because his need to relieve himself is not so urgent. In any case, l’chatchilah, even a person who can wait 72 minutes is prohibited from praying. Even if he will miss praying in a minyan because of this, he must relieve himself and pray individually. If, however, before he relieves himself, the time to pray will pass, he should pray immediately so that he will not miss praying altogether (Shulchan Aruch 92:1; Mishnah Berurah 92:5).
  The estimation of a person’s ability to control himself can only be determined by the person himself. If he thought before the prayer service that he could wait 72 minutes, but after beginning to pray he was proven mistaken, his prayer is still considered valid, since at the time he started to pray he believed he could contain his need (Bei’ur Halachah 92:1, s.v. “Shiur Parsah”).
  If he has doubt as to whether or not he needs to relieve himself, or if his need is very slight, as we learned, l’chatchilah he should relieve himself before the prayer service, but he should not miss out on praying with a minyan for that purpose.8<i class="footnote">The <em>Rishonim</em> are divided concerning a person who needs to relieve himself but can wait 72 minutes. According to <em>Talmidei Rabbeinu Yonah</em>, the <em>Rambam</em>, and <em>Rosh</em>, he is prohibited from reciting the <em>Amidah</em>, and that is what the <em>Shulchan Aruch</em> 92:1 rules. But the <em>Rif</em><em>Rashi</em><em>Or Zarua</em>, and <em>Agudah</em> maintain that he may pray <em>l’chatchilah</em>. The <em>Chida</em> writes in <em>Kesher Gudal</em> 7:32, that if in order to relieve himself he will miss praying in a <em>minyan</em>, he may rely on those who permit him to recite the <em>Amidah</em><em>l’chatchilah</em> when he can wait 72 minutes. However, the <em>Acharonim</em> do not accept his ruling, as clarified by the <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 92:5 and <em>Kaf HaChaim</em> 6. There are those who write that a printing error was made in the writings of the <em>Chida</em>. See <em>Yechaveh Da’at</em> 4:19, in the footnote. Nevertheless, when one’s need to relieve himself is slight, it seems that he can rely on the <em>Chida</em>’s reasoning, especially because there are people who always feel a slight need to relieve themselves. If, in order to relieve himself, he needs to exert himself to help push out the waste, then there is an opinion that he is not at all transgressing the prohibition, “Do not abominate oneself,” and he is permitted to pray (the notes of <em>Rav Eliyahu</em> to the <em>Kitzur Shulchan Aruch</em> 12:3, in the name of an opinion brought by the <em>Ben Ish Chai</em><em>Vayetzei</em> 3). <em>L’chatchilah</em>, a person must try to relieve himself, as explained in <em>Berachot</em> 15a and <em>Shulchan Aruch</em> 2:6.</i>
  
  Section 9
  
  Preparations for Prayer / One Who Needs to Relieve Himself Before Reciting Other Matters of Sanctity
  Just as one who needs to relieve himself and cannot wait 72 minutes is prohibited from reciting the Amidah, so too, he is prohibited from reciting berachot, saying Shema, and learning Torah, for it is not proper to engage in matters of sanctity when one’s body is offensive. However, there is a significant difference between the Amidah and other matters of sanctity. In the Amidah we resemble people standing in front of the King. If one does not pray in the proper manner, he disgraces the respect of Heaven and his prayer is an abomination. Therefore, when the person reciting the Amidah cannot control his need for 72 minutes, his prayer is invalid. This is not so regarding other matters of sanctity. While saying them, one is not considered to be standing before the King. Hence, b’dieved, if he recites berachot or Shema even when he is not able to control his need for 72 minutes, he fulfills his obligation (Mishnah Berurah 92:6; Bei’ur Halachah s.v. “Afilu B’Divrei Torah”; Kaf HaChaim 3).9<i class="footnote">It is implied from <em>Aruch HaShulchan</em> 92:1, that even if the time to recite the <em>Shema</em> will pass, <em>l’chatchilah</em> he should not recite it. However, this matter requires further study since presumably it is better that he recite the <em>Shema</em> so that he will not miss saying it (for in this case there is no fear of reciting a <em>berachah</em> in vain).</i>
  One who can wait 72 minutes, according to most Acharonim, is permitted l’chatchilah to recite berachot and learn Torah, though there are those who say that it is preferable for him to relieve himself first (Mishnah Berurah 92:7). However, if he must exert himself in doing so, he does not need to relieve himself.
  A person who starts to learn when he does not need to relieve himself, but in the course of learning feels a need, to the point where he can no longer wait 72 minutes, should l’chatchilah go and relieve himself. If he is in the middle of a subject of study, some say that he may continue to learn until he finishes that subject (Bei’ur Halachah 92:2 s.v. “Koreh”; Yalkut Yosef, part 2, p. 338), whereas others say that he should go relieve himself immediately (Kaf HaChaim 3:48). If he is teaching Torah, he should finish his class and then relieve himself, for human dignity (kevod habriyot) is so great that it overrides the rabbinic prohibition of “Do not abominate oneself” (Mishnah Berurah 92:7).
  
  Section 10
  
  Preparations for Prayer / One Who Needs to Relieve Himself in the Middle of Praying
  The ruling regarding a person who does not need to relieve himself when he starts to pray, but in the middle of his prayer feels a rising need, is based on how much he needs to relieve himself, and what stage of the prayer he is in. There are three levels of need concerning this law:
  1.	One who can wait 72 minutes is permitted to finish praying.
  2. One who estimates that he will not be able to wait 72 minutes, but does not yet have to contain the urge, and would have to exert himself slightly to relieve himself at the moment – since when he started to pray he was permitted, and his immediate need is not so great, he may finish the section that he is saying. If the need arises in the middle of <i>Pesukei d’Zimrah</i>, he should wait until reciting <i>Yishtabach</i>, thereby finishing <i>Pesukei d’Zimrah</i>, and then go relieve himself. If the need arises while he is reciting <i>Birkot Keriat Shema</i>, he may, in principle, finish the <i>berachot</i>. However, because he will need to relieve himself before <i>Shemoneh Esrei</i>, it is better not to pause between <i>birkat Ga’al Yisrael</i> and the <i>Amidah</i>. Therefore, he should relieve himself immediately upon finishing the specific <i>berachah</i> or paragraph that he is reciting (<i>Mishnah Berurah</i> 92:9; <i>Bei’ur Halachah</i> s.v. “<i>Ya’amid</i>”).10<i class="footnote">However, <i>Shulchan Aruch HaRav</i> 92:2 clarifies that since he was permitted to pray when he started, he may finish until the end. That is what is implied in <i>Aruch HaShulchan</i> 92:6-7 as well. Still, the <i>Mishnah Berurah</i> 92:9 and <i>Bei’ur Halachah</i> s.v. “<i>Ya’amid</i>” explain that he may continue only until the end of the particular part he is reciting, whether it is <i>Pesukei d’Zimrah</i>, <i>Birkot KeriatShema</i>, the <i>Amidah</i>, or the like. If he goes on to pray when he cannot wait 72 minutes, his prayer is considered an abomination. In order to avoid uncertainty, one should conduct himself according to the <i>Mishnah Berurah</i>. All the more so when he is violating the prohibition, “Do not abominate oneself,” for then according to the <i>Rama</i>, even in the middle of <i>Pesukei d’Zimrah</i> or <i>Birkot KeriatShema</i>, he must stop immediately. If at the time he reaches <i>Birkot KeriatShema</i> he feels a need to relieve himself and he knows that he can wait 72 minutes, he may continue to pray the <i>Amidah</i>, as I have written above in level 1. The reasons for this are as follows: according to all opinions, if he prays in this manner, he fulfills his obligation. Similarly, the <i>Rif</i> and <i>Rashi</i> rule that one is even permitted to pray this way<i> l’chatchilah</i>. The <i>Chida</i> writes that one may rely on these sources so that he may pray in a <i>minyan</i>. Finally, the <i>Shulchan Aruch HaRav</i> writes that if he was permitted to pray when he started, he may finish saying all the prayers.The <i>Bei’ur Halachah</i> 92:1, s.v. “<i>Hayah</i>” is uncertain regarding the law of a <i>chazan</i> who feels a need to relieve himself before <i>Chazarat HaShatz</i> and cannot wait 72 minutes. However, concerning a communal Torah reader, he is lenient and rules that he may read, for human dignity (<i>kevod habriyot</i>) is so great that it takes precedence over a rabbinic prohibition. Nonetheless, regarding prayer, which is considered an abomination, he is doubtful. Thus, even if the <i>chazan</i> will be slightly embarrassed, it is preferable that he goes to relieve himself and has someone replace him. Only if the matter will humiliate him greatly may he continue to pray.</i>
  3. One who has to actively suppress the need to relieve himself while praying is in the most serious stage, because at this point he is transgressing the prohibition, “Do not abominate oneself” (<i>Rama</i> 92:2, according to <i>Shulchan Aruch HaRav</i> 3:11). If he is saying <i>Pesukei d’Zimrah</i> or <i>Birkot Keriat Shema</i>, he must immediately go relieve himself since interruption at that point is not so serious. However, if he is in the middle of the <i>Amidah</i>, where a pause at that point is serious, and if, when he began reciting the <i>Amidah</i>, he did not feel the need to relieve himself, he should finish praying. Only in a situation in which he is incapable of waiting at all, should he go relieve himself. 11<i class="footnote">The <i>Mishnah Berurah</i> 92:11 states that according to the <i>Rama</i>, when he reaches the point where he will violate the prohibition, “Do not abominate oneself,” he stops even in the middle of the <i>Amidah</i>. According to the <i>Magen Avraham</i> he is permitted to continue so as not to be humiliated in front of the congregation. The <i>Chayei Adam</i> and <i>Kaf HaChaim</i> 8, maintain that he is prohibited from stopping in the middle of the <i>Amidah</i>. That is also the opinion of most <i>poskim</i>. If a person is in a situation where he cannot control his need to defecate, everyone agrees that he must go relieve himself. However, regarding urination, according to the <i>Shulchan Aruch HaRav</i>, he should not stop in the middle, even if the urine trickles down his knees. <i>Kaf HaChaim</i> 8, writes that if this concerns a lot of urine and he is praying in a congregation, he may stop so that he will not embarrass himself. According to the <i>Chayei Adam</i> and <i>Mishnah Berurah</i> 92:11, when he cannot wait, he may relieve himself even just to urinate. That is what I have written, as well.If he must stop to defecate in the middle of the <i>Amidah</i>, it is reasonable to assume that he was probably prohibited from praying when he originally started and it was clear that he would not be able to wait for more than 72 minutes. Therefore, he does not fulfill the obligation for the parts of the <i>Amidah</i> that he already recited and he must go back to the beginning. However, if he truly thought that he would be able to wait 72 minutes, and was surprisingly attacked by such a strong urge to the point where he needed to relieve himself immediately, then if the interruption lasted the time needed to pray all of the <i>Amidah</i> prayer, from beginning to end, he must start the <i>Amidah</i> again, as explained in <i>Shulchan Aruch</i> 104:5 and <i>Rama</i> 65:1. But if the break lasted less time, he continues from the <i>berachah</i> at which he stopped. It seems that a person who was unsure of whether he could, at the outset, estimate his ability to wait 72 minutes, and in the end could not control his need to defecate, must repeat the <i>Amidah</i> because it stands to reason that he was prohibited from praying when he began to recite the <i>Amidah.</i> Furthermore, it is possible that concerning prayer he is considered a repulsive person, based on the logic brought by the <i>Bei’ur Halachah</i> 92:2, s.v. “<i>Yoter.</i>”</i>
  
  Section 11
  
  Preparations for Prayer / One Who Is Tipsy or Drunk
  A person must be clearheaded when he prays. Unlike many idol worshipers who perform their rituals using drugs and alcohol to attain a state of ecstasy, our petitions to Hashem are achieved through seriousness and deep thought. That is why the Torah commands the Kohanim not to enter the Temple and perform the divine service while inebriated (Leviticus 10:8-11). The Chachamim derive from this that one who is drunk or tipsy is prohibited from praying.
  “Tipsy” is the word used to describe someone who is slightly under the influence of alcohol, and finds it somewhat difficult to concentrate and focus his thoughts, but is still capable of talking before the King. The word “drunk” is used to describe a person who drank so much that he cannot properly speak before the King.
  B’dieved, one who prays while tipsy, since he is able to speak before the King, fulfills his obligation. Likewise, if he begins praying and then remembers that he is tipsy, he may finish his prayer (Eliyah Rabbah; Kaf HaChaim 99:2). However, a drunken person who mistakenly starts to pray is required to stop immediately, for the prayer of one who is intoxicated is an abomination. Even if he concludes his prayer, he does not fulfill his obligation. If he becomes sober before the permissible time to pray ends, he must go back and pray in accordance with the law (Shulchan Aruch 99:1).
  The Chachamim say that a person who drinks a revi’it (86 ml; recent calculations are 75 ml) of wine is considered tipsy, and if he walks a mil (960 meters, approx. 5.97 miles) it will diminish the effect of the wine (Eiruvin 64b). However, we do not know how to compare the wine of those days to our wines today. Therefore, the rule is that any time he feels disoriented from wine or alcohol, he is considered tipsy, and when he feels his clarity of mind returning, he is permitted to pray (Shulchan Aruch 99:3; Mishnah Berurah 2).
  According to the Rama, because kavanah in prayer has deteriorated throughout the generations, we are not so strict about this law, and even a person who becomes slightly inebriated is allowed to pray. This is especially true when one prays with a siddur, for then there is no need to worry that he might mix up the words of the prayer. Customarily, we rely on the Rama’s opinion when the permissible time to pray begins to expire (Mishnah Berurah 99:3, and 17, and see Kaf HaChaim 22). There are those who add that even to prevent missing prayer in a minyan, a person who is slightly tipsy is permitted to pray. On Purim, when it is a mitzvah to drink, it is customary to be lenient in allowing one who is tipsy to pray so that he will not miss praying in a minyan (see Peninei Halachah Zemanim 16:14).
  Concerning Shema and its berachot, the poskim are divided. Therefore, l’chatchilah, someone who is tipsy or drunk should not recite them. Instead, he should wait until the effect of the wine wears off. If, however, the time to recite Shema is about to pass, a tipsy person should say the Shema with the berachot, and a drunken person should recite it while omitting the berachot (Rama 99:1; Mishnah Berurah 8).
  A tipsy person may recite other berachot, for example, Birkot HaNehenin (the berachot one recites before deriving pleasure from something) and Asher Yatzar, but a drunken person should not recite them. Nevertheless, even a drunken person should recite berachot that he can recite only at that time. For instance, if he became drunk at a meal, he should still recite Birkat HaMazon. Similarly, if he relieves himself, he recites Asher Yatzar (Rama 99:1; Mishnah Berurah 11).
  A person who has reached a state of intoxication such as Lot, and is unaware of what is happening to him, is considered a shoteh (a deranged person), and is exempt from performing all the mitzvot. Even the berachot that he did recite are considered invalid (Mishnah Berurah 99:11).
  
  
  
  
  
  Section 1
  
  Wording of Prayer / The Differences in Nusach
  Following the exile from the Land of Israel, and the scattering of Jewish communities, distinctions were created among the diverse ethnic groups (eidot) regarding the wording of the prayers. In the main prayers, those instituted by Anshei Knesset HaGedolah, such as Birkot Keriat Shema and the Amidah, the differences are very slight. Even in the main passages of the Korbanot (sacrificial offerings) and Pesukei d’Zimrah, which were established during the time of the Talmud and the Geonim, the disparities are minor. The modifications are more noticeable, however, in the supplements added during the period of the Rishonim, such as additions to the Korbanot passages and prayers concluding the service. What was customary to include in Spain was not necessarily accepted in Ashkenaz, and vice versa. This is especially apparent in the liturgy for the High Holy Days and Festivals, composed during the time of the Geonim and Rishonim. Hence, we find completely different piyutim (poems) in the High Holy Day prayers of the Sephardic and Ashkenazic services.
  It is proper that every Jew continue in his family’s custom. Even if he knows that a certain nusach is more precise, the continuation of tradition is more important than the accuracy of one word or another.
  The Ari HaKadosh clarifies the differences in wording and style between Sephardim and Ashkenazim. He explains that there are twelve windows in the heavens corresponding to the twelve tribes of Israel and the prayer of each tribe ascends through its particular gate. That is the enigma of the twelve gates mentioned at the conclusion of the book of Ezekiel (Sha’ar HaKavanot p. 50, 4; Magen Avraham 68:1; Mishnah Berurah 68:4).
  Additionally, distinctions exist among the ethnic groups regarding the pronunciation of certain Hebrew letters, e.g., tzadi and kuf, as well as vowels, such as, kamatz and cholam and each group must continue its custom. If, however, people change their nusach, they still fulfill their obligation, for all the existing Jewish traditions relating to the reading of letters and vowels are permitted for prayer (Igrot Moshe Orach Chaim, part 3, 5; additionally, even regarding the wording of the Chalitzah ceremony in which, according to all opinions, every letter must be enunciated, one may fulfill his obligation in any ethnic accent).
  
  Section 2
  
  Wording of Prayer / No Nusach Should Be Considered More Preferable than Another
  The Chida writes in the name of the Ari that the Sephardic nusach ascends through all twelve gates. Therefore, in his opinion, Ashkenazim are permitted to switch to the Sephardic wording of prayer (see Yabia Omer 6:10; Yechaveh Da’at 3:6). However, the Chassidim claim that their nusach (Nusach Sephard-Chassidi) is of higher quality. They maintain that the prominent Chassidic authorities investigated numerous wordings and formulas of the Kabbalah, and selected the best among them. Those who pray in Nusach Ashkenaz assert that their custom is the most meticulous, for it was passed on from person to person as far back as Shimon HaPakuli. Furthermore, the foundation for the Sephardic minhag lies within the Amora’im and Geonim of Babylon, whereas the basis for the Ashkenazic minhag originates with the Amora’im and Geonim of Eretz Yisrael who were more proficient in Agadah, Chochmat HaSod, and nusachim of prayer. (Incidentally, that is the reason for the similarities between Nusach Ashkenaz and the original Yemenite nusach [Baladi], for both were influenced by the Geonim of Eretz Yisrael.) The Yemenites, too, claim that their nusach is more precise, for the Jews of Yemen, in all their years of exile, did not wander. Instead, in response to the persecution that the Arabs inflicted, the Yemenite Jews intensified their devotion to Torah and observed their customs with extra stringency. Indeed the Yemenite Torah scrolls were found to be closer in accuracy to the nusach of the precise Keter Aram Tzova.
  In summary, every minhag possesses its own advantages and it is not in our power to determine which minhag is more praiseworthy. As the Chatam Sofer writes (responsa 1:15), all nusachim are equal. He maintains that the Ari composed his kavanot for Nusach Sephard-Chassidi because he was accustomed to praying in that nusach. However, if a person like the Ari were to have resided in Ashkenaz, he would have written his kavanot based on Nusach Ashkenaz.
  Even if we were to know that a particular minhag is more precise, it would still be proper for each person to continue his own minhag, for even the less accurate minhag surely possesses advantages that the others do not exhibit. Only after the Sanhedrin is re-established will we be able to institute a uniform nusach, which will include the benefits of each minhag. Though, even then, there will be room for different emphases in the additional prayers and varying melodies, corresponding to the twelve gates; each community according to its ways.
  
  Section 3
  
  Wording of Prayer / Immigrants and Communities that Migrated
  In the past, when the distance between communities was great, Ashkenazim lived in Ashkenaz, Sephardim in Spain, and Yemenites in Yemen. Any person who moved to another place would adopt the minhag of his new place and practice the customs of the local Jews regarding halachah and prayer. For example, people with the family name “Ashkenazi” follow the Sephardic customs yet are called “Ashkenazi” because they migrated from Ashkenaz to Spain. Likewise, families that migrated from Spain to Ashkenaz accepted upon themselves the Ashkenazic customs. Even if, over the course of time, many people migrate to a community and become the majority there, as long as they arrive as individuals, they are outweighed by the community in which they settle, and must practice according to the custom of the new place (Shulchan Aruch Yoreh De’ah 214:2; Orach Chaim 468:4; Mishnah Berurah 14).
  The law is similar regarding a woman who married a man from a different ethnic group. She is considered someone who migrated from her community to his. She must abide by his practices, whether they are more strict or lenient, and she need not perform a hatarat nedarim (an annulment of vows) (Igrot Moshe, Orach Chaim, part 1, 158).2<i class="footnote">However, if her husband does not mind, she may continue to pray according to her previous <em>nusach</em> (<em>Halichot Shlomo</em> 1, note 7). Nevertheless, it is proper for her to switch to her husband’s <em>nusach</em> before her children reach the age of understanding, so they will not be confused why their parents are praying in different <em>nusachim</em> (<em>Tefillah Kehilchatah</em> 4, note 4).However, if her husband does not mind, she may continue to pray according to her previous <em>nusach</em> (<em>Halichot Shlomo</em> 1, note 7). Nevertheless, it is proper for her to switch to her husband’s <em>nusach</em> before her children reach the age of understanding, so they will not be confused why their parents are praying in different <em>nusachim</em> (<em>Tefillah Kehilchatah</em> 4, note 4).</i>
  When an entire community migrates to another place, since it is its own entity, it does not need to conform to the customs of the people there (Bei’ur Halachah 468:4). Even if the original people are the majority, as long as the new ones are united as an independent community, they should continue their initial minhagim. Similarly, that is the law in Israel today. By Hashem’s grace we merited a great ingathering of Jews from the Diaspora (kibbutz galuyot). Myriads of differing ethnic groups arrived, including talmidei chachamim, and each and every ethnic group founded its own synagogue. Therefore, no ethnic group is invalidated in regard to another and each must preserve its own minhagim.
  
  Section 4
  
  Wording of Prayer / In What Cases Is One Permitted to Change His Nusach?
  As we have learned, one must maintain his family’s minhag. The Chachamim based this statement on the verse, “Al titosh torat imecha,” meaning, “Do not abandon your mother’s teachings” (Proverbs 1:8). However, this custom is no more important than other laws, and therefore it is often superseded. For example, when a person knows for certain that he will have less kavanah praying in a synagogue that conducts services in his family’s nusach than in a synagogue in which the services are conducted in a different nusach, he should choose the one in which he can concentrate better, for kavanah is the essence of prayer.1<i class="footnote">See <em>Shut Maharam Shik</em><em> Choshen Mishpat</em> 24, which states that even though the <em>Magen Avraham</em> writes that one should not stray from his family’s <em>nusach</em>, one is permitted to switch from <em>Nusach Ashkenaz</em> to <em>Sephard-Chassidi</em> if he so desires. He cites <em>Chovot HaLevavot</em> saying that one’s deep passion for a certain mitzvah indicates his deep connection to that mitzvah. All the more so, he is permitted to switch <em>nusachim</em> for the purpose of having more <em>kavanah</em>. The matter of the community’s significance, of which I will write later on, is of obvious importance. See <em>Igrot Moshe Orach Chaim</em>, part 4, 33.</i> However, in a case of uncertainty, it is preferable to pray in his family’s nusach, because in the long term, chances are that he will have more kavanah praying as his family does. Sometimes, when a person is young, he does not properly value his connection to his family’s nusach, though as time passes, he discovers a deep attachment to it.
  An Ashkenazi who wants to pray according to the Ari’s writings, and for that purpose wishes to switch to Nusach Sephard-Chassidi, is permitted to do so. There were some prominent individuals from Ashkenaz who did this, among them the Chatam Sofer’s rabbis, Rabbi Natan Adler, and Rabbi Pinchas, the author of the Hafla’ah. Nevertheless, their families and students continued to pray in Nusach Ashkenaz, for they understood that only a specific individual who wants to pray according to the kavanot Ha’Ari is permitted to change his nusach, but it is not proper for someone who does not pray with those kavanot to do so. However, the leaders of the Chassidic movement encouraged all their followers to switch from Nusach Ashkenaz to Nusach Sephard-Chassidi, despite the fact that most of them were not familiar with the Ari’s kavanot. Indeed, prominent rabbis have vehemently disagreed with them, wondering how they could have changed their minhag, but the eminent leaders of the Chassidic movement, who were also illustrious world figures, decided to change their custom and surely had honorable reasons. Nowadays, no one objects to their practice (see She’arim Metzuyanim BaHalachah 18:4; Igrot Moshe, Orach Chaim, part 2, 24).
  If a person has a choice of two synagogues, one where the prayer service is conducted in his family’s nusach but where no Torah classes are organized, and another, which provides Torah study but where the people pray in a different nusach, he must consider his options. If he reasons that praying in the synagogue with more Torah will help him learn more, it is better that he pray there even though the service is not conducted in his family’s tradition. Likewise, in choosing a yeshiva, one should not choose a place of learning according to the nusach of the prayers. Instead, he should choose the yeshiva in which he can become more elevated in Torah and mitzvot.
  Similarly, if a person must choose between two synagogues: one, where the congregation prays in his family’s nusach, but he is concerned that he will not be able to connect with the people because they are either too old, too young, or too few in number and another, where they do not pray in his family’s nusach, but there is a unified congregation with which he can better identify. If he feels that by joining the prayers of the latter synagogue, his connection to the Jewish religious community will intensify, thereby enhancing or at least sustaining his spiritual level, it is preferable that he pray there, even though the prayers are not his family’s nusach.
  
  Section 5
  
  Wording of Prayer / Praying in a Minyan Conducted in a Different Nusach
  Some poskim say that when a person who is accustomed to one nusach goes to pray in a minyan held in a different nusach, he must pray according to the nusach of the minyan he is attending, because the individuals must follow the majority. If he practices according to his own minhag in front of the people in the congregation, it constitutes a transgression of the prohibition “lo titgodedu” (fragmenting the nation into divergent groups). This prohibition disallows having one court of law (beit din) with some judges who rule according to the method of Beit Shamai and others who rule according to Beit Hillel, so that the Torah will not be divided into two seemingly different Torahs (Yevamot 14a, according to the Rif and the Rosh). Hence, the people of one synagogue should not pray in two different nusachim. Furthermore, the Chachamim teach (Pesachim 50b) that a person must not stray from the custom of a place so as not to generate dispute (Pe’at HaShulchan 3:14).
  According to most poskim, one is permitted to pray in his family’s nusach those parts of the prayer service that are recited silently. Since the differences are not noticeable, there is no fear of dispute, nor is there any transgression of the prohibition, “lo titgodedu.” However, prayers recited aloud should be prayed in the nusach of the minyan so as not to create controversy and disparity among the members of the congregation.3<i class="footnote">The prayers recited silently may be prayed in one’s own <em>nusach</em>. However, the <em>Kedushah</em>, which is recited out loud, should be prayed in the <em>chazan</em>’s <em>nusach</em>, as written in <em>Shut Sho’el U’Meishiv</em> Edition 3, 1:247, <em>Meishiv Davar</em> 1:17, <em>Shivat Tzion</em> 5, <em>Igrot Moshe</em>, <em>Orach Chaim</em>, part 2, 23, and <em>Minchat Yitzchak</em> 7:5. Regarding <em>Pesukei d’Zimrah</em>, <em>Birkot Keriat</em> <em>Shema</em>, and <em>Nefillat Apayim</em>, the <em>poskim</em> are uncertain. According to the <em>Igrot Moshe</em>,<em> Orach Chaim</em>, part 2, 23, since one is permitted to say <em>Pesukei d’Zimrah</em> out loud, it is better that he says them in the <em>chazan</em>’s <em>nusach</em>. Similarly, concerning the matter of <em>Nefillat Apayim</em> on Mondays and Thursdays, there is a difference in custom. According to <em>Nusach Sephard</em>, we put our heads down before <em>Tachanun</em>, and according to <em>Nusach</em> <em>Ashkenaz</em>, after <em>Tachanun</em>. The <em>Igrot Moshe</em>, <em>Orach Chaim</em>, part 3, 89, writes that one may not stray from the custom of the place because it would be noticeable. However, the widespread custom is that every person prays according to his <em>minhag</em>. Since it is known that there are many different <em>minhagim</em> in prayer, the prohibition of “<em>lo titgodedu</em>” is not applicable in this case. Yet, those praying in a<em> nusach</em> different from that of the <em>chazan</em> should not call attention to themselves by praying out loud, as mentioned in <em>Tefillah Kehilchatah</em> 4, notes 23 and 26. However, the <em>Yabia Omer</em>, part 6, 10, maintains that even prayers which are recited out loud should continue to be prayed by each person in his own <em>nusach</em> and there is no fear of “<em>lo titgodedu</em>” nor controversy because everyone knows that different <em>minhagim</em> exist. Nonetheless, even according to his opinion, it seems that one should not actually recite those prayers aloud, because if he does, he incites controversy. In practice, the person praying is permitted to choose a nusach – his or the chazan’s – however, for the more noticeable prayers, it is proper to pray according to the chazan’s nusach. Further, see Igrot Moshe Orach Chaim, Part 4, 34, outlining the aspects of the prohibition to pray according to different minhagim in one synagogue.</i>
  One who must regularly pray in a minyan conducted in a different nusach, e.g., because he moves to a place in which the only minyan prays in a different nusach or because he prays in the minyan that will strengthen his religiosity, is permitted to decide whether to pray in its nusach, or adhere to his own family’s custom, reciting the parts said aloud like the congregation.
  The chazan leading the prayer service in a synagogue employing a nusach that is different from his own must pray according to the minhag of the place because he is praying as the people’s emissary. However, for the silent prayers, he may pray according to his own minhag.4<i class="footnote">However, <em>Yabia Omer</em>, part 6, <em>Orach Chaim</em> 10:8, discusses a mourner who is accustomed to praying in one <em>nusach</em> and comes to a place in which the people pray in a different <em>nusach</em>. If they let him lead the prayer service according to his <em>nusach</em>, he can lead. If not, it is better that he does not lead the prayer service and that he prays silently according to his own<em> nusach</em>. However, most <em>poskim</em> do not agree. The <em>Igrot Moshe</em>, part 2, 29 and part 4, 33, maintains that even while praying silently he must pray like the congregation because the silent <em>Amidah</em> prayer was intended as preparation for <em>Chazarat HaShatz.</em> The <em>Halichot Shlomo</em> 5:19 responds to this, saying that since he is reading from a <em>siddur</em>, there is less need for preparation.</i>
  
  Section 6
  
  Wording of Prayer / Preserving Minhagim versus Strengthening the Community
  The preservation of minhagim, in addition to maintaining the nusach of the prayer, entails upholding the pronunciation of the prayers. Each community – the Yemenites, the Sephardim, and the Ashkenazim – pronounces the prayers according to its own particular dialect. In addition, l’chatchilah, it is proper that each ethnic group continue to pray in its own traditional tunes (see Rama, Orach Chaim 619:1). Clearly, it is permissible to introduce new melodies. However, in the main part of the prayer, the traditional tune that was sanctified throughout the generations should be preserved. For that reason, a person must initially pray in a synagogue which conducts the service in his family’s nusach.5<i class="footnote">In the opinion of the <em>Rashdam</em> 35, the warning, “Do not abandon your mother’s teachings,” does not apply to <em>minhagim</em>, rather only to laws. Therefore there is no concern in changing one’s <em>nusach</em> of prayer. However, the <em>Hagahot Maymoniyot</em>, based on the <em>Yerushalmi</em>, writes that we are not to switch our family’s <em>nusach</em>, and the <em>Magen Avraham</em> 68:1 cites his opinion as the halachah. That is the opinion of the majority of <em>poskim</em> as well. In practice, concerning an issue of law, it is more important to preserve the <em>minhag</em>. However, regarding non-law-related matters, such as liturgy, and even more so melodies, it is possible to be more lenient in changing them.</i>
  Judaism is comprised of numerous different minhagim. The nusach of the Sephardim is divided into many customs. Concerning matters of halachah, the key distinctions are evident between those who practice according to the Shulchan Aruch and those who follow the Ben Ish Chai. Furthermore, there is a specific nusach for Jews from North Africa. While the differences in nusach and halachic matters among those from North Africa and Iraq and Syria are relatively minor, their melodies contrast more strikingly. Even among the immigrants from North Africa there are such distinct disparities in melody, so that Algerians sound dissonant to Moroccans; and to Jews from Libya, both Algerians and Moroccans sound off-key. To perfectly preserve the numerous minhagim, there would have to be individual synagogues for immigrants from Tripoli, Tunis, Algiers, and Morocco, as well as differing synagogues for immigrants from Iraq, Syria, Persia, and Turkey.
  Among Ashkenazic immigrants there are different minhagim as well, the primary distinction being between the Chassidim and all remaining Ashkenazim. Still, there are other significant differences in types of diction and melody. The tunes of those who pray in the Nusach Ashkenaz from Western Europe are completely different from the tunes in the Nusach Ashkenaz from Lithuania. Furthermore, regarding diction, there are at least four variations of pronunciation – those of immigrants from Lithuania, Poland, Galitzia, and Hungary. Different sects of Chassidim also have varying minhagim and distinct melodies. Additionally, among the Yemenites there are two main nusachim – Baladi and Shami.
  However, if strictly safeguarding the minhagim will bring about the dismantling of the community, it is preferable to forgo the preservation of the customs. In general, when a community is unified, and it arranges Torah study for men, women, and children, and people perform acts of kindness for one another, it succeeds in keeping its members committed to Torah and mitzvot. On the other hand, when a community lacks unity and a communal dedication to Torah, its members become are weak and above all, its children are adversely affected.
  Although l’chatchilah every person should pray according to his family’s minhag, if this necessitates the establishment of dozens of small synagogues, making it difficult to assemble a minyan and organize regular Torah classes, it is preferable that ethnic groups with similar minhagim merge to form a stronger community. For example, all Jews from North Africa should pray together and if that is not sufficient, then all people who pray in the Sephardic nusach should pray together.6<i class="footnote">In addition to this, even though it would be proper that every group preserved all its own <em>minhagim</em> and melodies, there is also a positive aspect to the merging of the Diaspora communities in Israel. Since a person does not necessarily choose a place to live based on his ethnicity, a situation is already created in which the similar <em>nusachim</em> can consolidate. Today most <em>Ashkenazim</em> practice that way; people with different traditions pray together.</i>
  Therefore, in each and every place, it is necessary to weigh the pros and cons, i.e., the importance of preserving the minhagim against the significance of establishing a strong, solid community. When there are enough families from the same ethnic group living in one place, enabling them to establish a large synagogue while preserving the traditions of their minhagim, all the better. But when the number of families is insufficient, it is best that they join a group with customs similar to their own, provided that they form a strong congregation. If the consolidation of similar ethnic groups will not be adequate to ensure a strong community, it is better that all the members of the differing groups – Sephardim, Ashkenazim, and Yemenites – merge to become one community. This issue requires serious consideration, and for that reason, it is up to the mara d’atra, the primary rabbi of the place, to resolve such matters.
  
  Section 7
  
  Wording of Prayer / Those Accustomed to a Different Nusach
  Sometimes the question arises regarding how a person should practice when his father, who is a member of one ethnic group, becomes accustomed to praying in a nusach of a different ethnic group. Should he pray in the nusach in which his father currently prays or in the nusach of his father’s ethnic group? As a general rule, the obligatory minhag is that of the ethnic group and not one’s father’s individual minhag. However, when the son prefers to continue in his father’s adopted nusach, or because he finds it difficult to change, or for any other reason, he is permitted to continue praying in his father’s nusach. Since this question poses implications on other issues, it is best that one consult with his rabbi on this matter.
  A similar dilemma arose among members of Chassidic families, who learned in Lithuanian yeshivot and became accustomed to praying in Nusach Ashkenaz. When they left the yeshiva, they deliberated whether to continue praying in Nusach Ashkenaz as they were taught in yeshiva, or return to praying in Nusach Sephard–Chassidi, the minhag of their parents.
  The rabbis of the Ashkenazic minhag taught that, in principle, they must continue praying in Nusach Ashkenaz, for in the past, all Ashkenazic Jews prayed in Nusach Ashkenaz, and only 200 years ago did the Chassidim change their nusach. Even though now, after such a long time, all Chassidim will not be instructed to return to pray in Nusach Ashkenaz, still, it is best that those Chassidim who already became accustomed to praying in Nusach Ashkenaz continue to pray that way, because it is their ancestors’ original nusach. However, the Chassidic rabbis insisted that they must continue in the Chassidic nusach, reasoning that since prominent Chassidic authorities have instructed those who prayed in Nusach Ashkenaz to switch to the Nusach Sephard–Chassidi, in congruence with the writings of the Ari, all the more so, anyone born into a Chassidic family must continue praying in the Chassidic nusach.
  In practice, since there are differing opinions, the person posing the question may choose how to practice. Still, it is best to consult with one’s rabbi on this matter.7<i class="footnote">The position of the rabbis who pray in <em>Nusach Ashkenaz</em> is brought in <em>Igrot Moshe</em><em> Orach Chaim</em>, part 2, 24, as well as in <em>Tefillah Kehilchatah</em>, in the name of Rav Elyashiv. Their opinion is that <em>Nusach Ashkenaz</em> is the <em>nusach</em> in which it is proper for all <em>Ashkenazim</em> to pray. However, Rav Elyashiv adds in the next paragraph that one who has regularly prayed in a different <em>nusach </em>since he was born, and it is difficult for him to change, may continue praying in the <em>nusach</em> to which he has become accustomed, for that is what the <em>Chazon Ish</em> and Rabbi Yaakov Kanievsky have taught. The opinion of the Chassidic rabbis is widely known.</i>
  
  Section 8
  
  Wording of Prayer / Ashkenazim Who Pray with a Sephardic Pronunciation
  A similar question arose among Ashkenazic immigrants from the dati-leumi (national-religious) community. Approximately three generations ago, with the beginning of the gathering of the exiles, a need was felt to consolidate the Diaspora communities and to restore the Jewish nation to its Hebrew language. For unification purposes, the Sephardic pronunciation was chosen. Even though Maran HaRav Kook ztz”l, and many other poskim, are of the opinion that each ethnic group must preserve its own accent in prayer, in actuality, since the spoken Hebrew and the Hebrew learned in schools were in a Sephardic pronunciation, the Sephardic accent became imbedded in the prayer service too. Indeed, many leaders of national-religious educational institutions, acting in accordance with the rulings of a few rabbis, instructed their Ashkenazic students to pray with Sephardic pronunciation.
  There are some rabbis who spoke strongly against the Ashkenazim who changed their accent. Some taught that even people who find it difficult to pronounce all the prayers in an Ashkenazic pronunciation should at the very least pronounce Hashem’s Name in that manner, because the pronunciation of Hashem’s Name in the Ashkenazic accent has greater grammatical advantages (Har Tzvi Orach Chaim 1:4; Az Nidberu, part 3, 48:1, according to the Chazon Ish).
  However, in practice, most rabbis do not encourage their students to change their pronunciation. Since the Sephardic accent is just as acceptable as the Ashkenazic, and everyone is used to it, there is no obligation to return to one’s original accent. Moreover, if the effort to change one’s pronunciation will disrupt his kavanah in prayer, it is preferable not to change it. It is best that one who already prays in a Sephardic accent also say Hashem’s Name that way so as not to mix accents. There are even those who are concerned that one who combines accents b’dieved does not fulfill his obligation (Rav Yosef Henkin; She’arim Metzuyanim BaHalachah 18:5). Therefore, it is customary to recite the whole prayer service, including Hashem’s Name, in the Sephardic accent.8<i class="footnote"><em>Mishpatei Uziel</em>,<em> Orach Chaim </em>1, maintains that it is proper for all the ethnic groups to pray in a uniform <em>nusach</em> and accent. Maran HaRav Kook commented on this, saying that every ethnic group must preserve its own <em>minhagim</em>. He continues that one who changes his accent is considered like “one who recited [the <em>Shema</em>] and was not meticulous in enunciating the letters,” for even though he fulfills his obligation, he should not do so <em>l’chatchilah</em>. That is the opinion of most rabbis, among them <em>Minchat Yitzchak</em> 3:9, and 4:47, 4, and <em>Az Nidberu</em>, part 3, 48:1. However, a number of Sephardic rabbis, including <em>Yaskil Avdi</em>, part 2, <em>Orach Chaim</em> 3, and <em>Yabia Omer</em>, part 6, <em>Orach Chaim</em> 11, write that an <em>Ashkenazi</em> is permitted to switch to the Sephardic accent. They praise the Sephardic<em> nusach</em> and note that since it is spoken today in the Holy Land, it is therefore proper to pray in it. However, it is noteworthy that the spoken accent today is less precise than the original Sephardic accent, for today’s spoken accent does not differentiate between a <em>tet</em> and a <em>taf</em>, between a <em>kuf</em> and a <em>kaf degushah</em>, between a <em>taf</em><em>degushah </em>and a <em>taf refuyah</em>, or between a <em>kamatz</em> and a <em>patach</em>. From a certain standpoint, it is the worst of all the pronunciations, for it does not have the virtues found in the Ashkenazic dialect, and it is missing a few of the advantages present in the Sephardic dialect. Nevertheless, <em>Yabia Omer</em> does not comment on this.In any case, after people have already become accustomed to the Sephardic accent, even according to those who maintain that in principle one must revert to his family’s <em>nusach</em>, if it is difficult to do so, and it will disrupt one’s <em>kavanah</em>, one need not revert to the Ashkenazic <em>nusach</em>. That is what my teacher and rabbi,<em> </em>HaRav Tzvi Yehudah HaKohen<em> </em>Kook, <em>ztz”l</em>, maintained. Furthermore, he mentioned that there are things which are accepted by the community even though the <em>Chachamim</em> are not pleased with them. He also said that something good comes out of this: members of different ethnic groups can pray together, and unity is increased.The Yabia Omer 11:6, quotes Rabbi Unterman, the Ashkenazic Chief Rabbi of Israel, in saying that the Ashkenazim who became accustomed to praying in the Sephardic accent should not be compelled to revert to the Ashkenazic pronunciation. That is how they were educated and they are comfortable in this accent, because it is widespread throughout the whole country. The Yabia Omer adds that it is preferable that they pray in the spoken dialect, for in that way the youth will feel more of a sense of belonging to the synagogue and the prayer service. One may add that even if a person stands before a king, he will talk in the accepted dialect, and he will not begin to precisely pronounce the letters. We learn many of the laws of prayer from an individual who stands before a king using the kal vachomer principle.</i>
  
  Section 9
  
  Wording of Prayer / Members of Different Ethnic Groups Praying Together
  In many places, members of all the different ethnic groups pray together. That is the accepted practice in many yeshivot, so as not to cause a daily schism between the students, as well as in small communities which do not have enough people for each group to maintain a large minyan to pray and learn Torah.
  In the past, in order to refrain from disrupting the prayer service and creating separate minhagim within the same synagogue, the congregation would establish one nusach according to the majority (see Igrot Moshe, Orach Chaim, part 4, 34). However, in our society, where people are familiar with and accustomed to the different minhagim, in many places it is customary to give each ethnic group expression in the prayer service. Usually, the congregation follows the chazan. For example, if the chazan is Sephardic, he will pray in the Sephardic nusach, and if he is Ashkenazic, he will pray in the Ashkenazic nusach. There are places that even if the chazan is Yemenite, although his pronunciation varies greatly from the norm, he prays in his Yemenite dialect. Since all the minhagim are acceptable and known to all, there is no fear of “lo titgodedu,” and it is not likely to incite controversy.
  That is how we practice in Har Berachah. When there are major differences between the minhagim, it is our custom to follow the shorter nusach. For example, on “Bet-Hei-Bet” (fast days enacted on Monday and Thursdays by some ashkenazic authorities), when the Ashkenazim customarily say Selichot, we do not recite them communally, since the Sephardim do not follow this custom. Similarly, Shir HaShirim (Song of Songs) is not recited before Kabbalat Shabbat, though it is the minhag of many Sephardim. Likewise, we do not recite all the passages of the Korbanot (sacrificial offerings) out loud in the minyan, as is the Sephardic tradition. Those who wish to say them recite them individually before the prayer service. However, when the extension to the prayer service is not burdensome, the congregation follows the chazan; for instance, at the end of the prayer service, when the Sephardim prolong the recital of the Psalm of the Day and the Pitum HaKetoret, or the Tachanun of Mondays and Thursdays.
  The Sephardic minhag is that the chazan recites all the Psalms and Birkot Keriat Shema out loud, in order to fulfill the obligation for a person who does not know how to read. Nevertheless, the prevalent custom is that even the Sephardic chazanim say only the conclusion of the mizmorim and berachot out loud. This is because nowadays everyone knows how to read, and the recital aloud prolongs the duration of the prayer service and disrupts the kavanah of some of the people praying.
  As a general rule, regarding prayers recited out loud, the congregation follows the chazan, while concerning prayers recited silently, each person prays according to his individual minhag. Nonetheless, it is unnecessary to be meticulous concerning this, and one who wishes to pray in the chazan’s nusach is permitted to do so, for that is the opinion of some poskim. One who wishes to pray in his own nusach, even those passages recited aloud, is permitted to do so, as long as he says them quietly, so as not to disturb the congregation and accentuate the differences between him and the chazan.
  When the Sephardic chazan recites the Thirteen Attributes of Mercy three times in the prayers of supplication (tachanunim) of Mondays and Thursdays, it is proper that the Ashkenazim follow along with him.
  To conclude, in all these situations, in which the benefit to the community and to the prayer service are weighed against the preservation of nusachim, the mara d’atra, the primary rabbi of the place, must determine what is best.
  
  
  
  
  
  Section 1
  
  Waking Up in the Morning / Wake Up Like a Lion
  “One should gather his strength like a lion to rise in the morning to serve his Creator and to awaken the dawn” (the opening of the Shulchan Aruch, Orach Chaim 1:1). The manner in which a person gets up in the morning indicates to a large extent his general emotional state, and influences his functioning throughout the entire day. A person with a purpose in life arises filled with enthusiasm and alacrity to face a new day. He usually wakes up early in the morning, in order to accomplish more throughout the day. However, a person who has lost his values and sense of purpose lacks meaning in his life and the reason to get up in the morning. Instead, he feels fatigued and distressed in the mornings. Only when left with no choice does he finally wake up, late and sluggish, to another dull and despondent day. Nevertheless, if he were to bolster his faith and arise eagerly, vitality and joy would ignite his spirit, and he would be able to start his day invigorated.
  This is the reason why praying vatikin is considered so praiseworthy – that “he should be the one who awakens the dawn” (Shulchan Aruch 1:1). Even before nature stirs and the sun rises, he gets up from his sleep and sings songs of praise before God. Although it is not the widespread custom today to get up for vatikin (see further in this book 11:5), every person must at least endeavor to rush to synagogue before the prayer service begins.
  The Acharonim write that immediately upon waking up it is good to say Modeh Ani, “I gratefully thank You, living and eternal King, for You have returned my soul with compassion. Abundant is Your faithfulness” (Seder HaYom; aYHaYMishnah Berurah 1:8). Faith gives purpose to life. If HaKadosh Baruch Hu chose to grant someone life, it means that his existence has great value. Inspired by that conviction, one can arise in the morning with enthusiasm and strength. The Chachamim state that one must wake up like a lion because a lion symbolizes someone who loves himself, comprehends his self-worth, and can use that insight to courageously cope with all the obstacles standing in his way (see Rabbi Natan of Breslov’s Likutei Halachot on rising in the morning).
  
  Section 2
  
  Waking Up in the Morning / Dressing Modestly
  When a person gets dressed, even when he is alone in his house, it is proper that he act modestly. He should not say, “I am in the privacy of my own room; who can see me?” for Hashem’s greatness fills the whole world. Therefore, it is proper that one who sleeps without clothing be careful not to arise from his bed nude and then get dressed. Instead, he must partially dress under his blanket while still in bed, so that his ervah (nakedness) will remain covered when he rises. Similarly, when one needs to change his underwear, it is proper to do so under a blanket, or while he is wearing a long robe that covers his ervah. He may change his underwear in the bathroom or shower room, for those places are intended for that purpose – undressing there is not an affront to modesty.
  It is an extra pious act to be cautious that every part of the body that one respectfully covers when in the company of family and close friends is covered when one is alone as well. Therefore, it is an expression of piety not to be without an undershirt, even when alone in a room. If a person wants to change his undershirt, he demonstrates his piety by doing so only in the bathroom.
  When someone suffers greatly from the heat, even in accordance with the extra pious custom, he is permitted to remove his undershirt. However, he may certainly not expose his ervah. Talmidei chachamim (Torah scholars) are generally more stringent. Even on hot days when they are alone in their rooms, they do not remove their undershirts, nor sit in their house shirtless among their close friends or family members.
  All the circumstances mentioned above are situations in which there is no real need to expose one’s ervah. However, when there is a necessity, such as for bathing or medical purposes, one is permitted to uncover his ervah (Igrot Moshe, Yoreh De’ah, part 3, 68:4).1<i class="footnote">n Tractate <em>Shabbat</em> 118b, Rabbi Yossi is praised for the fact that the walls of his house never saw the inside seams of his robe. <em>Chazal</em> learn from this that even when a person is alone in his room it is an extra pious act not to expose the parts of his body that are normally covered. This is brought<em> </em>in <em>Shulchan Aruch</em>,<em> Orach Chaim</em> 2:1-2. There is room to question the reason for this prudence. Was it the fear that perhaps, when he was dressing, his <em>ervah</em> would have been revealed, for in those days people regularly slept in the nude? Or was he being careful not to expose a large area of his nakedness? Or was he being strict that even regularly covered parts of his body stayed covered while he was dressing? (See <em>Beit Yosef.</em>) The halachic significance of this question is whether or not one needs to change his undershirt and pants under a blanket or in the bathroom.  From <em>Aruch HaShulchan</em> 2:1, it seems that the essence of this stringency is to make sure one does not expose half of his body, but he explicitly permits revealing one’s legs. If so, one may change his pants without covering himself, if he is wearing underwear. But concerning an undershirt, it is proper to be careful. Rav Mordechai Eliyahu ,<em>ztz”l</em>, similarly notes in his <em>Kitzur Shulchan Aruch</em> 3:1 that whoever is wearing underwear need not get dressed under a blanket. The <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 2:1 is stringent, based on a number of <em>Acharonim</em>, and states that one may not reveal any parts of the body that are normally covered. Therefore, even one’s socks should be put on under a blanket. However, <em>Igrot Moshe</em><em>Yoreh De’ah</em>, part 3, 47:3, and section 68:4, explains this to mean that any part of a person’s body that is considered shameful to expose while sitting in his house with his family or friends should not be revealed when he is alone as well; every place according to its custom. Therefore, nowadays, even according to the<em> Mishnah Berurah</em> it is certainly not necessary to be strict about one’s socks. Furthermore, he writes, the extra pious custom only applies under regular conditions, but one who suffers from heat is permitted to be lenient (and remove his shirt and even his undershirt). This is the law regarding an elderly person who has difficulty changing his undershirt under a blanket, or a woman who is afraid her shirt will get wrinkled. (This is also written in <em>Halachah Berurah</em> 2:1, in the name of his father, Rav Ovadyah Yosef). However, the <em>Igrot Moshe</em> adds that one’s <em>ervah</em> itself should not be revealed at all unless there is a substantial need, such as for bathing and medicinal purposes. Based on this, I have differentiated above regarding the extra pious act,<em> </em>between one’s <em>ervah</em> and the other parts of the body that are normally covered. Concerning an undershirt, I wrote “the extra pious act,” for even though the <em>Shulchan Aruch</em> brings it as halachah, most <em>poskim</em> agree that it is an extra pious act and not an obligation (see <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 3:18, where it talks about this law). (Moreover, one may say that during the time of <em>Chazal</em>, it was a comfortable solution to put one’s head and hands in his robe while still lying down, and that way, when he rose he was automatically covered, but to put on a tight undershirt under a blanket is harder. This is another reason why it is an extra pious act and not a mandatory custom. Furthermore, today there are places in which people are not embarrassed to sit in front of their friends without an undershirt.) <em>Talmidei chachamim</em> are customarily more meticulous in observing the extra pious custom, and even when it is very hot, they certainly do not walk around their houses shirtless. Many are even strict not to walk around their houses in a sleeveless undershirt.</i>
  In order to slightly clarify the matter of modesty, it is necessary to initially state that in the beginning, when Adam was created, he was pure and clean, both spiritually and physically, and he did not feel a need to wear clothes. However, after the sin, he began to feel ashamed of his nudity. From then on, we all cover our bodies with clothes, especially those parts connected to the sexual drive and the disposal of waste.
  The bare body emphasizes in an extreme manner the physical and animalistic side of humans. However, the form of the human body, with all the details and intricacies of its organs, also contains profound and phenomenal allusions to the soul, which the wisdom of the Kabbalah discusses in great length. It is the destiny of the body to reveal and actualize all those spiritual ideas. However, following Adam’s sin, man’s view of the world became more external. At first glance, we see only the corporeal component of the human body, which causes us to forget its spiritual core. Therefore, it is proper to hide the parts of the body that are normally covered, to better emphasize a person’s inner spirituality, which is the source of his beauty, and thus allow this exalted spiritual beauty to extend over his whole body. That is what Chazal infer when they state that it is in fact modesty which preserves beauty, by nourishing its eternal root (see Bamidbar Rabbah 1:3).
  
  Section 3
  
  Waking Up in the Morning / The Extra Pious Custom with Regard to Putting on One’s Clothes and Shoes
  It is an extra pious act to commence all things with one’s right side, because the Torah ascribes more importance to a person’s right side (as was in the Temple when sprinkling oil on a lepers’ right thumb and big toe). According to Kabbalah, ‘right’ signifies grace and compassion, while ‘left’ signifies judgment and law, and with our actions, we should augment grace over judgment. Therefore, those who observe the extra pious custom are strict to eat with their right hands. Additionally, for washing and applying creams, one’s right side precedes his left. When washing one’s entire body, a person should first wash his head and then wash his right side. Also when dressing, it is an extra pious act to begin with the right sleeve, and do the same with pants and socks. When removing one’s clothes, one should start with the left side.2<i class="footnote">Starting with one’s head and proceeding with the right side of the body concerning washing and applying creams is clarified in <em>Shabbat</em> 61a. The order for dressing is explained in <em>Magen Avraham</em> and <em>Kaf HaChaim</em> 2:7, in the name of <em>Sha’ar HaKavanot</em>, as well as <em>Shulchan Aruch HaRav</em> 2:4 and <em>Kitzur Shulchan Aruch</em> 3:4.</i>
  Concerning shoes, the law is more complex. On the one hand, one should begin with the right side. On the other hand, we learn from the commandment to tie tefillin on one’s left arm, that for all matters involving tying, one is to start with the left side. Therefore, one first puts on his right and then left shoe, without tying them, and when tying the laces, he starts with the left and then ties the right (Shabbat 61a; Shulchan Aruch 2:4).
  A person who is left-handed starts with his right side, both for putting on his shoes and tying the laces.3<i class="footnote">em&gt;Mishnah Berurah 2:6, based on the <em>Bechor Shor</em>. (See <em>Minchat Yitzchak</em> 10:1 as well.) This implies, therefore, that concerning putting on other clothing, even a left-handed person enhances the mitzvah by starting with his right side, just as they would sprinkle blood on a left-handed person’s right thumb, (based on the opinion of most <em>poskim</em>, see <em>Encyclopedia Talmudit</em>, part 1, “<em>Iter</em>”). However, regarding eating, we obviously do not trouble a left-handed person to eat with his right hand. Regarding the recital of a <em>berachah</em>, it is the opinion of the <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 206:18 (based on a number of <em>Acharonim</em>) that a left-handed person should hold the object over which he is reciting a <em>berachah</em> in his left hand. The kabbalists maintain that he should hold it in his right hand (<em>Kaf HaChaim</em> 206:30).</i>
  The objective of this halachah is to ensure that every deed we do, even such a mundane act as putting on our shoes, is done as precisely as possible. For indeed, people put on their shoes every day, so why not learn to do it in the most perfect way? Certainly, one who accidentally mixes up the sequence need not take off his shoes in order to put them on again in the appropriate order. With these halachot, Chazal teach us to attribute value to every act we perform, along with their details, thereby helping us to grasp the profundities of the actions that make up our lives.
  
  
  
  
  
  Section 1
  
  Washing One’s Hands in the Morning / Morning Washing
  The Chachamim instituted the washing of one’s hands every morning and the recital of the blessing, “Asher kideshanu b’mitzvotav v’tzivanu al netilat yadayim,” (“…Who has sanctified us with His commandments and commanded us concerning the washing of hands.”)
  A person’s hands endow him with the capability to function in this world. With his hands he can give and receive, hold and deliver, handle his different belongings, and care for his body. However, along with, and perhaps because of, their versatility, one’s hands also wallow in all the dealings of this world and tend to get dirty and contaminated more than any other limb. Whenever it is necessary to elevate and distance ourselves from the lower aspects of this world in order to engage in matters of sanctity, we wash our hands. This is the general significance of washing hands, including the washing in the morning. However, the Rishonim disagree as to the exact reason behind the morning washing.
  According to the Rosh, since a person’s hands are constantly moving, it is almost certain that during one’s sleep they touch parts of the body that are normally covered. Therefore, in order to purify them before Shacharit, the Chachamim instituted the washing of one’s hands.
  According to the Rashba, every morning people are created anew, as it is written (Lamentations 3:23), “They are renewed every morning; abundant is Your faithfulness!” A person goes to sleep tired, gives his soul over to his Creator, and arises in the morning with renewed strength. This new creation should be sanctified and designated for serving Hashem by washing one’s hands in the morning.
  In other words, according to the Rosh, the washing of one’s hands in the morning is solely in preparation for prayer, and according to the Rashba, this washing constitutes a preparation and sanctification for prayer and for service of Hashem throughout the entire day.1<i class="footnote">There are two sources for the morning washing: <em>Berachot</em> 60b, where it appears as one of <em>Birkot HaShachar</em> and seems to correspond to the opinion of the <em>Rashba</em>; and <em>Berachot</em> 14b-15a, where it appears as a preparation for prayer, consistent with the opinion of the <em>Rosh</em>.There is an opinion which states that a woman who does not intend to pray <em>Shemoneh Esrei</em> on a particular day should wash without reciting a <em>berachah</em>, for according to the <em>Rosh</em>, this washing was instituted specifically for prayer (<em>Shut Machazeh Eliyahu</em> 11). However, in practice, women have the custom to follow the <em>Rashba</em>, and recite a blessing on the morning washing regardless. The <em>Bach</em> writes that even the <em>Rosh</em> agrees that the <em>Chachamim</em> instituted washing in the morning as part of <em>Birkot HaShachar</em>, but that according to the <em>Rosh</em>, one also needs to wash his hands with a <em>berachah</em> before praying <em>Minchah</em> and <em>Ma’ariv</em> if his hands are dirty.The essential objective of the morning washing before Shacharit is cleanliness, as it is written (Psalms 26:6), “I wash my hands clean,” and this is clarified in Berachot 15a. The reason for washing one’s hands before a meal is for purification and sanctification, similar to the washing of the Kohanim’s hands in the Kiyor (laver) before they worked in the Temple. Although there is a difference between the objectives of the two washings, the Chachamim instituted the washing in the morning following the example of washing before a meal, and even the berachah has the same wording. L’chatchilah, when washing in the morning, one should take care that all the necessary requirements for washing one’s hands before a meal are met – that there is at least a revi’it of water, that he washes with a vessel, that there is human force involved in the pouring (ko’ach gavra), and that the appearance of the water has not changed. B’dieved, even if there is no revi’it of water there, or a vessel, or human force (ko’ach gavra), since the water does in fact clean a person for prayer, it is the opinion of the Shulchan Aruch and the Rama that the “Al netilat yadayim” berachah is recited. If the appearance of the water has changed and became invalid for washing before a meal, one may use it to wash his hands for Shacharit, but instead recite “Al nekiyut yadayim” (Shulchan Aruch section 4, paragraphs 1, 6, 7, 22). However, the Mishnah Berurah 4:7, and Bei’ur Halachah write that according to many Acharonim, even if the water becomes invalid for washing before a meal, one may recite Al netilat yadayim when washing before Shacharit, because the water does clean his hands enough for prayer. Kaf HaChaim 4:11 and Halachah Berurah 4:12 write that one does not recite a blessing for the washing in the morning if there is anything that renders it invalid for washing before a meal.Concerning One Who Did Not Sleep All Night: According to <i>Mishna Berura </i>(4:30)<i>,</i> in Rashba’s opinion, even one who did not sleep at night must wash his hands with a <i>berakha</i> in order to sanctify himself so that he may thank God for a new day. In Rosh’s opinion, however, because he did not sleep, there is no concern that he unintentionally touched the parts of his body that are normally covered, and therefore it is unnecessary to wash before praying. Therefore, <i>Mishna Berura </i>suggests, one who did not sleep all night should go to the bathroom, where he will touch a part of the body that is normally covered, obligating him to make the <i>berakha </i>even according to Rosh. This is the Ashkenazic practice. However, Sephardic custom is to wash without a <i>berakha </i>(SA<i> </i>4:13) since, arguably, even according to Rashba only one who sleeps must recite a <i>berakha </i>on hand-washing. Moreover, it is possible that the <i>berakha </i>was not instituted for when one touches the covered parts of the body while awake. Therefore, the only solution for one who wants to fulfill the recitation of this <i>berakha </i>is to hear it from someone else, who had slept, and to have in mind to fulfill the obligation with that (<i>Kaf Ha-hayim </i>4:49).</i>
  
  Section 2
  
  Washing One’s Hands in the Morning / Ruach Ra’ah (Evil Spirit)
  In addition to the reasons we have mentioned, the Chachamim state in the Talmud (Shabbat 108b) that one must be careful that his hands do not touch his mouth, nose, eyes, or ears before washing his hands in the morning because there is a ruach ra’ah (evil spirit) which rests upon one’s hands after sleep and it is likely to damage those organs. Only after he washes his hands three times alternately will the ruach ra’ah disappear and, subsequently, the danger caused by touching any of his bodily orifices will be eliminated.
  The essence of the morning washing is to prepare and sanctify oneself for praying Shacharit and for the service of a new day. For that reason, the Chachamim instituted reciting Al netilat yadayim. Nevertheless, we are also careful about the ruach ra’ah, and in order to remove it, we must be strict in washing our hands three times alternately from a vessel. This means that we first wash the right hand, then the left, then again the right and left, and another time right and left, which comes out to be three times, each hand alternately.
  Prior to washing, one must take care not to touch those organs that have openings toward the inside of the body – such as the mouth, nose, ears, and eyes (Shulchan Aruch Orach Chaim 4:3-4; Mishnah Berurah 13). Similarly, one must be cautious not to touch food or drink before washing (Mishnah Berurah 4:14).
  The Kabbalah teaches (see Zohar, part 1, 184:2) that at night, when a person falls asleep and remains inanimate, without thought and action, he experiences a taste of death and a spirit of impurity (ruach ra’ah) rests upon him. This is in line with Chazal’s statement (Berachot 57b) that sleep is one-sixtieth of death. The essence of human virtue lies in one’s ability to think, feel, and engage in activities leading to the rectification of the world (tikun olam). During sleep, when dormancy spreads throughout the body, a person loses, to a certain extent, the image of God (Tzelem Elokim) within him, and the ruach ra’ah rests upon him. When he awakens from his sleep and his consciousness returns, the ruach ra’ah disappears, remaining solely on the extremities of his hands. By washing one’s hands three times alternately, the ruach ra’ah is removed. In order to completely nullify it, one must begin washing his right hand, which symbolizes the attribute of chesed. Therefore, one should take the washing cup initially in his right hand and pass it over to his left, so that he pours the water over the right hand first and then the left, continuing this way until he has washed each hand three times (see Kaf HaChaim 4:12). In this way, the stern judgments associated with the attribute of gevurah (represented by the left hand) are made subservient to the attribute of chesed (represented by the right hand).
  Some explain that the main damage caused by the ruach ra’ah is spiritual; if he were to touch his eyes or ears before washing, his internal senses of sight and hearing would be adversely affected, and on that day he would be like a blind and deaf person concerning matters of Torah and faith. Similarly, if he were to touch his mouth or nose, the ruach ra’ah would harm his spiritual senses of eating and smelling (Kaf HaChaim 4:19, based on Solet Belulah).
  
  Section 3
  
  Washing One’s Hands in the Morning / Ruach Ra’ah Today
  According to the Zohar and the kabbalists, one must wash his hands next to his bed in the morning, so as not to prolong the ruach ra’ah upon himself. They also warn not to walk more than four amot before washing one’s hands in the morning. Therefore, one must prepare water before going to sleep and place it near his bed so that immediately upon rising he can wash his hands (Sha’arei Teshuvah 1:2). There are those who are lenient regarding this because in their opinion the entire house is considered four amot. As long as one does not have to leave the house more than a distance of four amot in order to wash his hands, he is not thought of as someone who prolongs the ruach ra’ah upon himself (Shut Shevut Yaakov 3:1).
  Some maintain that ruach ra’ah has been nullified from this world. The Tosafot (Yoma 77b) bring the opinion that this ruach ra’ah does not dwell in the regions comprising the Ashkenazic countries. The Lechem Mishneh writes that it is implied from the Rambam that he, too, is not concerned about the ruach ra’ah mentioned in the Talmud (Shevitat HeAsor 3:2). Also, the Maharshal, who lived approximately 400 years ago, and who was one of the eminent poskim in Ashkenaz, writes that in our times, no ruach ra’ah exists around us (Chullin, chapter 8, 31). A number of other poskim agree with this approach.
  In earlier generations, spiritual and mystical power was more pronounced and intense. This was expressed on the one hand by the ability to attain greater and more transcendental experiences, emotionally and spiritually, such as prophecy, and, on the other hand, by the presence of all sorts of sorcery and impure spirits. As time passed, intellectual strength took center stage at the expense of emotional powers, and together with the cessation of prophecy, the impure spirits weakened and disappeared; in their place there are evil spirits of false and deceitful ideas.
  Furthermore, there is an amazing tradition regarding Graf Potoczki, born in Poland to aristocratic parents, who had his heart set on joining the nation of Israel and converting to Judaism. Since such a thing was prohibited in his time, he converted secretly and engrossed himself in Torah. Eventually, the Christians captured him and offered him two options: to return to Christianity or to be burned alive. The righteous convert chose to die by fire, thereby publicly sanctifying God’s Name. At that moment, the Vilna Gaon said that the ruach ra’ah lost some of its strength, particularly regarding the ruach ra’ah of Shacharit. For this reason the students of the Vilna Gaon are lenient regarding walking four amot before washing.
  In practice, according to the Chida, Mishnah Berurah (1:2), and Ben Ish Chai, one should be careful not to walk more than four amot before washing. In contrast to them, there are poskim who are lenient, whether it is because the entire house is considered four amot, or because today the ruach ra’ah on one’s hands has ceased to exist. That is the common custom. However, even according to those who maintain that the ruach ra’ah does not fully exist among us, it is customary to be strict concerning everything mentioned in the Talmud, such as washing one’s hands three times and not touching bodily orifices prior to washing.
  
  Section 4
  
  Washing One’s Hands in the Morning / The Time to Recite Al Netilat Yadayim
  The correct time to recite the “Al netilat yadayim” berachah is immediately after washing and before drying one’s hands. However, the general rule regarding all berachot recited upon the performance of mitzvot, is to recite the berachah first and then perform the mitzvah. Hence, we make a berachah on the wrapping of tefillin before binding them on our arms, and we make a berachah on the mezuzah before affixing it to the doorpost. Yet, regarding Al netilat yadayim the law is different. Since it is inappropriate to recite the berachah while one’s hands are unclean, its recital is delayed until after the washing. Still, we may not separate the berachah from the act of the mitzvah and therefore, immediately after washing, before drying one’s hands, the berachah must be recited.
  In actuality, the berachah is usually not recited immediately following the first washing upon waking. This is because people generally need to relieve themselves upon waking up, and one should not recite a berachah while having to tend to one’s bodily needs. Furthermore, according to the Rosh, the washing was instituted to prepare the person for prayer; therefore, one is obligated to recite a berachah on the washing before praying. Hence, after relieving oneself in the morning, one washes his hands again and recites the berachah before drying them. One who does not need to relieve himself in the morning should recite the berachah on the first washing immediately upon waking up (Shulchan Aruch 6:2; Mishnah Berurah 4:4).2<i class="footnote">The <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 4:4, based on the <em>Magen Avraham</em>, writes that one who wakes up and needs to relieve himself, before doing so must wash his hands three times without a <em>berachah</em> in order to remove the <em>ruach ra’ah</em> from upon them. After relieving himself, he must wash his hands and recite the <em>berachah</em> because according to the <em>Rosh</em>, the morning washing with a <em>berachah</em> was instituted as preparation for prayer. However, Rav Ovadyah Yosef (<em>Halachah Berurah</em> 4:4; <em>Beirur Halachah</em> 4:4) rules that one should first relieve himself in the bathroom and then wash his hands three times so that the <em>berachah</em> will be on the first washing of the day, for that is the more correct way according to the <em>Rashba</em>. Furthermore, if a person has a great need to relieve himself, to the point where if he abstained he would be transgressing the prohibition, “Do not abominate oneself,” the law is that one must relieve himself first and only after that wash his hands. It is possible to retort to this argument that there is no issue of “abominating oneself” in such a case since washing one’s hands takes so little time. The practical custom follows the opinion of the <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> and the kabbalists, in order to quickly purify oneself from the <em>ruach ra’ah</em>. Regarding the <em>berachah</em> being recited before drying one’s hands, see <em>Kaf HaChaim</em> 4:8. However, according to the Ashkenazic<em> minhag</em>, one may delay reciting the <em>berachah</em> and combine it with <em>Birkot HaShachar</em>. Nevertheless, it is best to recite it immediately following the performance of the mitzvah, as the <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> writes in 6:9.</i>
  Regarding one who rises from his sleep long before he intends to pray, and knows for certain that prior to praying he will need to defecate, there is uncertainty concerning when it is proper to recite Al netilat yadayim. According to the Rashba, who maintains that one washes in honor of the new day, it is proper that he recite the berachah immediately upon waking up. According to the Rosh, who maintains that the washing was instituted as preparation for prayer, he should recite the berachah on the washing right before prayer. In this case, it is advisable to recite Birkot HaShachar immediately following the washing performed upon rising, and then, to a certain extent, Birkot HaShachar will be considered the beginning of prayer and the washing a preparation for them. That way, even according to the Rosh one may recite Al netilat yadayim immediately upon waking up.
  Therefore, whoever wakes up after chatzot (halachic midnight) must wash his hands, recite Al netilat yadayim, and say all of Birkot HaShachar. However, if, after remaining awake for a few hours, he intends to go back to sleep until the time to pray arrives, after waking up the first time he must wash his hands without a berachah, and after the second time he must wash with a berachah, for that is the waking closest to prayer. (Regarding Birkot HaShachar see further in this book 9:5, where it is explained that it is preferable to recite them after the main waking, provided that it is after chatzot.)3<i class="footnote">owever, the <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> (<em>Bei’ur Halachah</em> 4:1 s.v. “<em>V’Afilu</em>”) rules like the <em>Chayei Adam</em>, maintaining that if one wakes up much earlier than the time to pray and he knows that he will need to relieve himself again before praying, he should recite a <em>berachah</em> on the washing closest to praying, for that is how he fulfills the obligation <em>l’chatchilah</em> according to the <em>Rosh</em>. Even in the opinion of the <em>Rashba</em> one may delay reciting the <em>berachah</em> on washing and recite it immediately before praying. That is what the <em>Or L’Tzion</em>, part 2, 1:6, and <em>Halichot Shlomo</em> 2:23 write as well.Still, many <em>Acharonim</em> write that it is preferable to recite the blessing on the washing closer to one’s waking for that is the correct way according to the <em>Rashba</em>. Even according to the <em>Rosh</em>, if he recites <em>Birkot HaShachar</em> immediately after the first washing, it is possible that they will be considered the beginning of prayer, as write the <em>Shlah</em><em>Graz</em> (in his <em>siddur</em>, p. 1), <em>Sha’arei Teshuvah</em><em>Derech HaChaim</em>, and <em>Aruch</em><em>HaShulchan</em> 4:5. The <em>Aruch</em><em>HaShulchan</em> explains further that even according to the <em>Rosh</em>, the washing of one’s hands and the recital of the <em>berachah</em> were instituted to be performed adjacent to one’s waking, just like the other <em>Birkot HaShachar</em>. Even according to the <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 6:9, it is possible to rely on those <em>poskim</em>. The <em>Kaf HaChaim</em> 4:52 writes as well that one must recite <em>Al netilat yadayim</em> immediately upon getting up. Additionally, he brings a dispute of the <em>Acharonim</em> as follows: there are those who say that one may recite <em>Al netilat yadayim</em> even before <em>chatzot</em>, which is the custom of the kabbalists (<em>Ben Ish Chai</em><em>Toldot</em> 13). However, the <em>Graz</em> and others write that one must recite <em>Al netilat yadayim</em> only after <em>chatzot</em>. I wrote that one should recite it only after <em>chatzot</em> in order to avoid uncertainty. If he intends to go back to sleep (when he woke up after <em>chatzot</em>), indeed according to the <em>Ben Ish Chai</em><em>Kaf HaChaim</em> 46:49, based on the Kabbalah, and the <em>Graz</em>, he should recite <em>Al netilat yadayim</em> after his first waking. In any case, in this situation, it seems better to practice according to the <em>Mishnah Berurah</em><em>Chayei Adam</em>, and the <em>Gra</em>, as I have written.</i>
  
  Section 5
  
  Washing One’s Hands in the Morning / Hand Washing Concerning One Who Did Not Sleep All Night
  Based on what we have learned in the previous halachah (according to the Mishnah Berurah), in the Rashba’s opinion, even a person who did not sleep at night must wash his hands with a berachah in order to sanctify himself so that he may thank Hashem for a new day. In the Rosh’s opinion, however, because he did not sleep, there is no concern that he unintentionally touched the parts of his body that are normally covered and therefore it is unnecessary to wash his hands before praying.
  Hence, the Shulchan Aruch rules (4:13) that a person who remains awake all night must wash his hands without a berachah. He must wash his hands, according to the opinion of the Rashba, however he does not make a blessing on that washing, so as not to recite a berachah in vain, consistent with the opinion of the Rosh.
  The Mishnah Berurah writes (4:30) that a person who did not sleep all night should relieve himself before Shacharit. After his hands touch the parts of his body that are normally covered, then even according to the Rosh, he must wash his hands with a berachah. He can therefore wash his hands with a berachah according to all opinions. This is the Ashkenazic custom for those who stay awake all night on Shavuot.
  The minhag of the Sephardim is that before praying, even a person who touched the normally covered parts of his body washes his hands without a berachah. This is because we take into consideration the opinion stating that the Chachamim instituted washing with a berachah only for a person who slept at night. But a person who dirtied his hands and did not sleep is the same as one whose hands were dirty before Minchah and Ma’ariv – he washes his hands without a berachah. The sole advice for someone who was awake all night and wants to fulfill the obligation according to all opinions is to hear the berachah recited by another person and have in mind to fulfill his obligation by hearing it (Kaf HaChaim 4:49). (See further in this book 8:5; 9:5-6, for the law regarding someone who remains awake all night, or who wakes up in the middle of the night, concerning the recital of Birkot HaShachar and Al netilat yadayim.)
  
  Section 6
  
  Washing One’s Hands in the Morning / Waking in the Middle of the Night to Tend to a Baby or for Any Other Reason
  Parents who wake up in the middle of the night in order to cover their children or give them a pacifier, in principle need not wash their hands because covering a child or putting a pacifier in his mouth does not require touching the child’s mouth or any other bodily orifice.
  However, if one wakes up to prepare food for the child or change the child’s diaper, it is proper to wash one’s hands prior to that, in order not to touch food or one of the child’s bodily orifices with unwashed hands. Likewise, it is proper that a woman who wakes up in the middle of the night to nurse her child wash her hands before starting. However, if it is very difficult for her to go wash her hands, she may rely on the lenient opinions that do not obligate one who awakens in the middle of the night to wash his or her hands (Eshel Avraham Butshatsh 4:1; see also halachah 4 which mentions that some say that nowadays the ruach ra’ah does not exist). In any case, according to all opinions, no berachah is recited on washing performed in the middle of the night because the Chachamim instituted a berachah only on the morning washing, which prepares us for prayer and the new day.
  L’chatchilah it is proper that a person who wakes up in the middle of the night to drink wash his hands three times before reciting Shehakol. Similarly, it is proper that one who wakes up in the middle of the night to relieve himself wash his hands three times so that he can touch his bodily orifices without concern. After relieving himself, he must wash his hands so that he may recite Asher Yatzar. If he wishes, he may refrain from washing his hands prior to relieving himself in the middle of the night, by relying on the opinion of those poskim who maintain that a person only needs to wash his hands three times after rising in the morning. However, after relieving himself, he must wash his hands in order to recite Asher Yatzar. If he does not have water, he must clean his hands, for example by rubbing them on his shirt, and then recite Asher Yatzar (Shulchan Aruch 4:22).6<i class="footnote">The <em>Shulchan Aruch</em> 4:14-15 maintains that every regular sleep at night brings the <em>ruach ra’ah</em> and one must wash his hands three times alternately. Even so, in the cases above, I wrote “it is proper” because the <em>Eshel Avraham</em> writes in the name of his father-in-law (as brought in note 4) that the <em>ruach ra’ah</em> exists only after waking up in the morning. Many who have become accustomed not to wash their hands when they arise in the middle of the night rely on this. The basis for <em>Eshel Avraham</em>’s words is found in the <em>Beit Yosef</em> (4:14-15) who writes that there is concern that at <em>alot hashachar</em> the <em>ruach ra’ah</em> may rest even upon those who were awake all night. The opinion of most kabbalists, according to the <em>Ari</em>, is that the <em>ruach ra’ah</em> only lingers after a person sleeps through <em>chatzot</em>, but if one went to sleep after <em>chatzot</em>, the <em>ruach ra’ah</em> does not rest upon his hands. Moreover, even if a person who slept through <em>chatzot</em> already woke up once after <em>chatzot</em> and washed his hands three times, the <em>ruach ra’ah</em> does not rest upon his hands a second time. Hence, according to this, it is not necessary to wash one’s hands three times upon every waking at night. In addition to this, there are those who say that nowadays the <em>ruach ra’ah</em> does not exist. Therefore, only one who wakes up in the morning must be careful to wash his hands three times because the source for this stems from the Talmud. However, beyond that, concerning waking up in the middle of the night, it is not an obligation to wash one’s hands, though it is proper to do so. Those who practice according to Kabbalah must ensure that the first time they wake up after <em>chatzot</em> they wash three times. Also from the standpoint of <em>Birkat</em><em>Shehakol</em>, it is proper to wash one’s hands, but it is not an obligation, as explained in the <em>Shulchan Aruch</em> 4:23. Even if he touched normally covered parts of his body, he can suffice with rubbing his hands on a cloth of some sort, as clarified in the <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 4:61. Similarly, before relieving oneself, it is advisable to wash one’s hands because of the <em>ruach ra’ah</em>, but it is not an obligation, as clarified above. Additionally, see the opinion of Rav Ovadyah Yosef in note 2.</i>
  
  Section 7
  
  Washing One’s Hands in the Morning / Food Touched by Unwashed Hands
  We learned (in halachah 3) that because the ruach ra’ah rests upon one’s hands in the morning, one must not touch food or drink before washing his hands. Regarding a Jew who touched items of food without washing his hands, the ruling is as follows: if it is a dry food, like fruit, that can be washed, he should rinse it under water three times. Just as the washing of each hand three times purifies them, so will this washing purify the fruit. However, if he mistakenly touched drinks or food that will become ruined when washed, although there are those who are stringent to dispose of them for fear that the ruach ra’ah rests upon them (Od Yosef Chai, Toldot 6), according to most poskim, even those foods that cannot be washed are permitted to be eaten.
  There are two reasons for this: first, because according to the majority of poskim, the ruach ra’ah on one’s hands does not have the ability to render food unfit for eating (Chayei Adam 2:2; Mishnah Berurah 4:14; Aruch HaShulchan 4:15). Although, regarding an alcoholic beverage, such as liquor, there are poskim who are stringent. In any case, it is agreed among most poskim that all other foods do not become invalidated by the touch of unwashed hands (Bei’ur Halachah 4:5 s.v. “Lo”). Furthermore, there are those who maintain that the ruach ra’ah has been nullified from this world (as brought in halachah 4) and there is no need to fear its damage. Therefore, one should not discard or waste foods that were touched by unwashed hands.
  Similarly it is permissible l’chatchilah to buy bread or other food that is sitting on a store shelf, even though there is concern that it was touched by Jews who did not wash their hands in the morning. This is because, as we have already learned, according to most poskim, food is not invalidated by the touch of unwashed hands. Additionally, there is doubt as to whether these foods were actually touched by someone who did not wash his hands in the morning. Moreover, almost all people usually wash their hands in the morning, and it is said in the name of the Arizal (Od Yosef Chai, Toldot 8), that even washing one’s hands once is useful in weakening the power of the ruach ra’ah.
  
  Section 8
  
  Washing One’s Hands in the Morning / Minors
  A number of eminent Acharonim write that it is important to ensure that even small children, who have not yet reached the age of understanding (gil chinuch), wash their hands in the morning. The reason for this is that if they don’t wash their hands, the food they touch will become ruined by the ruach ra’ah that is upon them (Chida; Pri Megadim, Mishbetzot Zahav 4:7; Mishnah Berurah 4:10). Additionally, there are those who abide by the extra pious act of washing a newborn baby’s hands, as the Ben Ish Chai (Toldot 10) writes, for by doing so, the children are raised with purity and sanctity.
  However, in practice, many people are not strict about the washing of their children’s hands three times after they wake up, because according to some prominent Acharonim, the ruach ra’ah only lingers on the hands of one who is at least thirteen years of age. The more a person can connect to holiness and act to repair the world, the more the evil spirit contrastingly strives to make him impure. Hence, the ruach ra’ah does not rest on the hands of gentiles, for they are not obligated to perform mitzvot. Similarly, concerning children, the ruach ra’ah does not rest upon them in its full force until they are sanctified in the obligation of performing the mitzvot. Still, we are commanded to educate minors to perform the mitzvot, and once they start observing the holy commandments, the ruach ra’ah slightly lingers upon them as well. Therefore, from the time they reach the age of understanding and are capable of comprehending how to wash their hands, one is obligated to educate them and accustom them to washing (based on Shulchan Aruch HaRav Tinyana Edition 4:2; Eshel Avraham Butshatsh 4:3; Tzitz Eliezer, part 7, 2:4).
  In conclusion, it is a mitzvah to accustom children from the time they reach the age of understanding to wash their hands three times after sleeping, and it is an obligation to wash their hands starting from the age of mitzvot, meaning thirteen years old for a male and twelve for a female. There are those who are stringent to wash their bab‎y’s hands from the time he can touch food (Mishnah Berurah 4:10). Additionally, there are individuals who enhance the mitzvah by washing their baby’s hands starting from the time of his brit milah, or even from birth, for even then Israel’s unique holiness begins to appear (as brought in parenthesis in Shulchan Aruch HaRav there; see Kaf HaChaim 4:22 as well).
  
  
  
  
  
  Section 1
  
  The Morning Blessings / Blessings of Thanks
  The Chachamim instituted the recital of many blessings immediately upon awakening in the morning. The purpose of these blessings is to thank Hashem for the good that He bestows upon us every day. Hence, the Talmud (Berachot 60b) teaches that when a person wakes up, he must thank Hashem and say, “My God, the soul which you have placed within me is pure… Blessed are You Hashem who restores souls to dead bodies” (Elokai Neshamah). When he hears the sound of the rooster, announcing the arrival of a new day, he must say, “Blessed are You Hashem, our God, King of the universe, who gives the rooster understanding to distinguish between day and night” (Hanoten lasechvi vinah). Upon opening his eyes, he recites, “…Who gives sight to the blind” (Poke’ach ivrim). When one stretches his limbs and sits on his bed, after being held captive in the shackles of sleep, he recites, “…Who releases the imprisoned” (Matir assurim). When he dresses, he recites, “…Who clothes the naked” (Malbish arumim). When one stands on his legs, he recites, “…Who straightens the bent” (Zokef kefufim), and when placing his feet on the ground, he recites, “…Who spreads the earth upon the waters” (Roka ha’aretz al hamayim). When one puts on his shoes, he recites, “…Who has provided me with all my needs” (She’asah li kol tzorki). As he begins to walk, he recites, “…Who prepares people’s footsteps” (Hamechin mitzadei gaver). When he fastens his belt, he recites, “…Who girds Israel with strength” (Ozer Yisrael bigevurah). When he puts on a head covering, be it a hat or a kippah, he recites, “…Who crowns Israel with glory” (Oter Yisrael b’tifarah). When he washes his hands, he recites, “…Concerning the washing of hands” (Al netilat yadayim). When washing his face, he recites, “…Who removes sleep from my eyes” (Hama’avir chevlei sheinah me’einai), etc. The Chachamim also instituted three special berachot of thanks which express gratitude to Hashem for choosing us and giving us His mitzvot. They are: “…For not having made me a gentile” (Shelo asani goy), “…For not having made me a slave” (Shelo asani aved) and “…For not having made me a woman” (Shelo asani ishah) Women recite, “…For having made me according to His will” (She’asani kirtzono).
  Life’s routine generally wears away our attention from all the good that Hashem showers upon us. As a consequence of this ungratefulness, the daily blessing that HaKadosh Baruch Hu grants a person fails to delight him, and his life becomes dull and empty. In order to emerge from this desolation, he seeks out various pleasures. Hence, the Chachamim instituted Birkot HaShachar so that we will not be ungrateful. With these blessings we thank our Creator for all things, big and small, that help us function in this world. Out of this thankfulness to Hashem, we are privileged to observe the world with a rich and comprehensive outlook. We learn that every single element in our lives has Godly value, arousing our desire to add goodness to the world with every new day that God gives us.
  
  Section 2
  
  The Morning Blessings / The Order of the Morning Blessings
  As we have learned, the original institution of the Chachamim was to bless and give thanks for each and every act immediately upon deriving pleasure from it. In other words, as a person wakes from his sleep, he thanks Hashem for the soul He placed within him and says Elokai Neshamah; as he opens his eyes, he recites Poke’ach ivrim; as he stretches his limbs, he recites, Matir assurim; and so on with all the blessings in that manner. However, today the custom has changed and usually all Birkot HaShachar are recited consecutively. One may wonder why the custom changed, for it is obviously more appropriate to thank Hashem immediately when the pleasure is received. In that way the process of arising from one’s sleep attains profound significance, as the blessings of thanks to Hashem accompany each and every stage of waking. Indeed, the Rambam rules that all Birkot HaShachar must be recited exactly as mentioned in the Talmud, each berachah in its appropriate time. There are some Yemenites who are accustomed to following his ruling even today.
  However, the widespread custom is to recite all Birkot HaShachar at once, either in synagogue, or at home after relieving oneself and getting dressed. There are a few reasons for this. First, the Chachamim established that the chazan recites Birkot HaShachar out loud in synagogue so that the uneducated who do not know them by heart may fulfill their obligation as well. Also, even those who do know the blessings by heart may forget a blessing in the disorientation of waking, while if they recite them from a siddur in synagogue, they will remember to say them all. Further, we want to enhance the mitzvah and recite Birkot HaShachar in the most respectful way, with clean hands and while properly dressed, and therefore we delay the recital of the berachot until after all the preparations for prayer are finished (Shulchan Aruch 46:2). Moreover, there are people who find it very difficult to concentrate immediately upon waking up, and only after they dress and wash their faces are they able to recite Birkot HaShachar with kavanah (Seder HaYom).
  
  Section 3
  
  The Morning Blessings / Birkot HaShachar for One Who Does Not Derive Pleasure
  There is a dispute among prominent Rishonim regarding the question of whether a person may recite one of the Birkot HaShachar from which he does not derive direct personal pleasure. For instance, may a blind person recite the berachah, Poke’ach ivrim?
  According to the Rambam (Tefillah 7:9), only a person who derives pleasure from something may recite a blessing on it. Therefore, a person who slept at night wearing clothing, since he does not get dressed in the morning, does not recite Malbish arumim. A handicapped person who cannot walk does not recite Hamechin mitzadei gaver. A paralyzed person, who cannot move his limbs, does not recite Matir assurim and Zokef kefufim. Some people of Yemenite descent follow the Rambam’s opinion today. The Shulchan Aruch (Orach Chaim 46:8) takes this opinion into consideration and rules that one does not mention Hashem’s Name when reciting blessings from which he does not derive pleasure.
  By contrast, the Kolbo (section 1) writes in the names of Rav Natrunai Gaon, Rav Amram Gaon, and the remaining Geonim, that the minhag is to recite all Birkot HaShachar in order, whether or not one derives pleasure from them, because they were instituted based on the general pleasures of the world. Furthermore, the fact that others derive pleasure from something can be indirectly useful for someone who does not directly derive pleasure from it. Therefore, even a paralyzed person who cannot straighten himself, blesses Hashem for all the other people who can straighten themselves and help him. A blind person also recites Poke’ach ivrim for the fact that others are able to see and can therefore show him the way and tend to all his needs. This is how the Rama rules.
  Likewise, the opinion of the Ari HaKadosh is that every Jew must recite all of the Birkot HaShachar in their order to thank Hashem for all the general good that He showers on the world. In many minhagim regarding prayer, the Sephardim have the custom to follow the Ari, and therefore they recite all Birkot HaShachar in order.1<i class="footnote">There is a dispute among the <em>poskim</em> regarding whether the <em>berachah</em><em>She’asah li kol tzorki</em>, normally said on footwear, is recited on Yom Kippur and Tishah B’Av, days on which it is prohibited to wear shoes. According to the <em>Rosh</em><em>Ran</em>, and the <em>Tur</em>, it is recited. That is also what the <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> writes in 554:31, based on the <em>Levush</em><em>Eliyah Rabbah</em>, and <em>Pri Megadim</em>. That is how the <em>Ashkenazim</em> and a few <em>Sephardim</em> practice; see <em>Yalkut Yosef</em>, part 1, p. 51. However, according to the <em>Ari</em>, even though a mourner does recite <em>She’asah li kol tzorki</em>, it is not recited on those days, as is written by the <em>Chida</em><em>Ben Ish Chai</em>, and <em>Kaf HaChaim</em> 46:17. <em>Rav Pe’alim</em> 2:8 writes that according to this <em>minhag</em>, even at the end of the fast it is not recited. (However, in <em>Ma’asei Rav</em> 9 it is written that the <em>Gra</em> was accustomed to reciting it at the conclusion of the fast).</i>
  
  Section 4
  
  The Morning Blessings / Until When May One Recite Birkot HaShachar?
  Whoever forgot to recite Birkot HaShachar before the prayer service may recite them afterwards, with the exception of the blessing Al netilat yadayim, which may not be recited after praying because it was instituted as a preparation for prayer. Similarly, he may not recite Birkot HaTorah since he already fulfilled his obligation by saying Ahavat Olam. Also, he may not recite Elokai Neshamah, since there are those who say that he already fulfilled his obligation to recite Elokai Neshamah when he recited Birkat Mechayei hameitim in the Amidah.
  Therefore, one who must skip Birkot HaShachar in order to pray in a minyan on time should at least recite Al netilat yadayim, Elokai Neshamah, and Birkot HaTorah first, because if he does not recite them first, he will not be able to make them up after the prayer service (Mishnah Berurah 52:2).2<i class="footnote">For a more extensive outline of the laws of<em> Birkot HaTorah</em>, see further in this book, 10:2 and note 2. Concerning <em>Elokai Neshamah</em>, the <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 52:9 and <em>Bei’ur Halachah</em> write that the <em>Pri Chadash</em> maintains that one fulfills his obligation by reciting <em>Birkat</em><em>Mechayei hameitim</em>. The <em>Chayei Adam</em> and <em>Derech HaChaim</em> quote him. However, <em>Ma’amar Mordechai</em> disagrees with him. That is also what the <em>Pri Megadim</em> understands from the <em>Rama</em>’s words, and what we can infer from the <em>Gra</em>’s writings. In any case, in order to avoid uncertainty, one who skips <em>Birkot HaShachar</em> in order to pray in a <em>minyan</em> should first recite <em>Elokai Neshamah</em>. If he did not recite it, he may not recite it after the prayer service, for <em>safek berachot l’hakel</em>, (when there is doubt regarding the recital of <em>berachot</em> we are lenient). However, the <em>Bei’ur Halachah</em> writes that one may rely on all of the <em>poskim</em> who maintain that one may recite <em>Elokai Neshamah</em> after the prayer service. Further, the <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> writes that if he explicitly has <em>kavanah</em> in <em>Birkat</em><em>Mechayei hameitim</em> not to fulfill his obligation for saying <em>Elokai Neshamah</em>, he does not fulfill it and he may recite it after the prayer service. However, the <em>Yechaveh Da’at</em> 4:5, in the footnote, writes that this <em>kavanah</em> does not help. According to this, if, in the middle of saying <em>Birkot Keriat Shema</em>, he remembers that he did not recite <em>Birkot HaShachar</em>, he should recite <em>Elokai Neshamah</em> even between the <em>berachot</em>, so as not to miss out on saying it altogether (<em>Yalkut Yosef</em> 46:23-24).</i>
  Until when may he recite them? Since there are those who equate the time to recite the berachot to the time of the Amidah, l’chatchilah he should try to recite them before the first four hours of the day have passed, and b’dieved until chatzot (halachic noon). However, if he did not succeed in saying them before chatzot, b’dieved he may recite them the whole day. The reason for this is that according to the majority of poskim, the time to say the berachot differs from the time to recite Shacharit, because Birkot HaShachar are blessings of thanks for the good things from which people derive pleasure throughout the day.3<i class="footnote">The <em>Derech HaChaim</em>, based on the <em>Magen Avraham</em>, writes that the laws of <em>Birkot HaShachar</em> are equal to the laws of the <em>Amidah</em>, and just as the time of the <em>Amidah</em> lasts four proportional hours, which is a third of the day, so does the time to recite <em>Birkot HaShachar</em>. There are those who maintain that just as <em>b’dieved</em> one may recite <em>Shacharit </em>until <em>chatzot</em> (halachic noon), the same is true for <em>Birkot HaShachar</em> (Rabbi Shlomo Kluger). <em>Kaf HaChaim</em> 71:4 writes that if one already prayed <em>Shacharit</em> he may recite <em>Birkot HaShachar</em> within the first four hours of the day, and if he did not yet pray <em>Shacharit</em>, he may recite them until <em>chatzot</em>. However, according to the majority of <em>poskim</em><em>Birkot HaShachar</em> are not directly linked to prayer, and one who forgets to recite them in the morning may recite them the entire day, and that is what is written in <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 52:10 and <em>Rav Pe’alim</em> 2, <em>Orach Chaim</em> 8. (According to the <em>Gra</em>, if one forgot to recite them during the day, he may say them even at night until he goes to sleep. The <em>Yalkut Yosef</em> 46:25 writes that one who practices this way has on whom to rely.)</i>
  
  Section 5
  
  The Morning Blessings / The Time to Recite Birkot HaShachar for One Who Wakes Up in the Middle of the Night
  L’chatchilah, all the blessings should be recited as close as possible to the time one wakes from his sleep and it is not necessary to say them specifically after alot hashachar. Therefore, one who gets up before alot hashachar in order to learn Torah, to work, or for any other purpose, must recite Birkot HaShachar immediately upon waking up. However, Birkot HaShachar may not be recited before chatzot (halachic midnight). Therefore, a person who wakes up before chatzot must wait until after chatzot to recite Birkot HaShachar. If he recites them before that time, he does not fulfill his obligation (Mishnah Berurah 47:31; Kaf HaChaim 29).4<i class="footnote">Regarding the <em>berachah</em><em>Hanoten lasechvi vinah</em>, the <em>Shulchan Aruch</em> 47:13 writes, based on the <em>Rosh</em> and the <em>Tur</em>, that he must wait until the light of day begins to appear in order to recite it. The <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 47:31 and <em>Bei’ur Halachah</em> write that the <em>Acharonim</em><em>Magen Avraham</em> in the name of the <em>Zohar</em><em>Pri Chadash</em>, and the <em>Gra</em>) agree that even this <em>berachah</em> may be recited before daylight arrives. However, the <em>Chayei Adam</em> writes that <em>l’chatchilah</em> if one recites it before daylight, he should be careful not to recite it before he actually hears a rooster crow. The <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> concludes that <em>b’dieved</em> one fulfills his obligation even if he recites it before hearing a rooster crow, as long as he recited it after <em>chatzot</em><em>Kaf HaChaim</em> 30 writes in the name of the <em>Pri Chadash</em> and the <em>Chida</em> that according to the halachah and the <em>Zohar</em><em>l’chatchilah</em>, one may recite it after <em>chatzot</em>. That is what I wrote above, since <em>b’dieved</em> everyone agrees that he fulfills his obligation. There is also concern that if one divides the recital of <em>Birkot HaShachar</em>, he will forget to recite a certain <em>berachah</em> afterwards.</i>
  One who wakes up after chatzot for a few hours and plans on returning to sleep until the time to recite Shacharit, such as a soldier who gets up after chatzot for guard duty and goes back to sleep, must say Birkot HaShachar after his main waking. If, in his opinion, his initial waking is his main one, and he considers any sleep after that similar to a nap in the middle of the day, he must recite them after the first sleep. If his second rising is his main one, he must recite them after the second rising. However, the kabbalistic custom is that as long as the first rising is after chatzot, he must say Birkot HaShachar after the first rising. If he did not say them after the first rising, then he must say them after the second.5<i class="footnote">The <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 47:30 writes that if the first time he wakes up is after <em>chatzot</em>, he may recite <em>Birkot HaShachar</em>. He did not specify whether it is preferable to recite them particularly after the first rising. However, the <em>Kaf HaChaim</em> 46:49 writes based on the Kabbalah, that it is best to recite them following the first waking after <em>chatzot</em>. One who cannot determine which rising is considered his main one should practice according to the <em>Kaf HaChaim</em> and recite them after the first rising.Further, it is important to note that according to the Mishnah Berurah 47:30, the <em>berachot</em>, Elokai Neshamah and Hama’avir sheinah me’einai are to be recited after the first rising without <em>Shem u’Malchut</em> (Hashem’s name), and the second time he recites them with <em>Shem u’Malchut</em>. However, if he recited them with <em>Shem u’Malchut</em> the first time, he may not go back and repeat them a second time. The <em>Bei’ur Halachah</em> expands on this, saying that according to the <em>Pri Chadash</em> they must be recited only after he finishes sleeping that night. If he recites them the first time he wakes up, he does not fulfill his obligation, and he must go back and recite them after the second time he wakes up. The <em>Chayei Adam</em> agrees with him concerning <em>Hama’avir sheinah</em>. However, <em>Sha’arei Teshuvah</em> and<em> Derech HaChaim</em> write not to repeat it after waking up the second time. Therefore, the <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> rules that if a person already recited them, he may not go back and say them again. <em>Kaf HaChaim</em> 46:49 writes in the name of a number of <em>poskim</em> and kabbalists that even these two <em>berachot</em> need to be recited the first time with <em>Shem u’Malchut</em> and any sleep after that is considered similar to a nap taken during the day. That is how <em>Sephardim</em> practice. The <em>Ashkenazim</em> follow the <em>Mishnah Berurah</em>, yet, even according to him, if they recited the blessing the first time, they fulfilled their obligation. In my humble opinion, it seems that it is better to teach both <em>Ashkenazim</em> and <em>Sepharadim</em> to recite all the <em>berachot</em> after the main waking, because when one recites most of the <em>berachot</em> with the first rising and leaves two <em>berachot</em> for the second rising, there is concern that he will make a mistake, either by forgetting to say the last two <em>berachot</em>, or by accidentally reciting all the <em>berachot</em> again the second time he wakes up. Therefore, I concluded above to recite all of <em>Birkot HaShachar</em> after the main waking and even when the first waking is the main one, a person who recites <em>Elokai Neshamah</em> and <em>Hama’avir sheinah</em> at that point has on whom to rely.According to the kabbalists, the best time to recite <em>Birkot HaShachar</em> for one who was awake all night is after <em>chatzot</em>, and <em>Birkot HaTorah</em> after <em>alot hashachar</em>. However, the <em>Ben Ish Chai</em>, <em>Toldot</em> 14, writes concerning someone who goes to sleep after <em>chatzot</em>, that although according to the <em>Rashash</em> he may recite <em>Birkot HaShachar</em> after <em>chatzot</em> before he goes to sleep, the custom is to recite them after one wakes up, as <em>Rav Eliyahu</em> writes in his <em>siddur</em>, p. 3.</i>
  It is the opinion of most poskim that the law regarding Birkot HaTorah is similar to the ruling for blessings recited upon the performance of mitzvot. Therefore one must recite them every time he wakes up from a regular sleep at night. Still, there are those who have the custom to recite them only after the first rising (see the laws of Birkot HaTorah further in this book 10:6).
  
  Section 6
  
  The Morning Blessings / One Who Was Awake All Night
  As a general rule, even a person who did not sleep all night recites Birkot HaShachar. As we learned (in halachah 3), these berachot were instituted on the basis of general benefit, and therefore, even if one does not personally derive pleasure from something, he still recites a berachah on it. However, there is a difference in minhag regarding a number of berachot.
  Concerning washing one’s hands, it is agreed that a person needs to wash his hands before praying. However, the poskim differ regarding whether or not to recite a berachah on this washing. According to the Mishnah Berurah (4:30), before praying, it is best relieve oneself and touch a part of the body which is normally covered, thereby necessitating the washing of one’s hands with a berachah. However, in any case, the Sephardic minhag is not to say a berachah on this washing (Kaf HaChaim 4:49, and see above 8:2).
  Similarly, regarding Birkot HaTorah, there is a dispute as to whether or not one is obligated to repeat these berachot with the dawn of a new day. Therefore it is best to hear the berachot recited by someone who slept, with the intention to fulfill the obligation by hearing them. If one cannot find another person around him who can recite the berachot for him to hear, some poskim rule that one may recite them by himself. Such is the custom of Sephardim and some Ashkenazim. There are others who rule that one should have in mind to fulfill his obligation in Ahavah Rabbah, and that is how most Ashkenazim practice (see the laws of Birkot HaTorah further in this book 10:7).
  There is also doubt concerning Elokai Neshamah and Hama’avir sheinah, since some say that only one who has slept may recite them. In order to avoid uncertainty, it is best to hear these berachot being recited by someone who slept, and in doing so fulfill his obligation. If there is no one around to recite them, according to the Sephardic minhag and some Ashkenazic poskim, one may recite them himself, although the Mishnah Berurah maintains that he should not.
  In summary: according to the Sephardic minhag and some Ashkenazim, one recites all the berachot, with the exception of Al netilat yadayim, and it is best to hear another person recite Birkot HaTorah, Elokai Neshamah, and Hama’avir sheinah. According to the majority of the Ashkenazim, based on the Mishnah Berurah, one first goes to the bathroom and then recites Al netilat yadayim. Concerning Birkot HaTorah, Elokai Neshamah, and Hama’avir sheinah, one should hear another person recite them. If there is no one else there who needs to say these berachot, a person may not recite them on his own; rather he should have in mind to fulfill his obligation of Birkot HaTorah in Ahavah Rabbah.6<i class="footnote">he Sephardic <em>minhag</em>, based on the <em>Ari</em>, is explained in <em>Kaf HaChaim</em> 46:49. The <em>Kaf HaChaim </em>also writes that according to the Kabbalah, <em>Birkot HaShachar</em> should be recited immediately after <em>chatzot</em>; however, one must be careful to recite <em>Birkot HaTorah </em>only after <em>alot hashachar</em>. See further in this book, chapter 10, note 8.The <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 46:24 writes that according to the <em>Eliyah Rabbah</em>, one who did not sleep should not recite <em>Elokai Neshamah</em> and <em>Hama’avir sheinah</em>. The <em>Pri Megadim</em> and the <em>Sha’arei Teshuvah</em> indicate that this matter requires further study. The <em>Sha’arei Teshuvah</em> concludes that one should fulfill his obligation by hearing them recited from another person. This implies that if there is no one he can listen to recite the <em>berachot</em> he may not recite them due to doubt. Still, the <em>Aruch HaShulchan</em> 46:13 writes that according to the <em>Rama</em> one may recite the <em>berachot</em>. An <em>Ashkenazi</em> who follows that custom has on whom to rely (and perhaps in order to limit disagreement, the ruling should be according to them). Regarding <em>Birkot HaTorah</em>, see the laws of<em> Birkot HaTorah</em> further in this book 10:7, where the opinions and customs are clarified.</i>
  
  
  
  
  
  Section 1
  
  The Blessings on the Torah / The Value of Birkot HaTorah
  After the Land of Israel was destroyed, and the nation of Israel was exiled, a major question arose, reflected in the words of the prophet (Jeremiah 9:11): “Why has the land been destroyed?” Certainly, everyone knew that we were exiled from our land as a result of our sins, but the question was: what was the fundamental sin behind the spiritual collapse that led to the destruction? The Chachamim, the prophets, and the ministering angels were asked this question and did not know how to answer, until HaKadosh Baruch Hu Himself explained, “Hashem says: ‘Because they abandoned My Torah which I had given them’” (ibid., 9:12). Chazal interpret this to mean that they did not recite the blessing on the Torah before engaging in its study (Nedarim 81a). That is to say, although they actually learned Torah, they did not relate to it as Divine instruction. Because of this, they were considered to have forsaken the Torah of Hashem. For anyone who learns Torah as if it is just one of the wisdoms of the world is not considered one who learns Torah at all. However, when we recite Birkot HaTorah properly, indeed we approach Torah out of faith and attachment to the One who granted it to us.
  The Chachamim further inquire (Nedarim 81a): why is it that not all the sons of talmidei chachamim (Torah scholars) continue in their fathers’ paths and become talmidei chachamim themselves? For without a doubt the fathers wanted their children to follow in their footsteps and become engrossed in Torah all their lives, and strove to educate them in that direction. If so, why did they not all succeed ? Moreover, in those days, it was widely accepted that every son continue in his father’s profession: sons of carpenters became carpenters, sons of farmers became farmers, and so on. Consequently, the Gemara’s question is all the more perplexing – why don’t a relatively large percentage of sons of talmidei chachamim become talmidei chachamim themselves? There are a number of explanations brought in the Talmud, the last one being Ravina’s, which states that it is because they do not recite Birkot HaTorah before learning. In other words, many times, sons of talmidei chachamim learn Torah only because they see their fathers learning; as sons like to mimic their fathers, they too, strive to learn Torah. However, Torah can only be acquired by learning for the sake of Heaven (l’shem Shamayim), out of a personal desire to attach oneself  to the One who grants us the Torah, and therefore, those sons who learn out of compulsion, routine, or merely mimicking their fathers, do not see blessing in their learning.
  
  Section 2
  
  The Blessings on the Torah / The Content of the Torah Blessings and the Ruling Regarding Ahavat Olam
  Birkot HaTorah are comprised of three parts. In the first part, we bless Hashem who sanctified us with His mitzvot and commanded us to occupy ourselves with the study of Torah. In the second, we request that the Torah, which Hashem taught His nation Israel, be pleasant to us, that we merit learning it with desire, and that we and our offspring have the privilege of understanding the depth of its content.1<i class="footnote">The <em>Rishonim</em> and <em>Acharonim</em> disagree regarding how many <em>berachot</em> are included in <em>Birkot HaTorah</em>. According to <em>Rabbeinu Tam</em><em>Rosh</em>, and others, there are two <em>berachot</em>, and the second part is a continuation of the first. Therefore, one must begin “<em>V’Ha’arev</em>” with a connecting <em>vav </em><em>vav hachibur</em>) and <em>Amen</em> is not recited upon the conclusion of the first part. According to the <em>Rambam</em> and others, there are three <em>berachot</em>; hence the word “<em>Ha’arev</em>” is recited (without a <em>vav</em>) and <em>Amen</em> is to be answered after the first part. The <em>Shulchan Aruch</em><em>Orach Chaim</em> 47:6, writes that it is preferable to start “<em>V’Ha’arev</em>” with a <em>vav</em> in order to fulfill the obligation according to all opinions. The <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 47:12 writes that it is the opinion of most <em>Acharonim</em> not to answer <em>Amen</em> at the end of the first part. Therefore, it is best to say it quietly in order to avoid uncertainty. Nonetheless, the <em>Ben Ish Chai</em> and <em>Kaf HaChaim</em> 47:10 and 47:13 write that one should answer <em>Amen</em> after it, even though we say “<em>V’Ha’arev</em>” with a <em>vav</em>, for that is what <em>Rav Chaim Vital</em> testified in the name of the <em>Ari</em></i>
  In the third part, we bless and thank Hashem for choosing us from among all the nations and giving us His Torah. The Chachamim say (Berachot 11b) that this is the prime berachah of Birkot HaTorah, since it mentions the unique virtue of the nation of Israel, that Hashem “chose us from among all the nations” and, because of this Divine selection, consequently “gave us His Torah.” This is the nature of Israel’s soul, that it is attached and devoted to Hashem and His Torah, and therefore only the nation of Israel can receive the Torah and with it illuminate the world. Among the nations of the world, there may be righteous and devout gentiles, but this is a personal piety of individual people who lack the ability to repair the entire world. As seen from our long history, only the nation of Israel can serve Hashem within a national framework and strive to uplift and rectify the world in the path of truth and kindness.
  Based on this, it is clear why the Ahavat Olam berachah (“Ahavah Rabbah,” according to Nusach Ashkenaz), which we say before the recital of Shema, can replace Birkot HaTorah. The main part of this prayer refers to Hashem’s love for Israel and its conclusion is, “Who chooses His people Israel with love.” Additionally, the subject of Torah is mentioned at length, for Israel and the Torah are inseparable.
  In practice, one who is not certain as to whether he recited Birkot HaTorah can have kavanah to fulfill his obligation of Birkot HaTorah when reciting Ahavat Olam. Likewise, one who forgets to recite Birkot HaTorah before praying and arrives at Ahavat Olam should have in mind to fulfill his obligation of Birkot HaTorah when saying it, and after the prayer service remember to learn words of Torah as one does after Birkot HaTorah (Shulchan Aruch 47:7).2<i class="footnote">The source for this is in <em>Berachot</em> 11b where it mentions that the <em>berachah</em> is called “<em>Ahavah Rabbah</em>” according to <em>Nusach Ashkenaz </em>and “<em>Ahavat Olam</em>” according to <em>Nusach Sephard</em> (following the opinion of <em>rabbanan</em> there). Concerning one who forgets to recite <em>Birkot HaTorah</em> and arrives at <em>Ahavat Olam</em>, the <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 52:9 writes that he should have in mind to fulfill his obligation when reciting <em>Ahavat Olam</em>. Additionally, see <em>Bei’ur Halachah</em> s.v. “<em>Poteret</em>,” where it seems from <em>Talmidei Rabbeinu Yonah</em> that one must have <em>kavanah</em> explicitly in this <em>berachah</em> in order to fulfill his obligation. However, according to the <em>Rosh</em>, even without <em>kavanah</em>, one fulfills his obligation <em>b’dieved</em> by saying it, and that is what is inferred from the <em>Acharonim</em>. They further debate whether one must learn Torah immediately afterwards. The <em>Yerushalmi</em> writes that one is required to learn and that is the opinion of the majority of <em>Rishonim</em>. However, some say (<em>Tosafot Berachot</em> 11a) that the <em>Bavli</em> disagrees, and therefore, according to them it is unnecessary to learn immediately after its recital. Further, they are uncertain as to whether <em>Shema</em> can be considered learning. In order to avoid uncertainty, one must learn something immediately after praying. (According to most <em>poskim</em>, the recital of <em>Shema</em> is not considered learning; see <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 17 and <em>Bei’ur Halachah</em> in the name of Rabbi Akiva Eiger.) However, even if a person did not learn, he fulfilled his obligation <em>b’dieved </em><em>Shulchan Aruch HaRav</em> 6; <em>Kaf HaChaim</em> 17). Additionally, we do learn at the end of the prayer service, for the recital of <em>U’va L’Tzion</em> was instituted so that every Jew would learn verses from the books of the prophets (<em>Nevi’im</em>) every day, and for that purpose the words were translated, as explained further in this book 23:2. Similarly, we say <em>Pitum HaKetoret</em> and <em>Tanna D’vei Eliyahu</em> for the sake of learning <em>Chazal</em>’s words, as is clarified further in this book 23:5.</i>
  
  Section 3
  
  The Blessings on the Torah / Is the Recital of Birkot HaTorah a Biblical Commandment?
  “Rav Yehudah says in the name of Rav, where do we learn that [the obligation to] recite a blessing prior [to learning Torah] is biblical? As it is written (Deuteronomy 32:3), ‘When I proclaim Hashem’s Name, ascribe greatness to our God’” (Berachot 21a). The interpretation of this verse is that the entire Torah is comprised of the names of HaKadosh Baruch Hu (Zohar, part 2, 87:1; Tikunei Zohar, Tikun 10) for He is completely concealed from us, and through the Torah HaKadosh Baruch Hu is revealed to the world. Hence, we learn that the Torah is the names of HaKadosh Baruch Hu and through it He is manifest. That is the meaning of the verse, “Ki Shem Hashem ekra,” “When I proclaim Hashem’s Name” – before learning Torah, “Havu godel l’Elokeinu,” “Ascribe Greatness to our God” – recite a blessing for the Giver of the Torah.
  In practice, the Rishonim are divided concerning the question of whether these words should be taken literally, making the recital of Birkot HaTorah before learning a biblical commandment. According to the Rambam and the Shulchan Aruch (Orach Chaim 209:3), reciting Birkot HaTorah is a rabbinic enactment and what Chazal extrapolated from the verse is none other than an asmachta (a reference). Based on this, in a case of doubt, one must be lenient and refrain from reciting the blessings, and that is the custom of the Sephardim (Kaf HaChaim 47:2). According to the majority of Rishonim, among them the Ramban and the Rashba, the source for the mitzvah to recite Birkot HaTorah is biblical. Therefore, when a person is uncertain as to whether or not he recited Birkot HaTorah, he must be stringent and recite them, in keeping with the rule, sefeika d’oraita l’chumra (we are stringent concerning matters of biblical uncertainty), and that is the minhag of the Ashkenazim (Mishnah Berurah 47:1).3<i class="footnote">According to the <em>Rambam</em><em>Birkat HaMazon</em> is the only blessing that is a biblical commandment, and that is what the <em>Shulchan Aruch</em><em>Orach Chaim</em> 209:3, writes. However, most <em>Rishonim</em> and <em>Acharonim</em> maintain that <em>Birkot HaTorah</em> are also a biblical obligation. Similarly, the <em>Sha’agat Aryeh</em> 24 proves this from the fact that the <em>Gemara</em> wants to learn a principle of<em> kal vachomer</em> from <em>Birkot HaTorah</em> and apply it to the <em>berachah</em> before eating and a <em>kal vachomer</em> principle cannot be learned from a rabbinic ruling. Nevertheless, concerning a case of uncertainty, although there are those who rule to recite all the <em>berachot</em>, he writes that one must recite only the “<em>Asher bachar banu</em><em>berachah</em> as it is written in the <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 47:1. See <em>Yalkut Yosef</em> 47:2 for an expanded list of sources. Additionally see <em>Aruch HaShulchan</em> 47:2 who explains that even according to the <em>Rambam</em><em>Birkot HaTorah</em> is biblical, yet it is included in the mitzvah of learning Torah and therefore is not listed as its own commandment.</i>
  However, all opinions agree that if there is a person present who did not yet recite Birkot HaTorah, it is preferable to fulfill one’s obligation by hearing him recite them and in that way avoid uncertainty. When there is no such option, if one is about to pray and recite Ahavat Olam (or Ahavah Rabbah), he should have kavanah to fulfill his obligation of Birkot HaTorah in his recital of that berachah. Nevertheless, if the time to pray has not yet arrived, and there is no one whom he can hear recite the berachot, according to those who maintain that the obligation to recite Birkot HaTorah is biblical, he must be stringent and recite them out of uncertainty. It is sufficient to recite only the third berachah, “Asher bachar banu” (“Who chose us,”) for it is the most important from among Birkot HaTorah.
  
  Section 4
  
  The Blessings on the Torah / Before What Type of Learning Must the Berachot Be Recited?
  One must recite Birkot HaTorah before learning any part of the Torah (Shulchan Aruch, Orach Chaim, 47:2). In other words, even one who only intends to learn Midrash or halachah on a particular day must recite Birkot HaTorah at the onset of that day. The reason for this is that the entire Torah – whether it is Torah Shebichtav (the Written Torah) or Torah Sheb’al Peh (the Oral Torah), the halachic segments or the philosophical – was all given from Hashem to Moshe on Mount Sinai (Yerushalmi, Pe’ah, chapter 2, halachah 4) and when studying them, one must recite, “Who chose us from among all His nations and gave us His Torah.”
  There is dissension among the poskim regarding whether or not Birkot HaTorah must also be recited before thinking Torah thoughts. For example, a person who arises in the morning with the desire to ponder a few ideas of Torah, according to most poskim does not need to recite the berachot. Still, there are those who disagree. In order to avoid uncertainty, one who wakes up and wishes to reflect upon words of Torah should first recite Birkot HaTorah and immediately afterwards say a few verses. However, someone who temporarily wakes from his sleep in the middle of the night, and wants to contemplate Torah ideas until he falls back to sleep, need not recite Birkot HaTorah.4<i class="footnote">ccording to the <em>Shulchan Aruch</em> 47:4, it is only necessary to recite a blessing if the learning is actually said out loud, since that is the essence of Torah learning, as it is written (Joshua 1:8), “This book of the Torah shall not depart from your mouth. You shall meditate thereon day and night.” Although in-depth study of certain matters is possible and perhaps even preferable to do via one’s thoughts, still, at all other times it is necessary to learn by saying the words out loud (<em>Shulchan Aruch HaRav</em>,<em> Hilchot Talmud Torah</em> 2:12). In that way, the learning one accomplishes becomes clearer and the abstract ideas he learned via thought are understood better. Further, someone who learns out loud remembers his learning better (see <em>Eiruvin</em> 54a). However, the <em>Vilna Gaon </em>(<em>Gra</em>)<em> </em>maintains<em> </em>that even though the essence of one’s learning should be done out loud, nonetheless, even thinking the words and ideas of the Torah is part of the mitzvah, as it says (Joshua 1:8), “You shall meditate thereon day and night,” and “meditating” is thinking. Therefore, it is necessary to recite <em>Birkot HaTorah</em> prior to mental learning as well. <em>Kaf HaChaim</em> 6 mentions opinions that someone who is reading a book usually will also read with his mouth. Nevertheless, although it is good to take into consideration the opinion of the <em>Gra</em>, one must say a few verses aloud after <em>Birkot HaTorah</em> in order to adjoin the blessing to the learning. For that reason, it is customary to recite the verses of <em>Birkat Kohanim</em> after <em>Birkot HaTorah</em> (<em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 47:5). One who wakes from his sleep and wants to continue lying in his bed can rub his hands on his blanket, recite <em>Birkot HaTorah</em>, say a few verses, and ponder Torah thoughts, as explained in <em>Shulchan Aruch Orach Chaim</em> 4:23 and <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> paragraphs 59 and 61. If he wakes up in the middle of his sleep, I wrote that he may think thoughts of Torah without reciting the <em>berachot</em>, taking into consideration the opinion of the <em>Shulchan Aruch </em>and our custom to bless once a day  following <em>Rabbeinu Tam</em>, as explained further in this chapter in <em>halachot</em> 6 and 7.</i>
  Those who listen to Jewish music when they wake up in the morning or in the middle of the night do not need to recite Birkot HaTorah since they do not have the intention to learn.
  One may recite Birkot HaTorah and Birkot HaShachar while standing, sitting, lying down, and walking. Nevertheless, there are those who are strict to say Birkot HaTorah while standing, or walking, but not while sitting or lying down.5<i class="footnote">The <em>Rishonim</em> write that <em>Birkot HaMitzvot</em> must be recited while standing. Therefore, the <em>berachah</em> recited on wrapping oneself in <em>tzitzit</em>, for example, is recited while standing, as well as the <em>berachah</em> before blowing the <em>shofar</em> or shaking the <em>lulav</em><em>Beit Yosef</em><em> Orach Chaim</em>, beginning of section 8). Based on this, it would seem to be necessary to recite <em>Birkot HaTorah</em> while standing as well, for these blessings are also included in <em>Birkot HaMitzvot</em>. However, it is the opinion of the <em>Pnei Yehoshua</em><em>Megillah</em> 21a), that the obligation to stand pertains to <em>mitzvot</em> which are performed while standing, such as harvesting the sheaves of grain (for<em> Korban HaOmer</em>) and blowing the <em>shofar</em>, but regarding <em>mitzvot</em> that can be performed either while standing or sitting, such as Torah learning, one may recite the blessing while sitting. That is what is written in <em>Yechaveh</em><em>Da’at</em> 5:4. <em>Yaskil Avdi</em> 8:3 adds that according to <em>sod </em>(mysticism), it is correct to recite <em>Birkot HaTorah</em> while standing. All this is <em>lechatchilah</em>; however, obviously one who recites the blessing while sitting fulfills his obligation. Even blowing the <em>shofar</em> and counting the <em>Omer</em> may, in extenuating circumstances, be performed while sitting, as clarified in <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 8:2. In practice, many <em>Ashkenazim</em> follow the custom to recite <em>Birkot HaTorah</em> and <em>Birkot HaShachar</em> while standing or walking, but not while sitting.</i>
  
  Section 5
  
  The Blessings on the Torah / Birkot HaTorah for the Whole Day
  Birkot HaTorah are recited in the morning in conjunction with the recital of Birkot HaShachar, and they encompass all learning performed throughout that day. Even if a person goes to eat and to work afterwards, he does not need to recite Birkot HaTorah upon returning to learn.
  In that respect Birkot HaTorah differ from other Birkot HaMitzvot (berachot recited upon the performance of a mitzvah). Concerning all other mitzvot, every time a person performs the mitzvah anew, he must recite another berachah because the mitzvot are only designated for a specific time of the day, or for a particular act. For example, the mitzvah of sukkah requires that a person eat and sleep in the sukkah, while at all other times he is permitted to go wherever he desires. Similarly, the mitzvah of tallit can be fulfilled after one minute of the day. Therefore, every time one wraps himself anew in his tallit, or goes into the sukkah to eat another meal, he must repeat the particular berachah intended for that mitzvah.
  However, the mitzvah of learning Torah is a general mitzvah that encompasses all of a person’s days and hours, as it is written (Joshua 1:8), “You shall meditate thereon day and night.” Even if a person learned in the morning, the commandment to learn still applies at night and at every available hour (Tosafot, Berachot 11b, s.v. “Shekvar”). Further, even when a person is not learning Torah, the Torah guides his life within the confines of halachah, middot (proper character traits), and faith. Even when a person is relieving himself or bathing, times at which it is prohibited to think Torah thoughts, there are halachot guiding him in these instances also, thus illustrating that no one can ever detach himself from Torah (see Agur, section 1, brought by the Beit Yosef 47:11). Therefore, Birkot HaTorah recited in the morning cover all of one’s learning throughout that day, and any work or business conducted in the interim is not considered to be an interruption (Shulchan Aruch 47:10).6<i class="footnote">The <em>Rishonim</em> disagree concerning the question of whether it is an obligation to learn a few verses of Torah immediately upon reciting <em>Birkot HaTorah</em>. According to<em> Ri</em>, one of the <em>Ba’alei HaTosafot</em><em>Berachot</em> 11b, “<em>Shekvar</em>”), <em>Birkot HaTorah</em> differ from the other <em>Birkot HaMitzvot</em> in that they are not directed only towards the present learning, rather they are designated for Torah learning throughout the entire day. Therefore, there is no obligation to learn specifically after the <em>berachah</em>, rather the obligation is to learn something during the day. That is how the <em>Beit Yosef</em> interprets the opinions of the <em>Rosh</em> and the <em>Tur</em> as well. However, the <em>Rambam</em> maintains that the law concerning <em>Birkot HaTorah</em> is like all <em>Birkot HaMitzvot</em>, in which it is necessary to adjoin the <em>berachah</em> to the mitzvah and therefore one must learn immediately following its recital. If he does not learn immediately, the <em>berachah</em> becomes nullified. This case is similar to a person who wants to eat cake and recites, “<em>Borei minei</em><em>mezonot</em>”, yet does not eat right away, and instead goes to do other things. When he finally wants to eat from the cake, he will need to go back and repeat the <em>Mezonot </em>blessing. Even though it seems from the <em>Shulchan Aruch</em> that the ruling is according to<em> Ri</em>, nonetheless, in the opinion of many <em>Acharonim</em> we follow the <em>Rambam</em><em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 47:19), for the <em>Rama</em> in <em>Darkei Moshe</em> explains the opinions of the <em>Rosh</em> and the <em>Tur</em> like the <em>Rambam</em>. Nowadays, the prevalent <em>minhag</em> among all Jews is to recite the three verses of <em>Birkat Kohanim</em> after <em>Birkot HaTorah</em> and that is considered learning after the <em>berachah</em>. After that, many add other rabbinic words such as “<em>Eilu devarim</em>…”, for they contain words of <em>Mishnah</em> and <em>Beraita</em>, (which are considered words of <em>Gemara</em>), and in that way every Jew merits learning Scripture, <em>Mishnah</em>, and <em>Gemara</em> daily.</i>
  
  Section 6
  
  The Blessings on the Torah / Is Sleep Considered an Interruption Regarding Birkot HaTorah?
  The poskim are divided as to whether sleep is considered a break after which it is necessary to repeat the recital of Birkot HaTorah.
  According to most Rishonim, among them the Rosh, a person’s regular sleep in his bed is considered an interruption regarding Birkot HaTorah. The whole time a person is awake, the Torah continuously escorts and guides him. However, when a person sleeps, he ceases to think and his consciousness fades. Therefore, sleep is deemed an interruption regarding the mitzvah to learn Torah. Based on this, it is necessary in principle to recite Birkot HaTorah even after a nap during the day. Nonetheless, it has been customary to consider daytime sleep, even if it lasts a long time, to be temporary sleep, which does not constitute an interruption; hence, Birkot HaTorah recited in the morning are also effective after a daytime nap. However, regular sleep at night is an interruption and one must recite Birkot HaTorah after it. Therefore, one who needs to arise in the middle of the night for guard duty, and intends to return to sleep afterwards, recites Birkot HaTorah twice, once when he wakes up for guard duty, and a second time when he wakes up in the morning. That is the practice of Ashkenazim and many Sephardim (Shulchan Aruch, Orach Chaim 47:11; Mishnah Berurah 29).
  There are those who say that sleep is not considered to be an interruption concerning Birkot HaTorah and that the law of Birkot HaTorah is similar to the law of Birkot HaShachar, which are recited once a day. Therefore, one who wakes up in the middle of the night for guard duty recites Birkot HaTorah after the first waking and does not recite them after the second time he wakes up (Kaf HaChaim 47:29; concerning the laws of Birkot HaShachar see earlier in this book 9:5).7<i class="footnote">The <em>Beit Yosef</em> 47:11 and 13 explains that according to the majority of <em>poskim</em>, any regular sleep is considered to be an interruption. Yet, he cites <em>Rabbeinu Tam</em>, <em>Ram</em>, and <em>Talmidei Rabbeinu Yonah</em>, who maintain that <em>Birkot HaTorah</em> last until the <em>Shacharit</em> prayer of the next day. Even if he slept a regular sleep, it is not an interruption. In practice, the <em>Beit Yosef</em> concludes that only regarding regular sleep during the day do we take into consideration the opinions which maintain that it is not an interruption. That is what is written in <em>Shulchan Aruch</em> 47:13. However, regular sleep at night is considered to be an interruption and it is necessary to recite the blessings after it. This is what the <em>Pri Chadash</em> 47:13 and many other <em>Acharonim </em>write, as well as the <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 47:29, based on the absolute majority of the <em>poskim</em>. That is also what is written in <em>Yabia Omer</em> 8:5. Some <em>Acharonim</em> suggest compromises, such as reciting all <em>Birkot HaTorah</em> the first time and one <em>berachah</em> the second time (<em>Shut Maharsham</em> 3:337). However, according to the majority of <em>poskim</em>, one must recite all <em>Birkot HaTorah</em> after every regular sleep at night. What is the definition of regular sleep? The <em>Rosh</em> writes that sleep is considered regular when one goes to sleep on his bed. <em>Bei’ur Halachah</em>,<em> </em>section 4:16 writes that the middle opinion regarding sixty breaths taken while sleeping is approximately half an hour. See the note in <em>Yabia Omer</em> there.Moreover, the <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 47:25 writes that one who recites <em>Birkot HaTorah</em> after a regular sleep during the day does not lose out, because that is the opinion of the absolute majority of the <em>poskim</em>. (Additionally, according to most <em>poskim</em>, the obligation to recite <em>Birkot HaTorah</em> is biblical, and <em>sefeika d’oraita l’chumra</em>, when there is doubt concerning a biblical commandment, we are stringent.) Even so, the accepted <em>minhag</em> is not to recite the <em>berachot</em>. The <em>Kaf HaChaim</em> 25 writes in the name of the <em>Ben Ish Chai</em>, <em>Vayeshev</em> 12, that in order to avoid uncertainty it is best to recite the <em>berachot</em> in his thoughts. He further advises that while saying <em>Birkot HaTorah</em> in the morning one should have <em>kavanah</em> explicitly that they continue to last after sleep, for perhaps such <em>kavanah</em> will be effective. The <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 13 suggests having <em>kavanah</em> to fulfill the obligation of <em>Birkot HaTorah</em> in the recital of <em>Ahavat Olam</em> in <em>Ma’ariv</em>, and after the <em>berachah</em> to say a verse for the sake of learning, for we learned in halachah 2 that <em>Ahavat Olam</em> is considered to be like <em>Birkot HaTorah</em>.The opinion of the Ben Ish Chai, Vayeshev 13, also cited by the Kaf HaChaim 47:29, is that, according to Kabbalah, the law of Birkot HaTorah is similar to the law of Birkot HaShachar, that they are not recited twice in a 24-hour period. Their opinion is based on Rabbeinu Tam. However, according to Rabbeinu Tam, Birkot HaTorah are recited in the morning adjacent to Shacharit, and according to the Ben Ish Chai, if one slept twice at night, he recites the blessings after the first sleep and not after the second (and he should have kavanah in Ahavat Olam to fulfill the obligation of Birkot HaTorah). According to this, there is a certain distinction between Birkot HaShachar and Birkot HaTorah. Birkot HaTorah has two intentions: one, as part of Birkot HaShachar whose time starts after chatzot, and the second, as berachot before learning Torah. Therefore, one who wakes up close to chatzot should wait and recite Birkot HaTorah with Birkot HaShachar after chatzot. Yet, if he wakes up long before chatzot, he may recite them before chatzot alone. There were devout people who were accustomed even in such a case to wait and recite the blessings after chatzot.</i>
  
  Section 7
  
  The Blessings on the Torah / One Who Was Awake All Night
  According to the Rosh and most of the Rishonim, one who was awake all night, as on Shavuot night, may not recite Birkot HaTorah before Shacharit, because as long as he did not interrupt by sleeping, the previous day’s Birkot HaTorah still apply. That is how many eminent Acharonim rule (Pri Chadash, Gra, Chayei Adam). According to Rabbeinu Tam, however, he must recite Birkot HaTorah before Shacharit. Since Birkot HaTorah are intended to last for a 24-hour period, even if he did not sleep at all during that whole day, when the time arrives to recite Shacharit the next day, he must recite Birkot HaTorah again. That is what is said in the name of the Arizal, and that is the minhag of the Sephardim (Birkei Yosef 46:12; Ben Ish Chai, Berachah 3; Kaf HaChaim 47:26).
  In order to avoid uncertainty, it is preferable that someone who did not sleep at night hear someone else recite Birkot HaTorah, thereby fulfilling his obligation according to all opinions.
  If he cannot find someone who needs to recite Birkot HaTorah, according to the minhag of the Sephardim and some of the Ashkenazim, he should recite Birkot HaTorah himself. According to the minhag of the majority of Ashkenazim, he should have kavanah to fulfill the obligation of Birkot HaTorah in Ahavah Rabbah before Shema (Mishnah Berurah 47:28), for we have already learned (in halachah 2) that this berachah is considered like Birkot HaTorah. After praying he must learn a verse of scripture or a Mishnah in order to adjoin his learning to the berachah.8<i class="footnote">This is the Sephardic<em> minhag</em>, based on <em>Rabbeinu Tam</em>. One who was awake all night must be careful not to recite <em>Birkot HaTorah</em> before <em>amud hashachar</em>. <em>Shut HaElef Lecha Shlomo </em>33 writes that if he recited them before <em>amud hashachar</em> his <em>berachah</em> is in vain and it must be repeated after <em>amud hashachar</em>. That is also what is written in <em>Kaf Hachaim </em>47:29. The <em>Tzlach </em>in <em>Berachot</em> 11b is uncertain of this, and therefore the <em>Yalkut Yosef</em> 47:9 writes that if he recites the <em>berachah</em> before <em>amud hashachar</em>, he should have <em>kavanah</em> to fulfill his obligation in <em>Ahavat Olam</em>. (According to the <em>Ben Ish Chai</em>, those who are awake all night should recite <em>Birkot HaShachar</em> immediately after <em>chatzot</em> and only delay the recital of <em>Birkot HaTorah</em> until after <em>amud hashachar</em>.)Concerning the Ashkenazic custom, the <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> writes that if one is not in the vicinity of someone whom he can hear recite <em>Birkot HaTorah</em>, he can have <em>kavanah</em> to fulfill his obligation in <em>Ahavah Rabbah.</em> That is based on the <em>Chayei Adam</em> in the name of <em>Pri Chadash</em> and the <em>Gra.</em> It is also the prevalent <em>minhag</em>. However, according to the <em>Magen Avraham</em>, <em>Derech HaChaim</em>, <em>Eliyah Rabbah</em>, and <em>Shulchan Aruch HaRav</em> 7, he should recite the blessings himself. That is what is written in <em>Olat Ra’ayah</em> p. 59, as well. The reason for this is because the obligation to recite the <em>berachot</em> is biblical and <em>sefeika d’oriata l’chumra</em>, (when there is doubt concerning biblical obligations, we are stringent). Obviously, one who wishes to rely on them is permitted to do so.</i>
  Regarding that same person who stayed awake all night, if he slept a regular sleep during the day prior to that, according to all opinions he must recite Birkot HaTorah before reciting Shacharit.9<i class="footnote">So writes <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 47:28, according to Rabbi Akiva Eiger, that in this case, all <em>poskim</em> agree that one must recite <em>Birkot HaTorah</em>. According to the <em>Rosh</em>, this is because after a regular sleep during the day he is obligated to recite the <em>berachot</em>, and according to <em>Rabbeinu Tam</em>, because the new day has arrived.</i> (See earlier in this book 9:6 for a summary of the laws concerning one who was awake all night.)
  
  
  
  
  
  Section 1
  
  The Times of Keriat Shema and Shacharit / The Morning
  The first time of the day that has halachic significance is known as “amud hashachar” or “alot hashachar” (dawn). In a case of extenuating circumstances, one may begin reciting Shema and praying the Amidah from the time of amud hashachar, but under normal conditions it is prohibited. The Acharonim disagree whether amud hashachar is the time when the first glimmer of light appears in the east (Magen Avraham, Pri Megadim), or slightly afterwards, when that first light spreads out somewhat upon the eastern sky (Eliyah Rabbah, Gra).
  After amud hashachar, the time called “misheyakir” arrives. This is when enough light has already spread over the earth so that a person can recognize a friend, whom he is not accustomed to meeting, from a distance of four amot. At that time it is also possible to distinguish between techelet (a shade of skylike blue) and white. According to most poskim, l’chatchilah one may recite Keriat Shema then, but the time to recite the Amidah l’chatchilah has not yet arrived.
  “Netz hachamah” is sunrise, when the first part of the sun is visible. At that moment, the time to recite the Amidah l’chatchilah begins. One who recites Keriat Shema right before sunrise and prays the Amidah immediately with netz hachamah is known to be praying “vatikin,” greatly praised by the Chachamim.
  All of the mitzvot performed during the day, such as brit milah, begin at sunrise, since the time of day is defined by the sun. However, b’dieved, if they are performed from amud hashachar their obligations are fulfilled because, from a certain standpoint, the day begins even from the first glimmer of light (Megillah 20a).
  
  Section 2
  
  The Times of Keriat Shema and Shacharit / Calculation of the Morning Times
  According to many, the time difference between amud hashachar and netz hachamah in Israel is the time it takes to walk a distance of four mil, which is approximately 72 minutes. This means that in the months of Nisan or Tishrei, 72 minutes pass from the time the east lights up until the time the sun rises.
  It is important to understand that the calculation of this time changes according to the seasons of the year. During the days of Nisan and Tishrei (beginning March 5 and October 5), the duration of the sun’s ascent is shortest, and the sun rises 72 minutes after amud hashachar. However, during the winter, for reasons which cannot be outlined here, the duration of the sun’s ascent continues to lengthen until, at the height of winter (December 22), 78 minutes pass from amud hashachar until netz hachamah. In the summer, the time continues to extend even longer until, at its height (June 22), 88 minutes pass from amud hashachar until netz hachamah. In order to determine the precise time of amud hashachar according to this method, one must calculate the time that the sun will reach 16.1 degrees below the horizon every day – and that is the time of amud hashachar.
  These calculations are based on the opinion that amud hashachar begins when the eastern sky is slightly illuminated. However, according to the opinion that amud hashachar starts when the first light in the east emerges, indeed its time is earlier, when the sun reaches approximately 17.5 degrees below the horizon. However, so as not to encounter controversy, it is proper to act in accordance with the later opinion (16.1 degrees below the horizon). Only when the sky in the east is slightly illuminated does the time of amud hashachar arrive, and from then one may recite Keriat Shema and pray the Amidah in a case of extenuating circumstances.1<i class="footnote">The Talmud in <em>Pesachim</em> 93b-94a brings the dispute concerning how much time passes from <em>amud hashachar</em> (dawn) until <em>netz hachamah</em> (sunrise). According to Ula it is approximately the amount of time it takes to walk the distance of five <em>mil</em>, and according to Rav Yehudah, four <em>mil</em>. The <em>Rishonim</em> disagree concerning how long it takes to walk the distance of a <em>mil</em>. There are those who say 18 minutes (<em>Rambam</em> in his commentary on <em>Mishnah Berachot</em> 1:1), some who say 22.5 minutes, and others who say 24 minutes (see <em>Shulchan Aruch</em>,<em> Orach Chaim</em> 459:2 and <em>Bei’ur Halachah</em> there). In practice, there are two main opinions: 1) 72 minutes, approximately the amount of time it takes to walk the distance of four <em>mil</em> (where every <em>mil</em> is 18 minutes). 2) Ninety minutes (where every <em>mil</em> is 22.5 minutes), which is what is printed in many calendars. Also see Rav Chaim Benish’s book <em>HaZemanim BaHalachah</em> 21:6-9.According to the Magen Avraham and Pri Megadim, amud hashachar is the appearance of the first light in the east, and according to Eliyah Rabbah and the Gra it arrives a little later, when the eastern skies are illuminated. The Bei’ur Halachah 58:4 and section 89:1 favors the latter opinion. One should know that both opinions are talking about a very slight light visible in the east, and someone who is in a place that has electric lighting, or one who comes from an illuminated area and has constricted pupils, cannot distinguish between these changes in the east. Similarly, a person who is not accustomed to seeing amud hashachar usually cannot detect the first light in the east, nor even discern when the eastern skies are slightly illuminated.The approach that maintains that the time from amud hashachar until netz hachamah is 72 minutes is understandable since in Jerusalem in the days of Nisan and Tishrei, the eastern skies are illuminated 72 minutes before netz. At that time, the sun is 16.1 degrees below the horizon. The rest of the year is calculated according to that same position of the sun during the days of Nisan and Tishrei, as I have written above. Still, there are those who maintain that the calculation of 72 minutes is consistent throughout the whole year and their proof is from the Gemara in Pesachim which provides a fixed measure – four mil. However, this opinion is problematic, for the determining factor is when the east becomes illuminated and not how much time has passed. The Bei’ur Halachah 261:2 s.v. “Shehu” writes similar ideas. Therefore, it must be that the time that lapses between amud hashachar and netz hachamah fluctuates according to the seasons of the year. See HaZemanim BaHalachah chapter 17, as well as chapter 16, where he explains the reasons for the differences according to the seasons.It is worthy of mention that all these calculations pertain to Jerusalem and to all locations along the same parallel line of latitude. The closer a person gets to the north and south poles, the longer the time difference becomes between amud hashachar and netz hachamah. Even in Israel there are distinctions. In Tzfat, which is north of Jerusalem, the time difference is longer than Jerusalem by approximately a minute and a half.Many calendars calculate amud hashachar as 90 minutes before netz in the days of Nisan and Tishrei, when the sun is 19.75 degrees beneath the horizon. Based on this calculation, in the height of the summer, amud hashachar comes out to be 112 minutes before netz. This is very problematic, because in all these times, there is no visible light in the east. According to the astronomical calculation, before the sun arrives at 18 degrees below the horizon, even people with excellent eyesight cannot notice any light, all the more so when it is 19.75 degrees beneath the horizon. Therefore, in practice it is very difficult to rely on these calendars.However, the opinion which maintains that four mil is 90 minutes can be explained as referring to the height of summer, since then at approximately 90 minutes before netz, the east is illuminated. It is also possible to say that according to this approach, amud hashachar is the first light in the east, and is seen when the sun is approximately 17.5 degrees below the horizon. In the days of Nisan and Tishrei, it is approximately 78 minutes before netz; in the height of the winter 85 minutes before netz; and in the height of the summer, 96 minutes before netz. Perhaps 90 minutes before netz is the average time at which one can see the first light in the east. (In addition, this opinion may possibly follow the approaches which put netz a few minutes later, since it takes the mountains into consideration, see halachah 6, and then indeed 90 minutes before netz comes out to be the average time throughout the whole year. Even the approach which maintains that a mil is 24 minutes and 4 mil is 96 minutes can be explained as referring to the height of summer.)Therefore, in summary, the law is established based on the position of the sun. There are two main approaches. The first is when the east is illuminated, when the sun is 16.1 degrees below the horizon, which comes out to be 72 minutes before netz in the days of Nisan and Tishrei. The second is from the first light, when the sun is 17.5 degrees below the horizon, which is 78 minutes before netz in the days of Nisan and Tishrei. I have chosen to write primarily according to the opinion which maintains that amud hashachar is when the eastern skies are illuminated, when the sun is 16.1 degrees below the horizon, because that is the opinion favored by the Bei’ur Halachah, and what is written by the Yechaveh Da’at 2:8, based on the Rambam and Shulchan Aruch. In addition to that, those who follow this opinion regarding the matter of Keriat Shema and the Amidah fulfill their obligation according to all, for by that time the day has certainly begun; however, the time prior to that is controversial. It is possible to accurately calculate these times anywhere with the help of Rav Eitan Tzikuni’s computer program, “Chazon Shamayim.”</i>
  An uncertainty also arises regarding the time of misheyakir. Despite the fact that the Chachamim defined this time as one when it is possible to distinguish between techelet and white, and when one can recognize a friend whom he is not used to seeing, from a distance of four amot, there is still doubt as to the accuracy of this time. In practice, it is accepted to teach that it is around 50 minutes before netz hachamah. See the note for its exact time.2<i class="footnote">In the halachic writings of the <em>Acharonim</em>, a number of opinions are mentioned regarding designating the time of <em>misheyakir</em>. The <em>Yechaveh Da’at</em> 2:8 writes that it is 66 minutes before <em>netz</em>, and <em>Kaf HaChaim</em> 18:18 writes 60. In Jerusalem they follow 50-55 minutes before <em>netz</em>, and in some places in Bnei Brak, 45 minutes before <em>netz</em>. In practice, many books, such as <em>Tefillah Kehilchatah</em> 3:4 and <em>Ishei Yisrael</em> 18:1, write that it is approximately 50 minutes before <em>netz</em>. However, as we have learned, there are differences between the seasons of the year, and it is difficult to comprehend how these opinions ignore those discrepancies. Perhaps some of the <em>poskim</em> who write different times do not disagree at all, but rather each calculated the time at a different season of the year. See <em>HaZemanim BaHalachah</em> 23:6.According to different visual observations, some poskim acknowledged the time of misheyakir to be when the sun reaches 12 degrees below the horizon, some say 11 degrees, and others only 10 degrees. In practice, it seems that it should be calculated according to the position of the sun when it reaches 11 degrees below the horizon. This comes out to 48 minutes before netz during Nisan and Tishrei, 52.5 minutes before netz at the height of winter (December 22nd), and 58 minutes before netz at the height of summer (June 22nd). Indeed, most of the year it comes out to around 50 minutes. Nevertheless, it is good to postpone the time of misheyakir another five minutes, although in extenuating circumstances, one may make it five minutes earlier.I should add that in the past, when there were no clocks and people did not wear watches, these times were surely calculated according to human eyesight, and if the day was cloudy, the time of misheyakir was delayed a bit so as to avoid uncertainty. However, now that there are clocks and watches, Shut Sho’el U’Meishiv, Third Edition, part 2, 162, writes that the times are calculated according to them.</i>
  
  Section 3
  
  The Times of Keriat Shema and Shacharit / The Time of Keriat Shema
  The time to recite Shema in the morning is learned from the expression that appears in the Torah passage regarded the Shema, “u’vekumecha,” “when you get up,” meaning the time when people normally wake up. There are people who rise early, from the time of amud hashachar (approximately 72 minutes before netz),1 therefore, biblically, it is considered the time of waking and from then on one may recite Keriat Shema. The reason for this is that the words “when you get up” are written in the singular person, implying that even when only a few people arise from their sleep it is time to recite Keriat Shema. One who recites Keriat Shema before then does not fulfill his obligation, since his recital precedes the time of waking.
  The Chachamim “created a fence” (asu siyag) to the mitzvah and established not to recite Keriat Shema l’chatchilah until the time when more people usually arise from their sleep, at which point there is already more light on the earth and one can recognize his friend from a distance of four amot (Shulchan Aruch 58:1). This is the time of misheyakir (approximately 50 minutes before netz in the days of Nisan).2
  When a person cannot recite Keriat Shema after the time of misheyakir due to circumstances beyond his control, he may recite it from amud hashachar. Similarly, b’dieved, if one mistakenly recites Shema from the time of amud hashachar, he fulfills his obligation. However, there is a difference between these two cases. If one’s reason for reciting Shema early emanates from circumstances beyond his control, even if he must do so every day, he fulfills his obligation. But if he recites it early due to error, he fulfills his obligation only if his mistake seldom occurs, meaning not more than once a month. If he errs more often than that, the Chachamim penalize him; he has not fulfilled his obligation and he must go back and recite it again after misheyakir (Shulchan Aruch 58:3-4; Mishnah Berurah 58:19).
  The time to recite Keriat Shema lasts until the conclusion of the first three hours of the day, for there are people, such as princes, who continue to sleep until the end of the first three hours. Therefore, until the end of the first three hours is still considered to be the time of “when you get up” (this is clarified further in halachot 10 and 11).
  The most praiseworthy time to recite Keriat Shema is at vatikin, meaning slightly before netz hachamah.3<i class="footnote">According to the majority of <em>poskim</em>, the time of <em>Keriat Shema</em> begins at<em> misheyakir</em> and lasts for three hours, but the ideal time to pray is <em>vatikin</em>. This is the opinion of <em>Talmidei Rabbeinu Yonah</em><em>Tosafot</em><em>Rosh</em><em>Rashba</em><em>Tur</em> and <em>Shulchan Aruch</em> 58:1. I have written above according to this opinion. However, there are additional opinions. According to <em>Rabbeinu</em><em>Chananel</em> and <em>Rabbeinu Tam</em>, the time of <em>Keriat Shema</em> starts after <em>netz</em> and lasts until the end of the first three hours of the day, and in their opinion, those who pray <em>vatikin</em> do not practice in accordance with halachah, because they recite <em>Keriat Shema</em> slightly before <em>netz</em>. It seems though, that even according to them, in cases of extenuating circumstances, one may recite <em>Keriat Shema</em> before <em>netz</em>. (Only according to the <em>Razah</em>, one does not fulfill his obligation of reciting <em>Keriat Shema</em> before <em>netz</em>.) In practice, we do not take into consideration their opinions as halachah. The <em>Rif</em> and the <em>Rambam</em> maintain that the main time for <em>Keriat Shema</em> is <em>vatikin</em>, meaning slightly before <em>netz</em> and if one did not recite it at <em>vatikin</em>, he may do so until the conclusion of the first three hours of the day. The time prior to that is valid only in extenuating circumstances. <em>Halachot</em> 7 and 8 of this chapter clarify how much earlier <em>Shacharit</em> may be recited in practice.</i>
  
  Section 4
  
  The Times of Keriat Shema and Shacharit / The Time of the Amidah
  Anshei Knesset HaGedolah instituted praying three prayers every day, and established their times to correspond to the Tamid offerings. The morning Tamid was brought starting from amud hashachar, and based on that, the time of praying Shacharit l’chatchilah should begin at amud hashachar. Nonetheless, the Chachamim say that it is proper to recite the Amidah after netz hachamah, as it is written (Psalms 72:5), “Yera’ucha im shamesh” (“Let them fear You from when the sun [shines]”) (Berachot 9b). B’dieved, if one recites the Amidah from amud hashachar, he fulfills his obligation because he prayed at the time when the morning Tamid offering was brought (Shulchan Aruch 89:1).
  The most praiseworthy time to pray follows the manner of the early chasidim (devoted ones) who prayed at vatikin, for they would recite the Amidah at netz hachamah.4<i class="footnote">See <em>Beit Yosef</em> 89:1 and <em>Shulchan Aruch HaRav</em> 89:2. In summary, there are three main opinions: 1) According to the <em>Rambam</em> and <em>Rabbeinu Chananel</em>, the essence of the institution of <em>Shacharit</em> is from <em>netz</em> until the end of four hours, and only <em>b’dieved</em> one may pray from <em>amud hashachar</em>, as ruled in <em>Shulchan Aruch</em> 89:1 and <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 4. 2) According to the <em>Rosh</em>, the <em>Gemara</em> teaches that <em>vatikin</em> is the ideal time, as it says, “<em>Yera’ucha im shamesh</em>” (“Let them fear you from when the sun [shines]”), but the time before <em>Netz</em> and the four hours after it are equal, for any time that is valid for offering the <em>Tamid</em> is valid for praying <em>Shacharit</em>. 3) According to<em> Rabbeinu Yerucham</em>, the time to pray <em>b’dieved</em> is from <em>amud hashachar</em> until <em>misheyakir</em>, and from <em>misheyakir</em> until <em>netz</em> is the time to pray <em>l’chatchilah</em>, as well as the time after <em>netz</em></i>
  The time to pray the Amidah lasts four hours according to Rabbi Yehudah, for that is the last time that the morning Tamid offering may be brought. Even though, in the opinion of the Chachamim, the time to offer the Tamid lasts until chatzot, the halachah follows Rabbi Yehudah, since in Masechet Eduyot, in which all the mishnayot were chosen as halachah, the opinion of Rabbi Yehudah is brought. Therefore, the time to recite Shacharit lasts until the end of the first four hours of the day (Berachot 27a). Even so, the Chachamim’s words were not rejected completely, and if four hours passed and one did not yet recite Shacharit, he may b’dieved pray until chatzot. Although his prayer does not have the value of prayer recited on time, nevertheless, it still has certain value (as clarified further in halachah 11).
  
  Section 5
  
  The Times of Keriat Shema and Shacharit / Vatikin at Netz HaChamah
  As we mentioned, the most praiseworthy time to recite Shema and to pray the Amidah is as the devoted ones prayed, at vatikin. They would recite Shema slightly before netz hachamah and begin to pray the Amidah at netz hachamah. The reason for this is that normally only after the sun already shines and life and nature begin to pulsate in full force does a person awaken and recognize that Hashem is God. Only then does he accept upon himself the yoke of Heaven and is inspired to pray. However, those who pray vatikin begin early and “lead” nature. Even before the sun shines and nature reveals itself in all its beauty and splendor, they accept upon themselves the yoke of Heaven with complete faith. As soon as the sun rises and the day begins, they are already standing in prayer, ushering in an abundance of blessing to this world.5<i class="footnote">From the <em>Gemara</em> in <em>Berachot</em> 9b it can be inferred that the main objective of <em>vatikin</em> is that one will pray the <em>Amidah</em> at <em>netz</em>, as understood from many <em>Rishonim</em> and <em>Acharonim</em>. However, it is implied from the <em>Mishnah</em> in <em>Berachot</em> 22b that there is reason to recite <em>Shema</em> before <em>netz</em> too. Hence, the virtue of <em>vatikin</em> possesses two aspects, <em>Keriat Shema</em> and the <em>Amidah</em>. Therefore, there are those who are strict to ensure that even when they cannot pray at the time of <em>vatikin</em>, they at least recite the <em>Shema</em> before <em>netz</em>, as written in <em>Shulchan Aruch HaRav</em> 58:4, even if they did not yet put on their <em>tefillin</em><em>Kaf HaChaim</em> 58:8 writes, though, that if a person has not yet put on his <em>tefillin</em>, he should not recite <em>Keriat</em><em>Shema</em> before <em>netz</em>. This law is also contingent upon the dispute in section 46:9 where, according to the <em>Beit Yosef</em> and the <em>Rama</em>, one may fulfill his obligation of <em>Keriat Shema</em> without its <em>berachot lechatchilah</em>, whereas according to the <em>Ra’ah</em> and the <em>Gra</em>, it is only <em>b’dieved</em></i>
  The Chachamim say that anyone who connects redemption to prayer (somech geulah l’tefillah) by praying vatikin is not harmed the whole day (Berachot 9b and Tosafot there).
  However, if getting up to pray vatikin will cause a person to be tired and unable to learn or work properly, it is better that he pray afterwards. Today, when people’s lifestyles have changed and important activities such as Torah classes and weddings take place at night, most people find it better not to wake up so early and to pray after the time of vatikin.
  
  Section 6
  
  The Times of Keriat Shema and Shacharit / The Precise Times of Vatikin and Netz
  Netz hachamah is the time when the sun rises, and even though this definition is presumably clear and simple, in actuality, it is rather complex.
  First, the duration of the sun’s ascent, which begins from the second we can see the first edge of the sun until it can be seen entirely, lasts approximately two and a half minutes. The poskim disagree regarding the exact time of netz hachamah. According to most halachic authorities, the time of netz is precisely when the first part of the sun is visible, and at that moment it is necessary to begin the Amidah of vatikin. Yet, there are those who say that netz is at the conclusion of the sun’s ascent. Additionally, there are those who say that netz lasts the whole two and a half minutes that the sun is rising. Moreover, there are those who say it lasts a few more minutes, the entire time that the rays of the sun are still red. In practice, those who pray vatikin make an effort to begin the Amidah at the time the sun begins to rise, but are not overly strict about this because the other opinions are also taken into consideration.6<i class="footnote">According to the majority of <em>poskim</em>, <em>netz </em>is the beginning of the sun’s ascent, as writes the <em>Bei’ur Halachah</em>, 58:1, s.v. “<em>Kemo</em>,” and <em>Halachah Berurah</em> (<em>Yosef</em>) 58:7. <em>Ish Matzliach</em> writes that it is the end of the sun’s ascent (see <em>Yalkut Yosef</em> 89:3). According to the <em>Razah</em>, it is the whole duration of the sun’s ascent. Others say that even slightly after that, as long as the sun is close to the earth and the rays of the sun are still red, it is still considered “<em>Yera’ucha im shamesh</em>” (“Let them fear You from when the sun [shines]”), as can be inferred from the <em>Rambam</em>, responsa 255. (See <em>HaZemanim BaHalachah</em> 24:3-4).</i>
  Another uncertainty arises. Are the mountains in the east that block the sunrise taken into consideration, or do we follow the astronomical sunrise (on a straight horizon)? It is clear that one who is under a cliff, or behind a tall building which blocks the east from his view, cannot claim that the sunrise begins when he himself sees the sun, because, if that was the case, then the sunrise, as far as he is concerned, would likely be towards the afternoon. The question is: what is the law, for example, in Jerusalem’s Old City, where the Mount of Olives blocks the eastern horizon and consequently the sun becomes visible only a few minutes later? Even for those who stand on the Mount of Olives, the mountains of Moav rising over the Jordan Valley block the beginning of the sunrise. Some say that the time of netz hachamah is only when one can actually see the sun, meaning after it is visible above the Mount of Olives. Others say that we should not take into account a nearby mountain, like the example of the Mount of Olives, since it is possible to walk to it by foot, but rather that it is necessary to include the distant mountains of Moav. The difference between the two opinions amounts to a few minutes.
  There are those who say that we should not consider the mountains in the east at all; rather we calculate the sunrise according to a straight horizon, based on the time that it would be possible to see the sunrise were there no mountains. Nowadays, there are computer programs that allow us to calculate the precise astronomical sunrise in each and every location while disregarding the mountains in the east. Many are accustomed to establishing the time of sunrise according to this calculation.7<i class="footnote"><em>Divrei Yosef</em> writes that the law depends on actually seeing the sun, and therefore it is necessary to take into consideration the places that the Mount of Olives conceals. However, according to the <em>Maharil Diskin</em>, (brought in <em>Sefer Nivreshet</em>), what is concealed by the Mount of Olives does not enter into the equation since it is closer than the walking distance of one day, but we do take into consideration the parts concealed by the Mountains of Moav (although he does not resolve the matter of Shabbat with regard to sunset). Further, there is uncertainty about a city that is built on mountains: does each neighborhood follow according to its own height or does the whole city practice according to the highest neighborhood in the city, where the sun is visible first? The <em>minhag</em> is to go by the highest neighborhood. An additional doubt is raised – if a skyscraper was built in a city, on the top of which the first rays of the sun shine a minute before the sunrise can be seen on the ground, what is the ruling? Similarly, if the city is very large, do we still go by the highest point in the city, or, due to the city’s size is each area defined by itself? See <em>HaZemanim BaHalachah </em>chapter 7, which mentions these doubts and cites the different opinions.Even according to the opinion that sunrise and sunset are calculated along a straight horizon, there is doubt as to which height we use to make the calculations, since the higher the place, the earlier the sun is visible when it rises, and the later the sun is seen when it sets. For example, at a height of 800 meters (2624.67 feet) above sea level, the sun is still visible at sunset approximately 4.6 minutes later than on sea level, and at sunrise approximately 4.6 minutes earlier. Indeed, this opinion is divided into three approaches. Some say that we go according to the sunrise on a straight horizon based on the height of the place, while there is still uncertainty with regard to the law of a city in which there are mountains and valleys, i.e., whether we go by each area in the city for itself or the highest point in the city. It is the opinion of the Shulchan Aruch HaRav that in all places we go according to the sunrise at a height of 800 meters above sea level, the altitude of Jerusalem. So it is written in Igrot Moshe Orach Chaim 1:97. (This means that even when the people praying are at sea level, the time of netz will be 4.6 minutes before they can actually see the sun.) Others say that we go by the astronomical sunrise without taking the mountains into account at all; instead we calculate how it would look at sea level (which covers most of the earth’s surface) without mountains, as Rabbi Isser Zalman Meltzer writes. See HaZemanim BaHalachah chapter 7, where all this is discussed.In the computer program “Chazon Shamayim,” it is possible to determine the precise astronomical time of sunrise in any place, on any day, based on the lines of latitude and longitude and the height of the location. Since the result obtained from a program such as this one is more accurate than all the calculations done by visual observations, many have been accustomed to calculate the time of sunrise with this program. In practice, all the communities living in Gav Hahar (settlements in the heart of the Shomron) do not need to take into account the mountains and valleys to the east of them, for if they were to take them into consideration, they would need to calculate a different time for every house, each according to its height, and according to the mountains that block them from the east, in every season based on the place of the sun’s ascent. Therefore, we follow the astronomical horizon, according to the highest point in that location. In the past, when people lived in open areas, the sunrise was perceptible, and this ruling was mainly based on the visibility of the sun. However, today, when most people live among many buildings, and do not see sunrise, and our methods of calculation have become easier, the sunrise is calculated according to the astronomical horizon. At that time, the rays of the sun are also visible in the highest places in the area. However, when to the east, there is a range of distant mountains that evenly cover the horizon, like, for instance, in the coastal plains of Israel, and they delay the visibility of the sun from that whole area by a few minutes, it seems, that it is necessary to take them into consideration and postpone the time of netz. (The time of misheyakir is dependent upon light, based on the explanation in note 2, when the sun is eleven degrees below the astronomical horizon, and there is no connection to the visible sunrise).</i>
  
  Section 7
  
  The Times of Keriat Shema and Shacharit / How Early May One Begin to Pray?
  L’chatchilah, a person should not recite the Amidah before vatikin because, according to a number of poskim, the time to pray l’chatchilah begins at netz hachamah and lasts four hours. The ideal time to pray the Amidah is immediately at the start of “vatikin”, just as the devoted ones prayed. Therefore, it seems that for a person whose prayer lasts approximately 25 minutes from the beginning until the Amidah, the earliest time he may begin to pray is 25 minutes before netz.
  One who must be on his way, or must start work earlier, is permitted to begin praying from the time of misheyakir, since by then a little light has spread over the earth, and that moment is the valid time for the recital of Shema and for the mitzvot of tzitzit and tefillin. We have already learned that the time of misheyakir is approximately 50 minutes before netz (see note 2).
  One who needs to pray even earlier should begin his prayer without tallit and tefillin and proceed until the conclusion of Pesukei d’Zimrah. When he finishes Yishtabach he must wait for the time of misheyakir, and only then put on his tallit and tefillin and continue praying.8<i class="footnote"><em>L’chatchilah</em>, one may not recite the <em>Amidah</em> before <em>vatikin</em> because, according to most <em>poskim</em>, among them the <em>Rambam</em> and <em>Shulchan Aruch</em>, the time from <em>amud hashachar</em> until <em>netz hachamah</em> is valid for prayer only <em>b’dieved</em>, as explained in note 4 of this chapter. Also, in terms of <em>Keriat Shema</em>, according to a few <em>poskim</em> (<em>Rambam</em> and <em>Rabbeinu Tam</em>) the time of <em>misheyakir</em> until <em>netz</em> is <em>b’dieved</em>. Most <em>poskim</em> maintain that it is <em>l’chatchilah</em> regarding <em>Keriat Shema</em>. However, since <em>Keriat Shema</em> is adjoined to the <em>Amidah</em>, one may not pray the <em>Amidah</em> <em>l’chatchilah</em> before <em>vatikin</em>.In times of need, one may recite the Amidah at misheyakir, for that is when the time of Keriat Shema begins according to most poskim, as the Shulchan Aruch 58:1 rules, and as is clarified earlier in note 3 of this chapter. That is also when the time to put on tzitzit and tefillin begins, as explained in Shulchan Aruch Orach Chaim 18:3; 30:1. One may finish Pesukei d’Zimrah and Yishtabach before that, and when the time of misheyakir arrives, wrap himself in a tallit and put on tefillin, as brought by Bei’ur Halachah 58:1, s.v. “Zeman.” However, one may not do so earlier than that, since only in extenuating circumstances may one recite Keriat Shema and its berachot before misheyakir. The time of misheyakir is clarified in note 2 of this chapter.</i>
  
  Section 8
  
  The Times of Keriat Shema and Shacharit / How Early Is One Permitted to Pray in Extenuating Circumstances?
  In a case of extenuating circumstances, one may recite Birkot Keriat Shema from the time of amud hashachar, which is 72 minutes before sunrise (in the months of Nisan and Tishrei).1 However, as long as it is possible to recite Birkot Keriat Shema after the time of misheyakir, one may not recite them from amud hashachar. For instance, if someone who is traveling can pray while walking or sitting (as his friend drives), he must wait for the time of misheyakir and only then recite Birkot Keriat Shema and recite the Amidah while walking or sitting.
  If he is able to recite Birkot Keriat Shema while he is traveling after the time of misheyakir, but cannot recite the Amidah while traveling, he should pray the Amidah earlier after amud hashachar and recite Birkot Keriat Shema and Shema while traveling, even though he will not merit connecting redemption to prayer.9<i class="footnote">In <em>Berachot</em> 30a we learn to what extent reciting <em>Keriat Shema</em> and its <em>berachot</em> before <em>misheyakir</em> is only for extenuating circumstances, since any time it is possible to say them after <em>misheyakir</em>, even while walking, there is an obligation to do so. The only question left is when to pray the <em>Amidah</em>. According to <em>Rabbeinu Chananel</em>, the <em>Tosafot</em>, and others, one must recite the <em>Amidah</em> standing in his house before <em>misheyakir</em>, which is how the <em>Shulchan Aruch</em> 89:8 rules as well. According to <em>Bahag</em>, it is best that he prays while walking so as to connect redemption to prayer, and in practice, that is customarily what is done, as explained in the <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 89:42 and <em>Kaf HaChaim</em> 54. However, when he can say <em>Birkot Keriat Shema</em> while traveling, but cannot pray the <em>Amidah</em>, then he follows <em>Rabbeinu Chananel</em> and the <em>Shulchan Aruch</em>; he prays the <em>Amidah</em> standing in his house after <em>amud hashachar</em> and waits to recite <em>Birkot Keriat Shema</em> while traveling in order to say them after the time of <em>misheyakir</em>. This includes a case in which a person only knows the <em>berachot</em> of <em>Keriat Shema</em> by heart and not the <em>Amidah</em>, or one in which a person is driving and he knows that he is capable of reciting <em>Birkot Keriat Shema </em>while driving, but praying the <em>Amidah</em> while driving is forbidden (see further in this book 17:16).</i>
  When it is not possible to recite Birkot Keriat Shema while traveling, as, for example, if he does not know Birkot Keriat Shema by heart, and it is not possible for him to use a siddur, he may pray earlier since such situations are considered extenuating circumstances. He recites Birkot HaShachar, Korbanot, and Pesukei d’Zimrah before amud hashachar, and when the time of amud hashachar arrives, he puts on his tallit and tefillin without a berachah, recites Keriat Shema and its berachot, and prays the Amidah. When he finishes the Amidah, the time of misheyakir will have already arrived, and at that point he takes hold of his tzitzit and tefillin and recites the blessings upon them. According to the Ashkenazic minhag, Birkat Yotzer HaMeorot may not be recited before the time of misheyakir either; rather, one must delay its recital until after praying the Amidah.10<i class="footnote">During the days of Nisan and Tishrei, <em>amud hashachar</em> is 72 minutes before <em>netz </em>(when the sun is 16.1 degrees below the horizon). In the height of winter (December 22nd) it is 78 minutes before <em>netz</em>, and at the height of summer (June 22nd) it is 88 minutes before <em>netz</em>. See note 1 to understand why I have written according to this opinion. At most, it is permissible to be lenient and consider <em>amud hashachar</em> the first light in the east (when the sun is 17.5 degrees below the horizon), as explained there. Many calendars display <em>amud hashachar</em> as a time when there is no light at all in the eastern sky, and it is very problematic to rely on them.In note 2, I wrote that the time of misheyakir is when the sun is 11 degrees below the horizon, which is the average time according to the different opinions and observations. However, here, in extenuating circumstances, if one can recite Birkot Keriat Shema approximately five minutes before this time, thereby succeeding to pray the Amidah standing in his house, it is preferable that he does so, instead of praying afterwards while walking.In a case of extenuating circumstances, it is permissible to start praying Birkot Keriat Shema from amud hashachar, as explained in Shulchan Aruch 58:3. One may put on his tallit and tefillin before that time without a berachah, as clarified concerning the matter of tzitzit in Shulchan Aruch 18:3 and Mishnah Berurah 10 and regarding the matter of tefillin in Shulchan Aruch 30:3 and Mishnah Berurah 11. However, Kaf HaChaim 30:8, based on the Ari, writes that one may not put on tefillin before amud hashachar. Additionally, it is explained in Shulchan Aruch 1:6 and 47:13 that the passage regarding the Tamid may not be recited before amud hashachar and, according to Kaf HaChaim 89:7, Pesukei d’Zimrah may not be recited before amud hashachar either. However, we have already learned that some poskim maintain that amud hashachar is slightly before the time mentioned above and others say it is 90 minutes before netz, as written in Kaf HaChaim 89:1. In extenuating circumstances, with regard to these matters, in which there is no issue of reciting a berachah in vain, it is permissible to rely on this approach.According to many Ashkenazic poskim, Birkat Yotzer HaMeorot may not be recited before misheyakir. So write the Magen Avraham, Graz 58:6, and Mishnah Berurah 58:17. Nevertheless, if a person did recite Yotzer HaMeorot before misheyakir, since he already fulfilled his obligation according to the Shulchan Aruch and Kaf HaChaim 58:19, he does not repeat it again after praying (Bei’ur Halachah 58:4, s.v. “B’lo”).</i>
  
  Section 9
  
  The Times of Keriat Shema and Shacharit / Praying Vatikin Individually versus Praying in a Minyan
  The Acharonim disagree over what is preferable: praying vatikin individually, or praying in a minyan after the time of vatikin? Some say that since the Chachamim praise the person who prays vatikin and teach that no harm befalls him the whole day, it is better to pray vatikin individually. Still, others say that it is preferable to pray in a minyan, for prayer in a minyan is sure to be heard. Additionally, there are doubts regarding the precise time of vatikin (as clarified in halachah 6), and it is not proper that an uncertain vatikin prayer takes precedence over prayer in a minyan. Therefore, it is customary to teach that prayer in a minyan is preferable. However a person who regularly prays vatikin in a minyan, and one day does not have a minyan for vatikin, is permitted to pray vatikin individually on that day, so as not to stray from his custom.11<i class="footnote">According to the <em>Mahari Schwartz</em>, it is preferable to pray <em>vatikin</em>, and according to Rabbi Shlomo Kluger in <em>HaElef Lecha Shlomo</em> 47, it is preferable to pray in a <em>minyan</em>. See <em>Yabia Omer</em>,<em> Orach Chaim</em>, part 1, 4:9, who hinges the law on <em>kavanah</em>. He maintains that if a person concentrates well, he should pray <em>vatikin</em>, but if he is unable to have <em>kavanah</em>, it is best that he prays in a <em>minyan</em>. <em>Shut</em> <em>Pri Yitzchak</em> 2 writes that since there are doubts as to when exactly <em>vatikin</em> is (as explained in halachah 6), it is preferable to pray in a <em>minyan</em> rather than to pray with uncertainty at <em>vatikin</em>. That is how we are accustomed to rule. However, since there are those who disagree, an individual who wants to pray <em>vatikin</em> from time to time may rely on their opinions.<em>Bei’ur Halachah</em> 58:1 writes that people who are careful to pray <em>vatikin</em> every day in a <em>minyan</em> are permitted to pray individually when they do not have a <em>minyan</em>. In <em>Halichot Shlomo</em> 5:17 the explanation given is that these people have a sort of vow, both regarding praying <em>vatikin</em> and praying in a <em>minyan</em>, and therefore they may choose how they wish to practice.</i>
  Regarding a person who has two options, to pray in a minyan before netz, which is the time of prayer b’dieved, or to pray individually afterwards at vatikin, there is disagreement. According to many, it is preferable that he pray individually at vatikin.  Still, there are those who say that it is better to pray in a minyan before netz, provided that he starts reciting Birkot Keriat Shema after misheyakir. It is advisable for one to ask his rabbi concerning this. If the regular minyan before netz will be canceled because a number of people decide to pray at vatikin individually, it is preferable that everyone prays together in a minyan before netz.12<i class="footnote">We learned in halachah 4 and in note 4 that according to the majority of <em>poskim</em>, as well as the rulings of the <em>Shulchan Aruch</em> 89:1 and the <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 4, the time before <em>netz</em> is valid for prayer only <em>b’dieved</em>. Additionally, we learned in the previous note that there are those who say that even when the prayer in a <em>minyan</em> is conducted after <em>netz</em>, it is nevertheless preferable to pray at <em>vatikin</em>. Therefore, the result is that according to the majority of <em>poskim</em>, it is best to pray at <em>vatikin</em> individually and not before <em>netz</em> in a <em>minyan</em>. So writes the <em>Avnei Yashfeh</em> 14:1 and <em>Yalkut Yosef</em> 89:14.However, we learned that according to the <em>Rosh</em> and <em>Rabbeinu Yerucham</em> the time for prayer <em>l’chatchilah</em> starts from <em>misheyakir</em>, and the <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 89:1 writes that people who are awake on Shavuot night may pray in a <em>minyan</em> before <em>netz</em>. Additionally, <em>Yaskil Avdi</em>, part 5, <em>Orach Chaim</em> 10:4, and <em>Or L’Tzion</em>, part 2, 7:4 write that it is preferable to pray in a <em>minyan</em> before <em>netz</em>, for that is a case of extenuating circumstances, since he will not have another <em>minyan</em> after that. That is also the opinion of the <em>Chazon Ish</em> (brought by the <em>Ishei Yisrael</em> 13:6).It seems to me that as a ruling to many it is preferable to preserve the prayer in a minyan, for prayer in a minyan is accepted and the power of communal worship is important in preserving the permanence of prayer. Only for a person who wishes out of piety to pray at vatikin, it may be preferable to pray at vatikin. However, ordinarily, it is best to pray in a minyan before netz.All the more so in a small community, where a few of the congregants must leave early for work and they will not have another opportunity to organize a minyan after netz, this is considered to be a case of extenuating circumstances, and they must arrange the minyan to pray before netz. It is proper even for those individuals who can pray later on, to participate as well. (Although, if they want to wake up early, complete the early minyan, respond to their Kaddish and Kedushah, and then pray vatikin later individually, they are permitted to do so).</i>
  
  Section 10
  
  The Times of Keriat Shema and Shacharit / The Proportional Hours and Their Corresponding Laws
  The time of Keriat Shema lasts for the first three hours of the day and the time of the Amidah for four hours. “Hours” refers to proportional hours. That is to say, the day is divided into twelve equal parts, and each part is called a “proportional hour.” In the summer, when the days are long, so are the hours, and in the winter when the days are short, the hours are short too.
  The question is: when do we begin to calculate the day? According to the Magen Avraham, the hours of the day are calculated according the hours of light. In other words, the calculation begins from amud hashachar and lasts until total darkness. However, according to the Gra, the calculation is based on the hours that the sun is visible, meaning from sunrise until sunset.13<i class="footnote">The <em>poskim</em> who maintain that we calculate from <em>amud hashachar</em> are: <em>Terumat HaDeshen</em>, the <em>Bach</em>, and <em>Eliyah Rabbah</em>. This is also implied from a number of <em>Rishonim</em>, among them <em>Rashi</em>, <em>Tosafot</em>, <em>Ramban</em>, and <em>Rashba</em> (see <em>HaZemanim BaHalachah</em> 13:2). Although the <em>Magen Avraham</em> himself (233:3; 443:3) is uncertain as to whether the calculation is to be made from <em>amud hashachar</em> or from <em>netz</em> <em>hachamah</em>, nevertheless, he rules stringently (58:1) because <em>Keriat Shema</em> is a biblical mitzvah and therefore the calculation is given in his name.In contrast to them, maintaining the Gra’s approach are Rabbeinu Chananel, Rasag, Rav Hai Gaon, Rambam, Talmidei Rabbeinu Yonah, and others. Acharonim who follow this approach include the Levush, Tosafot YomTov, and the Graz. It is also the opinion of the majority of poskim (see there 13:7-9). The Gra’s reason (Bei’ur HaGra 459, Shenot Eliyahu, the beginning of Masechet Berachot) is that the times of the day and the night are identical, and therefore one 24-hour period is divided into twelve hours for the day and twelve for the night. In calculating a whole year, the hours of the day and night are identical. This is only possible if the day is calculated according to the sun, for then the days and nights of the whole year are equal. This is not true if the calculation is made from amud hashachar until darkness, for then the days would be more than two hours longer than the nights.</i>
  The time difference between amud hashachar and netz is approximately 72 minutes during the days of Nisan and Tishrei. Thus, according to the Magen Avraham, we begin calculating the three hours of the time of Keriat Shema 72 minutes before the time according to the Gra. Therefore, the last possible time to recite Keriat Shema and the Amidah according to the Magen Avraham is earlier. However, it is not 72 minutes earlier because every hour according to the Magen Avraham is longer, and that way it comes out that at the end of six hours we arrive at chatzot according to both calculations.14<i class="footnote">According to the <em>Magen Avraham</em>’s approach, there are those who calculate the hours of the day from <em>amud hashachar</em> until the emergence of three stars, and then the result is that before <em>netz</em>, 72 minutes are added, whereas after sunset only 18 or 13.5 minutes are added (<em>Ma’amar Mordechai</em> 233:3, <em>Ben Ish Chai</em>,<em> Vayakhel</em> 4; <em>Divrei Yosef</em>). However, their opinion is problematic, for based on their calculations, <em>chatzot </em>arrives before the sun reaches the middle of the sky, and therefore the final time for <em>Keriat Shema</em> according to the <em>Magen Avraham</em> comes out earlier than it actually is. <em>Rav Tikochinsky</em>, along with the prominent rabbis of Jerusalem, solved this problem by establishing the time after sunset as equal to the time before sunrise. If <em>amud hashachar</em> precedes <em>netz</em> by 72 minutes, then even after sunset 72 minutes are added. That way, it always comes out that the first six hours of the day end at <em>chatzot</em>, both according to the time of the <em>Magen Avraham</em> and according to the time of the <em>Gra</em>.Based on this, it is easy to calculate the difference in time between the final time according to the <em>Magen Avraham</em> and the final time according to the <em>Gra</em>. First, we must calculate the time between <em>amud hashachar</em> and <em>netz</em> and divide it into six. For example, according to the calculation of the days of Nisan and Tishrei, when <em>amud hashachar</em> is 72 minutes earlier than <em>netz</em>, every hour according to the <em>Magen Avraham</em> is longer by twelve minutes. If so, the difference in time between them after three hours is reduced by 36 minutes. This means, that the final time to recite <em>Shema</em> according to the <em>Magen Avraham</em> is 36 minutes earlier than the time of the <em>Gra</em>, and the final time to pray the <em>Amidah</em> according to the <em>Magen Avraham</em>, is 24 minutes earlier. However, based on what we learned in note 1 concerning the changes in the time of <em>amud hashachar</em> in the different seasons of the year, it comes out that in the height of winter, the time of <em>Keriat Shema</em> according to the <em>Magen Avraham</em> is 39 minutes earlier, and in the height of summer, it is 44 minutes earlier than the time of the <em>Gra</em>.Since this is an uncertainty concerning a biblical obligation, it seems that it is correct to make the calculation according to the position of the sun at 17.5 degrees below the horizon, for at that time the first light is visible, and some poskim maintain that time as amud hashachar, as explained in note 1. Based on this, in the days of Nisan and Tishrei, amud hashachar is 78 minutes earlier than netz, and the time of Keriat Shema according to the Magen Avraham is 39 minutes earlier than that of the Gra. In the height of winter it is 42.5 minutes earlier, and in the height of summer it is 48 minutes earlier. In many calendars, the calculations are made according to the position of the sun at 19.75 degrees below the horizon, and then the time of the Magen Avraham is earlier by approximately 45 minutes in Nisan and by 56 minutes in the height of the summer. However, as I already wrote in note 1, this approach is very problematic because at that time no light is visible in the east. Additionally, some poskim calculate 90 minutes before netz and only 18 minutes after sunset, and the result is that the time of the Magen Avraham is earlier than the Gra’s time by more than an hour. Hence, as aforementioned, this opinion is very problematic.</i>
  
  Section 11
  
  The Times of Keriat Shema and Shacharit / The Practical Halachah Regarding the Final Time to Recite Shema and Pray the Amidah
  The time to recite Keriat Shema lasts for the first three hours of the day, for until then people are still waking up. In that way, one indeed fulfills the mitzvah of reciting Shema “u’vekumecha,” (“when you get up”) – when people wake from their sleep. Most poskim favor the opinion of the Gra. However, regarding Keriat Shema, whose time is biblical, it is correct to be stringent like the Magen Avraham, in accordance with the rule, “sefeika d’oraita l’chumra” (“When there is uncertainty concerning biblical commandments we are stringent.”) Nevertheless, there are those who are accustomed l’chatchilah to follow the Gra’s approach, and one should not oppose this custom.
  Even though the time of Keriat Shema only lasts three hours, if the third hour passed and one did not recite it, he must recite it with its blessings sometime within the fourth hour, and he is merited for reciting it like one who reads from the Torah (Shulchan Aruch 58:6).
  The time of the Shacharit prayer and Birkot Keriat Shema lasts for four hours, for the Chachamim established its time corresponding to the Tamid offering which was brought until the end of the fourth hour of the day. Since its obligation is rabbinic, the halachah is lenient and allows us to rely upon the Gra’s approach and to pray later. Even so, l’chatchilah, those who are expeditious fulfill their obligations early. Therefore, it is good to follow the approach of the Magen Avraham and pray early (Mishnah Berurah 58:4).15<i class="footnote">There are those who wish to say that the Ashkenazic custom follows the <em>Gra</em>, and that <em>Sephardim</em> practice like the <em>Magen Avraham</em>. Indeed, the <em>Chida</em> writes that where he lived the people were accustomed to follow the <em>Magen Avraham</em> and, in contrast, the <em>Igrot Moshe</em>,<em> Orach Chaim</em> 1:24 writes that in Lithuania they practiced like the <em>Gra</em> also regarding <em>Keriat Shema</em>. However, the <em>Yalkut Yosef</em> 58:3; 89:6 writes that the Sephardic <em>minhag</em> is not necessarily like the <em>Magen Avraham</em>. Additionally, in Ashkenaz, many were stringent <em>l’chatchilah</em> concerning <em>Keriat Shema</em> and practiced like the <em>Magen Avraham</em> (<em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 58:4).</i>
  If four hours passed and one did not yet recite Birkot Keriat Shema nor pray the Amidah, it is agreed that he may pray the Amidah until chatzot. Although the halachah follows Rabbi Yehudah who rules that the time of Shacharit is until the end of four hours, and does not follow the opinion of the Chachamim who maintain that the time is until chatzot, nevertheless, even Rabbi Yehudah admits that one who did not pray before four hours lapsed may, b’dieved, complete his prayer until chatzot. Although he is not merited for praying on time, he does receive merit for his prayer. One may not pray Shacharit after chatzot (Berachot 27a; Shulchan Aruch Orach Chaim 89:1).16<i class="footnote">he explanation that the time of <em>Shacharit</em> lasts <em>b’dieved</em> until <em>chatzot</em> is brought by the <em>Beit Yosef</em>, and that is the opinion of the majority of <em>poskim</em>. However, some say that Rabbi Yehudah does not accept the <em>Chachamim</em>’s opinion and “after four hours” is the time of <em>tashlumim </em>(reciting a prayer that was missed). If so, whoever purposely did not pray during the first four hours may not pray <em>tashlumim</em>, in accord with the opinion of the <em>Ra’avan</em>, <em>Pri Chadash</em>, and the <em>Gra</em>. The <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 89:6 is apprehensive about this, and therefore writes that one who intentionally did not pray during the first four hours of the day may pray until <em>chatzot</em> as a voluntary prayer (<em>tefillat nedavah</em>). (The <em>Rashba</em> is more stringent and writes in his responsa that after four hours one may not pray at all.)Concerning the half hour after <em>chatzot</em>, see <em>Beirur Halachah</em><em>Berachot</em>, the beginning of chapter 4. According to the <em>Beit Yosef</em> and the <em>Rama</em> 89:1, it is forbidden to pray <em>Shacharit</em> in that half-hour. However, since some maintain that it is permitted to pray <em>Shacharit</em> at that time, if one mistakenly prayed, he does not recite <em>tashlumim</em><em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 89:7).</i>
  Regarding Birkot Keriat Shema, the poskim disagree. According to the Shulchan Aruch (58:6) and most poskim, Chazal are only lenient concerning the Amidah and permit one to recite it until chatzot. The reason for this is that, in principle, a person is allowed to pray Shemoneh Esrei as a voluntary prayer (tefillat nedavah) at any time. Therefore, in any situation of uncertainty, one may pray. However, Birkot Keriat Shema may not be recited as a voluntary prayer. Hence, one who was late and did not recite them within the first four hours of the day cannot regain them. According to the Mishnah Berurah, if his reason for missing their recital was due to circumstances beyond his control, he is permitted to recite them until chatzot (Bei’ur Halachah there).17<i class="footnote">The <em>Shulchan Aruch</em> rules like the <em>Rosh</em> and the <em>Tur</em> who maintain that the time of <em>Birkot Keriat Shema</em> only lasts for four hours. So write the <em>Ben Ish Chai</em>,<em> Va’era</em> 5 and <em>Rav Eliyahu</em> in his <em>siddur</em>. That is also the opinion of the <em>Yalkut Yosef</em> 58:6, as discussed at length. The <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> supports his words on the opinion of the <em>Rambam</em> and the <em>Pri Chadash</em> who maintain that <em>Birkot Keriat Shema</em> may be recited the whole day, and the opinion of the <em>Mishkenot Yaakov </em>77 who says that the law concerning them is like the law regarding the <em>Amidah</em>, that <em>b’dieved</em> they can be recited until noon. The <em>Maharil</em> writes that this is the custom (Ashkenaz). The <em>Bei’ur Halachah</em> deduces that in a case in which a person did not recite them due to circumstances beyond his control, he may recite them until <em>chatzot</em>. Although many Ashkenazic<em> poskim</em> rule stringently like the <em>Shulchan Aruch</em>, among them the <em>Graz</em> and the <em>Chayei Adam</em>, nevertheless many <em>Ashkenazim</em> also rely on the <em>Mishnah Berurah</em>, as written in <em>Halichot Shlomo</em> 7:15 and <em>Ishei Yisrael</em> 18:7.<em>Yalkut Yosef</em>  58:6 writes that concerning the matter of <em>Birkot Keriat Shema</em> it is permissible to practice like the <em>Gra</em>. Although this is a case of doubt regarding <em>berachot</em> and presumably it would be proper to refrain from reciting them during a time that is controversial, in accordance with the rule that states that when there is uncertainty concerning a matter of <em>berachot</em>, we are lenient (<em>safek berachot l’hakel</em>), nevertheless, since some <em>poskim</em> maintain that the time of <em>Birkot Keriat Shema</em> lasts the whole day and others say until <em>chatzot</em>, therefore one may at least be lenient to recite them until four hours like the <em>Gra</em> rules.</i>
  
  Section 12
  
  The Times of Keriat Shema and Shacharit / Abiding by the Times
  Since the Chachamim instituted the recital of Shema together with its berachot, and established praying the Amidah immediately following, l’chatchilah the time of Shacharit should be set to allow people to succeed in reciting Shema before the first three hours of the day have ended according to the Magen Avraham.
  When the congregation is late to pray and there is concern that those praying will recite the Shema after the time according to the Magen Avraham, the people praying should be instructed to recite the paragraph of Shema before beginning to pray. One who wishes to enhance the mitzvah should read all three paragraphs.18<i class="footnote">According to the majority of <em>poskim</em>, only the recital of the first verse is a biblical obligation and therefore the <em>Beit Yosef</em> and the <em>Rama</em> section 46:9 write that it is good to say the first verse of <em>Shema</em> in the <em>Korbanot</em> passages so as to fulfill one’s obligation of <em>Keriat Shema</em> with its recital. The <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 46:31 writes that some say the whole first paragraph must be recited, while others say the first two paragraphs (because according to the <em>Pri Chadash</em> both are biblical obligations). Ideally a person should recite all three paragraphs, because according to the <em>Pri Chadash</em> it is good to fulfill one’s obligation of remembering the Exodus during the time that one recites <em>Keriat Shema</em>.However, according to the Gra, based on the Ra’ah, it is not proper to fulfill one’s obligation of reciting Keriat Shema without its blessings. Nevertheless, in this case, in order to fulfill the obligation of reciting it within Magen Avraham’s time frame, it is better to recite it earlier by itself (Bei’ur Halachah 46:9, s.v. “V’Yotzeh”). Whoever sees that the congregation is going to miss the time of Keriat Shema according to the Magen Avraham by a few minutes, Shut Binyan Olam, Orach Chaim 4, writes that he may say it earlier with its berachot and wait at “Shirah Chadashah” for the congregation, thereby meriting the recital of Keriat Shema with its berachot within the time of the Magen Avraham, as well as prayer in a minyan.Rabbi Akiva Eiger writes that a person who is uncertain as to whether he will succeed in reciting Keriat Shema with its berachot according to the time of the Magen Avraham must recite it before then with a stipulation that if the halachah is like the Gra’s approach or if the congregation ends up reciting Keriat Shema on time, he does not intend to fulfill his obligation with that recital, and will instead fulfill his obligation with the Shema that he will recite together with its berachot. However, Da’at Torah and Oneg Yom Tov 3 write that a stipulation cannot be effective for a biblical commandment. Indeed, the Acharonim are in disagreement regarding this. Most poskim mention in practice the advice given by Rabbi Akiva Eiger, as written in Yalkut Yosef 58:5 and Ishei Yisrael 18:18.</i>
  When the congregation prays even later and recites the Amidah after the time to pray has already ended according to the Magen Avraham, the poskim disagree as to what is preferable. There are those who say that it is better to pray in a minyan within four hours according to the Gra, because that is the opinion of the majority of poskim. Further, the time of Shacharit is rabbinic and we are lenient when there is uncertainty regarding rabbinic rulings. Additionally, in cases of extenuating circumstances one may recite Shacharit until chatzot. Therefore, it is best to pray in a minyan as the Chachamim established, even if the congregation prays after the time to pray has ended according to the Magen Avraham. Nevertheless, there are those who say that it is better to pray individually at the proper time according to the Magen Avraham, rather than to pray in a minyan after the time to pray has ended according to him.19<i class="footnote">. <em>Minchat Yitzchak</em> 3:71 writes that it is preferable to pray in a <em>minyan</em> at the time specified by the <em>Gra</em>. So writes the <em>Avnei Yashfeh</em> 8:12. By contrast, it is the opinion of<em> Rabbi Shlomo Zalman Auerbach</em> (brought by <em>Ishei Yisrael</em> 18, note 40) that it is preferable to pray individually at the time specified by the <em>Magen Avraham</em>. Likewise, regarding the Sephardic <em>minhag</em>, there is disagreement. <em>Minchat Yitzchak</em> writes there that according to <em>Sephardim</em> as well it is preferable to pray in a <em>minyan</em>, However, <em>Rav Abba Shaul</em> writes that <em>Sephardim</em> practice according to the <em>Magen Avraham</em> and it is preferable that they pray individually instead of in a <em>minyan</em> after the time of the <em>Magen Avraham</em>. The <em>Yalkut Yosef</em> 89:6 writes that whoever always practices according to the <em>Magen Avraham</em> and knows that he will have <em>kavanah</em> throughout the entire <em>Amidah</em>, it is preferable that he prays individually within the time of the <em>Magen Avraham</em>. However, if he cannot concentrate well, it is best that he prays with the congregation, for then his prayer is heard.<em>Chazarat HaShatz</em> must be concluded within the first four hours of the day (<em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 124:7). The <em>Or L’Tzion</em>, part 2, 7:25 writes in a footnote that one may not start <em>Chazarat HaShatz</em> after four hours have passed. <em>Bei’ur Halachah</em> 124:2 s.v. “<em>Sheya’avor</em>” is uncertain regarding this, for perhaps since the time of prayer lasts <em>b’dieved</em> until <em>chatzot</em>, it is possible to recite <em>Chazarat HaShatz</em> even after the conclusion of four hours.</i>
  However, if the minyan is not conducted in accordance with the halachah and prays after four hours have passed according to the Gra, all opinions agree that one must pray individually prior such a late minyan.20<i class="footnote">When a person prays earlier than the congregation because the minyan is late, some say he should pray outside the synagogue, and others say that because they are not practicing in accordance with halachah, he is permitted to pray earlier in their presence. See Mishnah Berurah 90:35. It seems that if by his praying earlier in front of the congregation, the people will learn from him and pray earlier too, it is best that he prays in front of them, However, if they will not learn from his example, it is preferable that he prays individually elsewhere.</i>
  One who does not have tefillin must not delay praying until after the time of Keriat Shema and the Amidah, when he will have them, since b’dieved one is permitted to fulfill the mitzvah of Keriat Shema and the Amidah without tefillin (Mishnah Berurah 46:33; further in this book 12:9).
  
  
  
  
  
  Section 1
  
  Before the Shacharit Prayer / Greetings Before Prayer
  From the time of amud hashachar it is forbidden for a person to walk to the doorstep of his friend, his father, or his rabbi and greet him with a hello or address him in any other way. If he does, he shows that he is ascribing more importance to that person than to HaKadosh Baruch Hu, for instead of standing in gratitude and in prayer before Hashem, he first goes to greet that person instead (Berachot 14a).1<i class="footnote">lthough the time of the <em>Shacharit Amidah</em> starts <em>l’chatchilah </em>at <em>netz hachamah</em>, nevertheless, since <em>b’dieved</em> it is permissible to begin praying from <em>amud hashachar</em>, the prohibition starts from <em>amud hashachar</em>, as writes the <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 89:8 and <em>Kaf HaChaim</em> 12. Still, the <em>Taz</em> rules that the prohibition only begins at <em>netz</em>.</i>
  If a person passes someone’s house, and a sense of common courtesy deems it appropriate that he enter to greet him, he is permitted to say “good morning” to him.  He may not say “Shalom” since HaKadosh Baruch Hu’s name is “Shalom” and it is not proper to honor a human being with God’s Name before praying (Shulchan Aruch, Orach Chaim 89:2).
  If he encounters someone along his way, according to most poskim, he is permitted to say “Shalom” since he did not intend to honor him. There are those who maintain that even in this case, it is better to say “good morning” and not “Shalom” so as to remind himself that he has not yet prayed, and so that he will not be delayed by engaging in a secular conversation before prayer. That is the proper practice (see Mishnah Berurah 89:16). If a friend who already finished praying met him on his way to synagogue and greeted him by saying “Shalom,” he may respond “Shalom” even though he has not prayed (Mishnah Berurah 89:16).
  This prohibition only applies when one walks to his friend, father, or rabbi in order to honor him. However, for the sake of a mitzvah it is permitted. Therefore, if, for example, one’s father needs to be accompanied to synagogue, one is permitted to wake up early, greet his father at his door and take him to synagogue. L’chatchilah he should say “good morning” to his father and not “Shalom.”
  Similarly, if, in order to honor one’s elderly parents who are about to depart on a journey, one must accompany and help them, and if he prays first he will arrive too late to help, he must first recite Birkot HaShachar, and then escort them to the airport and subsequently pray. (His father will pray on the plane.) The same rule applies when one needs to greet his parents upon their return.2<i class="footnote"><em>Kaf HaChaim</em> 89:25 writes in the name of the <em>Acharonim</em> that it is permissible to engage oneself in matters of a mitzvah before praying, as writes the <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 250:1. Accompanying one’s parents or one’s rabbi to synagogue falls under the category of a mitzvah. <em>Shut B’Tzel HaChochmah</em> 5:70 writes that one is also permitted to accompany them to the airport. He must be careful to recite <em>Birkot HaShachar</em> before that (based on what is brought by the <em>Orchot Chaim</em> and <em>Terumat HaDeshen</em> in the <em>Beit Yosef</em>). (<em>Shevut Yaakov</em> 2:22 is lenient in any case about initiating a greeting to his father or rabbi, since the Torah commands us to honor them. Still, the <em>Pri Megadim</em> forbids it and so does the <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 89:10).The <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 89:9 writes that even walking to his friend’s seat in the synagogue is considered greeting him before prayer. <em>Eshel Avraham Butshatash</em> 89:2 tends to be lenient. Bowing is also deemed a salutation (<em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 89:13).Regarding calling someone on the phone, it seems that in times of need, one who needs to make a call is considered like one who passes by a friend’s house, in which case he is permitted to enter while refraining from saying “<em>Shalom</em>,” but it is good that he recites <em>Birkot HaShachar</em> before that. However, if there is no need, calling is forbidden, for then he is considered like one who greets his friend before prayer.</i>
  
  Section 2
  
  Before the Shacharit Prayer / One May Not Deal with Personal Business Before Prayer
  From the time of amud hashachar, it is prohibited to deal with one’s work before praying. This is because holy matters precede secular matters and the respect of Heaven precedes the needs of people. Therefore, it is necessary to first thank Hashem in prayer, and only afterwards deal with one’s own needs. The Chachamim teach (Berachot 14a), “Anyone who prays and afterwards goes on his way, HaKadosh Baruch Hu grants him what he desires.”
  It is preferable to pray individually before beginning to work, instead of praying in a minyan after he has begun to work. For example, if a person must start work at 6:30 a.m. and the only minyan in the area is at 7:30 a.m., it is better that he prays individually before work begins, so that he does not work prior to praying (Mishnah Berurah 89:20).
  However, before amud hashachar, a person is permitted to deal with his work, for since the time of Shacharit has not yet arrived, he is not considered to be putting his needs before prayer. He must be strict in saying Birkot HaShachar before that, for the time to recite them is immediately upon waking up. Since he started his work before the time to pray began, he is permitted to continue even after amud hashachar on condition that he succeeds in praying before the time to pray lapses (Shulchan Aruch 89:7; Mishnah Berurah 89:37; 70:23).3<i class="footnote">he <em>Rambam</em> (<em>Hilchot Tefillah</em> 6:7) writes that it is permissible to get a haircut and enter a bathhouse close to the time of <em>Shacharit</em>, meaning before <em>amud hashachar</em>. This is because <em>Chazal</em> only prohibited these activities close to <em>Minchah</em> time for that is when people normally perform such activities. That is how the <em>Shulchan Aruch</em> 89:7 rules. However, the <em>Ra’avad</em> maintains that this prohibition also applies within the half hour before <em>amud hashachar</em>, as explained in <em>Bei’ur Halachah</em> 70:5. Some say that the <em>Rambam</em> is lenient only concerning bathing and haircuts, for those activities are not common before <em>Shacharit</em>, but regarding activities that are more commonly performed before <em>amud hashachar</em>, he is stringent (<em>Pri Megadim</em> and <em>Derech HaChaim</em>). Most <em>poskim</em> are lenient concerning all activities. The <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 89:37 slightly tends toward the opinion of those who are stringent and therefore writes that one must recite <em>Birkot HaShachar</em> before performing such activities, because after reciting <em>Birkot HaShachar</em> there are <em>poskim</em> who are lenient, as cited by the <em>Rama</em> 89:3.</i>
  
  Section 3
  
  Before the Shacharit Prayer / Permitted Activities Before Praying
  It is permitted to engage in acts of a mitzvah before praying, for those are not one’s personal wishes, but rather the desires of Heaven. For example, on Friday, if after the prayer service there may not be enough food left in the store for Shabbat, it is permissible to buy food before praying (Mishnah Berurah 250:1; Kaf HaChaim 89:25). However, it is forbidden to buy even one item if it is not for the purpose of a mitzvah. If there is no food in one’s house to give to his children who are leaving for school, he is permitted to buy the necessary foods before prayer, since that too, is considered an act performed for the sake of a mitzvah.
  Minor activities are not considered to be work, nor a fulfillment of one’s own desires, and they are therefore permissible before prayer. For example, a person is permitted to make his bed before praying, and he is permitted to take the garbage from his house to the public garbage bin. Similarly, he is permitted to read the newspaper a bit and do a little exercise before prayer.
  Before praying, it is permissible to put laundry that is already sorted into the machine and turn it on, since this is considered a minor act. However, it is prohibited to sort the laundry and then put it into the machine (Halichot Shlomo 2:5).
  It is forbidden to cook and bake before the prayer service; however, a person is allowed to ignite the fire under a pot that was prepared the day before, or to put into the oven a pan that contains food that was previously prepared.
  It is permissible in a time of need to dress children or to make them a sandwich before they leave for school, since this is a minor act and it also possesses an aspect of a mitzvah.
  It is permissible to compose innovative Torah insights, either by hand or on the computer, before the prayer service. However, it is forbidden to write secular ideas.4<i class="footnote">em&gt;Eshel Avraham 89:3 presents a logical rationale that any ordinary or temporary work permitted on <em>chol hamo’ed</em> is also permitted before prayer. <em>Halichot Shlomo</em> 2, notes 8 and 16, writes that this prohibition is a law based on precedence; one is forbidden to put his needs before praying. However, if the time of his regular <em>minyan</em> has not yet begun, he may be permitted to perform these activities despite the fact that <em>amud hashachar</em> has already arrived. It seems that in practice, one may be lenient regarding this when another doubt is added to the equation. For instance, when there is doubt as to whether his activity is an ordinary activity or a mitzvah-related activity and the time of the <em>minyan</em> in which he regularly prays has not yet arrived, it may be possible to be lenient.</i>
  
  Section 4
  
  Before the Shacharit Prayer / Ritual Immersion (Tevilah), Bathing, and Shaving
  Included in the prohibition to engage in one’s needs before the prayer service is the prohibition to get a haircut or to enter a bathhouse (Rambam Tefillah 6:7). However, to wash one’s hands is an obligation. It is also proper to wash one’s face and brush one’s teeth before praying (Shulchan Aruch 4:17; 46:1).
  It is permissible to ritually immerse oneself in a mikveh before praying since there is no affront to the respect due to prayer. In fact, just the opposite is true – it is a preparation and purification towards it.
  Similarly, it is permissible to take a shower before praying, since the washing of one’s whole body in nine kabin of water, which is approximately 12.5 liters (approximately 3.3 US liquid gallons), also constitutes a preparation and purification towards prayer (see Shulchan Aruch, Orach Chaim 88:1; Mishnah Berurah 89:4; Minchat Yitzchak 4:21). According to a number of poskim, it is prohibited for the person who is bathing to wash himself with soap before prayer because that kind of washing is included among the types of prohibited bathing. However, in practice, one who feels that he is dirty and his intention is to become clean, and not to pamper himself, may wash his body with soap on condition that he does not arrive late to the minyan because of this.5<i class="footnote"><em>Ishei Yisrael</em> 13:21 writes that it is prohibited to wash oneself with soap. <em>Yalkut Yosef</em> 89:30 writes that it is not proper to shower, but if this helps him pray with <em>kavanah</em> and in cleanliness, it is permitted, though he should not use a lot of soap. <em>Halichot Shlomo</em> 2:8 rules that it is not proper to use soap. He explains that there is concern that soaping oneself will lead him to take a bath, which is forbidden. However, in paragraph 11 he writes that if the time of his regular <em>minyan</em> has not yet arrived, perhaps there is no prohibition to wash before prayer (as brought in the previous note).The essence of the rationale for leniency in this case is that in earlier times, ordinary bathing, to which the <em>Chachamim</em> refer, was known to last a while, was intended for enjoyment, and required lengthy preparations, such as starting a fire, heating the water, or walking to a bathhouse. However, a quick shower is done essentially to rid oneself of dirt and perhaps to invigorate oneself as well, and therefore there is no prohibition concerning it. Further, the <em>Rambam</em> (<em>Hilchot Tefillah</em> 4:3) writes that there is an obligation to wash one’s face, hands, and feet before praying <em>Shacharit</em>. See <em>Beit Yosef</em> 92 who clarifies his source and although he writes that in practice it is not customary to wash one’s feet, nevertheless we can learn from the <em>Rambam</em> that washing for cleanliness before prayer is considered an enhancement of the mitzvah. Additionally, according to the <em>Kolbo</em>, there is no prohibition against bathing oneself and getting haircuts before prayer, and only other activities are forbidden. His opinion is brought by <em>Eliyah Rabbah</em> and <em>Kaf HaChaim</em> 89:53. It seems that his reasoning is that bathing constitutes preparation in honor of the <em>Shacharit</em> prayer. Although we do not actually rule like him on the matter of bathing and haircuts, with regard to a short shower with soap, one may be lenient. In addition, when there is doubt concerning a rabbinic prohibition, the halachah follows the lenient opinion.</i>
  Likewise, it is prohibited to get a haircut before prayer; however, regarding shaving there is uncertainty. There are those who say that shaving is included in the ruling against haircuts. However, it seems that the halachah is that a person who normally shaves every day is allowed to shave before prayer, since shaving for him is one of the regular morning waking activities and is not considered tending to one’s own needs before prayer. It is especially proper to permit such an act if it is done as preparation for prayer.6<i class="footnote">The <em>Or L’Tzion</em> part 2, chapter 7:9 and <em>Halichot Shlomo</em> 2:7 forbid shaving. However, <em>Avnei Yashfeh</em> 7:4, based on Rav Vozner, permits all routine activities that a person does every morning.</i>
  
  Section 5
  
  Before the Shacharit Prayer / One Who Is Traveling
  Before amud hashachar a person is allowed to travel, provided that he plans his departure in such a way that he will succeed in reciting Shacharit on time. However, after amud hashachar, a person is prohibited from going on his way; instead, he must pray first and only then may he leave. Even if he has to leave home so early that he will miss praying with the minyan in his area, whereas he will still be able to pray in a minyan at his destination, it is preferable for him to pray individually before departing (Mishnah Berurah 89:20).
  This prohibition refers to setting out on a long trip, for that is the meaning of “yotzeh laderech” (going on one’s way). One interpretation maintains that the words refer to a journey that lasts at least 72 minutes (Shut Or L’Tzion, part 2, 7:6). In times of need one may rely on that opinion. Therefore, concerning a person who must start traveling earlier than the time of the minyan in his area, if his trip lasts less than 72 minutes, it is preferable for him to leave and then pray in a minyan at his destination. However, if his trip lasts longer than 72 minutes, it is best that he pray first in his area individually.
  If the entire trip is for the sake of prayer, for example, traveling to recite Shacharit at the Kotel, one is permitted to depart before praying, even if the travel time will last more than 72 minutes, for he is traveling to pray and not for his own personal needs (Or L’Tzion there).7<i class="footnote">em&gt;Avnei Yashfeh 14:20 writes that there are <em>poskim</em> who maintain that if along the way there are towns, this road is considered a road within a city. For that reason, it is permissible to travel on the road between Jerusalem and Tel Aviv. According to him, it seems that this is true also when traveling from Ashkelon to Nahariah, for communities are found all along the way. However, it is difficult to accept the opinion of these <em>poskim</em> because any trip that lasts 72 minutes is certainly considered tending to one’s personal needs before prayer. Perhaps only in extenuating circumstances is it permissible to rely on these opinions.It seems that before praying,<em> l’chatchilah</em> a person should not even leave for a trip that lasts only half an hour. If there is a <em>minyan</em> in one’s area, it is preferable to pray with it instead of traveling to his workplace to pray there, for there is reason <em>l’chatchilah</em> to maintain that even a trip of half an hour is considered traveling before prayer, especially if that is the regular road he takes to work.</i>
  
  Section 6
  
  Before the Shacharit Prayer / Eating and Drinking Before Prayer
  From the time of amud hashachar, it is forbidden to eat or drink before praying. The Chachamim support their words (Berachot 10b) on the verse (Leviticus 19:26), “Do not eat on the blood,” which they interpreted as, “Do not eat before praying for your blood.”8<i class="footnote">According to the majority of <em>Rishonim</em>, the prohibition against eating before praying is rabbinic, and <em>Chazal</em> base this ruling on the verse cited above, as written by <em>Talmidei Rabbeinu Yonah</em><em>Ritva</em>, and <em>Meiri</em>. So, too, writes the <em>Beit Yosef</em> 89:3, and according to his words the <em>Chachamim</em> permit all eating and drinking that do not possess an aspect of pride. According to his reasoning, the <em>Ra’avyah</em><em>Rosh</em>, and many others rule similarly. According to the <em>Ra’ah</em> and the <em>Ramban</em> (Leviticus 19:26), the prohibition is biblical.</i> Further, they teach, “Anyone who eats and drinks first and [only] afterwards prays, Scripture says of him (I Kings 14:9), ‘You have thrown Me behind your body’ (“gavecha,” the word used for “your body,” alludes to “ga’avatecha” – your pride). HaKadosh Baruch Hu said, ‘After this person acts arrogantly he accepts upon himself the yoke of Heaven?!’”
  However, water is a permissible drink before prayer because there is no aspect of pride in drinking it. Similarly, one is permitted to eat food and drink beverages that are intended for medication. Because they are being used as medicine, there is no aspect of pride in consuming them (Shulchan Aruch 89:4). For example, someone who is suffering from constipation is permitted to eat prunes before prayer since he is eating them as medicine (see Mishnah Berurah 89:24).
  Someone who is so hungry that he cannot concentrate on his prayer is allowed to eat before praying because the law regarding him is similar to that of a sick person who must eat; his eating does not possess any aspect of pride (Shulchan Aruch 89:4; see Mishnah Berurah 26).
  A weak person, who is able to pray individually first and eat breakfast afterwards, but cannot delay his breakfast until after the time of prayer in a minyan, should pray individually and eat after prayer. L’chatchilah, after the meal, it is good to go to the minyan in order to hear Kaddish and Kedushah (Bei’ur Halachah 89:3; see further in this chapter, halachah 7).
  A minor who has not yet reached the age of bar mitzvah is allowed to eat before prayer, for educating minors not to eat forbidden food applies when the food itself is not kosher. However, when the Chachamim “created a fence” not to eat before prayer, or before Kiddush, they did not obligate minors to abide by that “fence,” since the food itself is not forbidden (Mishnah Berurah 106:5; Yabia Omer, part 4, 12:15; however Kaf HaChaim 106:11 is stringent).
  
  Section 7
  
  Before the Shacharit Prayer / Coffee, Tea, and Cake Before Prayer
  One who is used to drinking tea or coffee in the morning and whose mind remains unsettled without it, is permitted to drink it before prayer; his drinking does not possess pride, rather it is a necessity so that he can settle his mind and concentrate in prayer. There are some people who only feel a need to drink coffee two hours after they wake up, and therefore on weekdays when the prayer service is short, it is best that they do not drink coffee before praying. However, on Shabbatot and festivals, when the prayer service lasts a long time, it is better for them to drink coffee before prayer.
  Someone who cannot drink coffee or tea without sugar is allowed to add a little sugar in order to drink and settle his mind. If he can suffice with artificial sweetener, that is preferable; however, he should not add milk. One who cannot drink coffee without milk and whose mind will not be settled without coffee is permitted to add milk to his coffee.
  On Shabbat, many people are lenient and eat cake before the prayer service, but in actuality their custom is incorrect and they do not have on whom to base their practice. The only permissible consumption before prayer is coffee, for it is considered similar to water and because one who became accustomed to drink it has become addicted to caffeine and without drinking it, his mind is unsettled. However, eating cake is prohibited before prayer. Only someone who is so hungry that he cannot concentrate properly on his prayer, or one who thinks that later on he will be so hungry that his concentration will be disturbed, is permitted to be lenient and eat a small piece of cake before praying.9<i class="footnote">Regarding coffee, see <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 89:22, <em>Yabia Omer</em>, part 4, 11, and <em>Ishei Yisrael</em> 13:25. Concerning the consumption of cake before praying, although the <em>Bei’ur</em><em>Halachah</em> 89:3 s.v. “<em>V’Chen</em>” writes that it is preferable to pray individually and not eat before prayer, it seems that a distinction should be made between a set meal and a snack. If he must have a set meal, it is preferable that he prays individually and eats after that. However, if it is enough to eat a snack, it is best that he eat a little and then pray afterwards in a <em>minyan</em>. That is the difference between what I wrote here and what I wrote in the previous halachah.See <em>Peninei Halachah Shabbat</em>, part 1, 6:9, that according to many <em>poskim</em>, among them the <em>Mishnah Berurah</em>, <em>Igrot Moshe</em>, and <em>Yalkut Yosef</em>, one who eats before praying on Shabbat must recite <em>Kiddush</em> before he eats, although in practice, it is customary not to recite <em>Kiddush</em> before praying.</i>
  
  Section 8
  
  Before the Shacharit Prayer / Eating and Drinking Before Amud HaShachar
  The prohibition of eating and drinking before prayer begins at amud hashachar, for that is the earliest time one may recite Shacharit. Regarding eating a meal the prohibition begins a half-hour before amud hashachar, lest he become so involved in his meal that he will forget to recite Keriat Shema and the Amidah. However, eating a snack is permitted before amud hashachar. Therefore, it is permitted to eat an unrestricted amount of fruits, vegetables, and cooked food before amud hashachar. Even eating an unlimited number of cooked foods made from various types of grain, such as pasta, is permissible before amud hashachar. However, bread and cake are permissible to eat only in an amount less than k’beitzah (like an egg), for that quantity does not constitute the eating of a meal (Shulchan Aruch 232:3; Mishnah Berurah 35; Sha’ar HaTzion 89:33).
  Prior to the half hour before amud hashachar, one is permitted to eat anything. Nevertheless, once amud hashachar arrives, all eating and drinking must cease (Shulchan Aruch 89:5; Mishnah Berurah 27 and 29).
  According to Kabbalah, some are accustomed to act stringently, maintaining that anyone who awakens after a regular sleep at night, even before chatzot, must not eat and drink until after praying Shacharit. Even though according to halachah it is permitted to eat and drink before amud hashachar, l’chatchilah, it is proper to be cautious in doing so. However, if the lack of food will cause neglect of Torah learning, it is better to eat and drink before amud hashachar (Mishnah Berurah 89:28). Similarly, those accustomed to waking up on Shabbat night to recite special prayers (“bakashot”) are allowed to eat and drink, especially if that will help awaken them more to serve Hashem. (Those who follow Kabbalah are more stringent concerning this. See Kaf HaChaim 89:28 and 43; see Yabia Omer, part 5, 22:5-6).
  
  Section 9
  
  Before the Shacharit Prayer / Tefillin and Tzitzit During Keriat Shema and Shacharit
  It is a rabbinic obligation to recite Keriat Shema of Shacharit with tefillin, as written in the paragraph of Shema, “And you shall bind them as a sign on your arm and they shall be as frontlets between your eyes” (Deuteronomy 6:8). Similarly, it is written in the paragraph of V’hayah Im Shamo’a, “Bind them as a sign on your arm and let them be as frontlets between your eyes” (Deuteronomy 11:18). Thus, it is not proper to read these verses without tefillin. The Chachamim teach, “Whoever recites Keriat Shema without tefillin, it is as if he testifies falsely about himself” (Berachot 14b).
  In any case, even one who does not have tefillin must recite Keriat Shema, since tefillin and Shema are two separate mitzvot that do not prevent one another from being fulfilled. If he does not have the privilege to perform the mitzvah of tefillin, he must at least fulfill the mitzvah of Keriat Shema, and he is not considered one who gives false testimony, since he is in circumstances beyond his control (Mishnah Berurah 46:33).
  It is appropriate to pray the Amidah of Shacharit with tefillin as well; that is part of the complete acceptance of the yoke of Heaven (Berachot 14b).
  Regarding a person without tefillin, whose friend can give him his pair to put on after he finishes praying, the Acharonim are uncertain what is the best course to follow. Is it preferable for him to pray in a minyan without tefillin and then put on tefillin afterwards? Or should he pray with tefillin individually after the minyan? The opinion of most poskim is that in practice it is best to pray with tefillin individually. However, one who wants to pray in a minyan without tefillin and then put on his tefillin afterwards is permitted to do so.10<i class="footnote">The <em>Magen Avraham</em> 66:12 is uncertain concerning this, and tends to resolve the issue by ruling that it is best to pray with <em>tefillin</em> individually. So write the majority of <em>Acharonim</em>, including the <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 66:40 and <em>Kaf HaChaim</em> 25:28. Still, there are those who disagree, and the <em>Minchat Yitzchak</em>, part 2, 107 writes that one may rely on them. <em>Yalkut Yosef</em>, part 1, p. 144 rules that if a person is unable to concentrate well, it is preferable that he pray in a <em>minyan</em> without <em>tefillin</em>. However, if he can have <em>kavanah</em>, it is better that he wear his <em>tefillin</em> while praying individually.</i>
  Likewise, it is proper to put on one’s tzitzit before prayer because the third paragraph of Keriat Shema discusses the mitzvah of tzitzit and it is appropriate to recite it while actually fulfilling the mitzvah of tzitzit. It is also customary to hold the tzitziyot and kiss them a number of times while reciting Keriat Shema (see further in this book 15:11). Even though the mitzvah of tzitzit can be fulfilled by wearing a “tallit katan” (tzitzit), it is also customary to put on a “tallit gadol” (tallit) in honor of the Shacharit prayer. However, before marriage, most Ashkenazim suffice with wearing a tallit katan. Only after they marry do they begin to wear a tallit gadol for Shacharit.
  
  Section 10
  
  Before the Shacharit Prayer / Laws Pertaining to Tzitzit and Tefillin for Shacharit
  A person’s tallit is put on before his tefillin, for tefillin are holier than tzitzit, and it is proper to rise gradually in the levels of sanctity (Shulchan Aruch 25:1).
  In addition to the regular kavanah that one must have at the time that he performs any mitzvah, which is the intention to fulfill a mitzvah of Hashem, we learn in the Torah that the mitzvah of tzitzit is to remind us of all Hashem’s commandments so that we may fulfill them. By performing the mitzvah of tefillin we are reminded to “enslave” our hearts and minds to the service of Hashem, and to remember His Oneness and the Exodus from Egypt (Shulchan Aruch 8:8; 25:5). These kavanot are printed in the siddurim, and although there is no obligation to say them, it is at least necessary to think them.
  Those who want to enhance the mitzvah put on their tallit and tefillin at home and come to synagogue adorned in them (Shulchan Aruch 25:2). Even if this prevents them from being one of the first ten people to arrive, it is still preferable to put on one’s tefillin at home and come to synagogue wearing them (see Mishnah Berurah 90:47).
  Because of the sanctity of tefillin, it is forbidden to let one’s mind wander from them the whole time that he is wearing them. Therefore, one must touch his tefillin frequently (Shulchan Aruch 28:1).
  
  
  
  
  
  Section 1
  
  The Passages of the Sacrificial Offerings / Is It an Obligation to Recite the Korbanot Passages?
  Every morning before prayer, we have the custom to recite the passage of the Tamid offering. However, Chazal did not officially institute this practice, and therefore, its recital is not considered to be an absolute obligation. Still, the recital of the Tamid passage is based on Chazal’s words in the Talmud (as will be clarified further). Moreover, the Chachamim established the time of the Shacharit prayer to correspond to the morning Tamid offering. Therefore, Jews have been accustomed to recite the Tamid section every day and its recital eventually became obligatory.
  Likewise, it is correct to recite the passage of the Ketoret (incense) every day before prayer, for it too, was brought daily. The Zohar (Vayakhel 218:2) emphasizes the great benefits from its daily recital. Hence, it is proper that even one who is in a hurry says the passage of the Tamid offering and the verses of the Ketoret.
  The remaining paragraphs and prayers printed as part of the Korbanot passages are important as well; however, their recital is not obligatory.1<i class="footnote">After writing that it is best to recite the passages of the <em>Korbanot</em>, <em>Shulchan Aruch HaRav</em> 1:9 writes, “Nevertheless, whoever is capable of understanding and learning need not recite even the passages of <em>Korbanot</em> every day, rather from time to time it is enough to say the paragraph <em>Eizehu</em> <em>Mekoman</em>… If a person knows that an action that he did requires him to bring a certain offering, such as an <em>Olah</em> for the nullification of a positive commandment, or for sinful thoughts of the heart concerning a negative commandment, or a <em>Todah</em> for the four [people] who need to give thanks, he should say the passage of that particular offering immediately when he is obligated to offer one.” However, concerning the <em>Tamid</em> offering in section 48:1 he writes, “All of Israel became accustomed and took it upon themselves as an obligation to recite the passage of the <em>Tamid</em> daily… and it is good to recite the passage of the <em>Ketoret</em> as well… There are those who are accustomed to recite the paragraph, ‘Abayei listed the order of the altar service…’ and <em>Ribon HaOlamim</em>…” There he refers to the custom that the congregation only recites the <em>Tamid</em> passage. This distinction can also be inferred from the <em>Shulchan Aruch</em> because in section 48 it is implied that everyone says the <em>Tamid</em> passage, whereas concerning the <em>Akeidah</em> and the remaining <em>korbanot</em>, he writes (1:5), “It is good to recite it.” Regarding the paragraph of the <em>Kiyor</em> (laver) and the <em>Terumat HaDeshen</em> (passage concerning the removal of ashes printed in Ashkenazic <em>siddurim</em>) and the <em>Ketoret</em>,<em> </em>he writes in section 1:9, “There are those who are accustomed to recite it.” This is also what is implied from the <em>Mishnah</em> <em>Berurah</em> 1:17 where he rules that a mourner does not recite the <em>Korbanot</em> passages. Similarly, on Tishah B’Av (554:7 and 559:20) he says the passage of the <em>Tamid</em> offering but not the other <em>Korbanot</em>. Although according to the <em>Shulchan Aruch</em> 554:4 all the <em>Korbanot</em> are recited, as the <em>Sephardim</em> practice, nevertheless, we learned that only the recital of the <em>Tamid</em> is obligatory in contrast to the recital of the remaining <em>Korbanot</em>.</i>
  When someone does not have time to say the Tamid paragraph, the verses of the Ketoret, and all of Pesukei d’Zimrah, it is best that he omit Psalm 30 (“Mizmor Shir Chanukat HaBayit L’David,” and Sephardim begin “Aromimcha Hashem”) so that he can recite them. If time does not allow him, he should also omit Hodu LaHashem. It is even permissible to skip Vayevarech David, Az Yashir, and Yehi Chevod in order to recite the paragraph of the Tamid offering and the verses of the Ketoret. This is because the foundation for the recital of the Tamid passage and verses of the Ketoret is in the Talmud, whereas the other passages were added to Pesukei d’Zimrah by the Savora’im and Geonim. However, one may not skip the main parts of Pesukei d’Zimrah, meaning Baruch She’amar, Ashrei through the end of the Halleluyot, and Yishtabach, in order to say the verses of the Korbanot, since those main parts of Pesukei d’Zimrah are obligatory. Those passages are so important that the Chachamim even instituted saying blessings upon their recital.2<i class="footnote">The source for the recital of the <em>berachot</em> before and after <em>Pesukei d’Zimrah</em> is in the enactment of <em>Anshei Knesset HaGedolah</em> or the <em>Tanna’im</em> (see further in this book, chapter 14, note 1), and they were instituted to be said on the praise we give Hashem. The most important praise is the Psalm “<em>Tehillah L’David</em>” (<em>Ashrei</em>), as explained in <em>Berachot</em> 4b, and next are all the <em>Halleluyot</em>, which continue until the end of Psalms, as clarified in <em>Shabbat</em> 118b, according to the interpretation of the <em>Rif</em> and the <em>Rosh</em>. The source for the recital of the <em>Tamid</em> passage is in the <em>Gemara</em> in <em>Ta’anit</em> 27b and in <em>Megillah</em> 31b. However, it is not mentioned there as an obligation or even as a daily custom, and no <em>berachah</em> is recited upon it. Therefore, the main parts of <em>Pesukei d’Zimrah</em> precede the <em>Tamid</em> passage in order of importance.The first Psalm that may be skipped is <em>Mizmor Shir Chanukat HaBayit</em> (<em>Sephardim</em> begin from <em>Aromimcha</em>), because its recital only began approximately 300 years ago as a continuation of the recital of the <em>Tamid</em>. If one must skip more, he should skip <em>Hodu LaHashem</em>, since the basis for its recital lies in the custom to recite it when the <em>Tamid</em> offering was brought in the Temple, and therefore it was customary to recite it after reciting the passage of the <em>Tamid</em>. If so, certainly the recital of the <em>Tamid</em> is more important than the recital of <em>Hodu</em>. <em>Yehi Chevod</em>, <em>Vayevarech David</em>, and <em>Az Yashir</em> are additions from the time of the <em>Savora’im</em> and <em>Geonim</em>, and therefore it seems that the recital of the <em>Tamid</em>, whose source is in the Talmud, is more important than their recital. There is a difference in importance between the passage of the <em>Tamid</em> and that of the <em>Ketoret</em>. See <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 554:7, who rules that on Tishah B’Av, <em>Pitum HaKetoret</em>  is not recited, for it is not part of the prayers of that day, but the <em>Tamid</em> passage is recited. (Although according to <em>Kaf HaChaim</em> 559:48 it is recited, still, we learn from the <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> that there is a difference in their levels of importance). Just like the <em>Tamid</em>, where only the verses are recited, regarding the Ketoret too, it is permissible in times of need to fulfill the obligation of its recital with verses alone, and one can suffice with reciting <em>Chazal</em>’s additions on the <em>Ketoret</em> at the end of the prayer service (see further in this book, 23:5, note 5).</i>
  
  Section 2
  
  The Passages of the Sacrificial Offerings / The Reason for the Recital of the Korbanot and the Different Stages of Prayer
  The korbanot express the absolute connection between the Jewish people and our Father in Heaven. This is a connection of such strong yearning for the Source of Life, for absolute perfection, that one is willing to surrender everything to Hashem, even life itself. At times, this desire intensifies when a person feels the acute contrast between his pure soul and his body, which possesses urges that pull him down towards vileness and sin. In order to attain atonement for his soul, he wishes to devote his soul to the sanctification of Heaven and to sacrifice himself to Hashem. However, HaKadosh Baruch Hu created man so that he may live and be an active partner in the rectification of the world (tikun olam), and therefore those feelings of longing for absolute devotion to God are expressed through the korbanot. Instead of a person sacrificing himself, he offers his animal, just as Avraham Avinu was ready to fulfill the will of the Creator and sacrifice Yitzchak, his only son, to Hashem, until Hashem commanded him to sacrifice the ram in his place.
  There are four stages in the prayer service and the passages of the Korbanot are the first stage. As a result of one’s sleep, a person is submerged in his corporeality, and in order to be able to stand before Hashem in prayer, he must first awaken and sacrifice his soul to the Master of the Universe by reciting Korbanot. Subsequently, he can purify his soul through Pesukei d’Zimrah with songs and praises to Hashem. From there, he can accept upon himself the yoke of Heaven in Keriat Shema and its berachot. Finally, he is able to rise to the highest level of prayer within when he stands before the Master of the Universe in the Amidah, and praises, pleads, and gives thanks. By praying in that manner, blessing is bestowed upon the world in abundance.
  The Kabbalah explains that the four stages of prayer correspond to four worlds (or realms), and that during the course of the prayer service, we ascend from the lowest world to the highest. The Korbanot correspond to the world of action (asiyah), Pesukei d’Zimrah correspond to the world of formation (yetzirah), Birkot Keriat Shema to the world of creation (beriah), and the Amidah to the highest world, the world of emanation (atzilut).
  The service of Hashem begins with a person’s complete acceptance upon himself that Hashem is God, and that there is no value to materialism and to life in this world as long as it remains separate from the service of Hashem. The bringing of korbanot expresses in the most concrete manner the nullification of materialism and life in this world before Hashem. Therefore, the recital of Korbanot corresponds to the world of action, because in that world all great concepts are realized in a practical and tangible manner.
  Afterwards, we say Pesukei d’Zimrah, which correspond to the world of formation. Following the surrender of materialism, a person’s spirit is released from its chains. It is then able to reflect upon the wonders of creation and to sing and praise Hashem.
  From the spiritual ascent of Pesukei d’Zimrah, we are able to recognize that the world is God’s creation, and to accept upon ourselves the complete yoke of Heaven. In the Korbanot, we do not entirely realize the fundamentals of faith; we only express our willingness to forgo everything for the sake of our belief. However, after the Korbanot and Pesukei d’Zimrah, we can elevate ourselves to complete faith in Hashem, as is set forth in Keriat Shema and expanded upon in its berachot. This stage corresponds to the world of creation, in which we comprehend the root of all things.
  From there, we rise to the highest level, the world of emanation, in which we are totally devoted to the Master of the Universe and completely identify with the Divine ideals. Before this, we stood before Him, sacrificed ourselves to Him, sang songs and praises to Him, and took upon ourselves the yoke of His Kingdom. Now, in the Amidah prayer, we are entirely devoted to Him and identify with His will to reveal His Name in the world. Consequently, we bless Him and pray that He bestow His abundant blessings upon the world.
  After that, we descend in the order of the worlds. The Tachanun prayer still corresponds to the world of emanation. In Ashrei and U’va L’Tzion, we bring the influence of prayer down to the world of creation; after that, in Shir Shel Yom, to the world of formation, and in Pitum HaKetoret, to the world of action (see Kaf HaChaim 48:1, s.v. “V’da Hakdamah”).
  
  Section 3
  
  The Passages of the Sacrificial Offerings / The Source for the Recital of the Korbanot
  The Chachamim teach (Ta’anit 27b and Megillah 31b) that when Hashem entered a covenant with Avraham Avinu and promised him that he and his children would inherit the Land of Israel, Avraham asked HaKadosh Baruch Hu, “Master of the Universe, perhaps, Heaven forbid, the nation of Israel will sin before You, and You will do to them as You did to the generation of the flood and the generation of the dispersion?” Hashem answered, “I will not do that to them.” Avraham said, “How will I know that You will not destroy their name?” Hashem responded, “Bring me three calves…”  By that, He hinted to him that the institution of the korbanot will be witness to the eternal connection between Israel and Hashem. Therefore, even if sins should be found within the Jewish nation, it is only because of external influences – in their core the Jewish people are righteous and are all connected to Hashem. Therefore, by the offering of korbanot, an act which expresses Israel’s absolute devotion to Hashem, their sins will be atoned.
  Avraham Avinu said before Him, “Master of the Universe, and what will be when the Temple will be destroyed; how will their sins be atoned?” HaKadosh Baruch Hu answered, “I have already instituted the Korbanot passages for them. Every time they recite them, I will consider it as if they are bringing an offering before Me, and I will forgive them for all their sins.”
  Further, the Chachamim say that anyone who engages himself in the laws of the Chatat (sin) offering, it is as if he offered a Chatat; and anyone who engrosses himself in the laws of the Asham (guilt) offering, it is as if he offered an Asham. Likewise, when one engages himself in the laws of any of the korbanot, it is as if he brought those offerings (Menachot 110a).
  The idea behind this is that every deed performed in the world possesses an inner soul. The soul of a mitzvah is the words of Torah that discuss that mitzvah. These ideas especially pertain to the korbanot, for the essence of the korbanot is to express our connection to Hashem. Therefore, when one cannot actually bring the offerings, the study of them is considered a substitute for their sacrifice (see also Maharal, Gevurot Hashem, chapter 8).
  
  Section 4
  
  The Passages of the Sacrificial Offerings / The Korbanot Passages
  We open the section of the Korbanot with the passage of the Akeidah, describing the sacrifice of Yitzchak. The readiness of Avraham Avinu to bring his only son as an offering is the ultimate sacrifice, and this is the foundation for all the commandments involving korbanot. Further, its recital awakens our hearts to the love of Hashem and to serve Him in total devotion. Moreover, in its recital we mention the merit of our forefathers – after the Akeidah passage, we request that Hashem, in the merit of the sacrifice of Yitzchak, have mercy on us and redeem us.
  After that, it is customary to recite words of inspiration in preparation for prayer and for the service of Hashem, including the first section of “Shema Yisrael.” According to the Yerushalmi, we end with the berachah, “Blessed are You Hashem, Who sanctifies Your Name among the multitudes,” and that is true for Nusach Ashkenaz. However, since this berachah is not mentioned in the Talmud Bavli, those praying in Nusach Sephard recite the blessing, “Blessed is the Sanctifier of His Name among the multitudes,” without saying Hashem’s Name.3<i class="footnote">he <em>Tosafot</em> in <em>Pesachim</em> 104b and <em>Berachot</em> 46a mention this <em>berachah</em> and explain that it does not begin with the word “<em>Baruch</em>” because it is a blessing of thanks. However, the <em>Rambam</em> writes it without Hashem’s Name. The <em>Tur</em>, <em>Orach Chaim</em> 46, calls it a <em>berachah</em> based on the <em>Yerushalmi</em> (although it does not appear in the wording of the <em>Yerushalmi</em> before us). <em>Nusach Sephard</em>, based on the <em>Rambam</em> and the <em>Ari</em> in <em>Sha’ar HaKavanot</em>, does not conclude it with Hashem’s Name. The wording of the entire prayer from the words “<em>L’Olam Yeheh Adam</em>” is brought in <em>Tanna D’vei Eliyahu Rabbah</em> chapter 21. According to <em>Nusach Ashkenaz</em>, it is clear that since it is a <em>berachah</em>, it is proper to be stringent about its recital every day.</i>
  Next, we arrive at the Korbanot passages themselves. According to the Ashkenazic minhag, we first recite the paragraph of the Kiyor (laver) and the passage regarding the Terumat HaDeshen (the removal of ashes), for the Kohanim would start the work in the Temple with them every morning. Furthermore, just as the Kohanim would become purified in preparation for their work by washing their hands and feet in the Kiyor, our recital of the passage of the Kiyor in the Shacharit service purifies us in preparation for prayer.
  Afterwards, according to all minhagim, the Tamid passage is recited, and we request that its recital be considered as if we are bringing a Tamid offering. Subsequently, we recite the verses of the Ketoret and we say rabbinic explanations regarding its mixture.
  We then add verses of praise and recite the paragraph, “Abayei listed the order of the altar service,” which is a small summary of the work in the Temple. We then recite the poem, “Ana B’Cho’ach,” which also alludes to the sacrificing of korbanot, and we conclude with a prayer requesting that our words be considered as if we actually offered the Korban Tamid.
  The Korbanot passages must be recited after amud hashachar, for that is the time to bring the offerings (Shulchan Aruch 1:6; 47:13). There are those who say that it is good to recite them while standing, following the example of the Kohanim who would stand while the sacrificial offerings were being brought (based on the Magen Avraham and see Mishnah Berurah 48:1). Nevertheless, according to most poskim, one need not stand, and that is the Sephardic minhag (Kaf HaChaim 1:33).
  After that, we say the chapter, “Eizehu mekoman shel zevachim” (“What is the location of the offerings?”) (Mishnah, Zevachim chapter 5). There are two reasons for its recital. First, it explains the place of the sacrifice and the sprinkling of the blood of the korbanot, and its recital corresponds to the offering of those korbanot. Second, the Chachamim wanted every Jew to learn Scripture, Mishnah, and Talmud every day (see Kiddushin 30a). When one recites the Tamid passage, he fulfills the obligation to learn Scripture. When he recites this chapter, he fulfills the obligation of learning Mishnah. Subsequently, he recites a beraita attributed to Rabbi Yishmael concerning the thirteen methods through which the Torah is elucidated, thereby fulfilling the obligation to learn Talmud.
  Although the Shulchan Aruch writes (Orach Chaim 1:5) that it is best to recite all the Korbanot passages, namely, the passage of the Olah (burnt offering), Minchah (meal offering), Shelamim (peace offering), Chatat (sin offering), and Asham (guilt offering) (from the Torah portions of Vayikra and Tzav), in actuality, it was not customary to recite them, and they were not even printed in siddurim. There are those who say that by reciting the chapter, “Eizehu mekoman,” within which all the korbanot are mentioned, one fulfills to a certain extent the learning of those matters (Shulchan Aruch HaRav 1:9; Eshel Avraham). It is proper that every year when we arrive at the Torah-reading portions of Vayikra and Tzav we learn them well, for one who learns them is considered as if he sacrificed the offerings (Menachot 110a).
  
  Section 5
  
  The Passages of the Sacrificial Offerings / The Reason for the Tamid Offering
  As we learned (in halachah 1), one should be meticulous in saying the verses of the Tamid offering and the Ketoret daily; therefore, we will somewhat clarify their subject matter.
  The Tamid offering is the most important of the korbanot since it is the most constant; every day of the year it was brought, once in the morning and once in the afternoon. For that reason, it is the korban that represents the continuous connection between the nation of Israel and our Father in Heaven.
  All of Israel participated in the bringing of the Tamid offering, since it was bought with the money collected from the half-shekel that every Jew, rich and poor alike, donated each year to the Temple. It therefore symbolizes the unity of Israel.
  Because Israel is the heart of the nations, Hashem’s unity is expressed through the bringing of the Tamid offering, for the entire world connects to the Source of Life via that single Tamid offering (see Maharal Netiv HaAvodah 1).
  The course of life consists of birth, development, and eventually death. Every day, people die, some due to old age, others as a result of accidents or diseases. In the animal kingdom as well, myriads of living creatures die daily. The same holds true for plant life; every day millions of trees, bushes, and flowers wither and wilt. The big question is: what is the significance of this whole process? Is this an inconsequential cycle of life and death, lacking purpose and meaning? Or perhaps there is a general direction towards which all life aspires? An answer to this question lies in the Korban Tamid. The entire world strives towards elevation and perfection. Part of this elevation is accomplished through growth and development; another part is achieved through death. This cessation of physical life is not for naught. In actuality, it is a sacrificial offering, which expresses the endeavor towards perfection. Because it is impossible in this world to achieve perfection, after completing all the possible actions and feasible elevations, one’s spirit continues to yearn for ascent but his body ages, his vessel becomes worn out, and his spirit detaches from his body and rises, returning to its origin. That is why the Kohanim would bring the Tamid offering in the most sacred place in the world, once in the morning and once in the afternoon. This korban was representative of all physical life that had ceased to exist in this world on that day. The bringing of the Korban Tamid gave that life meaning, the significance being its return to its origin and its spiritual ascent as a pleasing fragrance to God (see Maharal Netiv HaAvodah 1).
  
  Section 6
  
  The Passages of the Sacrificial Offerings / The Reason for the Ketoret
  Just as the Tamid offering was brought daily, the Ketoret (incense) was also brought every day, half in the morning and half in the afternoon. The Korban Tamid expresses Israel’s connection to Hashem, and the bond that all worldly creations have to their source of life. Therefore its organs were offered on the exterior altar, visible to all. However, the Ketoret gives expression to the deep inner connection between Israel and Hashem, and therefore it was offered on the interior altar inside the Temple. The Tamid offering connects all creations in their material and tangible components to Hashem. For that reason, the essence of the offering was the blood thrown on the altar and the organs offered upon it. The Korban HaKetoret, on the other hand, is the quintessential spiritual offering, epitomized by the incomparably pleasing scent that emanates from the spices of the incense.
  Through the Ketoret, a sublime spiritual light appears in the world which illuminates the inner souls of all creations and connects everything to holiness. Therefore, it was made out of spices that exude a pleasant scent, for smell is the most refined and spiritual pleasure there is in the world. The scent extends in all directions, to hint that all creations are influenced by an inner spiritual illumination that elevates them and binds them to holiness (Olat Ra’ayah p. 135).
  There were eleven spices in the Ketoret, all grounded thoroughly together so that they would be united completely, producing a favorable scent. Similarly, by unifying all powers completely for the sake of holiness, the world is uplifted and repaired.
  One of the primary spices in the incense is the chelbenah (galbanum), which alludes to the sinners of Israel, who, in their roots, are equally connected to the sanctity of Israel. The chelbenah had a particularly foul aroma. However, blended with the special mixture of the Ketoret, its odor would transform to good; instead of ruining the fragrance of the Ketoret, the addition of the chelbenah would make the smell of the Ketoret even more praiseworthy. This comes to teach us that when all the forces of Israel unite for the sake of a sanctified goal, the inner merit of the sinners of Israel is revealed, and they too join to aid in the rectification of the Jewish nation and the world (see Olat Ra’ayah, part 1, pp. 136-138).
  
  
  
  
  
  Section 1
  
  Pesukei d’Zimrah / The Reason for Its Recital
  The appropriate sequence of prayer is to begin by praising Hashem and only afterwards to approach Him with our requests. We learn this from Moshe Rabbeinu who commenced his prayer with words of praise, saying (Deuteronomy 3:24), “Hashem, God, You have begun to show Your servant Your greatness and Your mighty hand. What force is there in heaven or earth that can perform deeds and mighty acts as You do?” Only afterwards did Moshe plead, “Please let me cross [the Jordan] so that I may see the good land…” Based on this, Rav Simlai interprets, “A person should always praise Hashem first and afterwards pray” (Berachot 32a). This is the order of the berachot in the Amidah. The first three berachot open with words of praise and only later continue to the berachot detailing our requests. Even in the rest of the prayer service it is proper to begin in this fashion; therefore the Chachamim established the recital of Pesukei d’Zimrah, words of praise and exaltation of Hashem. The Chachamim instituted opening Pesukei d’Zimrah with Birkat Baruch She’amar and ending it with Birkat Yishtabach.
  During the time of the Tanna’im, the recital of Pesukei d’Zimrah was considered to be an extra pious act praised by the Chachamim. As time went on, however, the minhag spread until it became an obligatory custom, and now all of Israel commence their prayers with Pesukei d’Zimrah.1<i class="footnote"><em>Berachot</em> 4b states, “Whoever recites <em>Tehillah L’David</em> (<em>Ashrei</em>) three times daily is promised life in the World to Come,” and <em>Shabbat</em> 118b adds, “Rabbi Yossi says, ‘May my portion be among those who complete the <em>Hallel</em> (meaning <em>Pesukei d’Zimrah</em>) every day.’” From these words it can be inferred that the <em>Chachamim</em> did not institute the recital of <em>Pesukei d’Zimrah</em>; rather, it is an extra pious act that all of Israel practiced, and consequently became an obligatory custom. As the <em>Rasag</em> writes in his <em>siddur</em> (<em>Mekitzei Nirdamim</em> publishers, p. 32), “Our nation has volunteered to recite a number of Psalms praising <em>HaKadosh Baruch Hu</em> – with two<em> berachot</em> before and after them…” Additionally, in the words of the <em>Rambam</em> (<em>Tefillah</em> 7:12), “The <em>Chachamim</em> praise a person who recites songs from Psalms each and every day, from <em>Tehillah L’David</em> until the end of the book. It is already customary to recite verses [of Scripture] before and after them, and a <em>berachah</em> was instituted for recital before the Psalms … and a <em>berachah</em> after them.” The wording of these <em>berachot</em> is first mentioned in <em>Seder</em> <em>Rav Amram Gaon</em>, and some conclude that these <em>berachot</em> were instituted during the period of the <em>Geonim</em>. (There are even <em>poskim</em> who maintain that, halachically, <em>Baruch</em> <em>She’amar</em> and <em>Yishtabach</em> are less important than the rest of the <em>berachot</em>, as brought by the <em>Bei’ur Halachah</em> 51:2 s.v. “<em>Im</em>”). However, <em>Tola’at Yaakov</em> writes in the name of <em>Or Zarua</em> that <em>Anshei Knesset HaGedolah</em> instituted the wording of <em>Baruch She’amar</em> from a note that fell from Heaven. Many <em>Acharonim</em> write this, too, as brought by the <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 51:1. The <em>Mishkenot Yaakov</em> writes that the <em>berachot</em> were composed during the period of the <em>Tanna’im</em> and therefore it is forbidden to skip them. Some maintain that Rabbi Yishmael instituted them, as written in <em>Sefer Likutei Maharich</em> (see <em>Makor HaTefillot</em> p. 13). Although Rabbi Simlai learns (in <em>Berachot</em> 32a) from Moshe Rabbeinu’s prayer that a person must begin praying with words of praise, <em>Rashi</em> in <em>Avodah Zara</em> 7b interprets this to mean that we must begin the <em>Shemoneh Esrei</em> with three initial <em>berachot</em> of praise. So writes the <em>Rambam</em> chapter 1, <em>halachot</em> 2 and 4. If so, there is no biblical basis for <em>Pesukei d’Zimrah</em>, rather its recital is an extra pious act.<em></em>However, it is implied from the Rif (Berachot 23a), Rosh (Berachot, chapter 5, 4-6) and Tur that Pesukei d’Zimrah were instituted in order to start the prayer service with words of praise. The Bach, Orach Chaim 51 explains that the Chachamim instituted berachot for Pesukei d’Zimrah based on Rabbi Simlai’s extrapolation from the verses. He reasons that although they did not obligate the recital of Pesukei d’Zimrah, if there was no certain teaching from the Torah that this was the order of prayer, they would not have instituted the recital of berachot for them.See note 9 further in this chapter which states that according to Rav Natrunai and the Rashba, if one did not recite Pesukei d’Zimrah before the Amidah, he may not recite them after it, for their whole purpose is to prepare a person for prayer. However, according to Talmidei Rabbeinu Yonah and the Rosh, one may make them up after the Amidah, including the berachot. It must be explained in their opinion, that even though they were instituted before the Amidah, nevertheless, b’dieved, they still possess value even after the Amidah, for their main purpose is to praise Hashem and not necessarily to serve as preparation for prayer.</i>
  By reciting Pesukei d’Zimrah, a person reflects upon the magnitude of the Creator, and thus when he subsequently prays, he knows before Whom he stands. Otherwise, he might come to request his needs like idol worshipers, whose whole aim is to achieve personal success in their lowly matters, and who are not interested at all in devoting themselves to Hashem, the Source of Life. However, a person who purifies his heart by meditating on the greatness of Hashem knows how to pray. Even when requesting health and livelihood, he does so in order to devote himself to Hashem’s Torah and to rectify the world under the Almighty’s sovereignty. In this spirit, his prayers will be accepted (see Olat Ra’aya part 1, p.14).
  The name “Pesukei d’Zimrah” means “verses of songs of praise.” Additionally, it derives from the phrase “zemirat hakerem” (the pruning of a vineyard). Just like one who prunes his vineyard cuts off the extra branches in order to increase the growth of the vines and thus produce better fruit in the future – by saying Pesukei d’Zimrah we destroy our flawed thoughts and negative feelings, so that our prayers will ascend upward and be accepted. This process of mental and emotional purification inspires us to joyous song; therefore these passages are called “Pesukei d’Zimrah.”2<i class="footnote">See <em>Ein Ayah Berachot</em> 32a, s.v. “Rabbi Simlai extrapolates.” The <em>Abudraham</em> writes that <em>Pesukei d’Zimrah</em> are “like defenders of prayer.” In <em>Menorat HaMaor</em> it is explained that the name <em>Pesukei d’Zimrah</em> comes from the words “<em>zemirat hakerem</em>,” meaning the pruning of a vineyard. The <em>Tur</em><em>Orach Chaim</em> 93, based on the <em>Gemara</em> writes, “One must not approach prayer…unless it is out of happiness,” and therefore it was customary to recite <em>Pesukei d’Zimrah</em>, “In order to approach prayer out of the happiness surrounding the mitzvah of being engaged in Torah.”</i>
  
  Section 2
  
  Pesukei d’Zimrah / What Are Pesukei d’Zimrah?
  The main part of Pesukei d’Zimrah is the last six chapters in the book of Psalms, the most significant being the first, “Tehillah L’David” (Psalm 145). One who recites it three times daily is ensured a place in the World to Come, both because the praises in that Psalm are organized according to the order of the alef-bet, and because it mentions the important verse, “Pote’ach et Yadecha…,” “You open Your hand and satisfy the desire of every living being” (Berachot 4b). It is customary to recite the verse “Ashrei” before it, therefore the Psalm is generally referred to as Ashrei.
  Afterwards, we say the five Psalms which start and end with the word “Halleluyah,” about which Rabbi Yossi says, “May my portion be among those who complete the Hallel every day” (Shabbat 118b).
  During the era of the Savora’im (after the Amora’im), the recital of “Hodu” (Chronicles I 16:8-36) was instituted, which is the song and praise that King David recited as he returned the Ark of God from the captivity of the Philistines to the tent of the Tabernacle. Later, in the Temple, half of this praise would be recited while offering the morning Tamid and the other half when bringing the Tamid of the afternoon (Beit Yosef, Orach Chaim 50). According to Nusach Ashkenaz, Hodu is said after Baruch She’amar so that all the songs of praise and exaltation are included within the berachot of Pesukei d’Zimrah (Tur, Orach Chaim 51). According to Nusach Sephard, Hodu is said before Baruch She’amar because it is a continuation of the recital of the Tamid offering (Eshkol, Kolbo).
  The Savora’im also instituted (Masechet Sofrim 17:11) the recital of a compilation of verses before Ashrei that start with Yehi Chevod. These verses possess a strengthening of one’s faith in Hashem and in the redemption of Israel. The Ari explains the deeper, mystical meanings of this Psalms’ enigmatic words (Kaf HaChaim 51:13).
  After that, during the time of the Geonim, it became customary to add more Psalms and verses to Pesukei d’Zimrah. They established saying “Mizmor L’Todah” (Psalm 100). Chazal say that in the future, all songs will be nullified with the exception of this one (Vayikra Rabbah 9:7). Therefore, it is proper to recite it with a melody. It is not said on Shabbatot and festivals; instead, “Mizmor Shir L’Yom HaShabbat” (Psalm 92) is recited. According to the Ashkenazic minhag, Mizmor L’Todah is recited to correspond to the Todah (thanksgiving) offering which contained chametz (leavened bread). For that reason this Psalm is not recited on Erev Pesach, Chol HaMo’ed Pesach, and Erev Yom Kippur, since the Todah offering is not brought on those days because of the prohibition of chametz, or the obligation to fast. However, the Sephardim do recite it on those days because according to the Sephardic minhag, it does not correspond to the Todah offering; rather its fundamental purpose is to praise and express thanks (Beit Yosef and Rama 51:8).
  The main parts of Pesukei d’Zimrah are taken from the songs of David, as we say in the wording of Baruch She’amar, “Through the songs of David, Your servant, we will extol You.” Nevertheless, in the period of the Geonim, there were those who had the custom to add verses from the Torah and from the book of Nehemiah, such as Vayevarech David (Chronicles I 29:10-13 and Nehemiah 9:6-11), and Az Yashir (Song at the Sea), that Moshe and the nation of Israel sang to Hashem (Exodus 15:1-18). By the end of the era of the Rishonim everyone became accustomed to saying them.3<i class="footnote">Regarding <em>Tehillah L’David</em> (<em>Ashrei</em>): <em>Talmidei Rabbeinu Yonah</em> (23a) write that the essence of the institution to recite <em>Pesukei d’Zimrah</em> is for <em>Tehillah L’David</em>, based on the <em>Gemara</em> in <em>Berachot</em> 4b. The <em>Rosh</em>, chapter 5:6 writes, “In addition to that Psalm, the <em>Chachamim</em> instituted reciting [the remaining Psalms] until the end of the book of Psalms.”What was Rabbi Yossi referring to when he said (<em>Shabbat</em> 118b), “May my portion be among those who complete the <em>Hallel</em>, [meaning <em>Pesukei d’Zimrah</em>,] every day”? According to the <em>Rif</em>, <em>Rosh</em>, and <em>Tur</em>, he was referring to the last six Psalms, from <em>Tehillah L’David</em> until the end of the book of Psalms (Psalms 145-150). So it is written in <em>Masechet Sofrim</em> 17:11. However, <em>Rashi</em> interprets that Rabbi Yossi was discussing the two Psalms that start with “<em>Halleluyah Hallelu</em>” (Psalms 148 and 150). These opinions are brought by the <em>Beit Yosef</em>, end of section 50. Therefore, a distinction is made regarding the level of importance between the two Psalms that start with “<em>Halleluyah Hallelu</em>” and those that only begin with the word “<em>Halleluyah.</em>In Masechet Sofrim 17:11 (which was redacted in Israel at the end of the period of the Savora’im), it is mentioned that Yehi Chevod, Hodu LaHashem, and the last six Psalms are recited. Later, in the time of the Geonim, it is recorded that we recite Mizmor L’Todah and the passages from Vayevarech David through Az Yashir (just as the Tur Orach Chaim 51 writes, that this is an enactment of the Geonim). Similarly, the Psalms that are added on Shabbat are mentioned in Seder Rav Amram Gaon. However, regarding Az Yashir, which is not one of the songs of David, the Rambam writes (Tefillah 7:13) that some are accustomed to saying it and others are not, each person according to his custom. Sefer HaManhig writes that it is not proper to skip the praise of the first redemption. The verses, “Baruch Hashem l’olam amen v’amen” etc. that are recited after the Halleluyot are originally mentioned by the Roke’ach (who was among the Rishonim of Ashkenaz). Abudraham (the Sephardi) presents a reason – because they are verses that conclude the book of Psalms. Mizmor L’Todah is mentioned in Orchot Chaim (one of the Rishonim). Three hundred years ago, Mizmor Shir Chanukat HaBayit was added to the siddur. Before then, it was only recited on Chanukah. In the Mikdash, it was recited when bikurim (first fruits) were brought (Bikurim 3:4).</i>
  
  Section 3
  
  Pesukei d’Zimrah / Customs and Kavanah Regarding Their Recital
  Pesukei d’Zimrah are to be recited in a relaxed manner and not hastily (Shulchan Aruch 51:8).
  Baruch She’amar possesses a special virtue and alludes to sublime matters; therefore, it is customary to recite it while standing (Mishnah Berurah 51:1, Kaf HaChaim 1). According to the Ashkenazic minhag, one also stands while saying Yishtabach, which ends Pesukei d’Zimrah. However, according to the Sephardic minhag, one need not stand (Rama 51:7; Kaf HaChaim 42).
  Likewise, it is customary to stand for Vayevarech David until the words “Asher bacharta b’Avram,” out of respect for the Kingdom of Israel founded by King David.4<i class="footnote">According to the Sephardic<em> minhag</em>, “<em>Hashem Melech Hashem Malach</em>…” is recited twice before <em>Baruch She’amar</em>, and on Shabbat and Festivals it is said while standing. <em>Beit Yosef</em> 50 writes in the name of <em>Shibolei HaLeket</em> 76 that the reason is based on the <em>Midrash</em> which states that the angels said it while standing. However, on weekdays, since people did not have leisure time because of work, they were not accustomed to standing. Nowadays, it is customary to stand even on weekdays.</i>
  After learning that one of the two reasons for the recital of Ashrei (Psalm 145) is the mention of the verse, “Pote’ach et Yadecha,” (“You open Your hand and satisfy the desire of every living being”), we understand why this verse must be said with kavanah. If it is recited without kavanah, it must be repeated. Even if one already started reciting other passages, he must say that verse again with kavanah because it is the most important part of Pesukei d’Zimrah. Some say that since he did not have kavanah for that main verse, his recital of the rest of the Psalm is not considered valid either, and he must go back and repeat from “Pote’ach” until the end (Mishnah Berurah 52:16). However, according to most poskim, it is enough to go back and recite only the verse “Pote’ach” by itself (Shulchan Aruch 52:7).5<i class="footnote">In <em>Seder Rav Amram Gaon</em> it is written in the name of <em>Rav Natrunai Gaon</em> that the main goal is to recite the psalm <em>Tehillah L’David</em> at least once a day, and the fact that the <em>Chachamim</em> write three times daily is so that people will not be negligent by not reciting it at all. Therefore, in his opinion, on Shabbat it is only recited twice. This is also the implication from the <em>Rosh</em> chapter 1, section 6, where he writes, “Whoever recites <em>Tehillah L’David</em> every day.” However, in the <em>Gemara</em> before us (<em>Berachot</em> 4b), the version reads, “Anyone who recites <em>Tehillah L’David</em>three times daily – is promised life in the World to Come.” So writes the <em>Rambam</em>, that it is recited three times on Shabbat as well. According to those who maintain that it is sufficient to recite it once a day, the <em>Kaf HaChaim</em> 51:33 writes not to repeat “<em>Pote’ach</em>” in the middle of <em>Pesukei d’Zimrah</em> since this is considered an interruption. Instead one should have <em>kavanah</em> while saying it in the <em>Ashrei</em> after the <em>Amidah</em>. However, according to the majority of <em>poskim</em>, one must make up its recital in the middle of <em>Pesukei d’Zimrah</em> wherever he realizes his lack of <em>kavanah</em>. This is because in addition to taking into consideration the <em>poskim</em> who maintain that it is necessary to recite it three times, the verse “<em>Pote’ach</em>” is the most important verse of <em>Pesukei d’Zimrah</em> (as <em>Talmidei Rabbeinu Yonah</em> 23a write) and therefore it must be recited with <em>kavanah</em> specifically between the <em>berachot</em> of <em>Pesukei d’Zimrah</em>. That is what the <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> implies and what the <em>Ben Ish Chai</em><em> Vayigash</em> 12, <em>Igrot Moshe</em> 2:16, and <em>Yabia Omer</em>, part 6, 5:6 write as well. According to most <em>poskim</em>, only the verse “<em>Pote’ach</em>” must be repeated, as written in the <em>Shulchan Aruch</em> 51:7, <em>Magen Avraham</em><em>Birkei Yosef</em> 5, <em>Shulchan Aruch HaRav</em> 8, and <em>Tzitz Eliezer</em> 12:8. The <em>Mishnah Berurah</em>, based on the <em>Levush</em> and <em>Chayei Adam</em>, rules that one must recite from “<em>Pote’ach</em>” until the end of the Psalm.</i>
  
  Section 4
  
  Pesukei d’Zimrah / The Laws Concerning Interruptions in Pesukei d’Zimrah
  Because Pesukei d’Zimrah are surrounded by berachot – Baruch She’amar before and Yishtabach after them – they are considered one segment and interruptions in the middle of their recital are forbidden.
  However, in cases of a great need, such as to prevent loss, it is permissible to interrupt by speaking (see Mishnah Berurah 51:7, where he writes that before and after the interruption one should say the verses “Baruch Hashem” that appear before Vayevarech David). Similarly, in order to prevent insulting someone, one is permitted to greet him (see further in this book 16:6; the law concerning an interruption between Yishtabach and Barchu is explained further in this book 16:2).
  There are those who say that when one must relieve himself in the middle of Pesukei d’Zimrah, he should delay the recital of Asher Yatzar until after the prayer service so as not to interrupt Pesukei d’Zimrah. However, it is best to recite Asher Yatzar immediately after relieving oneself, for if he delays its recital until after praying, he might forget to say it altogether.6<i class="footnote"><em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 51:8 rules that one should recite the blessing immediately and so does the <em>Aruch HaShulchan</em>. <em>Kaf HaChaim</em> 51:28 writes that one should recite the blessing after <em>Yishtabach</em>, and according to the <em>Eshel Avraham</em>, one should recite the blessing after the <em>Amidah</em>. The <em>Igrot Moshe</em> 4:14 writes that it is preferable to say it after the <em>Amidah</em>. However, one who prefers to recite it immediately may do so. It is best that he recite the blessing immediately since there is concern that he might forget to recite the blessing altogether.</i>
  If a person hears berachot or Kaddish in the middle of Pesukei d’Zimrah, he may not answer “Baruch Hu u’varuch Shemo,” although he is permitted to answer Amen. Saying Amen is allowed, but is not an obligation. Since he is engaged in the mitzvah of reciting Pesukei d’Zimrah, he is exempt from the mitzvah of responding to other matters of sanctity. If a person’s concentration during Pesukei d’Zimrah will be disturbed if he interrupts to answer Amen, it is best that he continues to recite Pesukei d’Zimrah with kavanah and refrain from answering Amen. However, if he hears the congregation saying Kedushah, he must stand with his legs together and join along, so that he will not stand out as one who does not participate in matters of sanctity with the congregation. Similarly, if they arrive at Modim d’Rabbanan or Barchu, he bows slightly and answers with them. If he is praying in a minyan in which the people are reciting Pesukei d’Zimrah and he hears Kedushah, Modim, or Barchu being recited in a different minyan, he is permitted to remain seated and say Pesukei d’Zimrah, since by continuing to pray in an orderly fashion he does not stand out as one who separates himself from the congregation.7<i class="footnote"><em>Shut Tzitz Eliezer</em> 11:3 and <em>Halichot Shlomo</em> 6:12 explain that all the laws of interruption concerning matters of sanctity in <em>Pesukei d’Zimrah</em> are optional, meaning there is no obligation to stop in order to respond. Therefore, if responding disturbs his <em>kavanah</em>, it is best that he does not answer. In any case, one should take care not to appear as separating himself from the congregation; therefore, he stands at <em>Kedushah</em>, stands and bows at <em>Modim</em>, and bows slightly at <em>Barchu</em>, and since he already interrupted to stand and bow, it seems best that he respond as well. However, if he is part of another <em>minyan</em>, he does not appear to be separating himself from the congregation and therefore it is not necessary for him to stand and he may continue praying as he is (see the laws of <em>Keriat Shema</em> 16:5 and note 4).Since a person is not obligated to respond, there is no great need to discuss the laws of interruption at length, so we will briefly mention only a few. The Mishnah Berurah 51:8 and Bei’ur Halachah write that for responding Amen to berachot one may make an interruption even in the middle of a verse, provided that a theme of the verse has been concluded. However, for Kaddish, Kedushah, and Modim (these parts of prayer are recited in a minyan, and according to Minhag Ashkenaz, Amen after HaKel HaKadosh and Shome’a Tefillah as well), he may respond even in a place in which a theme has not yet ended. Many Acharonim do not mention this distinction at all and maintain that it is permissible to interrupt to answer Amen at any point in Pesukei d’Zimrah. One may respond to all the Amens in Kaddish until “D’Amiran B’Alma,” each according to his minhag. However, the law concerning the subsequent Amens is like that of “Baruch Hu u’varuch Shemo,” that we do not interrupt in order to respond in the middle of Pesukei d’Zimrah. Regarding Modim d’Rabbanan, the Mishnah Berurah 51:8 implies that one may answer and recite all of it, yet in Yabia Omer, part 6, 4, it is written that one only says the words “Modim anachnu Lach.” Regarding a person who hears thunder or sees lightning, according to the Chayei Adam 20:3 he is permitted to interrupt and recite a berachah on them, and so write most poskim, although there are some who disagree (Kaf HaChaim 51:23).</i>
  One who is reciting Pesukei d’Zimrah should not be called up to the Torah. He may only be called if he is a Kohen or a Levi and there are no other Kohanim or Levi’im present. Additionally, since he is in the middle of Pesukei d’Zimrah he may not interrupt his prayer to ask the gabbai (synagogue coordinator) to say a prayer on his behalf (Mishebeirach). However, in a situation in which the gabbai mistakenly calls a Yisrael who is still in the middle of reciting Pesukei d’Zimrah, he must go up out of respect for the Torah and the congregation (Mishnah Berurah 51:10).
  
  Section 5
  
  Pesukei d’Zimrah / What Parts May Be Omitted to Enable Praying in a Minyan?
  When a person arrives late to synagogue and notices that the congregation is about to finish reciting Pesukei d’Zimrah, it is better that he omit some parts of Pesukei d’Zimrah (most of Birkot HaShachar, Korbanot, and some other passages) in order to succeed in praying Shemoneh Esrei with the minyan, since the virtue of praying in a minyan is greater than the virtue of reciting Pesukei d’Zimrah. The whole idea behind the recital of Pesukei d’Zimrah is to prepare for prayer, in order to facilitate its acceptance. However, the prayer of a person who prays with a minyan is certainly accepted and desirable (Berachot 8a).
  Nonetheless, there are passages that may not be omitted, namely, Baruch She’amar, Ashrei, and Yishtabach, so that the opportunity to recite them will not be missed. The berachot of Pesukei d’Zimrah were instituted for the purpose of reciting praise before the Amidah and one who did not say them prior to it is not permitted to recite them afterwards. In order to recite the berachot of Pesukei d’Zimrah, one is obligated to recite at least one passage of praise; therefore it is best that he say the most important passage, which is Ashrei.
  Similarly, one must be strict in reciting Birkat Elokai Neshamah and Birkot HaTorah before prayer, for if he does not, he will have lost the opportunity to say them (Mishnah Berurah 52:9; Bei’ur Halachah there). Likewise, before prayer one must wrap himself in a tallit and put on tefillin.
  If one notices that he does not have time to say these berachot and Ashrei and still succeed in praying with the minyan, he should pray individually without omitting anything.
  L’chatchilah, one should try to plan his omissions in such a way that he will succeed in praying with the congregation, meaning with ten people who are praying the silent Amidah. However, if he sees that he cannot say the berachot and Ashrei and still succeed in praying the silent Amidah with the congregation, he should try to pray with the chazan as he repeats the Amidah (Chazarat Hashatz), for even by doing that, he is considered one who is praying in a minyan according to most poskim.8<i class="footnote">A summary of this topic: <em>Talmidei Rabbeinu Yonah</em>, <em>Rosh</em>, and the <em>Tur</em> maintain that in order to pray in a <em>minyan</em> it is best to skip all of <em>Pesukei d’Zimrah</em> including its <em>berachot</em>. Even though after prayer he will not be able to recite the <em>berachot</em> of <em>Pesukei d’Zimrah</em>, it is preferable that he pray in a <em>minyan</em>, as the <em>Chachamim</em> established. The reason for this is that prayer of the many is certainly accepted, while the basis for the recital of <em>Pesukei d’Zimrah</em> stems from a <em>minhag</em> that the nation of Israel practiced, and although <em>berachot</em> were instituted for them, they are not the essence of the prayer like <em>Birkot</em><em>Keriat Shema</em> and the <em>Amidah</em>. This resembles the opinion of <em>Rasag</em> and <em>Rambam</em> brought in note 1. Even according to those who maintain that the reason behind the recital of <em>Pesukei d’Zimrah</em> lies in what we learn from Moshe’s prayer, as brought there by the <em>Bach</em> in his explanation of the <em>Rif</em>, <em>Rosh</em>, and <em>Tur</em>, nevertheless, it is not implied that their recital is an absolute obligation, rather that all of Israel were accustomed to say them and the custom is binding, but does not override prayer in a <em>minyan</em>. So rules the <em>Shulchan Aruch</em> 52:1, <em>Rama</em>, <em>Kitzur</em><em>Shulchan Aruch</em> 14:7, as well as <em>Rav Rakach’s Sha’arei Tefillah</em>, based on 91 <em>poskim</em>.In contrast to that, many kabbalists write, based on the <em>Zohar</em>, that one must be very strict in preserving the order of the prayer service, for within it great secrets are hinted. Anyone who changes the order of the prayers overturns the channels of Divine influx which flow via prayer. Therefore, even a person who arrives late to synagogue must not skip any part of the <em>Korbanot</em> or <em>Pesukei d’Zimrah</em>. These words are brought as halachah in <em>Kaf HaChaim</em> 52:2, as well as <em>Yaskil Avdi</em> part 1, <em>Orach Chaim</em> 2:6. (See <em>Shut Rav Pe’alim</em>, part 2, <em>Orach Chaim</em> 4, who agrees that in times of need one may skip part of <em>Pesukei d’Zimrah</em> and <em>Korbanot</em>). However, the <em>Chacham Tzvi</em>, responsa 36, explains that the strict attitude of the <em>Zohar</em> not to change the order of the prayer refers to a person praying individually, but regarding one who has the opportunity to pray with a <em>minyan</em>, it is proper that he skip <em>Pesukei d’Zimrah</em> in order to pray with the congregation, because even according to Kabbalah, communal prayer is most valued and accepted. (So write the <em>Chida</em> in <em>Kesher Shel Gudal</em> 5:10 and the <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 52:1.)The Mishkenot Yaakov is of an intermediate opinion, that in order to pray in a minyan, it is best to skip all the Psalms in Pesukei d’Zimrah, Birkot HaShachar, and the Korbanot, on condition that he succeed in reciting the berachot of Pesukei d’Zimrah – Baruch She’amar and Yishtabach – for if they are not recited before the Amidah, he loses out on saying them, and they are important berachot which were instituted in the time of the Tanna’im. In order to say them, one must recite Ashrei between them. This is the opinion of the Mishnah Berurah 52:6, Bei’ur Halachah 53:2 s.v. “Ein,” and Chayei Adam 19:7. That is what Rav Mordechai Eliyahu writes in practice in his siddur, p. 76.Although according to eminent Rishonim and the Shulchan Aruch it is even preferable to skip the berachot in order to pray in a minyan, I have not mentioned their opinion above, since there is another uncertainty involved – is the Amidah with the chazan considered to be prayer in a minyan? According to the Pri Megadim Eshel Avraham, 52:1 praying with the chazan as he repeats the Amidah is not considered prayer in a minyan, and so it is implied from the Rama 109:2. By contrast, Eshel Avraham Butshatsh and many Acharonim maintain that it is indeed considered prayer in a minyan (see earlier in this book 2:3, and note 2). Therefore, if skipping everything will enable a person to pray the silent Amidah with the congregation, it is still better that he recite the berachot of Pesukei d’Zimrah and whatever sections he can and then pray with the chazan, for it is the opinion of most poskim that his prayer is considered to be in a minyan. However, if there remains so little time that in order to pray with the chazan he would have to skip all of Pesukei d’Zimrah including the berachot, it is best that he does not skip, from two standpoints: 1) According to the Mishkenot Yaakov and those who agree with him, a person must never skip the berachot of Pesukei d’Zimrah. 2) Some poskim maintain that this is not considered prayer in a minyan and if so, there is no reason to skip the berachot for the sake of a prayer that is doubtful as to whether it is considered to be in a minyan. That is what I have written above.When two options stand before a person – not to skip any parts of the Korbanot or Pesukei d’Zimrah at all and to pray with the chazan as he repeats the Amidah, or to recite select parts of the service, meaning Birkot HaShachar, the verses of the Tamid and the Ketoret, Baruch She’amar, Ashrei, all the Halleluyot, and Yishtabach, and thereby succeed in praying the silent Amidah with the congregation – it seems, in my humble opinion, that it is preferable to skip certain parts and pray with the congregation, for everyone agrees that the silent Amidah is considered prayer in a minyan, and he already recited the essential sections, whose sources are in the Talmud. However, if, in order to pray with the congregation, he must skip more, then in that case it seems to me that it is preferable to pray with the chazan.</i>
  Whenever one must omit passages from Pesukei d’Zimrah in order to pray in a minyan, it is good to complete them after the prayer service.9<i class="footnote">The <em>Tur</em> writes in the name of <em>Talmidei Rabbeinu Yonah</em> and the <em>Rosh</em> that a person who skipped all of <em>Pesukei d’Zimrah</em> including the <em>berachot</em> (according to his opinion) must make them up with the <em>berachot</em> after the prayer service. (Although we learned in note 1 that the <em>Rosh</em> maintains that <em>Pesukei d’Zimrah</em> were instituted as an introduction of praise for prayer, nevertheless according to him, <em>b’dieved</em>, there is value in saying them even after prayer, as implied from <em>Rasag</em> and <em>Rambam</em> there.) By contrast, the opinion of <em>Rav Natrunai</em> is not to recite them after prayer, and so writes the <em>Rashba</em>. The <em>Beit Yosef</em> interprets this to mean that only the <em>berachot</em> must not be recited after prayer, because their recital was instituted as preparation for prayer, but it is correct to go back and make up the verses themselves. That is how the <em>Shulchan Aruch</em> 52 rules. However, according to the <em>Bach</em> and the <em>Perishah</em><em> Rav Natrunai</em>’s words mean that one must not recite the verses either. <em>Aruch HaShulchan</em> 5 writes that the law is that <em>shev v’al ta’aseh adif</em> (sitting and not performing an action is preferable.) It is also the opinion of the <em>Maharitz</em> from Yemen not to recite <em>Pesukei d’Zimrah</em> in accordance to the prayer service. Most <em>poskim</em> write like the <em>Shulchan Aruch</em>, that it is correct to make up the verses after prayer.</i>
  
  Section 6
  
  Pesukei d’Zimrah / The Order of Preference Regarding Omissions
  We learned in the previous halachah that one must always recite Birkat Elokai Neshamah and Birkot HaTorah before saying the Amidah, put on tallit and tefillin, say Baruch She’amar, Ashrei, and Yishtabach, and continue onwards to Birkot Keriat Shema. Therefore, if one who is late for prayer can say those passages and still succeed in praying with the chazan, he should omit all the other parts of prayer in order to pray with the minyan, and after the prayer service make up what he missed. If he has more time before prayer, he must familiarize himself with the order of importance concerning the berachot and Psalms, so that he will know what to recite first. We will therefore outline the order of importance.
  First, one should recite all the remaining Birkot HaShachar. Even though b’dieved, it is possible to complete them after the prayer service, in any case, since it is an absolute obligation to say them, and because the Chachamim say (Berachot 60b) that the time to recite them l’chatchilah is when one wakes up from sleep, they should be said earlier than all the Psalms and the Korbanot.
  When a person has more time, he should include additional Psalms according to the order of their importance. Although all the Psalms and verses are important, nevertheless, for the sake of prayer, there are Psalms that have more significance than others and those that have less, and we will list them in order of their virtue. Most valuable after Ashrei are the two Psalms that open with “Halleluyah Hallelu” (Psalms 148 and 150). According to Rashi (Shabbat 118b), they are the main part of Pesukei d’Zimrah, and Rabbi Yossi praises those who recite them every day.
  Following them in virtue are all the Psalms which begin and end with “Halleluyah.” According to the Rif and Rosh, they are called Pesukei d’Zimrah in the Talmud (Shabbat 118b), and Rabbi Yossi praises those who recite them daily. Therefore, when there is more time, one must say all the Psalms from Ashrei straight through until after the words “Kol haneshamah tehallel Kah Halleluyah.”
  After them in virtue are the verses of the Tamid offering and the verses of the Ketoret, because the source for their recital is based on the Talmud (Ta’anit 27b), in which it is written that anyone who recites the passages of the sacrificial offerings, is considered as if he actually brought them as offerings.
  Following them in importance is Vayevarech David (Mishnah Berurah 52:4). After that, there are varying opinions concerning which prayer should be recited first and the person praying can decide.
  On Shabbat, Nishmat precedes all the Psalms that begin with “Halleluyah” because it is part of Yishtabach. Subsequently, the passages that are regularly recited every day precede the passages added especially for Shabbat, for precedence is always afforded to the more frequent mitzvah.10<i class="footnote"><em>Avnei Yashfeh</em> 9:14 and <em>Halichot Shlomo</em> 6:7 discuss the precedence of <em>Birkot HaShachar</em> to the rest of the <em>Pesukei d’Zimrah</em> passages. Further, we shall add that the <em>Al Netilat Yadayim</em><em>berachah</em> may not be recited after the <em>Amidah</em> either, but there is no need to write that above, since it is normally recited at home before drying one’s hands. The correct <em>minhag</em> is to recite <em>Asher Yatzar</em> and <em>Elokai Neshamah</em> immediately after that. Therefore, it is most important to remember to recite <em>Birkot HaTorah</em> before praying, but if one did not, he fulfills his obligation in <em>Ahavat Olam</em>, as explained earlier in this book, 10:2, and note 2.The <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 52:5 writes, based on the <em>Chayei Adam</em> 19:6, that <em>Nishmat</em> is <em>Birkat HaShir</em> (the Blessing of the Song), and therefore precedes all the rest. <em>Avnei Yashfeh</em> 9:13 writes that if one does not have time to recite <em>Nishmat</em>, he must pray in order, for its virtue is exactly like <em>Baruch She’amar</em>, <em>Ashrei</em>, and <em>Yishtabach</em>. However, he notes that the <em>Beit Baruch</em> expresses doubt concerning this. Indeed, a number of <em>Acharonim</em> write that any Psalm recited every day precedes <em>Nishmat</em>, for they are more frequently recited (as written in <em>Yechaveh Da’at</em> 5:5, in the note). <em>Rav Mazuz</em> writes in his <em>Hagahot Ish Matzliach</em> that <em>Nishmat</em> precedes all the <em>Halleluyot</em>, but is not like <em>Yishtabach</em> and <em>Ashrei</em>. That is the intermediate opinion and it is what I have written above.See further in Avnei Yashfeh chapter 9, where he summarizes the order of precedence according to the Ashkenazic and Sephardic wordings. In addition, see Aruch HaShulchan who suggests a different order. Rav Mordechai Eliyahu, in his siddur, p. 76 presents a different order, based on Rav Pe’alim. I have not discussed this at length here, because most people do not remember all the details. Additionally, since all the other Psalms that are recited became customary after the Talmud, it is unnecessary to be so strict regarding the order of their importance.</i>
  Here is the place to add that even one who must pray individually, and shorten his prayer so that he will not be late to work, should shorten it according to the aforementioned instructions. For example, a teacher who wakes up late and must get to his students on time should shorten his prayer according to these guidelines (Igrot Moshe, Orach Chaim, part 4, 91:2).
  
  
  
  
  
  Section 1
  
  Keriat Shema / The Mitzvah of Keriat Shema (The Recital of Shema)
  It is a positive biblical commandment to recite Shema at night and in the morning, as it is written (Deuteronomy 6:7), “And you shall say them… when you lie down and when you get up.” “When you lie down” denotes nighttime, and “when you get up” refers to morning.
  We read three paragraphs, the first: “Shema Yisrael” (“Hear O Israel”) (Deuteronomy 6:4-9), with which we accept the yoke of Heaven, and which discusses the unity and love of Hashem. The second is “V’hayah Im Shamo’a” (“And if you follow”) (Deuteronomy 11:13-21), which includes the acceptance of the yoke of the mitzvot. The third is “Vayomer” (“And He said”) (Numbers 15:37-41), including a command to remember the mitzvot through the commandment of tzitzit, and mention of the Exodus from Egypt.
  The Chachamim arranged the Shema paragraph to precede V’hayah Im Shamo’a so that a person will first accept the yoke of Heaven, and only afterwards accept the yoke of the mitzvot. They also placed V’hayah Im Shamo’a which involves a general mandate to keep all the mitzvot, including those performed during both day and night, before the Vayomer paragraph, which discusses the mitzvah of tzitzit, performed only during the day (Berachot 13a).
  In the opinion of some Rishonim, the biblical commandment is just to recite the verse “Shema Yisrael.” According to them, this is the meaning of (Deuteronomy 6:6-7), “These words I am commanding you today must be in your heart…when you lie down and when you get up.” However, the Chachamim instituted reciting the entire three paragraphs.
  It can be explained, that the essence of the mitzvah of Keriat Shema is indeed that a person accepts upon himself the yoke of Heaven, and for that reason, even one who only recites the first verse fulfills the biblical commandment. Yet, the more a person enhances his acceptance of the yoke of Heaven, the more completely he fulfills the biblical commandment. Therefore, the Chachamim instituted the recital of all three paragraphs, for within them are the fundamentals of faith, the acceptance of the yoke of the mitzvot, and the remembrance of all the mitzvot through the mitzvah of tzitzit. Hence, in actuality, we fulfill the biblical mitzvah by reciting all three paragraphs.1<i class="footnote">The question is to what the command, “Speak of them…when you lie down and when you get up,” applies. According to the <em>Ramban</em><em>Ra’ah</em><em>Rashba</em><em>Ritva</em><em>Meiri</em><em>Rashbatz</em><em>Rabbi</em><em>Yehudah</em><em>HaChassid</em>, and <em>Beit</em><em>Yosef</em> 46:9, it applies only to the first verse. This is implied in the <em>Shulchan</em><em>Aruch</em> 63:4, who writes only concerning the first verse, that if a person did not have <em>kavanah</em>, he does not fulfill his obligation. In the opinion of <em>Talmidei Rabbi Yonah</em> and the <em>Yere’im</em>, the biblical mitzvah applies to the whole first paragraph. However, the words in <em>V’hayah</em><em>Im</em><em>Shamo’a</em>, “Speak of them…when you lie down and when you get up” (Deuteronomy 11:19), refer to the mitzvah of learning Torah during the day and at night. The <em>Pri</em><em>Chadash</em> 67 maintains that the biblical mitzvah is the recital of both the first two paragraphs. See <em>Yabia</em><em>Omer</em> 8:6:4. Also see <em>Aruch</em><em>HaShulchan</em> 58:15, who infers from a few <em>Rishonim</em> that it is a biblical commandment to recite all three paragraphs. The <em>Mabit</em> explains in <em>Kiryat</em><em>Sefer</em> that like in the mitzvah of learning Torah, a person who learned one verse already fulfilled the mitzvah, but the more he learns, the more he fulfills the mitzvah, so it is regarding the recital of <em>Shema</em>. There is a similar explanation in <em>Yad</em><em>Peshutah</em> in his introduction to <em>Hilchot</em><em>Keriat</em><em>Shema</em></i>
  
  Section 2
  
  Keriat Shema / Remembering the Exodus
  It is a biblical commandment to remember the Exodus every day, as it says (Deuteronomy 16:3), “Therefore you will remember the day you left Egypt all the days of your life.” The Chachamim learn from the word “all” (kol) that the mitzvah to remember the Exodus is performed both during the day and at night (Berachot 12b). This mitzvah can be fulfilled by reciting any verse that discusses leaving Egypt, or by mentioning the Exodus in one’s own words.
  The Chachamim instituted reciting the Vayomer paragraph in order to fulfill the mitzvah of remembering the Exodus from Egypt. Therefore, there are two reasons why Vayomer was incorporated into the recital of the Shema. First, it mentions the mitzvah of tzitzit that reminds us of all the mitzvot. Second, it talks about the Exodus from Egypt. It is therefore customary to say Vayomer even at night, for although there is no need to mention the mitzvah of tzitzit then, we say it to remember the Exodus (see Berachot 14b, and Kesef Mishneh, Hilchot Keriat Shema, chapter 1: 2-3).
  There is a difference between the mitzvah of Keriat Shema and the mitzvah of remembering the Exodus from Egypt. The mitzvah of Keriat Shema can only be fulfilled within the first three hours of the day because that is the time we wake up, whereas the daytime mitzvah of remembering the Exodus can be performed throughout the entire day. However, following the enactment of the Chachamim, we fulfill the mitzvah of remembering the Exodus with the recital of Shema, and if the time to say Shema has passed, a person can remember the Exodus from Egypt by reciting the berachah of “Emet V’Yatziv.” If four hours have passed, one may fulfill the mitzvah by saying the Vayomer paragraph or by remembering the Exodus in another way (Mishnah Berurah 58:27, 67:3; see earlier in this book 11:11; and see the laws of Ma’ariv, further in this book chapter 25, end of note 3).
  
  Section 3
  
  Keriat Shema / The Content of the Shema Paragraph
  The Shema paragraph (Deuteronomy 6:4-9) consists of three sections: 1) the foundation of faith, 2) the meaning of this foundation in our lives, and 3) instructions on how to instill faith into our lives.
  1) From the first verse, “Hear O Israel, Hashem is our God, Hashem is One,” we learn the foundation of the unifying belief of Israel, that Hashem Blessed Be He is the Master of everything, and there is no force in this world other than He. Even though it may seem to us that there are other distinct powers, separate from one another, Hashem, Who is One, sustains all life, and there is no one else.
  2) The significance of this belief in our lives is that there is no other value in this world aside from the devotion to Hashem Blessed Be He. Hence, “Love Hashem your God with all your heart, with all your soul, and with all your might.” The Chachamim (Berachot 54a) interpret these words: “With all your heart” – with both your inclinations: your good inclination (yetzer hatov) and your evil inclination (yetzer hara), – because one’s evil inclination must also be controlled to serve Hashem, whether by force or by transforming it into good. “And with all your soul” – even if it takes your life, for a person must be ready to give his life for his belief in Hashem. “And with all your might” – with all your resources; even a person’s money should serve as a basis and a means to serve Hashem, so that if it were demanded of a Jew to violate his religion or lose all his wealth, he would forfeit his money rather than defy his belief. Additionally, they interpret, “With all your might” – for each and every measure that Hashem bestows upon you, be grateful to Him very very much.”
  3) In the third section, the Torah instructs us regarding how to instill these foundations of belief in ourselves. First, “Put these words that I am commanding you today into your heart” and additionally, “Teach them to your sons.” Even after a person learns the basic tenets of faith very well, if he does not repeat them to himself every day, life’s dealings and worries can cause him to forget them. Therefore we are commanded, “And say them when you sit in your house, when you walk on your way, when you lie down and when you rise up.” From this we learn the obligation to recite Shema both in the morning and at night. Nevertheless, the Torah does not suffice with its recital alone, but rather adds the commandment to place these paragraphs of belief into our tefillin and to bind them on our arms and heads, as it is written, “And you shall bind them as a sign on your arm and they should be as frontlets between your eyes.” We are also commanded to fix them firmly in the mezuzot on our doorposts, as it is written, “And write them on your doorposts of your houses and your gates.” This is so that every time we enter and exit our houses, we look at the mezuzah and are reminded again of the foundations of Israel’s faith. Thus, the paragraph that discusses belief and the oneness of the Creator constantly guides us, in our hearts with Keriat Shema, on our bodies through tefillin, and on our property, meaning our houses, via the mezuzah.
  
  Section 4
  
  Keriat Shema / The Second and Third Paragraphs
  In the second paragraph, “V’hayah Im Shamo’a” (Deuteronomy 11:13-21), we learn about the value of the mitzvot, the reward for those who fulfill them, and the punishment for those who transgress them. If we love Hashem, serve Him with all our hearts, and fulfill all His mitzvot, we will be worthy of His blessing. The land will bring forth its crops, and we will live long lives, we and our children, on the land that Hashem promised to give to our ancestors and to us. However, if we, God forbid, stray from the path, Hashem will be angry with us, the ground will not yield its produce, and we will be exiled from upon the good land. We are then told to put tefillin on our arms and heads, and to post mezuzot on the entrances to our houses, thereby commanding us to deeply internalize these fundamentals of our faith not only by reciting Shema but by fulfilling other mitzvot as well. In the first paragraph, the emphasis is on our appeal towards the heavens, by dedicating all our powers to serving Him. In the second paragraph, the emphasis is on revealing Hashem’s autonomous rule in the world. The fulfillment of the mitzvot is an expression of the revelation of Hashem’s will in this world. Reward and punishment also confirm His supervision over this world.
  In the third paragraph, “Vayomer” (Numbers 15:37-41), the mitzvah of tzitzit is elucidated. This commandment possesses special merit, for tzitzit have the power to remind us of all the mitzvot and to inspire us to fulfill them, as it says, “And you shall remember all of Hashem’s mitzvot and you shall perform them.” As an indication of that, the mitzvah of tzitzit can only be performed during the day and not at night because the day reminds us of the clear revelation of Hashem’s word in the world. By revealing the light of the mitzvot and remembering them, we have the strength to overcome our evil inclination, as it says, “And you shall not seek after your heart and your eyes after which you go astray.” The conclusion of the paragraph tells of the Exodus from Egypt, which we are commanded to remember both day and night. Just like tzitzit, which reveal the light of all the mitzvot, so too, the Exodus proved to us that there is a Leader in this world, and that the nation of Israel was chosen to reveal His word.
  Thus, each of the three paragraphs is a continuation of and an expansion on the foundation of faith introduced by the verse “Shema Yisrael Hashem Elokeinu Hashem Echad.” In the first paragraph, we learn the fundamental significance of belief, which is the one and only foundation of our lives. This is an extension of the words “Hashem Echad,” (“Hashem is One”). From that, we accept upon ourselves the yoke of all the mitzvot in the second paragraph, which parallels the words “Hashem Elokeinu,” (“Hashem our God”). In the third paragraph, the mitzvah of tzitzit appears and proclaims to us all the mitzvot and reminds us of them. At the end of the paragraph, the Exodus from Egypt, which showed the world that Hashem chose Israel and that He is the overseer and ruler of His world, is an expression of the words, “Shema Yisrael,” (“Hear O Israel”). Thus the meaning of the Shema is capsulated in the very first verse, and explained in the paragraphs which follow. In the laws of Birkot Keriat Shema 16:1, we will learn that the berachot that the Chachamim instituted are also a continuation of and a supplement to the Shema prayer.
  
  Section 5
  
  Keriat Shema / The Significance of the Exodus
  The Egyptian kingdom, which enslaved Israel, was essentially the kingdom of materialism. Historical research verifies this. Among all the ancient nations, no culture was more materialistic than the Egyptian culture. The Egyptians denied the existence of a soul and did not believe in the afterlife. Only the human body and material objects were of importance to them. They therefore invested enormous effort into mummifying their dead and preserving their bodies. Even the great pyramids are none other than tombs for their bodies. Their immoral culture worked in conjunction with their beliefs, the main purpose being to satisfy bodily urges. As Chazal tell us, no other country was more absorbed in lusts than Egypt (Torat Kohanim, Acharei Mot, chapter 9). The nation of Israel represents the exact opposite, its main objective being spiritual aspirations.
  The materialistic Egyptian nation ruled over Am Yisrael and enslaved the Jewish people in excruciating physical labor. It seemed that the great spirit that began to appear with our forefathers would not rise again. The material had prevailed over the spiritual, until the King of Kings Himself appeared in His glory and freed us from Egypt.
  By taking us out of Egypt, Hashem proved to the world, for the first time, the ultimate power of spirituality and moral values. The Exodus illustrates the victory of spirituality over materialism. As much as materialism tries to enslave spirituality, in the end, spirituality will free itself from its chains. Just like Israel left Egypt triumphantly and in great wealth, so will every battle between the spiritual and the material ultimately end victoriously for spirituality.
  And just as the nation of Israel, who gave the world Torah and ethics, was freed from the material bondage of the Egyptian empire, so too, each individual of Israel must free himself from the chains of materialism in order to discover spirituality and to connect to the Master of the world by performing mitzvot. Therefore, we are commanded to remember the Exodus every day and every night. In doing so, we recall Israel’s great moral and spiritual calling, thereby freeing ourselves from the chains of materialism to embrace eternal Divine truths.
  
  Section 6
  
  Keriat Shema / Kavanah While Reciting the First Verse
  One must have upmost kavanah while reciting the first verse of the Shema, in accepting the yoke of Heaven, as it is written (Deuteronomy 6:6), “Put these words… in your heart.” Therefore, a person must concentrate in his heart on the words he is saying while reciting the first verse. If he did not concentrate on the words he recited, he did not fulfill his obligation (Berachot 13b; Shulchan Aruch, 60:5, 63:4).
  Even a person who concentrates on the full meaning of every word with kavanah must try not to let his mind wander to other thoughts in the middle of the verse. However, b’dieved, as long as he was also thinking of the meaning of the words, he fulfilled his obligation.2<i class="footnote">See <em>Bei’ur</em> <em>Halachah</em> 101:1 s.v. “<em>Hamitpalel</em>,” based on the <em>Rashba</em> brought by the <em>Beit</em> <em>Yosef</em> 63:4. The <em>Rashba</em> indicates that one must not let his mind wander and thereby not have <em>kavanah</em> to accept upon himself the yoke of Heaven. However, <em>b’dieved</em>, if he had <em>kavanah</em> and also dreamed in the middle, his dreaming did not nullify his <em>kavanah</em>.</i>
  Thus, when saying “Shema Yisrael,” it is proper to reflect upon how the mitzvah of accepting the yoke of Heaven is destined for Israel, a nation that was created in order to reveal the belief in the unity of Hashem in the world. The word “Hashem,” which is not read as it is written, is spelled, “yud” “heh” “vav” “heh” and pronounced “A-donai.” While saying it, one should have in mind the way it is pronounced, that Hashem is the Master (Adon) of everything, and concentrate on the way it is written, that He was, is, and will be (Hayah, Hoveh, V’yihiyeh). In reciting the word “Elokeinu,” one should know that God is firm and omnipotent, Master of all existing powers, and that He rules over us (Shulchan Aruch 5:1). When a person says “Echad,” it should be with the kavanah that Hashem is the only ruler of the world, in the heavens and the earth, and the four directions of the world. This meaning is implied in the letters of the word “Echad”: “Alef” – that He is One, “Chet” – signifying the seven heavens in addition to the earth, and “Dalet” – representing the four directions. One must extend the pronunciation of the letter dalet as long as it takes for him to think of the fact that HaKadosh Baruch Hu is One in His world and that He rules in the four directions of the world (Shulchan Aruch 61:6; and see Mishnah Berurah 18).
  B’dieved, even if a person did not have in mind the exact meaning of the Name of Hashem and each and every word, but he understood their overall significance  –  the acceptance of the yoke of Heaven – he fulfilled his obligation.3<i class="footnote">em&gt;Chazal explain that this <em>kavanah</em> for the word “<em>Echad</em>” is only <em>l’chatchilah</em>, as it is told in <em>Berachot</em> 13b that Rabbi Yirmiyah greatly extended the word “<em>Echad</em>.” Rabbi Chiya said to him, “Because you have anointed Him up and down and in all four directions, it is not necessary to have further <em>kavanah</em>.” So it is regarding the <em>kavanah</em> in saying Hashem’s Name. If the halachah is such that one who does not have the <em>kavanah</em> specified in the <em>Shulchan</em><em>Aruch</em><em>Orach</em><em>Chaim</em> 5 does not fulfill his obligation, the Talmud should have specifically explained this obligation. Additionally, it seems from the words of the <em>Mishnah</em><em>Berurah</em> 62:3 that the required <em>kavanah</em> is for a general understanding of the verse. He writes that it is best that even one who does not understand the holy tongue recite <em>Shema</em> in Hebrew, since it is highly unlikely to find a Jew who does not understand the meaning of the first verse. This implies that he is referring to a general understanding.</i>
  However, if his mind wandered and he did not concentrate on even the general meaning of the words – the acceptance of the yoke of Heaven – then he did not fulfill his obligation, and he must repeat the words and recite them with their meaning in mind. If he remembers this immediately upon finishing the first verse, he must wait a bit, so as not to be seen as one who is reciting Shema twice, and then repeat the first verse quietly. If he remembers in the middle of the first paragraph, he must stop, start from the beginning of the first paragraph, and recite the whole passage in order. If he remembers in the middle of the second paragraph, he finishes that paragraph, after that goes back and repeats the entire first paragraph, and then skips to the third paragraph, Vayomer. He need not repeat the second paragraph because he already had the appropriate kavanah while saying it and b’dieved, the order of the paragraphs does not prevent him from fulfilling his obligation (Mishnah Berurah 63:14; Kaf HaChaim 17-18).
  In order to arouse kavanah, it is customary to read the first verse out loud and to cover one’s eyes with his right hand so as not to look at anything else that might interfere with his concentration (Shulchan Aruch 61:4-5; Mishnah Berurah 17).
  
  Section 7
  
  Keriat Shema / The Second Verse and Its Kavanah
  Immediately following the first verse, we say quietly, “Baruch shem kevod malchuto l’olam va’ed,” (“Blessed is the name of His glorious kingdom for all eternity”). Although this sentence does not appear with the Shema paragraph and is not a verse from the Torah, the Chachamim instituted its recital as part of Shema based on ancient tradition.
  It is told in the Talmud (Pesachim 56a) that before Yaakov Avinu died, all of his children gathered around him. Yaakov wished to reveal the end of days, but at that moment the Shechinah left him and he could not show them the future. He asked his sons, “Perhaps one of you is not righteous, like Yishmael, who came from Avraham, and Eisav, who came from my father Yitzchak, and that is preventing me from revealing to you the end of days?” Everyone opened their mouths and said, “‘Hear O Israel, Hashem is our God, Hashem is One.’ Just like there is only One in your heart, there is only One in our hearts.” At that moment, Yaakov said, “Blessed is the name of His glorious kingdom for all eternity.” Chazal ask, “Now what should we do? Should we recite this sentence [in Shema] even though it is not written in the Torah portion? Or should we refrain from saying it even though Yaakov Avinu said it?” Therefore, they established to recite it quietly.
  This sentence is considered to be a continuation of the acceptance of the yoke of Heaven found in the first verse, and therefore also requires kavanah on the meaning of the words. If a person recites it without the proper kavanah he must go back and repeat it with the proper kavanah (Mishnah Berurah 63:12).
  One should pause briefly between “l’olam va’ed” (“for all eternity”) and “V’ahavta” (“You shall love”) in order to distinguish between the acceptance of the yoke of Heaven and the rest of the paragraph. Also, it is proper to pause between the first verse and “Baruch shem” (“Blessed be the name…”) to differentiate between the acceptance of the yoke of Heaven as commanded by the Torah and the enactment of the Chachamim (Shulchan Aruch and Rama 61:14).4<i class="footnote">In the opinion of the <em>Levush</em> and <em>Magen</em><em>Avraham</em>, since the <em>Chachamim</em> instituted saying “<em>Baruch</em><em>shem</em>…,” if a person skipped it, he did not fulfill his obligation and he must go back and recite the <em>Shema</em> paragraph. However, according to the <em>Shiltei</em><em>HaGiborim</em><em>Bach</em>, and <em>Bei’ur</em><em>Halachah</em> (61:13, s.v. “<em>Acharei</em>”), he fulfilled his obligation. Their proof is from <em>Berachot</em> 13a, where it is written that a person who read the paragraph of <em>Shema</em> from the Torah, and had <em>kavanah</em> in his heart to perform the mitzvah of reciting <em>Shema</em>, fulfilled his obligation (even though the verse “<em>Baruch shem</em>…” is not written in the Torah.) According to this, if a person starts <em>V’ahavta</em> and realizes that he did not have <em>kavanah</em> when he said “<em>Baruch shem</em>…” he is not required to repeat it. This is also written in the <em>Aruch</em><em>HaShulchan</em> 61:6. However, according to the <em>Levush</em> and <em>Magen</em><em>Avraham</em>, one is required to go back and recite it again, and so writes <em>Kaf</em><em>HaChaim</em> 61:45. Additionally, in 63:16, he writes according to the <em>Ari</em> that if one goes back to repeat “<em>Baruch shem</em>…” he must start over from “<em>Shema</em><em>Yisrael</em></i>
  Although the belief in the oneness of God holds unfathomable depths and meanings, we will nonetheless briefly discuss its significance. The first verse, Shema Yisrael, expresses the absolute and unifying higher belief and is called “yichud elyon” (the supernal unification). In this realm of higher understanding, nothing else substantially exists in the world besides Hashem. He is One in His world, and we are all insignificant in relation to Him. Since Hashem’s infinite power is not visible to us, it is difficult to grasp the supernal union permanently. Therefore, only twice daily, when we recite the verse Shema Yisrael, are we commanded to rise to its level. The second verse is called “yichud tachton” (the lower unification), and by saying it, we accept upon ourselves the yoke of Heaven according to the belief that is revealed in this world. This is the belief that the world is not void, rather tangible and existent, and Hashem Blessed Be He gives it life and rules over it. By His will He creates life, or God forbid, takes it away. In so doing,  His Name and kingdom are revealed in the world, as we say, “Blessed is the name of His glorious kingdom for all eternity” (Tanya, Sha’ar HaYichud V’HaEmunah, and Nefesh HaChaim, Sha’ar 3).
  
  Section 8
  
  Keriat Shema / Mitzvot Require Kavanah
  The Amora’im and the Rishonim disagree regarding the question, do mitzvot require kavanah? When the Torah commands us to perform a certain mitzvah, is the actual performance enough, or must a person have in mind the correct intent in order to fulfill the commandment? The halachah rules that mitzvot require kavanah. Just as a person has a body and a soul and one cannot live without the other, so too, the mitzvot need both body and soul, the body being the act of the mitzvah, and the soul being the kavanah that accompanies it.
  Therefore, regarding a person who is reading the Torah portion of Parashat Va’etchanan, in which the Shema paragraph is written: when the time to recite Shema arrives, if he has kavanah in his heart to fulfill the mitzvah of reciting Shema, he has fulfilled his obligation. However, if he continues reading as he was, without having kavanah to fulfill the mitzvah of saying Shema, he has not fulfilled his obligation (Berachot 13a; Shulchan Aruch 60:4).
  It is therefore apparent that when reciting Shema, we must concentrate on two meanings. First, as with all the mitzvot, we must have in mind that in performing this act, we are fulfilling Hashem’s commandment. Second, pertinent specifically to the mitzvah of reciting Shema, we must concentrate on the meaning of the words that we are saying. Since the essence of this mitzvah is to accept the yoke of Heaven, we are obligated to focus on the meaning of our words. As we have learned in halachah 6, if one did not concentrate on the meaning of the words in the verse Shema Yisrael, he did not fulfill his obligation and must go back and read it with the required kavanah.
  We will now return to discuss the general kavanah required in the performance of all the mitzvot. Sometimes, one has implicit kavanah, and that suffices b’dieved. For instance, a person who comes to pray in a synagogue, and in his prayers he recites the Shema paragraph, even though he did not explicitly intend to perform the mitzvah of reciting Shema, he fulfilled his obligation. For if we were to ask him, “Why did you say Shema?” he would immediately answer, “To perform the mitzvah.” Thus, in his recital he had implicit kavanah to fulfill his obligation. Similarly, someone who puts on tefillin, even though he didn’t meditate on what he was doing, it is nonetheless clear that his only intention could have been to fulfill the mitzvah, and because implicit kavanah was present, he fulfilled his obligation (Yerushalmi Pesachim 10:3; Chayei Adam 68:9; Mishnah Berurah 60:10).5<i class="footnote">Likewise, a person who comes to synagogue to hear the blowing of the s<em>hofar</em>, or the reading of the <em>megillah</em>, even though he did not explicitly have <em>kavanah</em> to fulfill the mitzvah, he fulfilled his obligation <em>b’dieved</em>, for the fact that he arrived at the synagogue indicates his desire to fulfill the mitzvah, and that he had implicit <em>kavanah</em>. However, if he was in his house and he heard the <em>shofar</em> being blown, or the <em>megillah</em> being read from the synagogue, and he did not explicitly have in mind to fulfill the mitzvah, he did not fulfill his obligation. Nevertheless, according to those <em>poskim</em> who believe that <em>mitzvot</em> do not require <em>kavanah</em>, he did fulfill his obligation.The origin of the disagreement can be found in <em>Berachot</em> 13a and <em>Rosh</em> <em>Hashanah</em> 28-29a. According to Rava, <em>mitzvot</em> do not require <em>kavanah</em>; however, Rabbi Zeira is of the opinion that <em>mitzvot</em> do need <em>kavanah</em>. The following are the opinions of a few of the <em>poskim</em>: the <em>Tosafot</em> and <em>Talmidei</em> <em>Rabbeinu</em> <em>Yonah</em> write that <em>mitzvot</em> do not require <em>kavanah</em>, in contrast to the <em>Ba’al Halachot Gedolot</em>, <em>Rif</em>, and <em>Rosh</em> who maintain that <em>mitzvot</em> do require <em>kavanah</em>. That is also how the <em>Shulchan</em> <em>Aruch</em>, <em>Orach</em> <em>Chaim</em> 60:4, rules. The <em>Bei’ur</em> <em>Halachah</em> explains that even those who maintain that <em>mitzvot</em> do not need <em>kavanah</em> still assert that two other conditions must be present: 1) when he is performing the mitzvah the person must know that such a mitzvah exists; for example, to recite <em>Shema</em> or eat matzah. If he knew this and at that particular moment he did not have even implicit <em>kavanah</em> to fulfill the mitzvah, according to them, he still fulfilled his obligation. 2) He must have in mind to perform the act and cannot be like a <em>mitasek</em> – one who is merely busying himself. In other words, if he unthinkably puffed into the <em>shofar</em> and kosher sounds came out, he did not fulfill the obligation of the mitzvah.Further, there is dispute as to whether lack of kavanah in performing rabbinic commandments prevents a person from fulfilling his obligation. The Magen Avraham writes in the name of the Radbaz that the lack of kavanah while performing rabbinic commandments does not prevent a person from fulfilling the mitzvah. His reasoning is that we are unsure as to whom the halachah follows, and therefore, concerning biblical commandments we go according to those poskim who are stringent, and regarding rabbinic commandments we follow those who are lenient. However, according to the Eliyah Rabbah, Gra, and Chida, rabbinic commandments also require kavanah, and that is what is implied in the Shulchan Aruch. In any case, regarding berachot (even those recited on biblical commandments) we take into consideration those poskim who believe that mitzvot do not require kavanah, since “safek berachot l’hakel” – if there is doubt regarding the recital of berachot, we are lenient. Therefore, a person who did not have kavanah at the start, although required to go back and fulfill the mitzvah, he may not recite the blessing again due to the uncertainty that perhaps the halachah goes according to those who maintain that mitzvot do not require kavanah (Mishnah Berurah 60:10 and Bei’ur Halachah there).</i>
  Many people do not know that the main reason for the recital of the Vayomer paragraph is to fulfill the commandment of remembering the Exodus from Egypt, which is mentioned at the end of the paragraph. Those unaware of this fact do not fulfill their obligation. For even if we were to ask them why they said the Vayomer paragraph, they would not know that it was in order to remember the Exodus. Apparently, there was not even implicit kavanah within them. Therefore, it is important to teach that the reason for the recital of the Vayomer paragraph is to remember the Exodus from Egypt.
  
  Section 9
  
  Keriat Shema / The Laws of Reciting Shema
  A person must recite Shema with great kavanah, fear, awe, and trembling, and concentrate in his heart that he is now proclaiming the sovereignty of the King, Hakadosh Baruch Hu. Even though Shema is recited every day in Shacharit and Ma’ariv, one must try hard to concentrate on the meaning of the words, as if they were new to him (Shulchan Aruch 61:1-2).
  In addition to kavanah, the person saying Shema must pronounce the letters precisely, being careful not to swallow any letter nor to emphasize the soft sounds, or weaken the strong ones. Therefore, l’chatchilah, one should make a distinction in sound when pronouncing an alef and an ayin, a chaf and a chet, a kamatz and a patach, a tzeirei and a segol (Shulchan Aruch, Orach Chaim, 61:14-23). The Chachamim say, “One who recites Shema and is careful to pronounce its letters exactly, Gehinnom is cooled down for him” (Berachot 15b). B’dieved, if he did not recite the Shema meticulously, he nevertheless fulfilled his obligation provided that he did not miss a word or a full syllable of a word (Shulchan Aruch 62:1; Mishnah Berurah 1).
  A person’s ears must hear what is coming out of his mouth. B’dieved, if he read the words only with his lips but did not hear what he was saying, since he mouthed the words, he fulfilled his obligation. However, regarding one who only recited Shema in his mind, since he did not mouth the words, he did not fulfill his obligation (Shulchan Aruch 62:3; and see earlier in this book 1:9).6<i class="footnote"><em>Talmidei</em> <em>Rabbi</em> <em>Yonah</em> maintain that it is proper to recite <em>Shema</em> with cantillation signs and there are those who are accustomed to enhancing the mitzvah in that way (<em>Shulchan</em> <em>Aruch</em> 61:24). Others say that since <em>kavanah</em> is of principal importance, if someone finds that reciting <em>Shema</em> with cantillation signs disrupts his concentration, it is better that he recite <em>Shema</em> without them (<em>Rama</em>; <em>Mishnah</em> <em>Berurah</em> 61:38).The Mishnah Berurah 61:40 writes that, according to the majority of poskim, a person can fulfill his obligation of Keriat Shema by hearing another person recite it. In the opinion of the Aruch HaShulchan 62:8, one can fulfill his obligation by hearing Shema on condition that a minyan is present. (There is disagreement as to whether the person fulfilling his obligation by hearing the Shema is required to understand the whole paragraph. See Mishnah Berurah and Ishei Yisrael 20:26.)</i>
  In principle, though it is proper to recite Shema and the Amidah in Hebrew, if a person recited Shema and prayed the Amidah in a different language, he fulfilled his obligation, provided that he understands that language (see earlier in this book 1:10). However, a few of the major Acharonim write that today we cannot fulfill the obligation of Keriat Shema by reciting it in a different language because there are words that we do not know how to translate accurately. For example, the Hebrew word “v’shinantam” means both learning (shinun) and sharpening (chidud). There is no such single word in other languages. Hence, since the Shema cannot be translated exactly, it may not be recited in a different language (Mishnah Berurah 62:3).7<i class="footnote">This is problematic, for translations are never precisely like the original and if <em>Chazal</em> say that one who recites <em>Shema</em> in any language fulfilled his obligation, it can then be understood that it is unnecessary for the translation to be perfectly accurate. The <em>Aruch</em> <em>HaShulchan</em> 62:4 explains that, indeed, during the time of the <em>Mishnah</em> and Talmud, they completely understood the Hebrew language. However, today, we have doubts regarding the meaning of some words, and therefore we cannot translate perfectly. The <em>Aruch</em> <em>HaShulchan</em> continues by giving some examples of uncertainties and concludes, “Therefore at this time, it is forbidden to recite the <em>Shema</em>, the prayers, and all the <em>berachot</em> in any language other than the holy tongue. And that is what the prominent learned scholars taught for approximately eighty years.” Still, this remains problematic, for were there no doubts regarding language prior to that time? If so, why did they not teach then that one may not fulfill his obligation with a translation? Maybe this question was not very common and therefore it was not written down. Or perhaps it is possible to say that nowadays (especially after the invention of the printing press) we are more meticulous concerning the precise meaning of the words, and as a result doubts have increased. Hence, regarding our translations today, there is no precision, and therefore one may not fulfill his obligation with them. However, when people were not so meticulous in translating the external meaning of the word, but rather focused on the idea that could be understood from the context, the translation was thought to be exact. As a rule, even today, the <em>Makor</em> <em>Chayim</em> 62:2 writes that a <em>ger</em> <em>tzedek</em> (righteous convert) who does not read or understand Hebrew may recite <em>Shema</em> in translation.</i>
  
  Section 10
  
  Keriat Shema / The Manner in which to Recite Shema
  It is permissible to recite Shema while standing, sitting, or lying down on one’s side. Indeed, according to Beit Shamai, one must recite the Shema of the evening while lying down, and the Shema of the morning while standing, as it says, “When you lie down and when you rise up.” Yet, the halachah follows Beit Hillel who interpreted the verse to mean the times that one is required to recite Shema – when people lie down (to go to sleep in the evening) and rise (wake up in the morning). According to Beit Hillel, whether the person stands, sits, or lies down is optional (Berachot 10a; Shulchan Aruch 63:1).
  We can learn from this halachah that faith is not something detached from this world, something that can only be achieved under specific circumstances. Rather, the faith expressed in saying Shema encompasses all of a person’s life in this world, and therefore it is possible to recite Shema in any position.
  In principle, it is permissible to recite Shema even while walking, as it says, “When you are walking on your way.” However, the Chachamim maintain that it is not proper for a person to accept upon himself the yoke of Heaven casually. Therefore, one who is walking should stand still when he recites the first verse of Shema (Shulchan Aruch 63:3; Mishnah Berurah 9). It is also forbidden to say Shema while lying on one’s stomach or back, since this is not a respectful recital (Shulchan Aruch 63:1; and see Shulchan Aruch, Even HaEzer 23:3).8<i class="footnote">ccording to the <em>Shulchan</em><em>Aruch</em> 63:1, based on the majority of <em>Rishonim</em>, one may <em>l’chatchilah</em> recite <em>Shema</em> while lying on his side. However, according to <em>Talmidei Rabbeinu Yonah</em>, only when a person has already gotten undressed, lies down, and it is difficult for him to sit up, is he permitted to recite <em>Shema</em> on his side, yet, <em>l’chatchilah</em>, <em>Shema</em> should not be recited while lying on one’s side. The <em>Rama</em> rules like them. Regarding the recital of the bedtime <em>Shema</em>, which is not a biblical obligation, it is the opinion of the <em>Magen</em><em>Avraham</em> that one need not be strict about this. Also see <em>Mishnah</em><em>Berurah</em> 239:6.</i>
  Because of the importance of the first paragraph, in which we accept upon ourselves the yoke of Heaven, a person must be careful while saying it not to occupy himself with anything else, and not signal with his eyes, fingers, or lips (Shulchan Aruch 63:6).
  
  Section 11
  
  Keriat Shema / Tefillin and Tzitzit while Reciting Shema
  We must pray and recite Shema of Shacharit with tefillin, as it says in the Shema paragraph, “And you shall bind them as a sign on your hand and they shall be as frontlets between your eyes.” The Chachamim say, “A person who recites Shema without wearing tefillin is as if he gives false testimony of himself” (Berachot 14b). Nevertheless, even a person who does not have tefillin is required to recite Shema, since these two mitzvot are not interdependent. If a person cannot fulfill the mitzvah of tefillin, he should at least fulfill the mitzvah of Shema, and he is not considered giving false testimony, since it is due to circumstances beyond his control (Mishnah Berurah 46:33; see earlier in this book 12:9, footnote 10).
  It is customary to touch the tefillin of the arm when saying, “Bind them as a sign on your hand,” and the tefillin of the head while saying, “And they shall be as frontlets between your eyes,” and then to kiss the hand that touched the tefillin (Shulchan Aruch 61:25; Chayei Adam 14:15).
  It is also customary to wrap oneself in tzitzit before Shacharit since the third paragraph of Shema discusses the mitzvah of tzitzit. It is customary to hold the tzitziyot with one’s left hand adjacent to the heart during the time one says Shema as a reminder of what is written, “Put these words… on your heart” (Shulchan Aruch 24:2). Some take the two tzitziyot in front and others gather all four tzitziyot.9<i class="footnote">he <em>Shulchan</em><em>Aruch</em>, in 24:5 and 61:25, explains that a person takes the two <em>tzitziyot</em> in front of him. So writes <em>Yam Shel Shlomo</em> and the <em>Gra</em> in <em>Ma’aseh Rav</em> 39. There is an additional reason to do so, for sometimes the search for the two <em>tzitziyot</em> in back can disrupt one’s concentration while saying <em>Birkat</em><em>Ahavat</em><em>Olam</em>. However, the <em>Ari</em> says that one should take hold of all four <em>tzitziyot</em>, as is brought by <em>Kaf</em><em>HaChaim</em> 24:8, and so it is written in the <em>Birkei</em><em>Yosef</em> and <em>Kitzur</em><em>Shulchan</em><em>Aruch</em> 17:7. The <em>Birkei</em><em>Yosef</em> writes in the name of the <em>Ari</em> that one should hold his <em>tzitziyot</em> in his left hand between his ring finger and his pinky; so writes the <em>Mishnah</em><em>Berurah </em>24:4<em>.</em> Also see <em>Kaf</em><em>HaChaim</em> 24:9.A few <em>Acharonim</em> write that a person should gather his <em>tzitziyot</em> when he says, “And bring us in peace from the four corners of the earth” in the <em>berachah</em> of <em>Ahavat</em><em>Olam</em><em>Derech HaChaim</em><em> Kitzur Shulchan Aruch</em> 17:7).</i>
  It is customary before the paragraph of Vayomer to take the tzitziyot with one’s right hand (Mishnah Berurah 24:4) or with both hands (Kaf HaChaim 24:8) and while saying the word “tzitzit,” kiss the tzitzit, and while saying, “u’re’item oto”, (“and you shall see them”), look at them. Some pass them over their eyes and kiss them. It is also customary to kiss the tzitzit at the end of the paragraph while saying “emet.” We continue to hold the tzitziyot until the words, “v’nechemadim la’ad,” in Birkat Emet V’Yatziv, and then we kiss the tzitziyot again and put them down (Mishnah Berurah 24:4; Kaf HaChaim 24:8, 18). There are additional customs concerning this; however, all these customs are enhancements of the mitzvah and do not prevent one from fulfilling one’s obligation if they are not performed.
  
  Section 12
  
  Keriat Shema / 248 Words
  The Torah provides life and healing to the world and to mankind. This is especially true concerning Keriat Shema, in which the fundamentals of faith and the fulfillment of the mitzvot are included. The Chachamim teach that Shema is comprised of 248 words and that in a person’s body there are 248 organs. When a person recites Shema properly, each and every organ is healed by the word corresponding to it. However, in the three paragraphs of Shema there are actually 245 words, and in order to total 248, the chazan repeats the last three words, “Hashem Elokeichem emet” (“Hashem, your God, is true”), thereby completing the count to 248 (Zohar Chadash Ruth 95:1).
  A person who prays individually is missing the last three words. There are a few minhagim concerning their completion. According to the Ashkenazic minhag, before Shema a person says, “Kel Melech Ne’eman” (“Almighty faithful King”). According to the Shulchan Aruch, one should have specific kavanah while pronouncing the first fifteen “vavs” in the opening words of Birkat Emet V’Yatziv (“V’Yatziv, V’Nachon, V’Kayam, V’Yashar, etc.…”) because they allude to three names of Hashem and are a substitute for the three missing words (Shulchan Aruch and Rama 61:3). It is the minhag of most Sephardim that a person praying individually should complete the three missing words on his own and repeat “Hashem Elokeichem emet,” instead of the chazan. Although an individual’s repetition of these words is clearly less important than the chazan’s reiteration, nevertheless, there is a certain substitution in it. Additionally, a person who finishes reciting Shema after the chazan concludes “Hashem Elokeichem emet” should repeat those last words so as to complete the three missing words (Kaf HaChaim 61: 15-16).10<i class="footnote">The <em>Acharonim</em> are divided. According to the <em>Mahari</em><em>Ayash</em>, <em>Sha’arei</em><em>Teshuvah</em>, and many others, because he heard the <em>chazan</em> say “<em>Hashem</em><em>Elokeichem</em><em>emet</em>,” even though he did not finish saying <em>Shema</em>, those three words are considered part of the 248 words. That is the Ashkenazic <em>minhag</em> and the <em>minhag</em> of a few <em>Sephardim</em> (as is clarified in <em>Sha’arei</em><em>Tefillah</em>). However, the <em>Kaf</em><em>HaChaim</em> 16 writes, based on<em> Kavanot HaAri</em>, that the recital of the three words must be in order. Therefore, if he heard the <em>chazan</em> say them before he concluded his recital of <em>Shema</em>, he repeats individually “<em>Hashem</em><em>Elokeichem</em><em>emet</em>.”There is also a difference of <em>minhag</em> regarding how the <em>chazan</em> (and according to the <em>Kaf</em> <em>HaChaim </em>also an individual praying) should complete these words, for if he says, “<em>Hashem</em> <em>Elokeichem</em> <em>emet</em>” twice, he will have recited 249 words. <em>Asarah</em> <em>Ma’amarot</em> and the <em>Gra</em> maintain that when the <em>chazan</em> finishes reciting <em>Shema</em> he should only say “<em>Hashem</em> <em>Elokeichem</em>” and afterwards go back and say “<em>Hashem</em> <em>Elokeichem</em> <em>emet</em>.” The <em>Shulchan</em> <em>Aruch</em> and the <em>Pri</em> <em>Megadim</em> write that the <em>chazan</em> should also say “<em>emet</em>” the first time so as not to interrupt between “<em>Elokeichem</em>” and “<em>emet</em>” and that one of them is not considered part of the 248 because it belongs to the <em>berachah</em> “<em>Emet</em> <em>V’Yatziv</em>.” That is how <em>Ashkenazim</em> practice. It is the custom of the <em>Sephardim</em> that at the conclusion of the <em>Shema</em> the <em>chazan</em> says out loud “<em>Hashem</em> <em>Elokeichem</em>” and the congregation completes the words and says after him “<em>emet</em>.” At the same time, the <em>chazan</em> says “<em>emet</em>” quietly. Afterwards the <em>chazan</em> repeats the words “<em>Hashem Elokeichem emet</em>” out loud (<em>Kaf</em> <em>HaChaim</em> 61:12).According to the Chesed La’alafim, it is the Sephardic custom that the congregation only says “emet” out loud after the chazan when they finish together with the chazan. However, if they finish before him, they say “emet” individually so as not to pause between “Elokeichem” and “emet” and they should not repeat the word “emet” after the chazan recites it. According to the Kaf HaChaim 61:12, when they finish individually, they do not say “emet,” but rather wait until the chazan finishes and answer after him “emet.”In Ma’ariv, a person who did not hear the chazan, according to the Kaf HaChaim, should individually complete the words “Hashem Elokeichem emet.” The Ashkenazic minhag is either to say “Kel Melech Ne’eman” before the recital of Shema or, while saying “emet,” to have in mind that it represents the three names of Hashem (Mishnah Berurah 12). Ma’amar Mordechai writes that it is not necessary to complete 248 words in Ma’ariv, since the ruling in the Gemara is that there is no requirement to say the Vayomer paragraph at night.</i>
  
  
  
  
  
  Section 1
  
  Birkot Keriat Shema / The Significance of the Berachot
  The Chachamim instituted the recital of three berachot with Keriat Shema of Shacharit, two before the Shema and one after it (Mishnah, Berachot 11a). These berachot add to the content of Keriat Shema, including praise and thanksgiving to Hashem for creating and ruling over the world.
  In Keriat Shema we say “Hashem Echad” (“Hashem is One”), denoting that He is the single entity that constitutes and fills the whole world with His oneness. In the first berachah of Keriat Shema, we expand on this foundation. By praising Him for the light that is renewed daily, we extol Hashem, “Who constantly renews the events of creation every day.” In order to emphasize His all-encompassing domain, we mention that He also created the darkness. At night, in the parallel berachah, together with the praise that He is “Ma’ariv aravim” (“the One Who brings on evening”), we add that he is “Borei yom valaylah” (“the Creator of day and night”). Hence, in the first berachah, our belief in God’s unity is given more expanded expression.
  Opening with the words “Shema Yisrael” (“Hear O Israel”) expresses our belief that God’s unity is revealed to the world via the nation of Israel, which was expressly created for that purpose. This idea is expanded upon in the second berachah, in which we thank Hashem for the love that He feels for us and for giving us the Torah. We pray that we merit understanding the Torah and fulfill it with love, thereby revealing Hashem’s Name in the world.
  “Hashem Elokeinu” (“Hashem our God”) means that Hashem is omnipotent and rules over the world according to His will. His control of the world, with all its forces and components, was revealed most clearly in the exodus from Egypt, which is mentioned at the end of Keriat Shema. This, too, is revealed through the nation of Israel. In the third berachah we expand on this foundation and praise Hashem, “You are the first and You are the last, and aside from You we have no king, redeemer, or savior. From Egypt You redeemed us…” Additionally, we mention the slaying of the firstborn in Egypt and the splitting of the Sea. We then conclude, “Blessed are You, Hashem, Who redeems Israel.”
  We see, therefore, that all three berachot are a continuation of, and an expansion on, the foundations of faith that are found in Keriat Shema.
  Although the proper order that the Chachamim established is to say Keriat Shema with its berachot, nevertheless, one’s neglect to recite one of them does not prevent him from fulfilling the mitzvah of the other. If a person recites Shema without its berachot he still fulfills the mitzvah of Keriat Shema, and if he recites the berachot without saying Keriat Shema he still fulfills the mitzvah of reciting the berachot. Similarly, one’s neglect to recite one berachah does not hamper the recital of the others. Therefore, if a person recites one of the berachot, he fulfills his obligation over the blessing which he recites. All the more so, reciting the berachot in the wrong order does not prevent one from fulfilling his obligation to say them, so if someone mistakenly recites the second berachah before the first, he still fulfills his obligation. However, l’chatchilah, one must recite all the berachot together in the order that the Chachamim established.1<i class="footnote">The first <em>berachah</em>, “<em>Yotzer HaMe’orot</em>,” opens with the word “<em>Baruch</em>” and the <em>berachot</em> that follow, although they are long, do not begin with “<em>Baruch</em>” since they are considered to be a continuation of the first <em>berachah</em>. The fact that <em>l’chatchilah</em> they must be recited together with <em>Keriat Shema</em> is agreed upon by all opinions. According to the <em>Gra</em> and those of similar opinion, this matter is simple. It seems that even the reasoning behind the ruling of the <em>Ra’ah</em> and the <em>Shulchan Aruch</em>, who write that one should fulfill his obligation of <em>Keriat Shema</em> by having <em>kavanah</em> when reciting <em>Keriat Shema</em> of the <em>Korbanot</em>, is that by the time the congregation prays, it is too late, and there is concern that the time to recite <em>Keriat Shema</em> will pass. However, were there no such case, all opinions agree that it is best to fulfill the obligation of <em>Keriat Shema</em> with its <em>berachot</em></i>
  
  Section 2
  
  Birkot Keriat Shema / The Link between Pesukei d’Zimrah and Birkot Keriat Shema
  Upon the conclusion of Pesukei d’Zimrah and Yishtabach, the chazan recites Half-Kaddish. As we know, the virtue of the Kaddish is very great, and the Chachamim praise those who respond Amen to it with kavanah (see further in this book 23:6). The Chachamim instituted its recital at the conclusion of every stage of the prayer service in order to end each step in supreme sanctity, and from that holiness to continue on to the next stage of prayer. This Half-Kaddish creates a break between Pesukei d’Zimrah (corresponding to the world of yetzirah) and Keriat Shema and its berachot (which correspond to the world of beriah).
  One may not interrupt by speaking between Pesukei d’Zimrah and Birkot Keriat Shema. Someone who does interrupt commits a sin, since Pesukei d’Zimrah serves as a preparation for prayer (Shulchan Aruch 54:3).
  If a group of people praying reaches the end of Pesukei d’Zimrah and they do not yet have a minyan, they should stop after Yishtabach and wait for a minyan. They may learn Torah in the meantime. L’chatchilah, they should study silently, so they do not interrupt their prayer by speaking. However, one who cannot learn without actually uttering the words may learn by saying them, since, for the sake of a mitzvah, it is permissible to interrupt between Yishtabach and Barchu. The chazan should wait before Yishtabach for ten men to assemble so that he can say Yishtabach, and afterwards, Half-Kaddish. If he already concluded Yishtabach, after ten men have already gathered he should recite three verses of Scripture so that the Kaddish will apply to them and subsequently recite Half-Kaddish (Mishnah Berurah 53:10-11).
  When the gabbai must relay an urgent message to the congregation, either pertaining to the needs of the community or for the sake of a mitzvah, and it is impossible to delay the announcement until after the prayer service, he may announce it between Yishtabach and Kaddish. Afterwards, the chazan recites a few verses and Kaddish. However, if the Kaddish was already recited, it is forbidden to interrupt even for the sake of a mitzvah, and he must wait until after Kaddish titkabal to make the announcements (Shulchan Aruch, Rama 54:3; 57:2; Mishnah Berurah 54:6).
  
  Section 3
  
  Birkot Keriat Shema / Barchu
  After the Kaddish, the chazan says, “Barchu et Hashem hamevorach” (“Bless Hashem Who is blessed”). The congregation responds, “Baruch Hashem hamevorach l’olam va’ed” (“Blessed is Hashem, Who is blessed for all eternity”), and the chazan repeats the congregation’s line, saying, “Baruch Hashem hamevorach l’olam va’ed” (Shulchan Aruch 57:1).
  The primary purpose of Barchu is to introduce Birkot Keriat Shema, for by declaring “Barchu,” the chazan invites the congregation to recite Birkot Keriat Shema. Even though it can also be recited as praise in itself, like when Barchu is recited at the conclusion of the prayer service, nevertheless, the essence of its establishment was to introduce Birkot Keriat Shema. Therefore, every person must finish saying Pesukei d’Zimrah and Yishtabach before Barchu so that immediately after Barchu he can begin Birkot Keriat Shema. It is best to even skip Az Yashir in order to start Birkot Keriat Shema with the congregation. Still, whoever did not yet succeed in saying the berachah of Yishtabach, even if he already responded to Barchu, must conclude Yishtabach and only afterwards continue with Birkot Keriat Shema.2<i class="footnote">em&gt;Mishnah Berurah 54:14. He adds that a person who is after <em>Barchu</em> is considered like one who is in the middle of a passage. If <em>tallit</em> and <em>tefillin</em> are brought to him, he must postpone putting them on until the end of the <em>berachah</em>, as clarified in note 4 of this chapter.See <em>Beit Yosef</em> 69 who writes that some say that concerning <em>Perisat Shema</em> the <em>chazan</em> must recite <em>Birkat</em><em>Yotzer Or</em> in addition to <em>Barchu</em>, even if he already said it, because one may not recite <em>Barchu</em> without saying at least one <em>berachah</em> after it. So writes the <em>Mahari</em><em>Abuhav</em>, whose words are clarified in the<em> Mishnah Berurah</em> 69:3. However, <em>Darkei Moshe</em> writes that one may say <em>Barchu</em> without reciting a subsequent <em>berachah</em>. That is the customary practice at the end of the prayer service; <em>Barchu</em> is recited without a <em>berachah</em>. Nevertheless, as we learned, the essence of <em>Barchu</em> is to introduce <em>Birkot Keriat Shema</em></i>
  There are varying customs with regard to standing when responding to Kaddish and Barchu. According to the minhag of most Sephardim, there is no need to stand up while answering matters of sanctity, but one who is already standing must remain that way for Kaddish and Barchu (Maharil, Kaf HaChaim 56:20; 146:20-21; Yechaveh Da’at 3:4). Most Ashkenazim are accustomed to standing while responding to Kaddish and Barchu which are matters of sanctity (Mishnah Berurah 54:7-8; 146:18). However, concerning Barchu which requires a short answer, many Ashkenazim have the custom that if they are already sitting, such as for Torah reading, or before Ma’ariv, they do not completely stand up, rather they only rise slightly from their chairs when responding. This is similar to the custom many people have when answering a zimun with ten men.
  When the chazan says the word “Barchu” he bows a bit, and when saying “Hashem” he straightens himself. Regarding the congregation, there are different customs. There are those accustomed to bowing down completely, those who bow slightly, and those who don’t bow at all. Every person should follow his family’s minhag. When people with different minhagim pray together, it is proper that everyone bows slightly (see further in this book chapter 17, note 3).
  
  Section 4
  
  Birkot Keriat Shema / Kedushat Yotzer and Responding Amen to the Berachot
  Birkat Yotzer Or is praise to Hashem, “Who constantly renews the acts of creation daily.” Over time, liturgy was added to this berachah; there is a special poem for weekdays and a special poem for Shabbat. Not only do we praise Hashem, but even angels and Seraphim, which are sublime spiritual creations, bless, praise, glorify, sanctify, revere, and proclaim the sovereignty of His Name, Blessed Be He, and say, “Kadosh, kadosh, kadosh, Hashem Tzevakot, melo kol ha’aretz kevodo” (“Holy, holy, holy, is Hashem, Master of Hosts, the whole world is filled with His glory”), and “Baruch kevod Hashem mimekomo” (“Blessed is the glory of Hashem from His place”). Their praise is included in Birkat Yotzer HaMe’orot.
  The Rishonim disagree as to whether an individual may say Kedushat HaMalachim (“Kadosh, kadosh, kadosh…”) in Birkat Yotzer. There are those who say that these verses are matters of sanctity, just like Kedushah in Chazarat HaShatz, and therefore, whoever prays individually is prohibited from reciting them (Ran, Rabbeinu Yerucham). On the other hand, others say that this is not an ordinary Kedushah, but rather a description of how angels sanctify Hashem’s Name, and therefore, even an individual can say the verses (Talmidei Rabbeinu Yonah, Rosh). In order to avoid uncertainty, it is best for a person praying individually to recite the verses of Kedushah as if reading from the Torah, in the melody of cantillation signs, because according to all opinions, an individual is allowed to learn them, and in that way he also fulfills his obligation (Terumat HaDeshen, Shulchan Aruch 59:3). It is not necessary to know the exact cantillation signs (ta’amei hamikra); rather, the main idea is that he tries to recite the words somewhat in cantillation to appear as if he is reading from the Prophets (Nevi’im).3<i class="footnote">The <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 59:10 writes based on the <em>Pri Chadash</em> that if he is praying individually and a congregation in the vicinity is praying at a different place in the prayer service, the individual may say <em>Kedushat Yotzer</em> in the regular manner. <em>Kaf HaChaim</em> 21 writes based on <em>Ma’amar Mordechai</em> that even in such a case it should be read with cantillation signs.</i>
  Some poskim rule that the congregation must respond Amen upon hearing the chazan recite Birkot Keriat Shema (Rosh), whereas others maintain that Amen may not be answered, so as not to interrupt between the berachot and Keriat Shema (Talmidei Rabbeinu Yonah, based on the Rambam).
  In practice, the minhag of the Sephardim is that one who is reciting Birkot Keriat Shema does not answer Amen after the chazan, for that is considered to be an interruption (hefsek). In order not to encounter uncertainty, l’chatchilah it is proper to conclude the berachah along with the chazan or slightly afterwards, and in that way, according to all opinions, it is unnecessary to respond Amen. In any case, even one who finishes before the chazan does not respond Amen.
  The minhag of the Ashkenazim is to answer Amen after Birkat Yotzer HaMe’orot in Shacharit, and after both Birkot HaMa’ariv Aravim and Ga’al Yisrael in Ma’ariv. However, regarding the berachah immediately before Keriat Shema, one should try to conclude it with the chazan or slightly after him, so that it will not be necessary to answer Amen and cause an interruption between the berachah and Keriat Shema. Nevertheless, one who already finished reciting the berachah and heard the chazan say it must answer Amen (Mishnah Berurah 59:24-25; Kaf HaChaim 26:28).
  
  Section 5
  
  Birkot Keriat Shema / Responding to Matters of Sanctity in Birkot Keriat Shema
  In the opinion of Maharam of Rotenberg, while reciting Keriat Shema and its berachot, one may not interrupt to respond to Kaddish and Kedushah, for since he is already engaged in the praise of God, he is prohibited from interrupting to answer another matter of praise. However, according to the majority of the Rishonim (Talmidei Rabbeinu Yonah, Rosh), for the sake of great praises recited in a congregation, a person is permitted to interrupt even in the middle of Birkot Keriat Shema, and that is the halachah (Shulchan Aruch 66:3).
  When interrupting, one may only respond to the most important parts of prayer. In Kaddish there are those who say that he may only answer, “Yehei Shemei rabbah mevorach l’alam…” (“May His great Name be blessed forever and ever”). Likewise, he answers Amen after “da’amiran b’alma v’imru Amen” (“that we utter in the world and say Amen”), which is the conclusion of the main part of the Kaddish (Mishnah Berurah 66:17). Others say that he may answer all five Amens that one normally answers in the main part of the Kaddish, which is called Half-Kaddish; however, the ensuing additions are not considered to be the essence of the Kaddish, and he may not interrupt to answer Amen after them (Kaf HaChaim 66:23; and see further in this book 23:14).
  In Kedushah, he may only answer by reciting the verses “Kadosh…” and “Baruch…,” the essence of the response to Kedushah (Mishnah Berurah 66:17; Yalkut Yosef 66:2). There are those who say that he may also respond to the verse “Yimloch…” (Aruch HaShulchan 66:6; Kaf HaChaim 18), and that is the widespread custom. However, he must refrain from reciting the introductory words that the chazan says before every verse.
  He may respond to Barchu, “Baruch Hashem hamevorach l’olam va’ed.” (“Blessed is Hashem, Who is blessed for all eternity.”) At Modim of the Amidah repetition, he bows down and answers, “Modim anachnu lach” (“We thank you”) and nothing more.
  According to the Ashkenazic minhag, one may answer Amen to the berachot, “HaKel HaKadosh” and “Shomeya Tefillah,” which conclude the berachot of praise, and the berachot of request. According to the Sephardic minhag, the law regarding those particular berachot is similar to other berachot, and one does not respond to them.
  Concerning this law, there is no difference between being in the middle of a berachah or paragraph, and being between berachot or paragraphs.
  All answers are permitted only in the middle of the berachot or after their conclusion. However, once a person says “Baruch Attah Hashem” at the end of the berachah, and there only remain a few words to conclude the berachah, he may not interrupt at all (Bei’ur Halachah 66:3). Similarly, when reciting the verses “Shema Yisrael” and “Baruch Shem kevod…” in which one accepts upon himself the yoke of Heaven, one may not interrupt for anything, for the ruling regarding them is like that of the Amidah, which we do not interrupt at all (Shulchan Aruch 66:1).
  In any case of uncertainty, it is best not to answer, for according to many poskim, even if it is permissible to answer, there is no obligation to respond.4<i class="footnote">The <em>Torat Chaim</em> (<em>Sofer</em>) 66:8 writes that it is not an obligation to respond, rather one is permitted to do so, as written in <em>Shut Yad Eliyahu </em>and the <em>Maharshag</em>. See <em>Yabia Omer</em> part 1, 5:7 and part 8, 6:1-2. <em>Halichot Shlomo</em> 6:12 writes that even in <em>Pesukei d’Zimrah</em> one is permitted to answer but is not obligated to do so. Additionally, we already learned that according to <em>Maharam of Rotenberg</em>, it is forbidden to answer either <em>Kaddish</em> or <em>Kedushah</em> in the middle of <em>Birkot Keriat Shema</em>, and although the halachah does not follow his opinion, nevertheless, in a situation of uncertainty, one may take his opinion into account and not respond. Concerning the question of whether or not it is preferable for a person to respond, the answer depends. If he is praying in a <em>minyan</em>, and he will hear all the matters of sanctity anyway, then if responding will disturb his concentration, it is best that he does not answer. However, if the people are standing for <em>Kedushah</em>, he must be sure not to appear as though he is separating himself from the congregation, and therefore he must stand with his legs together when they do, and likewise bow at <em>Modim</em>. If another opportunity will not arise to hear <em>Kaddish</em> and <em>Kedushah</em>, it is best that he answers with them (see <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 66:51). See the laws of <em>Pesukei d’Zimrah</em> in this book, chapter 14:4, and note 7.The <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 66:23 mentions different opinions regarding whether one is allowed to respond <em>Amen</em> to <em>berachot</em> while in between the passages. Although he tends to agree that one may respond, I have not mentioned this, based on the rule that in a case of uncertainty, “<em>shev v’al ta’aseh adif</em>,” sitting and not performing an action is preferable. The <em>Igrot Moshe</em>,<em> Orach Chaim</em>, part 4, 21:2 rules that one responds <em>Amen</em> to the <em>Kohanim</em> who are reciting the verses of <em>Birkat Kohanim</em>, since the <em>Bei’ur Halachah</em> 128 states that this <em>Amen</em> is a biblical obligation. One who must relieve himself must do so and wash his hands, although he recites <em>Asher Yatzar</em> only after he finishes the <em>Amidah </em>(<em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 66:23). If he is called up to the Torah, according to the <em>Shulchan Aruch</em> 66:4 he does not ascend, although according to the Ashkenazic<em> poskim</em> he does. Even according to the Ashkenazic<em> </em>custom, if he suspects that he will be called up, it is best that he leave the synagogue beforehand (<em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 66:26). If he is in the middle of reciting <em>Pesukei d’Zimrah</em>, the law is more lenient, and if he is called he ascends. If he is the only <em>Kohen</em> or <em>Levi</em> present, he can be called <em>l’chatchilah</em>, as explained in chapter 14:5 of this book.If a person did not have tallit and tefillin, and they are brought to him after he already began reciting Birkot Keriat Shema, but before he reaches Shema, he must wait until the conclusion of the berachah. According to the Shulchan Aruch, he wraps himself in the tallit and puts on the tefillin with a berachah. According to the Rama, he recites the berachot on the tefillin, but wraps himself in his tallit without reciting the berachah, since there is no obligation to wrap himself in a tallit for Keriat Shema. If the tallit and tefillin were brought to him after he already reached Keriat Shema, there is discussion among the poskim about how to put on tefillin in the middle of a passage so that he will not appear as someone who is giving false testimony even regarding one verse of Keriat Shema. Still, it seems that he can decide in his heart to repeat that same passage from the beginning and then he will be considered as one who is between passages, allowing him to recite the blessing on the tefillin according to all opinions. As an added precaution, he can continue reading until the end of the passage like one who reads the Torah, then put on tefillin with a berachah, and then go back to read with kavanah from the beginning of that same passage. By doing so, he evades the dispute between the Shulchan Aruch and the Rama and he will not lose out on saying the second berachah that is recited according to Minhag Ashkenazim, which he would miss if he were to put on the tefillin in the middle of the passage (see Mishnah Berurah 66:47). If his tallit and tefillin are brought to him in the middle of the Emet V’Yatziv berachah, according to the Shulchan Aruch, he wraps himself in the tallit and he puts on his tefillin without a berachah. According to the Rama, he recites the blessings on his tefillin. The Mishnah Berurah 66:47 writes that it is correct to recite only the “Lehaniach” berachah. If the tallit and tefillin were brought to him between Ga’al Yisrael and the Amidah, he puts on tefillin without a berachah and does not wrap himself in his tallit, so as not to interrupt between redemption and prayer (Shulchan Aruch 66:8).</i>
  
  Section 6
  
  Birkot Keriat Shema / Interruption for a Respected Person
  In order to prevent insult, the Chachamim permitted saying “Shalom” in the middle of Keriat Shema and its berachot to a person of exceptional distinction. Therefore, one who is in the middle of reciting Birkot Keriat Shema, or one of the paragraphs of Shema, and sees a person whom he is commanded to revere, such as his father, his rabbi, or a prominent Torah leader of the generation, he may initiate a greeting to him. If he sees a respected person, like a talmid chacham (Torah scholar), a wealthy person, or a person of another status, he may not initiate a greeting. However, if the distinguished person says hello to him, he may respond.
  If he is in between passages, meaning between berachot or between paragraphs, the ruling is more lenient. In such a case, one is permitted to initiate an interruption in order to say “Shalom” to a respected person. If he is greeted, he may respond to any person (Shulchan Aruch 66:1; Mishnah Berurah and Kaf HaChaim). In the middle of the verses “Shema Yisrael” and “Baruch Shem” one must not interrupt, unless the situation is life-threatening.
  The poskim write that since it is accepted nowadays not to interrupt in the middle of prayer, distinguished people are not insulted when they are not greeted. Therefore, no permission is granted to interrupt in the middle of Keriat Shema and its berachot in order to address a distinguished person or a person who must be revered (Mishnah Berurah 66:2, based on Sefer HaChinuch). However, if someone who does not understand the value of prayer approaches the person praying, and if not answering him will likely cause insult, it is permitted to initiate a greeting to him. Similarly, a ba’al teshuvah, whose parents do not understand the value of his prayer, is permitted to say “Shalom” to them and nothing more.
  A person is allowed to interrupt by talking in the middle of Keriat Shema and its berachot in order to prevent himself from bodily harm or monetary loss, although it is preferable, if possible, to finish the paragraph or berachah (see Bei’ur Halachah 66:1 “O”). Likewise, a rabbi who receives an urgent question is allowed to reply between paragraphs and berachot (Aruch HaShulchan 66:4).
  One who is reciting Keriat Shema and its berachot should stand if a talmid chacham passes in front of him (Birkei Yosef, Yoreh De’ah 244:1). However, while accepting the yoke of Heaven in the verse “Shema” and “Baruch Shem,” one may not get up. There is an opinion that it is preferable not to stand at all while reciting Shema (Tzitz Eliezer 14:10).
  One who sees his friend committing a sin should signal to him in order to stop him. However, if his friend does not take the hint, he must interrupt Keriat Shema and its berachot to tell him to stop transgressing, for if the Chachamim permitted the interruption of Keriat Shema and its berachot for the respect of a human being, all the more so for the respect of Heaven (Ritva, Kaf HaChaim 66:7).
  It is not appropriate to collect tzedakah in the middle of Birkot Keriat Shema, so as not to disturb the kavanah of the people praying. Nevertheless, if an honest poor person requests tzedakah, one is permitted to comply (Halichot Shlomo 7:4).
  
  Section 7
  
  Birkot Keriat Shema / Adjoining Redemption to Prayer
  Even though the recital of Keriat Shema and its berachot, and the recital of the Amidah prayer are two separate mitzvot, one must connect them, and it is forbidden to interrupt between them. The Chachamim state that anyone who adjoins redemption to prayer merits life in the World to Come (Berachot 4b). If he adjoins them while praying vatikin, he is promised that he will not be harmed that whole day (Berachot 9b, and Tosafot there). One who interrupts between redemption and prayer is considered similar to a king’s beloved, who comes and knocks on the king’s door. When the king emerges to find out what his beloved desires, he has already left to take care of another matter. The mention of Israel’s redemption from Egypt is akin to the knock on the king’s door, because the redemption demonstrates the great love HaKadosh Baruch Hu has for Israel. Therefore, the Exodus from Egypt is considered as the engagement between HaKadosh Baruch Hu and Israel. Distractions are forbidden. Out of the special closeness expressed in the redemption, we must maintain the state of devotion sparked by prayer and request that Hashem bless and redeem us, just as He redeemed us from Egypt (see Yerushalmi Berachot chapter 1, halachah 1).
  Even if a person hears Kaddish or Kedushah between redemption and prayer, he may not answer (Shulchan Aruch 66:9). One may not interrupt at all, even silently, between redemption and prayer.5<i class="footnote">f he hears <em>Kaddish</em> or <em>Kedushah</em> while he is between the <em>berachah</em> of redemption and the <em>Amidah</em>, according to the <em>Tehillah L’David</em> 111:1, he remains silent and listens like one who hears it in the middle of <em>Shemoneh Esrei</em>, and his listening will be considered like a response. So writes the <em>Yalkut Yosef</em> 111:2. <em>Sha’arei Teshuvah</em> 66:13 rules that it is forbidden to interrupt even silently and that the law regarding interruption between redemption and prayer is more stringent than an interruption in the middle of <em>Shemoneh Esrei</em>, and so writes the <em>Kaf HaChaim</em> 66:39. It seems that since according to the majority of <em>poskim</em> there is no obligation to respond when one is engaged in the recital of <em>Birkot Keriat Shema</em>, and all the more so in the <em>Amidah</em>, therefore it is best that he start <em>Shemoneh Esrei</em> without waiting.</i>
  Many chazanim are accustomed to concluding Birkat Ga’al Yisrael quietly so that people will not answer Amen. The reason for this is that some say that one who finished Birkat Ga’al Yisrael, but did not yet start the Amidah, and heard the chazan’s conclusion of Ga’al Yisrael must answer Amen. They maintain that it is not considered to be an interruption (hefsek), since answering Amen to Ga’al Yisrael is a continuation of one’s involvement in redemption (Rama). However, others maintain that even answering Amen to Birkat Ga’al Yisrael constitutes an interruption between redemption and prayer (Shulchan Aruch). Therefore, in order to spare the congregation from uncertainty, some chazanim conclude the berachah silently, so that no one can answer Amen. Others are less concerned and conclude Birkat Ga’al Yisrael in a regular voice. At a time when there were people in the congregation who fulfilled their obligation by hearing the chazan, the chazan was required to recite the whole berachah out loud.6<i class="footnote">The <em>Shulchan Aruch</em> 111:1, based on the <em>Zohar</em>, rules that an <em>Amen</em> recited after the <em>Ga’al Yisrael</em> <em>berachah</em> is considered to be an interruption, although according to the <em>Tur</em> and the <em>Rama</em> it is not. Nevertheless, the <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 66:35 writes that it is good to refrain from putting oneself in a position of uncertainty by concluding the <em>berachah</em> of <em>Ga’al Yisrael</em> together with the <em>chazan</em>. It is best that one who finishes before him already starts saying the words, “<em>Hashem sefatai tiftach</em>….” In that way, even according to the <em>Rama</em> he will not need to say <em>Amen</em>. The <em>Aruch HaShulchan</em> (who lived in Ashkenaz) 111:2 writes that in any case, even if he did not start the <em>Amidah</em>, the custom is not to answer <em>Amen</em>. Concerning the <em>minhag</em> to finish <em>Ga’al Yisrael</em> quietly, see <em>Beit Baruch</em> 20:56 who expresses doubt concerning this. However, there are others who praise the custom; see <em>Ishei Yisrael</em> 17 note 83.</i>
  One who arrives late, when the congregation is about to begin the Amidah, must recite the prayers in the correct order and adjoin redemption to prayer. Despite the fact that he will miss praying with the congregation, it is preferable that he prays in the proper order, since the adjoining of redemption to prayer is preferable to prayer in a minyan. However, concerning Ma’ariv, the law is different (Shulchan Aruch 236:3; and see further in this book 25:4).
  According to the majority of poskim, on Shabbat it is less necessary to adjoin redemption to prayer. Therefore if one hears Kaddish or Kedushah between redemption and prayer, he should respond to it.7<i class="footnote">ccording to <em>Hagahot Ashiri</em> and the <em>Maharil</em>, on Shabbat there is less of a need to adjoin redemption to prayer since, according to the extrapolation from the verse, the obligation to adjoin them is only on a day of distress. But on Shabbat, which is not deemed a day of distress, it is unnecessary to do so. The <em>Beit Yosef</em> writes that their words seem reasonable. However, the <em>Rama</em> 111:1 writes that it is best <em>l’chatchilah</em> to be stringent and adjoin them also on Shabbat, although in times of need it is unnecessary. <em>Kaf HaChaim</em> 111:9 writes that the law regarding Shabbat is like that of weekdays. However, the <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 9, <em>Bei’ur Halachah</em> there, and <em>Yalkut Yosef</em> 111:5 write that if a person hears <em>Kaddish</em> or <em>Kedushah</em> between redemption and prayer on Shabbat, he should respond. However, if he arrives late, he does not pray with the congregation, saying <em>Keriat Shema</em> and its <em>berachot</em> afterwards, as is customary to do in <em>Ma’ariv.</em> Rather he prays in the correct order so that he can adjoin redemption to prayer.</i>
  
  
  
  
  
  Section 1
  
  The Amidah / The Amidah Is the Essence of Prayer
  The Amidah prayer is the pinnacle of the prayer service, and all the other preceding sections are, to a great extent, preparations towards it. The person praying rises from level to level, from Korbanot to Pesukei d’Zimrah and from Pesukei d’Zimrah to Birkot Keriat Shema, until he can enter the supreme gate of the world of eminence and stand before Hashem in prayer. This is not to minimize the importance of Keriat Shema, which is a biblical commandment that we are obligated to recite without any connection to the Amidah. Nevertheless, the Chachamim instituted reciting Keriat Shema with its berachot before the Amidah to serve as preparation for it. Through the acceptance of faith in Keriat Shema and its berachot, and by reciting Birkat Ga’al Yisrael, it is possible to rise to the level of prayer in the most complete manner.
  Since the Amidah is the pinnacle of the prayer service, the laws regarding it are stricter than those of other prayers. For example, one must recite the Amidah while wearing respectable clothing, for during the Amidah we are standing before the King. This is not the case regarding Keriat Shema and its berachot. Reciting them, we accept upon ourselves the yoke of Heaven, and we praise Hashem, yet we are not on the level of standing before Him (Shulchan Aruch, Orach Chaim 74:6; 91:1).
  Many halachot that we have learned concerning the proper place for prayer were stated primarily about the Amidah. These include: not to pray on an elevated place or in an open area; the requirement that there be windows in the place of prayer; that it is a mitzvah to pray in a minyan in a synagogue; that a person must establish a set place to pray; that there must not be anything separating him from the wall; and that one may not pray alongside his rabbi, nor behind him (as explained earlier in this book, chapter 3). Yet, because the Amidah is part of the prayer service as a whole, we try to observe all these halachot throughout the entire service. However, in a situation in which one cannot recite Pesukei d’Zimrah and Birkot Keriat Shema in accordance with these conditions, he must at least make an effort to pray the Amidah in this fashion.
  
  Section 2
  
  The Amidah / Three Steps Forward Before the Amidah
  It is customary to take three steps forward prior to praying the Amidah, in order to express one’s desire to come closer to Hashem and to stand before Him (Rama 95:1). A person who is already standing in his place of prayer does not need to take three steps back in order to return and step towards prayer. The fact that he came to synagogue demonstrates that he already brought himself closer to prayer and took more than three steps towards it (Eliyah Rabbah). Some say that it is proper even for a person who already walked to his place of prayer to step backwards just before the Amidah and then to take three steps forward again towards his place of prayer (Ben Ish Chai, B’shalach 3; Kaf HaChaim 95:7). Between the steps backwards and the steps forward, it is best to pause slightly, so as not to look like someone who is coming and going. Therefore, when he arrives at “Tehillot L’Kel Elyon,” he takes three steps back, and towards the conclusion of Birkat Ga’al Yisrael he takes three steps forward. Similarly, in Minchah and Ma’ariv, already in the beginning of Kaddish before reciting the Amidah, one takes three steps back and then takes three steps forward to begin the Amidah (Minhag Maharil; Mishnah Berurah 95:3).
  So as not to interrupt between redemption and prayer, it is proper for the person praying to be strict in taking the three steps before the conclusion of Birkat Ga’al Yisrael, so that immediately after the end of the berachah, he will already be standing in his place of prayer and he will begin to say “Hashem sefatai tiftach,” the verse which opens the Amidah.1<i class="footnote">he <em>chazan</em> also opens the repetition of the <em>Amidah</em> with this verse. According to the Sephardic custom, it is said aloud, but according to the custom of the <em>Ashkenazim</em>, it is recited silently (<em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 111:10; <em>Kaf HaChaim</em> 10).</i>
  Prior to reciting the Amidah, a person must remove things that might disturb his concentration. One who suffers from a cold should blow his nose before beginning to pray, so that he will not need to do so in the middle of his prayer. Similarly, one who has any bothersome phlegm in his throat should remove it, so that it will not disturb his prayer (Shulchan Aruch 92:3; and see earlier in this book, chapter 6). If it is necessary to wipe one’s nose while saying the Amidah, one must do so in the most polite way possible. Similarly, whoever must yawn while reciting the Amidah must cover his mouth with his hand. The reason for these laws is that a person standing in prayer must be very cautious of the respect of Heaven (kevod Shamayim), and everything that is considered impolite to do before human beings is prohibited to do while praying (see Shulchan Aruch 97:1-2).
  
  Section 3
  
  The Amidah / Facing Jerusalem
  During most parts of the prayer service, a person may face in any direction he desires. However, when he arrives at the climax of the prayer service and gets up in the Amidah to stand before the King of the world, he must turn to face Jerusalem, the place that Hashem chose to endow His Shechinah to the world.
  One who stands in prayer outside of Israel must face the Land of Israel, and his heart should be directed towards Jerusalem, the home of the Beit HaMikdash (Temple), and Kodesh HaKodashim (the Holy of Holies). If one stands in Israel, he must face Jerusalem, and his heart should be directed towards Beit HaMikdash and Kodesh HaKodashim. If he stands in Jerusalem, he faces the direction where the Beit HaMikdash stood, and directs his heart to Kodesh HaKodashim (Berachot 30a; Shulchan Aruch 94:1).
  Therefore, those reciting the Amidah in the plaza in front of the Kotel must turn and face the direction of the exact place of the Beit HaMikdash. In other words, those standing in the open square must turn slightly to the left, and even those standing in the men’s section in the closed area next to the wall should do the same.
  It is customary to position the aron kodesh on the side of the synagogue that faces Jerusalem, so that those standing in prayer also pray towards the direction of the aron kodesh. However, the primary objective is to pray in the direction of Jerusalem. Therefore, if due to error, or because of circumstances beyond our control, the aron kodesh does not exactly face Jerusalem, the people praying should turn to face the direction of Jerusalem (Mishnah Berurah 94:9). Nevertheless, if the entire congregation mistakenly faces the aron kodesh, it is best not to separate oneself from the congregation; instead, one should stand in the same direction that the congregation faces, but turn his head towards Jerusalem (Mishnah Berurah 94:10).
  One who does not know the direction of Jerusalem may pray to whichever direction he desires while directing his heart towards his Father in Heaven (Shulchan Aruch 94:3). Even if he subsequently discovers that he was mistaken, it is not necessary to repeat his prayer while facing Jerusalem.2<i class="footnote">The <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 94:10 discusses the case of a person who mistakenly starts praying in the wrong direction. If he is in the synagogue and is embarrassed in front of the congregation, he can move and turn to face Jerusalem. However, if he is not embarrassed, he should remain in his place, for it is more important not to move during the <em>Amidah</em> prayer. The <em>Ben Ish Chai</em><em> Yitro</em> 1, writes that if he is in the synagogue, he must always turn to face Jerusalem. However, if he is praying alone in his house, he should continue praying as he started. See <em>Kaf HaChaim</em> 7, who writes that if he mistakenly started praying towards the west and his back is to Jerusalem, even if he is praying alone, he must turn himself to the direction of Jerusalem.</i>
  
  Section 4
  
  The Amidah / Standing and Putting One’s Feet Together
  During Pesukei d’Zimrah and Birkot Keriat Shema a person is permitted to either sit or stand, but once he reaches Shemoneh Esrei (the Amidah), he must stand with his feet together. When one stands, he summons his complete being, from head to toe, to prayer. In addition, his standing expresses his awe and fear toward the King of the world. Therefore, one must not lean against anything while reciting the Amidah, for anyone who is supported by something even slightly is not considered to be in a state of fear. In extenuating circumstances, for instance, when someone is weak and must lean against something, he should try to lean only slightly, such that if the support should be taken from him, he would remain standing on his own. In that way, although he is not standing in fear, he is at least considered to be praying in a standing position (Shulchan Aruch 94:8; Mishnah Berurah 22).
  One must put his legs together so that they look like one. The reason for this is that the separation of one’s legs exposes the material side of a person and represents the pursuit of worldly matters. Thus, we keep our feet together in prayer just like the Kohanim who, in their ascent to the altar, would walk heel to toe to avoid spreading their legs. Furthermore, putting one’s legs together symbolizes the annulling of the powers in one’s legs, demonstrating that we have but one desire, to stand before Him in prayer. Chazal learn this from the angels, of which it is said (Ezekiel 1:7), “Their legs are a straight leg,” meaning, their legs were placed together so that they appeared to be one leg (Berachot 10b; Yerushalmi, chapter 1, halachah 1; and see Maharal Netiv Ha’Avodah 6).
  One must put the entire length of his foot next to the other so that they will seem as much as possible as one leg, unlike those who just put their heels together (Shulchan Aruch 95:1; Talmidei Rabbeinu Yonah). However, b’dieved, if one prayed with his feet apart, he still fulfilled his obligation (Mishnah Berurah 1; Kaf HaChaim 2).
  A person who is ill and cannot stand may recite the Amidah while sitting. If he is unable to sit, he may pray while lying down. However, according to a number of poskim, if before the time to pray lapses he has gathered strength and is able to stand, he will need to repeat his prayer while standing, since the essence of the mitzvah of the Amidah is in a standing position (Shulchan Aruch 94:9). Nevertheless, in practice, the Acharonim agree that whether he prayed sitting or standing, he fulfilled his obligation b’dieved and even if he is able to stand later, he is not required to repeat his prayer while standing (Mishnah Berurah 94:27; Kaf HaChaim 34).
  Even one who must recite the Amidah while sitting or lying down should try to put his feet together and bow his head at the appropriate places. When a person sitting in a wheelchair finishes his prayer, he should wheel himself slightly backwards, approximately the distance of the three steps with which a healthy person departs from prayer (see further in this chapter, halachah 16).
  
  Section 5
  
  The Amidah / Body and Hand Positions
  One reciting the Amidah must lower his head slightly, so that his eyes point downwards in the way of humility; he must imagine himself standing in the Temple and directing his heart up towards the heavens (Yevamot 105b; Shulchan Aruch 95:2).
  The kabbalists praise one who prays with his eyes closed. However, even a person who looks into his siddur follows the law l’chatchilah. Many Acharonim recommend praying from a siddur, so that one can have more kavanah in his prayer (Mishnah Berurah 95:5; Kaf HaChaim 9-10; and see the words of the Ma’amar Mordechai brought in Bei’ur Halachah).
  Regarding one’s hands, the Rambam writes (Hilchot Tefillah 5:4) that a person should place his hands on his heart while interlocked, right over left so that he stands as a slave before his master, in awe and fear. That is what the Shulchan Aruch writes (95:3) and what is explained in the Kavanot of the Ari (Kaf HaChaim 95:12). Many maintain that it all depends on the custom of the place; where the Rambam lived, it was, indeed, customary to stand before kings and ministers in the manner in which he described. However, people in other areas practiced differently. For instance, those living in the countries of Edom were accustomed to standing with their arms folded, and those in the land of Ishmael would stand with their hands behind their backs, to symbolically indicate that they do not even have the use of their hands without the consent of the one before whom they are standing (Mahari Abuhav brought by the Beit Yosef; Mishnah Berurah 95:6). Nowadays, according to this, in addition to what the Rambam wrote, it is also permissible to stand with one’s hands adjacent to his body or slightly resting on a shtender (lectern) next to his siddur, for that, too, is considered standing respectfully. However, one should not stand with his hands in his pockets or on his hips, for it is inappropriate to stand that way in front of respected people.
  Many people are accustomed to “shuckling” (swaying back and forth) while reciting the Amidah. The Rama writes (Orach Chaim 48; Mishnah Berurah 95:7) that this is the proper way to pray l’chatchilah, in order to express the excitement and trepidation of the prayer experience, and in order to involve one’s whole body in the service of prayer, as it is written (Psalms 35:10), “All my bones will say, ‘Hashem, who is like You.’” By contrast, the Shlah writes that one should not shuckle during prayer, but just the opposite – that standing motionless strengthens one’s kavanah. Furthermore, he says it is not respectful to shuckle. If a person were to come before a human king and begin to shake with his whole body, indeed, the king would immediately dismiss him. If so, one should certainly not act that way in prayer. The Shlah explains that the recommendation to sway specifically applies to Torah learning or to singing songs and praise. However, in the intense and internal prayer of the Amidah, in which we stand before the King, it is not proper to move at all; only one’s lips may move (Shlah, Masechet Tamid, Ner Mitzvah). Since each minhag has opinions on which to rely, every person may practice in the way that allows him to concentrate the most. This applies especially to a person who became accustomed to shuckling and therefore finds it hard to concentrate while standing still (Magen Avraham, Mishnah Berurah 48:5; and see Kaf Hachaim 48:7-9).
  
  Section 6
  
  The Amidah / Bowing Down During the Amidah
  The Chachamim instituted bowing down in five places in the Amidah: in the beginning and end of Birkat Avot, in the beginning and end of Birkat Modim, and at the end of the Amidah, when one takes three steps backwards. They specifically chose those two berachot for they are the most important, and while reciting them one must try hard to concentrate properly (see Shulchan Aruch 101:1; Mishnah Berurah 3). If a person wants to bow down at the beginning or end of another berachah, he is taught not to, so as not to uproot the ruling of the Chachamim, and so that he will not look like an arrogant person who considers himself more righteous than others. However, in the middle of the berachot he is permitted to bow down (Shulchan Aruch 113:1; Mishnah Berurah 2).3<i class="footnote">em&gt;Berachot 34b clarifies that bowing down in the thanks of <em>Hallel</em> and in the thanks of <em>Birkat HaMazon</em> is disgraceful. <em>Rabbeinu Yerucham</em> adds that one does not bow down at the words “<em>V’chol komah lefanecha tishtachaveh</em>” and <em>Talmidei Rabbeinu Yonah</em> add not to bow down at “<em>Lecha levadcha anachnu modim</em>” in <em>Nishmat Kol Chai</em>. So rules the <em>Shulchan Aruch</em> 113:3.Regarding bowing at <em>Barchu</em>, there are various customs. The crux of the issue lies in the reason <em>chachamim</em> taught not to bow at the aforementioned places. If the reason is because he is bowing at a place in which the <em>Chachamim</em> did not institute bowing, then it is forbidden to bow regularly at <em>Barchu</em>. That is what is written in <em>Or L’Tzion</em>, part 2, 5:13 and <em>She’erit Yosef</em>, part 2, p. 106, and that is the <em>minhag</em> of Sephardic rabbis; still, among the Sephardic communities, many are accustomed to bowing. However, if the reason not to bow is because by bowing at the expression of thanks (<em>hoda’ah</em>), he is demonstrating that he erred, (thinking that the word <em>hoda’ah</em> means prostration when it is really an expression of thanks), then if he is bowing in a different place in the prayer service in order to accept upon himself the yoke of Hashem’s kingdom, there is no flaw in that; therefore, he is permitted to bow regularly at <em>Barchu</em>. That is what is written in <em>Shulchan Aruch HaRav</em> 113:3, and that is the Ashkenazic custom. The <em>Bei’ur Halachah</em> brings support for this. In a place where all different Jewish ethnic groups pray together, it is proper that everyone bows slightly at <em>Barchu</em> so as not to magnify the division between the <em>minhagim</em>, for that is how most of Israel practices, thereby preserving the custom of prostration to a certain extent. Also, in that way, no additional bows are added to those instituted by the <em>Chachamim</em>, for this kind of bow is not a complete bow that requires the vertebrae in one’s spine to click.</i>
  One bows down when saying “Baruch Attah” and straightens himself when saying “Hashem.” At Modim, he bows down when he says “Modim Anachnu Lach” and straightens up when saying “Hashem” (Shulchan Aruch 113:7; Mishnah Berurah 12; for the laws on bowing down at the end of the Amidah, see further in this chapter, halachah 13).
  The bow must be such that all the vertebrae in one’s spine move in place, one after the other, and the vertebrae protrude from his back. One bends his head and back until his face reaches the height between his heart and his waist, but he should not bend his head all the way until his belt, because that gives the appearance of arrogance (yohara). An elderly or ill person who has difficulty bending down lowers his head as much as he is able (Shulchan Aruch 113:5). One must bow down quickly to demonstrate his desire to bow before Hashem Blessed Be He, and when he straightens himself, he must do so slowly, as one who is interested in continuing to bow down before Him (Shulchan Aruch 113:6).
  There are two minhagim regarding the manner of bowing. According to the minhag of the Ashkenazim, when one says “Baruch” he bends his knees and when he says “Attah” he bows until his vertebrae “click”. At Modim, in which the word “Baruch” is not recited, one bows immediately without initially bending his knees (Mishnah Berurah 113:12; and see Kitzur Shulchan Aruch 18:1). 
  The Sephardim practice according to the Ari and bow down in two stages. First, a person bends his body (without bending his knees) and then his head. Similarly, when one straightens himself, first he straightens his body and afterwards his head (Kaf HaChaim 113:21).
  
  Section 7
  
  The Amidah / Praying Silently
  We learn many essential halachot from the prayer of Chanah, who stood and begged Hashem to remember her and grant her a son. Her prayer was accepted and she merited giving birth to Shmuel the prophet, who was the greatest prophet of Israel after Moshe Rabbeinu. As it says, (1 Samuel 1:13), “Chanah spoke upon her heart, only her lips moved, her voice was not heard.” The Chachamim teach, “‘Spoke upon her heart’ – from here [we learn] that the person praying must direct his heart (have kavanah). ‘Only her lips moved’ – from here [we learn] that the person praying must mouth the words. ‘Her voice was not heard’ – from here [we learn] that it is prohibited to raise one’s voice while praying” (Berachot 31a).
  The primary objective of the Amidah prayer is to express the deep aspirations of one’s soul before Hashem, and therefore it is not proper to recite the words aloud and to manifest these desires and needs outwards. On the other hand, one does not fulfill his obligation with thought alone, since every concept must possess a tangible expression in this world. Very often, our inner desires are praiseworthy, but their outer expression is flawed. Therefore, our task is to express our inner good will, in actuality. Hence, even the subtlest mitzvah like prayer requires some sort of expression, by silently articulating the words with one’s lips.
  There are different minhagim regarding the proper way to pray silently. According to the majority of poskim and a few kabbalists, one reciting the Amidah must utter the words in such a way that only he hears his voice but those praying next to him do not (Shulchan Aruch 101:2; Mishnah Berurah 5-6). According to most kabbalists, the Amidah is so intense and internal that even one’s own ear should not hear the words; instead, he should only mouth the letters with his lips (Kaf HaChaim 101:8). It is proper that each person follows his family’s minhag, or conduct himself in the way that he can have the most kavanah.
  B’dieved, even if a person recites the Amidah out loud, he fulfills his obligation. Therefore, if a person who has difficulty concentrating silently is praying alone, he may pray out loud. However, in a congregation, he may not recite the Amidah out loud under any circumstances, so that he will not disturb the rest of the people praying around him (Shulchan Aruch 101:2). Overall, it is better that he prays in a minyan silently, even if he will concentrate less, for prayer in a minyan is accepted (Mishnah Berurah 101:8).4<i class="footnote">On the High Holy Days, when everyone has <em>machzorim</em>, whoever has difficulty concentrating silently is permitted to raise his voice slightly, provided that he does not disturb the neighboring congregants (<em>Shulchan Aruch</em> 101:3). However, in a place in which the custom is to pray silently even on the High Holy Days, one who raises his voice will most definitely disturb the other people praying. Even in a place in which people pray out loud during those days, it is forbidden to shout out one’s prayer, for one who does so, behaves like the false prophets who think that their gods are hard of hearing and that one must yell in order to be heard (<em>Berachot</em> 24b).</i>
  Regarding the other sections of the prayer service, such as Birkot Keriat Shema and Pesukei d’Zimrah, which are not as internal and intense as the Amidah, all opinions agree that the person praying must hear the words he is reciting. It is even customary to recite the first verse of Keriat Shema aloud in order to arouse kavanah (Shulchan Aruch 61:4). Similarly, one must answer Amen and Baruch Hu u’varuch Shemo out loud, and one must especially try to respond to the Kaddish out loud as well (Shulchan Aruch 56:1).
  
  Section 8
  
  The Amidah / In Any Language
  It is permitted to recite the Amidah in any language (Sotah 32a). However, it is ideal to pray in Hebrew, for that is the language in which Anshei Knesset HaGedolah composed the wording of the prayers. Furthermore, Hebrew is the Holy Tongue, and is the language in which the world was created (see earlier in this book 15:9, that this is also the law regarding Keriat Shema).
  Indeed, according to the Rif, only when one is reciting the Amidah in a minyan is he permitted to pray in another language. The reason for this is that the Shechinah dwells with a minyan, therefore his prayer will be accepted even if it is not in the Holy Tongue. However, the prayer of a person who prays individually in a different language will not be accepted. Nevertheless, the majority of poskim agree with the Rosh, who maintains that even one praying individually may pray in another language, as long as it is not Aramaic. This is the halachic ruling (Shulchan Aruch 101:4, based on the rule that the halachah follows the last “yesh omrim,” Mishnah Berurah 18).
  An additional advantage to praying in Hebrew, untrue of any other language, is that even if the he does not understand Hebrew, as long as he understands the first verse of Keriat Shema, and the first berachah of the Amidah, he fulfills his obligation. In a different language, only the person who understands what he is reciting can fulfill his obligation through translation (Mishnah Berurah 101:14 and 124:2; see earlier in this book 1:10).
  In practice, one who does not understand Hebrew is permitted to choose the language in which he wants to pray. On the one hand, there is a benefit to praying in the language that he understands, for it enables him to have more kavanah. On the other hand, if he prays in Hebrew, he merits praying in the Holy Tongue (see Bei’ur Halachah 101:4; Kaf HaChaim 16).
  Permission to pray in other languages is granted only as a temporary practice (k’hora’at sha’ah), specifically for people who do not understand Hebrew. However, it is forbidden to organize a minyan of people who pray regularly in a different language. That was one of the sins of the Reform movement, which translated the prayers to German and caused their children to forget the Holy Tongue, leading the way to assimilation and the abandonment of Judaism (Chatam Sofer, Orach Chaim 84 and 86; Mishnah Berurah 101:13; the Seridei Eish 1:9 prohibits reciting even one liturgical poem in a different language).
  
  Section 9
  
  The Amidah / Kavanah
  One reciting the Amidah must have kavanah; that is, he must focus on what he is saying, and he must try not to let his mind be distracted by anything else during the prayer. If other thoughts enter his mind, he must expel them and return to his prayer. Even if he does not succeed in concentrating on all of the words, he must at least try to have kavanah for the conclusion of each berachah. If he cannot concentrate during all of the berachot, he must make an effort to concentrate in Birkat Avot and Birkat Modim, for those are the berachot in which we bow down at their beginning and at their end. At the very least, he must have kavanah in Birkat Avot, the berachah that opens the Amidah.5<i class="footnote"><em>Shulchan Aruch</em> 101:1 and <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 1-3. If he is so troubled that he knows that he will not be able to concentrate even for <em>Birkat</em> <em>Avot</em>, he may not recite the <em>Amidah</em>. Although a situation in which a person knows ahead of time that he cannot concentrate in <em>Birkat</em> <em>Avot</em> is uncommon, the principle is that one may not pray knowing<em> </em>in advance that he will not have the proper <em>kavanah</em> in <em>Birkat</em> <em>Avot</em>. According to the <em>Shulchan Aruch</em>, even if he already prayed and did not have <em>kavanah</em> in “<em>Avot</em>,” he must repeat the <em>Amidah</em>; all the more so he may not start praying without <em>kavanah</em>.</i>
  If a person recited the Amidah and did not have kavanah during Birkat Avot, he must, in principle, repeat his Amidah, because the lack of kavanah during that berachah prevents him from fulfilling his obligation. However, as a result of the deterioration of the generations and troubles on the mind, our ability to concentrate has weakened. Therefore, the Acharonim have instructed not to repeat the Amidah, since it is possible that even in reciting the Amidah a second time, he will forget to have kavanah in Birkat Avot and his repetition will be for naught (Rama 101:1; Kaf HaChaim 4).
  A person who is about to finish Birkat Avot and notices that he did not have kavanah in its recital: as long as he has not yet said Hashem’s Name at the conclusion of the berachah, he goes back to “Elokei Avraham” and continues from there with kavanah (Mishnah Berurah 101:4, in the name of the Chayei Adam). If he has already said Hashem’s Name, he concludes the berachah with kavanah. It is good to go back and think the words of Birkat Avot in his heart, for, in the Rambam’s opinion, thought is considered speech (hirhur k’dibur). However, if he already went on to say “Attah gibor,” he continues to pray and must try to have kavanah while reciting the remaining berachot, especially Birkat Modim.6<i class="footnote">The <em>Acharonim</em> explain that in practice, even if a person did not have <em>kavanah</em> at all while reciting the <em>Amidah</em>, since he did intend to fulfill the mitzvah of prayer, he fulfills his obligation. So writes the <em>Shibolei HaLeket</em> 17, in the name of the <em>Rishonim</em>. Similarly, the <em>Kaf HaChaim</em> 101:4, in the name of <em>Chesed L’Avraham</em>, writes that concerning one who prays without <em>kavanah</em>, his <em>berachot</em> are not in vain. This means that what he recited is considered prayer; however, because he lacked <em>kavanah</em>, the <em>Chachamim</em> maintain that it is necessary for him to repeat the <em>Amidah</em>. The proof for this is that one who realizes in the middle of the <em>Amidah</em> that he did not have <em>kavanah</em> in the first <em>berachah</em> does not immediately go back. This is not true regarding one who realizes that he mistakenly mentioned rain in the summer, for he needs to go back immediately. Based on this, it is understandable why today we do not repeat the <em>Amidah</em>. See <em>Yalkut Yosef</em>, part 1, p. 157 and <em>Yabia Omer</em>, part 3, 9:3. Regarding a person who almost always has <em>kavanah</em> but this time did not, and he is certain that when he repeats his prayer he will have <em>kavanah</em>, he is permitted to go back and repeat the prayer while concentrating. It is best for him to make a stipulation that if he is exempt from repeating his prayer due to the <em>minhag</em> not to repeat it, his prayer should be considered a voluntary prayer (<em>tefillat nedavah</em>).The Mishnah Berurah 101:4 writes, in the name of the Chayei Adam, that if he realizes before the conclusion of Birkat Avot, he must go back and start from “Elokei Avraham.” See Bei’ur Halachah s.v. “V’Ha’idna” where he suggests that someone who already finished reciting the first berachah wait for the Amidah repetition so that he can fulfill the obligation of the berachah by hearing the chazan. There are those who expressed doubt as to how he is able to fulfill his obligation of the first berachah by hearing the chazan and the rest of the Amidah by saying it himself, since the first three berachot are considered one unit (as brought in the name of the Chazon Ish). Yalkut Yosef, part 1, p. 157 writes that he continues praying and tries to have kavanah in Modim, for some say that the essence of kavanah must be either in Avot or in Modim.</i>
  
  Section 10
  
  The Amidah / The Order of the Berachot
  Shemoneh Esrei is divided into three parts: praises, requests, and thanksgiving. In reciting the first three berachot, we resemble slaves who offer words of praise before their master. While reciting the middle blessings we are similar to slaves who make requests of their master. When we recite the last three blessings, we are like slaves who gracefully accept reward from their master, then are dismissed and go on their way (Berachot 34a).
  We learned this from the prayer of Moshe Rabbeinu, who opened with praise and from there continued to plead and request (Berachot 32a; also see the laws of Pesukei d’Zimrah in this book 14:1). Without the introduction of praise, there is concern that our prayer will resemble the rituals of idol worshipers, whose entire aim is to mystically manipulate the higher powers to work for their benefit. In contrast to them, we want to serve Hashem and devote ourselves to Him, and all we ask is that He bestows abundant goodness and blessing upon us so that we can reveal His Name in the world. Therefore, first, it is incumbent upon us to know before Whom we are standing in prayer. We stand before God, the great, the mighty, and the awesome, the One Who sustains life and resurrects the dead, HaKadosh Baruch Hu. With that understanding, we can approach Him and pray with a pure heart for all of Israel and for ourselves.
  Indeed, in the section of the requests, in which there are thirteen berachot, the general ambitions of the nation of Israel are expressed. They are not intended for the individual advancement of the person praying; rather the essence of the requests is about revealing Hashem’s glory in the world. Even our personal requests for health and livelihood are to allow us to participate in the rectification of the world (tikun olam). The following are the thirteen themes for which we ask: wisdom, repentance, forgiveness, redemption, health, livelihood, the ingathering of the Jews from the exiles (kibbutz galuyot), the return of justice, the destruction of those who hate us, the blessing for the righteous, the rebuilding of Jerusalem, the re-establishment of the kingship of the house of David, and finally, that our prayers be heard.
  After the requests, we end the Amidah with three general berachot, in the center of which is a thanksgiving blessing concerning our lives and all the goodness that Hashem constantly bestows upon us. Before this, we pray for the return of the Temple services, and after it, we recite a berachah for shalom, since shalom is the vessel that encapsulates and sustains all the berachot.
  Here is the place to note that the Shemoneh Esrei (which means eighteen) is actually comprised of nineteen berachot. At first, when Anshei Knesset HaGedolah instituted the Amidah, it was made up of eighteen berachot. After the number of slanderers and informers increased, following the rise of Christianity, which preached the hatred of the Jews, the Chachamim instituted an additional berachah for the saving of the nation from the hands of the apostates and slanderers.7<i class="footnote">The <em>Amidah</em> continued to be called “<em>Shemoneh Esrei</em>”, since this was its name originally. My teacher and rabbi, Rav Tzvi Yehudah Kook <em>ztz”l</em>, further explains that the essence of the <em>Amidah</em> is, indeed, the eighteen <em>berachot</em>, for all the <em>berachot</em> have their own virtue of praise and blessing, but only <em>Birkat HaMinim</em> is about the uprooting of evil, which is temporary, since when evil will cease there will be no need for it. Therefore the name of the <em>Amidah</em> remains “<em>Shemoneh Esrei</em>” (brought by <em>Netiv Binah</em><em> </em>part 1, p. 261)<em>.</em></i>
  
  Section 11
  
  The Amidah / Personal Requests in the Amidah
  Anshei Knesset HaGedolah, in their wisdom and Divine inspiration (ruach hakodesh), included all the ideal aspirations of Am Yisrael in the wording of the prayer. They meticulously chose every word until a perfect wording was established, with which the Jewish soul can express itself before its Creator in the most supreme manner possible.
  Even so, if a person wishes to add requests of his own in the middle berachot, he is permitted to do so. However, in the first three berachot, which are intended to praise Hashem, and in the last three, which are intended for thanksgiving, it is prohibited to add personal requests, so as not to detract from their general purpose (Shulchan Aruch 112:1; 119:1).
  The personal requests permitted in the middle berachot must be related to the theme of the berachah. For example, if a person in one’s household is ill, one should pray for him or her in Birkat Refa’einu. If a person is in need of a livelihood, he should request that in Birkat HaShanim. If he wants his relatives to make aliyah, he should pray for that in Birkat Mekabetz Nidchei Amo Yisrael. However, out of all the berachot, Birkat Shome’a Tefillah is special. In it, one may make all types of requests. Since it concludes the blessings of request, it includes all of them. When one adds his own personal petitions, he begins reciting the established wording, and just before the concluding sentence, inserts his request.
  Not only is it permissible to make personal requests, but according to many, it is  desirable to do so, since the personal prayers that one adds emerge from the depths of his heart and arouse kavanah. Nevertheless, it is advisable not to prolong one’s personal appeals in the Amidah, not even in the berachah of Shome’a Tefillah, because the essence of prayer is directed towards the needs of the community as a whole, and when numerous personal requests are added, the communal character of the prayer is altered. It is best that one who desires to add more personal prayers does so after he finishes reciting all the berachot and says “Yih’yu l’ratzon…” since everything recited after that is not considered to be the main part of the Amidah. Rather, it is a relevant supplement to the prayer, for as long as he has not yet taken three steps backwards, he still stands before the Holy One Blessed Be He (Shulchan Aruch, Orach Chaim 119:2; Mishnah Berurah 119:12).
  A person must express his requests in the Amidah properly. Therefore, when praying for an ill person, it is correct to mention his or her name. L’chatchilah, it is good to mention the name along with the mother’s or father’s name. However, if the sick person is next to him, it is unnecessary to mention his name, for his intention is clear. (Mishnah Berurah 119:2).
  
  Section 12
  
  The Amidah / The Conclusion of the Amidah
  In reciting the verse, “Yih’yu l’ratzon…,” (“May the expressions of my mouth and the thoughts of my heart find favor before You, Hashem, my Rock, and my Redeemer”), which is said after the blessing for shalom, we end the main part of the Amidah. Therefore, if one hears Kaddish or Kedushah while he is between the berachah and that verse, he may not answer, because that verse is part of the Amidah (Shulchan Aruch and Rama 122:1).
  However, from the beginning of Elokai netzor until the second time Yih’yu l’ratzon is recited, one is permitted to respond to Kaddish, Kedushah, Barchu, and Modim – like the law regarding one who is in the middle of Birkot Keriat Shema – because the person praying has already concluded the main part of the Amidah. Nevertheless, since he did not entirely finish the prayer, he is prohibited from answering Amen after berachot or anything similar (Shulchan Aruch there; and see Hilchot Birkot Keriat Shema 16:5).
  As we have learned, it is in this section that one may extend his supplication and requests as much as he desires, like it is said about Rabbi Akiva, that when he would pray individually he would prolong his prayer with supplications following the Amidah (see Berachot 31a).8<i class="footnote">According to the <em>Gra</em><em>Yih’yu l’ratzon</em> is not recited before <em>Elokai netzor</em>, so that all the prayers of supplication will be included in the <em>Amidah</em>, and in his opinion, therefore, we do not respond to <em>Kaddish</em> and <em>Kedushah</em> there. However, according to the <em>Rama</em>, even when it is not customary to recite <em>Yih’yu l’ratzon</em> before <em>Elokai netzor</em>, we do, indeed, respond to <em>Kaddish</em> and <em>Kedushah</em> in the prayers of supplication. When we do say <em>Yih’yu l’ratzon</em> before the prayers of supplication, we do not respond to <em>Kaddish</em> and <em>Kedushah</em> before the verse, although we do answer after it. The <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 122:3 writes that it is good to say <em>Yih’yu l’ratzon</em> before <em>Elokai netzor</em> and after it, and that is the <em>minhag</em>. Therefore, one may not respond to <em>Kaddish</em> and <em>Kedushah</em> before the first <em>Yih’yu l’ratzon</em></i>
  Upon the conclusion of the prayers of supplication, the person praying recites Yih’yu l’ratzon again and takes three steps backwards. If he cannot step backwards because the person behind him is still praying, even though he has not yet departed from the Amidah, he may respond aloud to any matter of sanctity, even “Baruch Hu u’varuch Shemo,” since he already finished the supplications after the Amidah. Similarly, he is permitted to continue praying, reciting Ashrei and Aleinu L’Shabe’ach, or he may recite Psalms or learn Torah (see further in this chapter, halachah 20).
  
  Section 13
  
  The Amidah / Three Steps Back
  Once again, after finishing the Amidah, one must bow down until the vertebrae in his spine protrude, as if they “click.” While bowing down, he takes three steps backwards. Subsequently, still bowing, he turns to his left side and says, “Oseh shalom bimromav,” turns to his right side and says, “Hu ya’aseh shalom aleinu,” bows down in front of him and says, “v’al kol Yisrael, v’imru Amen,” and then straightens himself. Many people are accustomed to say afterwards “Yehi ratzon” regarding the building of the Temple. This is because prayer corresponds to the Korban HaTamid. Therefore, we request that the Temple be rebuilt and that we merit bringing the Tamid offering (Shulchan Aruch Rama 123:1).
  The Chachamim say that if a person prays and does not depart from the Amidah properly by taking three steps back and saying Oseh shalom, it would have been better not to have prayed at all (Yoma 53b). One who fails to conclude in this fashion proves that he did not understand that he was standing before the King of Kings, HaKadosh Baruch Hu, and consequently he desecrates the prayer.
  When stepping back, one starts by lifting his left leg, the weaker leg, thereby demonstrating his difficulty in separating from prayer. Every step the person takes must be the size of his foot. The order of the steps is as follows: initially, he takes a small step with his left leg, so that the toes of his left foot are adjacent to his right heel. Afterwards, he takes a bigger step with his right leg, so that the toes of his right foot are adjacent to his left heel. Finally, he takes a small step with his left leg to equal out the legs. In that way he ends up standing with his legs together when saying Oseh shalom.
  One must be careful not to take a step smaller than the length of his foot, for some poskim maintain that less than that is not considered a step (Magen Avraham). When there is not enough room behind him to take three steps, he must step to his side, making sure that every step is big enough (Aruch HaShulchan 123:5). In a case of extenuating circumstances, when there is no room to step backwards or sideways, he may rely on the opinions which maintain that it is permissible to take three smaller steps. However, one may not take less than three steps in departing from the Amidah before the King (Bach and see Mishnah Berurah 123:14); nor may one take more than three steps, so as not to display arrogance (yohara) (Shulchan Aruch 123:4).9<i class="footnote">The <em>Beit Yosef</em> brings opinions as to which foot he should step with first, and the decision of the <em>Shulchan Aruch</em> 123:3, based on the <em>Midrash</em>, is that one starts with his left foot. However, regarding a left-handed person there is uncertainty, as brought by the <em>Bei’ur Halachah</em><em>Kaf HaChaim</em> 23 writes that even a left-handed person takes the first step with his left foot. The order of the steps is explained above. Still, <em>Rabbeinu Mano’ach</em> mentions an opinion that maintains that one takes six steps, because each pair of steps is considered one step. There are <em>Acharonim</em> who write like him, as cited by the <em>Bei’ur Halachah</em> s.v. “<em>V’Shiur.</em>” However, the primary opinion is that of the <em>Shulchan Aruch</em>, as brought by the <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 13 and <em>Kaf HaChaim</em> 24.</i> Likewise, it is not proper to take large steps so as not to appear as one who wants to distance himself from the King (Rama 123:3; see Mishnah Berurah 16).
  
  Section 14
  
  The Amidah / How Long Must One Stand at a Distance
  After taking three steps backwards, one must remain standing in that place. He may not immediately return to where he prayed the Amidah, for if he does, he resembles a dog that returns to its vomit (Yoma 53b). The reason for this condemnation is that after separating himself from the King, if he returns to stand before Him, only to wait there without reason, he illustrates that he did not comprehend that he was standing before the King and that he already separated from Him. Therefore, his action is considered disgraceful. There are those who continue to err, and upon returning to their places they lift their heels slightly as done in Kedushah. However, there is no reason for this.
  L’chatchilah, one should stand in the place that his steps ended until the chazan arrives at Kedushah, or at least until the chazan starts the repetition of the Amidah (Shulchan Aruch 123:2). According to the majority of poskim, there is no need to remain standing with one’s feet together upon the conclusion of Oseh shalom (Mishnah Berurah 123:6; Bei’ur Halachah and Sha’ar HaTziyun there). However, there are those who say that it is good to remain with one’s legs together until he returns to his place. (Kitzur Shulchan Aruch 18:13; Kaf HaChaim 123:11 mentions both opinions.)
  It is proper that even someone praying individually does not return immediately to his original place, but stops after taking three steps, and waits in his place for the amount of time it takes the chazan to arrive at Kedushah, which is approximately half a minute. In extenuating circumstances, if he must return to his place, he must wait the amount of time it takes to walk four amot and only then return (Mishnah Berurah 123:11; Kaf HaChaim 20). The chazan who must begin the Amidah repetition, can l’chatchilah wait in the place his steps ended, approximately the walking time of only four amot, and afterwards return to his place, because he is approaching the Amidah prayer again (Rama 123:2). Similarly, one who must make up a missed prayer, and pray a supplementary prayer (tashlumim), must wait approximately the amount of time it takes to walk four amot and then return to pray (Mishnah Berurah 123:11).
  At the end of the Amidah repetition, it is unnecessary for the chazan to take three steps back again, since his prayer is not completely concluded until Kaddish-Titkabal, in which he requests that his prayers and requests be accepted. At the end of Kaddish-Titkabal, he takes three steps back and says Oseh shalom (Shulchan Aruch 123:5). Although in Shacharit we recite Tachanun, Ashrei, and U’va L’Tzion before the Kaddish, and on Mondays and Thursdays the Torah is read, nevertheless, the chazan’s separation from the Amidah repetition occurs in the Kaddish-Titkabal recited after U’va L’Tzion. Therefore, the chazan must be strict not to talk from the end of the Amidah repetition until the end of Kaddish-Titkabal (Mishnah Berurah 123:18).
  
  Section 15
  
  The Amidah / When Is It Permissible to Interrupt the Amidah?
  A person who stands in prayer before his Creator is prohibited from talking about other matters in the middle of praying (see further in this book, chapter 18, note 1). It is even forbidden to interrupt by walking or hinting. This is learned from the “kal vachomer” principle – if we stand before a human king in dread, and are careful not to interrupt with other matters, all the more so (kal vachomer) when we stand before the King of Kings.
  Even if the king of Israel were to inquire about ones well-being in the middle of the Amidah, it is forbidden to answer him. However, if a non-Jewish king, who is likely to execute him if he does not answer, addresses him in the middle of his prayer, he must interrupt his prayer, for saving a life takes precedence over prayer (Berachot 30b). If a non-poisonous snake is wrapped around his leg, he may not interrupt his prayer. However, if a scorpion or poisonous snake endangers him, he must call for help, for saving a life takes precedence over prayer (Berachot 33a; Shulchan Aruch, Orach Chaim 104:1-4).
  Walking is not considered a significant interruption. Therefore when one starts to recite the Amidah in a place where it is hard for him to concentrate, he is permitted to move to a different place. For instance, if a non-poisonous snake approaches him, creating a situation which disturbs his concentration, although the circumstances are not life-threatening, he is permitted to walk to a different place to continue praying with kavanah (Mishnah Berurah 104:10). A similar case is one in which a person is reciting the Amidah and there are adults or children talking around him, disturbing his concentration. If by hinting to them they will be quiet, that is the best course of action, for a hint is considered to be less of an interruption. However, if they don’t comply, he may walk to a different place and continue praying there. Likewise, if the congregation is waiting for a rabbi to finish his prayer, and this is disturbing his kavanah, he is permitted to hint to them to start Chazarat HaShatz (Mishnah Berurah 104:1).
  Similarly, if one’s child begins to cause a disruption in the middle of the Amidah, so much so that he or other people cannot concentrate properly, he must hint to him to leave. If the child does not understand, the parent must take him out of the synagogue without talking and then continue praying.
  If during the Amidah, a problem occurs that if not fixed immediately will cause him damage, he is not permitted to interrupt his prayer (Mishnah Berurah 104:2; Kaf HaChaim 6). However, if the matter bothers him so much that he cannot concentrate, he is permitted to attend to the problem.
  If a siddur falls to the floor and the person reciting the Amidah cannot concentrate until it is picked up, he must first finish the berachah that he is saying, and then he may go pick it up. If a person starts praying by heart, becomes confused, and cannot continue, he is permitted to go get a siddur and continue praying (Mishnah Berurah 96:7). If, in the middle of praying the Amidah, a person is uncertain regarding a law that may prevent him from continuing, such as a case in which he forgot to recite a particular passage and does not know how to continue his prayer, he may peruse through a book to determine the correct practice. If he does not know how to search for the answer in a book, there are those who allow him to interrupt with speech and inquire what the halachah is (Mishnah Berurah 104:2). Likewise, if the telephone rings in the middle of his Amidah, he must continue praying. However, if he cannot maintain his kavanah, he is permitted to disconnect the phone and return to pray.10<i class="footnote">his is what is written in <em>Tefillah Kehilchatah</em> 12:86, in the name of <em>Rav Elyashiv</em>. He adds that even if there is a knock at the door which is distracting him so much that he cannot continue praying with <em>kavanah</em>, he is permitted to open the door and hint to the person that he cannot talk right now. As for the matter of perusing through a book to determine the halachah, <em>Yalkut Yosef </em>104:5 writes that although there are <em>poskim</em> who forbid walking to look something up, he himself agrees that it is permissible, but that asking a rabbi is forbidden. Nevertheless, it seems that if this law will determine whether or not he fulfills his obligation, it is best that he ask, as the <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> states. If possible, it is best that he writes his question down on a piece of paper, instead of interrupting with words. If, in the meantime, enough time passed in which he could have recited the entire <em>Amidah</em>, according to the <em>Shulchan Aruch</em> 104:5, he must start it from the beginning. However, the <em>Rama</em> maintains that he only goes back to the beginning when the interruption is due to circumstances beyond his control.</i>
  If one’s tallit falls off in the middle of the Amidah, but part of it remains on him, he is permitted to fix it. However, if his entire tallit falls off, he is forbidden to rewrap himself in it, since the act of wrapping constitutes an interruption (Shulchan Aruch 97:4). If being without a tallit disturbs him so much that he cannot concentrate, he may wrap himself in it after concluding the berachah that he is reciting (Mishnah Berurah 97:16). Someone else who sees a person’s tallit fall off is permitted to put it back on him (Kaf HaChaim 27).
  While praying the Amidah it is forbidden to respond to Kaddish or Kedushah. However, he may silently concentrate on what the chazan is saying, and it will be considered as if he himself recited those words – and that is the custom. Nevertheless, if such an interruption will disturb his kavanah, he is permitted to continue praying.11<i class="footnote">The <em>Rishonim</em> are divided concerning this. According to <em>Rabbeinu Tam</em> and <em>Ri</em>, it is forbidden to be silent and have <em>kavanah</em> to hear the <em>chazan</em>, for that is considered an interruption. <em>Rabbeinu Chananel</em> and <em>Rashi</em> maintain that one should remain silent and have <em>kavanah</em> to hear the <em>chazan</em>. So write the <em>Tosafot</em> and <em>Ran</em> that the <em>minhag</em> is to be quiet and have <em>kavanah</em>, and so rules <em>the</em><em>Shulchan Aruch</em> 104:7. However, if this will disturb the person’s <em>kavanah</em>, he may practice like those who forbid it. That is the law even concerning someone who is in the middle of <em>Pesukei d’Zimrah</em>, as written in <em>Shut Tzitz Eliezer</em> 11:3 and <em>Halichot Shlomo</em> 6:12.</i>
  
  Section 16
  
  The Amidah / One Who Is Traveling When the Time to Pray Arrives
  A person who is traveling in a car when the time to pray arrives, if he is driving, he is forbidden to recite the Amidah. This is because he cannot concentrate properly, and there is even concern that he may endanger his life or the lives of others. Therefore, he must pull his car over to the side and only then begin to pray.
  However, if someone else is driving, who is in a hurry to arrive at his desired destination, a passenger may recite the Amidah while sitting. The reason for this is because if they stop traveling in order to pray standing up, he will be distracted with wanting to finish praying quickly, and he will be unable to have the proper kavanah. Therefore, it is better that he pray Shemoneh Esrei while sitting, since, as we already learned (in halachah 4), b’dieved, the one who recites the Amidah while sitting fulfills his obligation.
  Even one who is sitting when reciting the Amidah must put his feet together (Mishnah Berurah 95:2), and try to turn his face in the direction of Jerusalem (Mishnah Berurah 94:15). At the places that the Chachamim instructed to bow down, he must straighten himself slightly and bow as much as he can (Shulchan Aruch 94:5; Aruch HaShulchan 18).
  When traveling by bus or train, both of which are more spacious than a car, if one can stand and concentrate properly, it is better that he stand for Shemoneh Esrei. However, if standing will disturb his kavanah, he must sit with his feet together, stand when he needs to bow down, and then sit again. At the end of his prayer, he stands and takes three steps backwards (see Shulchan Aruch 94:5).12<i class="footnote">If one has two options, to stand with his feet apart or to sit with his feet together, it is preferable to stand, for the obligation to stand is more important. The proof for this is that some <em>poskim</em> maintain that if a person who prayed while sitting has an opportunity afterwards to stand, he must repeat the <em>Amidah</em> while standing (<em>Shulchan Aruch</em> 94:9), whereas regarding a person who prays with his feet apart, no such thing is said. See <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 95:1 and <em>Sha’ar HaTzion</em> 1.Similarly, it seems that it is preferable to pray while standing, even if not in the direction of Jerusalem, rather than to pray while sitting facing Jerusalem. Again, this is because we have not found an opinion stating that if he recites the <em>Amidah</em> towards a different direction he needs to repeat his prayer. Further, in <em>Bava Batra</em> 25 we learn that there are opinions which maintain that a person may pray facing south or north, and although the halachah is not like them, <em>b’dieved</em>, we can take them into consideration (see <em>Beit Yosef</em> and <em>Shulchan Aruch</em> 94:1-2 and the <em>Rama</em>’s words).A soldier who is in the middle of a long hike of endurance, and is worried about finishing, may pray while walking, for if he stops to stand in his place, he will not be able to concentrate properly, as explained in Shulchan Aruch 94:4. However, if the case concerns a group of religious soldiers, they should stand in their places and pray, for as a group they are not as distracted. Additionally, as it is only training and not actual combat, there is no reason l’chatchilah to slight the prayer, and they must arrange their schedules in such a way that the army training exercises do not conflict with the times of prayer.</i>
  When one is traveling at night by bus, and he knows that when he finishes his trip he will still have time to recite Ma’ariv, he should pray after the trip ends (Mishnah Berurah 89:42). However, if he knows that after the trip he will be unable to concentrate properly, because he will be tired and he will want to finish his prayer quickly, he is permitted to pray while traveling (based on Shulchan Aruch HaRav 94:5).13<i class="footnote">owever, <em>Avnei Yashfeh</em> 14:16-17 maintains that if he will finish his trip before midnight, he must pray after the trip. Nevertheless, it seems that <em>kavanah</em> is more important and therefore one may rely in this case on <em>Shulchan Aruch HaRav</em> 94:5, who maintains that since the time for <em>Shacharit</em>, <em>Minchah</em>, or <em>Ma’ariv </em>has arrived while he is traveling, even if he will finish his trip before the final time to recite that prayer, he is permitted to recite the <em>Amidah</em> while sitting, and is not obligated to delay the mitzvah in order to pray afterwards while standing.</i>
  Reciting the Amidah individually while sitting is only permitted on a temporary basis, during a special trip, or in a set of circumstances completely beyond one’s control. However, even if it is difficult for a person who travels to work every day to find time to pray while standing, as long as he is not in circumstances beyond his control, he is not permitted to be lenient and pray on a regular basis while sitting. Still, it is permitted to pray regularly on buses that are specifically arranged for people to pray in a minyan while standing, although, l’chatchilah, one should pray in a synagogue. Nonetheless, if those people are hurrying on their way, or rushing to work, and they know that in the synagogue they will pray quickly, but that on the bus they will pray in a more composed manner, it is better that they pray on the bus.14<i class="footnote">Concerning praying on a bus that is specifically arranged for prayer, there are still a few aspects that render this prayer <em>b’dieved</em>. Among them: 1) it is proper to pray in a synagogue, as explained in <em>Shulchan Aruch</em> 90:9. 2) It is proper to pray in a place that is not open to the public domain, one in which people cannot look outside, and in which the prayer will not seem to be a burden (ibid., 90:20). 3) When standing on a bus, it is necessary to lean on something to remain balanced, which is a <em>b’dieved</em> situation, as clarified in <em>Shulchan Aruch</em> 94:8 and <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 22. However, it seems that if the prayer on the bus is conducted in a more composed manner, whereas in a synagogue the people would rush to finish their prayer and hurry to get to work on time, it is better that they pray on that kind of bus, since it possesses the primary laws of prayer – that there is a <em>minyan</em> and that the people are standing. Even though when the bus is moving, those standing in it are considered walking nevertheless the <em>Taz</em> 94:4 writes that concerning the <em>Amidah</em>, the most important factor is that they themselves are standing.</i>
  
  Section 17
  
  The Amidah / One May Not Sit Within Four Amot of a Person Reciting the Amidah
  Due to the considerable significance and sanctity of the Amidah prayer, the Chachamim prohibit sitting within four amot of a person who is praying. One reciting the Amidah is standing before the Shechinah, and anyone sitting there idly is seen as someone who does not accept the yoke of Heaven upon himself, thereby desecrating the place of prayer.
  However, one who is engaged in a section of prayer is permitted to sit next to a person reciting the Amidah, for since he is engaged in prayer, he does not appear as one who does not accept upon himself the yoke of Heaven. Some say that one who wants to learn Torah is also permitted to sit next to a person praying. In times of need, for instance when a person cannot focus on his learning while standing, it is permissible to be lenient and to sit (Shulchan Aruch 102:1; Mishnah Berurah 6).
  If he sat down next to the person praying before that person started to recite the Amidah, although he is neither praying nor learning he is permitted to continue sitting there. This is allowed because he does not disgrace the prayer, rather it is the person praying who did not act in accordance with the law by beginning to pray within someone else’s four amot. Even so, it is, indeed, a righteous act to show respect for the prayer by standing up, or at least by learning Torah or reciting Psalms (Shulchan Aruch, Rama 102:3).
  A weak or frail person, even when not engaged in prayer, is permitted to sit within another person’s four amot, since everyone knows that it is because of his weakness that he needs to sit, and therefore there is no offense to the respect of Heaven (Shulchan Aruch 102:2). On Yom Kippur, almost everyone is considered to be weak because of the fast, and therefore it is permissible to sit within four amot of a person praying (Beit Baruch 26:9).
  There is a stringent opinion which maintains that it is forbidden to sit directly in front of a person praying, even if he is outside of one’s four amot, since it causes the person who is praying to appear as though he is bowing down to him. Therefore, even if he is reciting Keriat Shema, and he sat there before the other person began to recite the Amidah, he must stand. L’chatchilah, it is good to follow this opinion (Shulchan Aruch 102:1; Mishnah Berurah 9; Kaf HaChaim 10).15<i class="footnote">The <em>Ohel Mo’ed</em> is stringent, and there are those who do not take his opinion into consideration, as written in <em>Pri Chadash</em>. <em>Ben Ish Chai</em>,<em> Yitro</em> 6, writes that the custom is to act leniently, as writes <em>Yalkut Yosef</em> 102:2. However, many <em>Acharonim</em> are stringent, as both the <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 102:9 and <em>Kaf HaChaim</em> 10, write. Even to stand in front of him within his four <em>amot</em>,<em> l’chatchilah</em> is not proper, so he does not appear to be prostrating himself before him, see <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 102:8-9. The measure of approximately “within a person’s eyesight,” concerning the matter of getting up for a <em>talmid chacham</em>, is defined in the <em>Shach</em>,<em> Yoreh De’ah</em> 244:8 as 266 2/3 <em>amot</em> (approximately 128 meters; 419.95 feet). However, it seems that in any case in which the person reciting the <em>Amidah</em> does not appear to be bowing down to the person in front of him, either due to the distance between them or the conditions of the area, there is no need to be stringent.The <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 102:2 writes that if there is a partition with a height of 10 <em>tefachim</em> (80 cm; 31.49 inches) and a width of 4 <em>tefachim</em> (32 cm; 12.59 inches) between the person praying and himself, he may sit. Although a partition cannot be used to allow someone to pass by the person praying, since passing by will disturb his <em>kavanah</em>, sitting is nevertheless allowed, since for that, the partition is effective. According to the <em>Chayei Adam</em> and <em>Eshel Avraham</em> (<em>Butshatsh</em>), when there is a partition, one is even allowed to pass by the person praying. However, it seems that it is proper to be stringent regarding sitting directly in front of the person praying, so that he will not appear to be prostrating himself before him.I did not differentiate between the sides of a person and behind him. However, see Beit Yosef and Darkei Moshe who explain that some poskim rule that there is no prohibition against sitting behind a person praying, even within his four amot. Still, in practice, the Acharonim agree to forbid sitting behind him, as explained in the Mishnah Berurah 102:3 and Kaf HaChaim 4.</i>
  The measurement of four amot is approximately two meters (6.56 feet). To be more precise, an amah is approximately the length of the average person’s arm. According to the majority of poskim, it is approximately 48 cm (18.898 inches), which means that 4 amot is approximately 192 cm (75.59 inches). However, there is obviously no need to measure the exact distance from the person reciting the Amidah; instead, every person must practice according to his own visual estimation.
  
  Section 18
  
  The Amidah / It Is Forbidden to Pass in Front of People Reciting the Amidah
  It is forbidden to pass within four <i>amot</i> in front of a person reciting the <i>Amidah</i>, since one who passes in front of him is likely to disturb his concentration. There are those who say that the reason for the prohibition is that a person who is reciting the <i>Amidah</i> is standing before the <i>Shechinah</i> and one who passes before him offends the respect for the <i>Shechinah</i>.16<i class="footnote">The <i>Mishnah Berurah</i> 102:15 and <i>Bei’ur Halachah</i> s.v. “<i>Assur</i>” write that the reason for the prohibition is the disturbance it will cause to the person praying. That is the opinion of the majority of <i>poskim</i>, and so writes the <i>Ma’amar Mordechai</i>. However, the <i>Chayei Adam</i> maintains that the reason for the prohibition is that one who passes in front of a person reciting the <i>Amidah</i> interferes with his connection to the<i> Shechinah</i>. There are practical halachic differences (<i>nafka minot</i>) between the reasons. If the reason is disruption, then if the person praying covers his eyes with his <i>tallit</i>, one may pass in front of him. However, if the reason is because of the honor of the <i>Shechinah</i>, one is forbidden to pass. By contrast, if there is a partition with a height of ten <i>tefachim</i> in front of the person praying, then if the reason is the honor of the <i>Shechinah</i>, the partition is considered a divider and he may pass. But if it is because of distraction, he is prohibited from passing, as cited by the <i>Mishnah Berurah</i> 102:2. The <i>Bei’ur Halachah</i> writes that it is proper to take into consideration the reason that the <i>Chayei Adam</i> presents as well. Still, according to <i>Eshel Avraham Butshatsh</i>, both reasons are mutually dependent, and only when there is a distraction to the person praying is there also an affront to the honor of the <i>Shechinah</i>. (This dispute is not contingent upon the disagreement between the <i>Magen Avraham</i> and <i>Eliyah Rabbah</i>, which is brought further in this chapter, because the <i>Magen Avraham</i> 102:6 also mentions that the reason for the prohibition is the disruption to the person praying. Furthermore, even according to the <i>Eliyah Rabbah</i> one could explain that the affront to the honor of the <i>Shechinah</i> is only when one passes directly in front of the person praying.)</i>
  The <i>poskim</i> disagree regarding the question of where precisely is it forbidden to pass. According to the <i>Eliyah Rabbah</i>, the prohibition only applies to passing directly in front of the face of one reciting the <i>Amidah</i>, since only then will passing by disturb him. In other words, if the width of a man is approximately half a meter (1.64 feet), one may not pass in that half meter in front of his face for a distance of four <i>amot</i> (approximately 2 meters or 6.56 feet). However, according to the <i>Magen Avraham</i>, it is forbidden to pass anywhere the person praying can see within his four <i>amot</i>, since passing there is likely to slightly disrupt his <i>kavanah</i>.
  
  
  They disagree further. According to the <i>Eliyah Rabbah</i>, a person is permitted to come and stand within the four <i>amot</i> of a person praying and remain standing there. This is because he only disturbs the person when crosses through the four <i>amot</i> directly in front of his face. However, if he comes from the side and remains standing before him, he does not disrupt him as much. Still according to the <i>Magen Avraham</i>, it is forbidden to enter into the four <i>amot</i> in front of a person praying at all.
  
  Section 19
  
  The Amidah / The Practical Halachah
  L’chatchilah, one should be strict, like the opinion of the Magen Avraham, not to walk within the entire four amot before a person reciting the Amidah. In times of need, however, one may be lenient like the Eliyah Rabbah and permit passing beside a person praying, and likewise passing and standing directly in front of his face.
  In a case of great need, when there is no other choice, it is even permissible to pass directly in front of a person reciting the Amidah. For instance, in order to complete a minyan it is permitted to pass in front of someone who is praying. It is permissible for one who must conduct a Torah class, and for a Kohen who must ascend to recite Birkat Kohanim, to pass in front of the person praying. Likewise, whoever fears he will miss his bus or ride is permitted to pass as well.
  However, one who arrives late to the prayer service and wants to pray in his regular seat is prohibited from passing in front of the person reciting the Amidah. If only one person is reciting the Amidah where he must pass, he may rely on the Eliyah Rabbah and pass beside him. Yet, if in order to do so he must pass alongside a number of people praying, he may not pass, since it is almost certain that he will disturb at least someone’s concentration.17<i class="footnote">The majority of <em>poskim</em>, <em>Rishonim</em> and <em>Acharonim</em> alike, are of the same opinion as that of the <em>Eliyah Rabbah</em>, as explained in the book <em>Four Amot of Prayer</em>, p. 338. This is also the simple meaning of the words in the Talmud, “It is prohibited to pass in front of the people praying.” Therefore, despite the fact that <em>l’chatchilah</em> it is good to follow the <em>Magen Avraham</em>, in times of need it is possible to rely on the opinion of the <em>Eliyah Rabbah</em>. In general, it is possible to explain the opinion of the <em>Eliyah Rabbah</em>, that the prohibition to pass is only when it causes a great distraction to a person reciting the<em> Amidah</em>. A great distraction is only one in which a person crosses over the four <em>amot</em> in front of the face of the person who is praying, or if the person praying in front of him finishes his prayer and steps backwards directly in front of him. According to the <em>Magen Avraham</em> 102:6, the prohibition also applies when there is even a small distraction.The <em>Magen Avraham</em> 102:5 writes further, in the name of the <em>Zohar</em>, that one should be more stringent, that even on the sides of one reciting the<em> Amidah</em> it is prohibited to pass. The reason is that this is considered a holy place, and not just because of the disturbance it causes. Some <em>Acharonim</em> write that it is correct to be stringent and act according to the <em>Zohar</em>’s opinion, as the <em>Kaf HaChaim</em> 102:27 writes, and as is implied from the <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 17 (although <em>Aruch HaShulchan</em> 102:12 explains the <em>Zohar</em> in a way that agrees with the Talmud).By contrast, the Eshel Avraham Butshatsh is very lenient regarding this law and maintains that the whole prohibition depends on the extent of the disturbance caused to the person reciting the Amidah. Therefore, if his eyes are closed, it is permissible to pass. Likewise, if he is reciting the prayers of supplication at the end of the Amidah, it is permissible to pass by him (and concerning this ruling the Aruch HaShulchan 102:13 agrees, although many poskim disagree with them). The Eshel Avraham writes further, that in times of need, it is permitted to pass before the person praying, since perhaps he is reciting the prayers of supplication, and we are lenient regarding an uncertainty surrounding a rabbinic obligation. Moreover, he writes that for a mitzvah, it is permissible to pass before the person praying.In order to complete a minyan, Yad Eliyahu 6 writes that it is permitted to pass in front of a person reciting the Amidah. However, in order to pray with the minyan it is not allowed. Magen Avraham 69:4, cited by the Mishnah Berurah 69:9, writes that one may not pass in front of a person praying in order to respond to Barchu. Eshel Avraham permits passing in order to respond to Kaddish and Barchu, and to pray with a minyan. Further, the Eshel Avraham writes that in order not to transgress the prohibition of “Do not abominate oneself” (as when one needs to go to the restroom), one is allowed to pass in front of a person praying (and it seems that in this matter all poskim are in agreement). Concerning their dissension, since it is a rabbinic doubt, although the lenient poskim are but a few, in times of need, it is permissible to rely on them. Also, Avnei Yashfeh 7:22 relies on the opinion of the Eshel Avraham in that he permits passing before a person reciting the Amidah in order to pray with a minyan and to hear Kaddish. He adds another reason, that today the kavanah in our prayers is minimal and the person passing does not greatly disturb. However, he forbids passing in order for someone to pray in his regular seat. Based on logical reasoning, I wrote that it is permissible to pass by the side of the person praying in order to get to one’s permanent place of prayer but that it is forbidden to pass by the sides of a few people, because he will certainly disturb one of them, which is also how I have seen people practice.</i>
  If a person is reciting the Amidah while standing in an aisle, since he did not act in accordance with the law by standing in a place that blocks the walkway of those coming and going, there is no obligation to take him into consideration, and in times of need, it is permitted to pass before his face.18<i class="footnote">The <em>Eshel Avraham</em> is lenient because perhaps the fact that the person stood there to begin with is because he knows that people passing by do not disturb his concentration, and therefore, according to his approach, there is no prohibition to pass by in front of him while he is reciting the<em> Amidah</em>. Further, it is the obligation of the person who is causing the damage to distance himself from the person to whom he is causing it. The <em>Maharsham</em> in <em>Da’at Torah</em> 102:4 tends to favor the opinion that it is permitted to pass in front of him since he resembles a grave that harms the public, regarding which the law permits its removal and negates any further entitlement to that space. That is what the <em>Tzitz Eliezer</em> writes in 9:8, in their names and in the names of other <em>Acharonim</em></i>
  
  Section 20
  
  The Amidah / One Who Finishes Reciting the Amidah
  Regarding someone who finishes the Shemoneh Esrei while a person remains standing behind him in prayer, the law is as follows: if he is farther than four amot plus another three steps away from him, so that if he were to take three steps backwards he would not enter into the other’s four amot, he may step back. If he is closer, he may not take steps back until the one reciting the Amidah behind him finishes his prayer. Even if the person behind him began praying late and extends his prayer, he is forbidden from stepping into the other’s four amot. As we have learned, the Acharonim disagree concerning the parameters of the prohibition.
  According to the Magen Avraham, even if the person reciting the Amidah is not standing directly behind him, as long as by taking three steps back he will step into the radius of the four amot in front of him, he must wait until the person behind him finishes his prayer. According to the Eliyah Rabbah, it is only forbidden to step backwards in front of the person praying if he is standing directly in front of him. But if the person praying is not exactly in front of him, he is permitted to take three steps back. L’chatchilah, it is good to practice like the Magen Avraham, though in times of need one may be lenient like the opinion of the Eliyah Rabbah (Mishnah Berurah 102:18-19). Even in a situation in which the person praying is directly behind him, in extenuating circumstances he may step backwards diagonally, for there are those who explain that according to the Eliyah Rabbah, as long as his steps do not bring him closer to the person praying, he is permitted to step back (brought in the name of the Chazon Ish in the book Four Amot of Prayer, p. 50 and 363).
  
  
  If between him and the person reciting the Amidah stands a person who already finished his prayer, he is permitted to step backwards, since the one who already concluded his prayer constitutes a divider between them, even if the one dividing did not take three steps back yet.
  In times of need it is also permitted to be lenient when there is a partition that is at least ten tefachim (80 cm; 2.62 feet) high and at least four tefachim (32 cm; 12.598 inches) wide between him and the person reciting the Amidah. Those who wish to be lenient are permitted to regard the big permanent benches in the synagogues as a partition, since their height is at least ten tefachim.19<i class="footnote">A person is considered a divider, as explained in <em>Beit Baruch</em> 26:23, <em>Az Nidberu</em>, part 3, 45; part 6, 47, and <em>Ishei Yisrael</em> 29:9. Regarding a partition ten <em>tefachim</em> high, there are <em>poskim</em> who forbid it, since it is too low and the person reciting the<em> Amidah</em> is likely to see the person in front of him taking three steps back and become distracted, as implied in the <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 102:2. According to the <em>Eshel Avraham</em> 102, even if in front of him there is only a <em>shtender</em> (lectern) (which is not a valid partition), the person in front of him is permitted to step backwards or pass in front of the other praying behind him. He explains that this prohibition is based on the fact that the person reciting the<em> Amidah</em> behind him will be concerned that perhaps he will bump into him, but if there is a <em>shtender</em> between them, there is no such concern. This applies even more so in regard to a valid partition. The <em>Aruch HaShulchan</em> 102:13 writes that a partition can be used. Synagogue benches are sometimes open from the bottom, and if there is a space of more than 24 cm (9.45 inches, three <em>tefachim</em>), then they are not considered a divider. However, in general, when a person prays the <em>Amidah</em>, he usually puts his seat up, which leaves less than 24 cm between the bottom wooden board and the seat, and therefore it is considered to be a partition. Even when the space is larger than 24 cm (9.45 inches) and it is not considered to be a valid partition, according to the <em>Eshel Avraham</em>, since the person praying is not concerned that people will bump into him, one is permitted to step in front of him. One who wishes to be lenient is permitted to rely on his opinion. Even when the seat is a valid divider, it seems that it is not proper to sit directly in front of the person praying, for then the person praying will appear to be prostrating himself before him (as explained in halachah 17, note 15, of this chapter).</i>
  Regarding one who cannot step backwards because of the person reciting the Amidah behind him, although he has not yet separated from the Amidah, he is permitted to answer Amen and Baruch Hu u’varuch Shemo and to recite all the prayers. If the congregation reaches Tachanun, he is permitted to sit and recite it, on condition that he does not sit directly in front of the other’s face.15<i class="footnote">The <em>Ohel Mo’ed</em> is stringent, and there are those who do not take his opinion into consideration, as written in <em>Pri Chadash</em><em>Ben Ish Chai</em><em> Yitro</em> 6, writes that the custom is to act leniently, as writes <em>Yalkut Yosef</em> 102:2. However, many <em>Acharonim</em> are stringent, as both the <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 102:9 and <em>Kaf HaChaim</em> 10, write. Even to stand in front of him within his four <em>amot</em><em> l’chatchilah</em> is not proper, so he does not appear to be prostrating himself before him, see <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 102:8-9. The measure of approximately “within a person’s eyesight,” concerning the matter of getting up for a <em>talmid chacham</em>, is defined in the <em>Shach</em><em> Yoreh De’ah</em> 244:8 as 266 2/3 <em>amot</em> (approximately 128 meters; 419.95 feet). However, it seems that in any case in which the person reciting the <em>Amidah</em> does not appear to be bowing down to the person in front of him, either due to the distance between them or the conditions of the area, there is no need to be stringent.The <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 102:2 writes that if there is a partition with a height of 10 <em>tefachim</em> (80 cm; 31.49 inches) and a width of 4 <em>tefachim</em> (32 cm; 12.59 inches) between the person praying and himself, he may sit. Although a partition cannot be used to allow someone to pass by the person praying, since passing by will disturb his <em>kavanah</em>, sitting is nevertheless allowed, since for that, the partition is effective. According to the <em>Chayei Adam</em> and <em>Eshel Avraham</em><em>Butshatsh</em>), when there is a partition, one is even allowed to pass by the person praying. However, it seems that it is proper to be stringent regarding sitting directly in front of the person praying, so that he will not appear to be prostrating himself before him.I did not differentiate between the sides of a person and behind him. However, see <em>Beit Yosef</em> and <em>Darkei Moshe</em> who explain that some <em>poskim</em> rule that there is no prohibition against sitting behind a person praying, even within his four <em>amot</em>. Still, in practice, the <em>Acharonim</em> agree to forbid sitting behind him, as explained in the <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 102:3 and <em>Kaf HaChaim</em> 4.</i> After that, he stands again in his place and when the person praying behind him concludes his prayer, he can take three steps backwards and say Oseh shalom (Mishnah Berurah 122:4 and see 104:9; also see earlier in this chapter, halachah 13).
  
  Section 21
  
  The Amidah / Additional Details of Certain Laws
  As we have learned, l’chatchilah it is proper to be stringent like the opinion of the Magen Avraham, and refrain from taking three steps within the four amot in front of a person reciting the Amidah, even if the one praying is not directly behind him.
  However, there are times when a person prolonging his prayer becomes distracted from the thought that he is preventing the person in front of him from taking three steps backwards. When the person who is waiting senses that, it is best that he follow the opinion of the Eliyah Rabbah, who states that if the person praying is not directly behind him he may take three steps back.
  Similarly, one who usually prolongs his Amidah is permitted to request of the people praying in front of him not to wait for him until he finishes. Then they will be permitted to step backwards immediately upon the conclusion of their prayer. One who prays directly in front of him should walk back diagonally, so as not to step directly in front of him.20<i class="footnote">According to the <em>Eshel Avraham</em>’s approach, the entire prohibition is because of disturbance. Based on this, if the person praying knows that the delay he causes to the person praying before him bothers him more, he can ask him to please step back after he is finished praying and not wait for him to finish his prayer. If he steps at an angle in such a way that he does not come close to the person praying behind him, according to the <em>Chazon Ish</em> in his explanation of the <em>Eliyah Rabbah</em>, it is permissible. If possible, it is best that a partition be erected there, so that he can step backwards, in accordance with the opinion of most <em>poskim</em>. Nevertheless, if no arrangement was made ahead of time between the two people praying, and if the person who is extending his prayer finds it difficult to have <em>kavanah</em> since he is causing the person who is praying in front of him to wait, although he is in the middle of reciting the <em>Amidah</em>, he is permitted to hint to him that he may step backwards (based on the <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 104:1).</i>
  When someone reciting the Amidah is standing behind the chazan and the time for Chazarat HaShatz arrives, the chazan should practice according to the Eliyah Rabbah, who maintains that as long as he is not directly in front of him, he may step backwards. If he is directly in front of him, he should step back diagonally and then return to his place to repeat the Amidah.21<i class="footnote">If there are a few people reciting the <em>Amidah</em> behind the <em>chazan</em>, and even if he were to step back diagonally, he would step in front of a person praying, and the time to start the <em>Amidah</em> repetition has arrived, the <em>Acharonim</em> are divided as to what the <em>chazan</em> should do. <em>Aruch HaShulchan</em> 102:13 writes that concerning a <em>chazan</em> and a rabbi (for whom the congregation waits to finish), it is permissible for them to step in front of a person praying because of the trouble caused to the congregation by making them wait. Others say that they should wait until the person finishes. The opinion of the majority of <em>poskim</em> is that the <em>chazan</em> should start the <em>Amidah</em> without taking three steps back so as to avoid troubling the congregation.</i>
  In general, when a person knows that he tends to prolong his prayer, it is proper for him not to stand behind another and cause him anguish. Likewise, he should take care not to pray behind the chazan or the rabbi, and trouble them to wait for him (see earlier in this book 3:7 concerning the prohibition against praying behind one’s rabbi).
  Just as it is forbidden to pass in front of the person reciting the Amidah, one must also refrain from passing in front of the chazan during Chazarat HaShatz, and before someone who is reciting Kaddish (Kaf HaChaim 55:9).
  The Acharonim disagree as to whether or not the law regarding an adult, namely, that it is forbidden to step before him and sit within his four amot, also applies to a minor (see the book Four Amot of Prayer, pp. 254-257). Since this is a rabbinic ruling, the halachah follows the lenient opinions, yet those who are stringent enhance the mitzvah.
  
  
  
  
  
  Section 1
  
  Errors, Additions, and Omissions in the Amidah / Error, Omission, and Interruption in the Amidah
  A person who skips one of the eighteen berachot in the Amidah does not fulfill his obligation of the mitzvah of prayer. Even if he does actually recite the full Amidah, but rearranges the order of the berachot, he does not fulfill his obligation. This is because Anshei Knesset HaGedolah, who instituted the wording of prayer, meticulously established the order of the berachot of the Amidah and based their carefully selected words on verses of Scripture (Megillah 17b; Shulchan Aruch 119:3).
  Additionally, a person who makes a mistake in one of the berachot, such that it alters the essence of the berachah, is considered not to have recited that berachah at all. This holds true for one who omits the end of a berachah, or inserts words that do not belong at all, like requesting rain in the summer (Bei’ur Halachah 119:3).
  One who completes the Amidah and then remembers that he omitted words or erred in one of the berachot must repeat the entire Amidah. Even if he has not yet taken three steps back, if he finished the prayers of supplication and is about to take steps backwards, he must return to the beginning of the Amidah (Shulchan Aruch 117:5).
  If he has not yet concluded the Amidah and remembers that he omitted words or made a mistake in one of the thirteen middle berachot, he must return to that berachah and continue praying from that point on, in the correct order. Even though he repeats the berachot that he already recited, since everything after that berachah was not recited in order, it is as if he did not say them at all, and he must recite them again in their correct sequence.
  If one skips words or errs in one of the first three berachot, or in one of the last three berachot, he must go back to the beginning of them. Since the first three berachot possess one theme, as do the last three berachot, (see earlier in this book 17:10), each section is considered one unit. Therefore, anyone who makes a mistake in one berachah is considered to have erred in all of them and must repeat all three of them from the beginning (Berachot 34a; Rama 114:6).
  The law concerning a person who interrupts Shemoneh Esrei in the middle, whether with speech or silently, is as follows: if the interruption is short, he continues praying from the point at which he stopped. However, if the interruption is long, enough that he could have finished praying the entire Amidah from beginning to end, he returns to the start of the Amidah. Some say that there is no difference between an intentional interruption and one due to circumstances beyond his control. In either case, since there was enough time for him to finish the entire Amidah, he starts from the beginning (Shulchan Aruch 104:5). Others say that he only returns to the beginning of the Amidah if the interruption was due to circumstances beyond his control; however, if he interrupted willingly, even after a long interruption, he returns to pray from the place at which he stopped (Rama 65:1; Mishnah Berurah 104:16).1<i class="footnote">The <em>poskim</em> disagree as to what the law is concerning a person who purposely (<em>b’meizid</em>) talks in the middle of the <em>Amidah</em>. Some say (<em>Shulchan Aruch</em><em>Taz</em>, and <em>Kaf HaChaim</em> 104:33) that he is considered like anyone who interrupts in the middle of his prayer. Others say (<em>Bach</em><em>Magen Avraham</em>, and <em>Chayei Adam</em>) that since he interrupted intentionally, he rendered his prayer invalid and he must return to the beginning of the<em> Amidah</em>. See also <em>Bei’ur Halachah</em> 104:6.</i>
  
  Section 2
  
  Errors, Additions, and Omissions in the Amidah / Additions Pertaining to Particular Days
  On special days, prayers that pertain to that specific day are added. There are additions that, if forgotten, prevent one’s fulfillment of his obligation, and there are additions that l’chatchilah must be recited, but b’dieved, if not included, do not prevent a person from fulfilling his obligation.
  On Chol HaMo’ed Pesach and Sukkot, the Ya’aleh V’Yavo prayer is added in Birkat Retzeh. If a person forgets to say it, he must repeat the Amidah. If he did not finish the Amidah yet, he goes back to Retzeh, recites Ya’aleh V’Yavo, and from there continues on until the end of the Amidah. Similarly, we recite Ya’aleh V’Yavo on Rosh Chodesh. If it was omitted in Shacharit or Minchah, the Amidah must be repeated. However, if forgotten in Ma’ariv of Rosh Chodesh, it is not recited again, because when the new month was sanctified in Jerusalem based on the testimony of witnesses, there was no sanctification at night. Therefore, the sanctity of Rosh Chodesh does not yet apply in Ma’ariv (Shulchan Aruch 422:1).
  On Motza’ei Shabbat we add the Havdalah wording in Birkat Attah Chonen of the Amidah. If forgotten, it is not repeated since the person praying will fulfill his obligation afterwards, in the Havdalah ceremony performed over wine (Shulchan Aruch 294:1).
  On Chanukah and Purim, Al HaNisim is added in Birkat HaHoda’ah. If a person forgets to recite it, he does not go back, since these holidays are rabbinic. Therefore, forgetting to mention them in the Amidah does not prevent one from fulfilling his obligation (Shulchan Aruch 682:1).
  On fast days, individuals add Aneinu in the berachah of Shome’a Tefillah. Ashkenazim only recite it in Minchah (Rama 565:3). Sephardim recite it throughout the whole fast: on Tish’ah B’Av – in Ma’ariv, Shacharit, and Minchah; on the other fast days – in Shacharit and Minchah (Kaf HaChaim 565:17). Some are accustomed to reciting it in Ma’ariv on all fast days (Rav Rakach, Maharitz). According to all minhagim, one who forgets to say Aneinu does not repeat the Amidah.
  During the Ten Days of Repentance, which are days of judgment, for during that time Hashem’s Kingdom is revealed in the world, we conclude the third berachah with the words, “HaMelech HaKadosh,” and conclude Birkat Hashivah Shofteinu with the words, “HaMelech HaMishpat.” If one mistakenly says “HaKel HaKadosh” in the third berachah and does not correct himself as he recites it (toch k’dei dibur), he must return to the beginning of the Amidah since, as we already learned, the first three berachot are considered one unit and anyone who makes a mistake in one of them must go back to the beginning. If a person accidentally concludes Birkat Hashivah Shofteinu as usual, “Melech ohev tzedakah u’mishpat” and does not correct himself while reciting it (toch k’dei dibur), according to the custom of Ashkenazim and some Sephardim, b’dieved he fulfills his obligation, because even in the wording recited throughout the whole year, the word “Melech” (King) is used (Rama 118:1; Ben Ish Chai, Nitzavim 19; Kaf HaChaim 1). Other Sephardim maintain that he does not fulfill his obligation because he did not recite the High Holy Days wording. Therefore, if he has not yet finished his Amidah, he must return to Birkat Hashivah Shofteinu, conclude it appropriately, and continue from there until the end of the Amidah. If he already finished reciting the Amidah, he must pray again, while stipulating that if he was not obligated to repeat the prayer, the second prayer is considered voluntary (nedavah) (Shulchan Aruch 118:1; Yechaveh Da’at 1:57).
  There are four other additions made during the Ten Days of Repentance: “Zochreinu,” “Mi Kamocha,” “U’chetov,” and “B’Sefer Chaim.” If any of them are forgotten, the Amidah is not repeated (Shulchan Aruch 582:5).
  If a person accidentally recites Ya’aleh V’Yavo, Zochreinu, or Al HaNisim on a regular weekday, he must go back to the beginning of the berachah. If he already went on to the next berachah, he continues despite his mistake.2<i class="footnote">Some <em>poskim</em> say that since he recited words that do not belong there at all, he must go back to the beginning of the <em>berachah</em> in which he made the mistake. If he erred in the first three or last three <em>berachot</em>, he returns to the beginning of them. However, if he already finished the <em>Amidah</em>, he must start the <em>Shemoneh Esrei</em> again. This is on condition that he recited an outright falsity, such as in <em>Ya’aleh V’Yavo</em>, the words “<em>b’Yom Rosh HaChodesh hazeh</em>” or in “<em>Zochreinu l’Chaim</em>”, the words “<em>v’kotveinu</em>,” when it is not the time of inscription (<em>ketivah</em>). However, if he only recited the beginning of <em>Ya’aleh V’Yavo</em> or such similar additions, it is not considered an interruption and he continues praying. That is what the <em>Knesset HaGedolah</em><em>Pri Chadash</em>, and <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 108:37-38 write. In contrast, the <em>Shulchan Aruch</em> 108:12 maintains that even if one said, “<em>b’Yom Rosh HaChodesh hazeh</em>” or other similar words, even though it is incorrect, it is not considered an interruption. A number of prominent <em>Acharonim</em> agree with him, among them, <em>Magen Avraham</em> 693:1 and <em>Da’at Torah</em> 668, as well as <em>Kaf HaChaim</em> 108:58. However, in practice, perhaps it is possible to say that even according to the <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> one does not repeat other <em>berachot</em> for such a mistake. Only if he did not finish the <em>berachah</em> in which he erred does he go back to the beginning of it, but if he already finished, he does not repeat it. The same holds true for the first or last three <em>berachot</em>; he does not return to the beginning of all of them, rather only to the beginning of the specific <em>berachah</em> in which he made the mistake. Therefore, in practice, it is not clear that he disagrees with the <em>Shulchan Aruch</em> concerning a mistaken addition which requires reciting another <em>berachah</em>, as I have written above.</i>
  
  Section 3
  
  Errors, Additions, and Omissions in the Amidah / The Voluntary Prayer (Tefillat Nedavah) and Laws in Situations of Uncertainty
  The Chachamim instituted three daily prayers: Shacharit, corresponding to the morning Tamid offering; Minchah, corresponding to the Tamid of the afternoon; and Ma’ariv, corresponding to the raising of the organs and fats upon the altar. Just as when the Temple existed and every individual was permitted to bring voluntary offerings, so too, an individual is permitted to recite an additional voluntary Shemoneh Esrei. In order for his prayer to be recognized as voluntary, he must add some sort of special personal request in that prayer. We do not offer a Musaf offering voluntarily, therefore, one may not recite Musaf voluntarily. And just as we do not offer voluntary offerings on Shabbatot and festivals, so too, there are no voluntary prayers on those days (Shulchan Aruch 107:1-2). Anyone who wants to say a voluntary prayer must be certain that he is careful and capable of having kavanah in his prayer from beginning to end. If he cannot concentrate well, it is best that he does not recite a voluntary prayer at all (Shulchan Aruch 107:4). Nowadays, the accepted teaching is that we do not recite voluntary prayers because we do not have the proper kavanah.
  One who is uncertain as to whether or not he recited one of the three daily prayers, as long as the time for its recital has not yet passed, he recites the prayer and makes a stipulation in his heart. He thinks, “If I already prayed, this prayer is considered a voluntary prayer, and if not, this is an obligatory prayer.” It is unnecessary to introduce any personal requests into that Amidah, since the fact that he is avoiding uncertainty is itself the innovation. Even though we do not recite voluntary prayers nowadays, we are permitted to do so in order to avoid uncertainty. If, in the middle of that Amidah, one remembers that he already prayed, he continues to recite the Amidah until the end and adds a personal request to illustrate that it is, indeed, a voluntary prayer. This is allowed because he made a stipulation in the beginning of his prayer explaining that his Amidah should be considered voluntary if, in fact, he already prayed.
  If a person starts to pray on the basis that his prayer is obligatory, thinking that he did not yet pray, but suddenly remembers in the middle of his Amidah that he already did, he must stop immediately. His prayer cannot become voluntary, for just like there is no offering that is partly obligatory and partly voluntary, so too, there is no prayer that begins as obligatory and ends as voluntary (Shulchan Aruch 107:1).
  One who is daydreaming in the middle of his prayer to the point where he is unsure what part of the Amidah he is reciting, for instance, a person who is pondering whether he is reciting the sixth berachah or the tenth, according to most poskim, in order to avoid uncertainty he must return to the sixth berachah and start to pray from that point on.3<i class="footnote">ccording to the <em>Chayei Adam</em> 24:21, he starts from the <em>berachah</em> that he knows for certain he has not yet recited. However, most <em>poskim</em> maintain that he must continue after the last <em>berachah</em> that he clearly remembers saying, so that there will be no doubt as to whether or not he skipped one of the <em>berachot</em>. This is what is written in <em>Kaf HaChaim</em> 119:20, <em>Yabia Omer</em> 2:9, and <em>Yalkut Yosef</em>, part 1, p. 206.</i>
  
  Section 4
  
  Errors, Additions, and Omissions in the Amidah / Mentioning and Asking for Rain
  In the winter season, we mention rain twice in the Amidah. In the beginning, we mention rain in our praise of Hashem Who causes rain to fall; afterwards, we ask Hashem to bless us with dew and rain.
  In the second berachah of the Amidah, Mechayei HaMeitim, we praise the One “Who makes the wind blow and the rain fall,” (“Mashiv haru’ach u’morid hagashem”). Chazal instituted mentioning the praise of rain in this particular berachah because rain gives life to the world.
  In the ninth berachah, Birkat HaShanim, we request rain. According to the Sephardic minhag, the entire wording of Birkat HaShanim changes from winter to summer: in the winter we start with “Barech Aleinu” and in the summer we start with “Barcheinu Hashem Elokeinu.” According to the Ashkenazic minhag, the wording of Birkat HaShanim in the summer and in the winter is identical, with the exception of the words “v’ten tal u’matar” in the winter, and “v’ten berachah” in the summer.
  Although both the mention of rain and the request for it are recited in the winter, there is a difference between them. The mention of rain is recited at the appropriate season for rain, whereas the prayer for rain is only recited when we actually want rain to start falling.
  The mention of rain begins on the holiday of Shemini Atzeret. Conceivably, rain could be mentioned from the beginning of Sukkot, since from then on, the period of rain begins. However, because rain is considered to be a sign of a curse on the holiday of Sukkot, for we cannot fulfill the mitzvah of sitting in the sukkah when it is raining, we therefore do not mention it then. Chazal chose the Musaf prayer of Shemini Atzeret as the point at which we begin to mention rain, for then the whole community comes to synagogue and the announcement of its recital can be made in the presence of everyone. Ma’ariv was not chosen because not everyone comes to synagogue for the Ma’ariv prayer. Likewise, it cannot be announced before reciting the Amidah of Shacharit because we are prohibited from interrupting between redemption and prayer (Beit Yosef and Shulchan Aruch, Orach Chaim 114:1-2).
  However, the beginning of the request for rain was delayed fifteen days to the seventh night of the month of MarCheshvan. This is so that the last of the people returning home to the area of the Euphrates River from a Sukkot pilgrimage to the Temple in Jerusalem, would arrive without encountering rain on their way (Shulchan Aruch 117:1). Even after the destruction of Jerusalem, this custom was not abolished, since any minhag that reminds us of the great days of the Temple is cherished. Only after the Temple is rebuilt will the Sanhedrin be able to determine whether or not to change the time that we start asking for rain, taking into consideration contemporary means of transportation.
  We continue to mention rain until the first day of Pesach; in Shacharit we still mention rain, but in Musaf we start mentioning dew. Regarding the request for rain, since the request is only made on weekdays, it turns out that the last time we ask for rain is in Minchah of Erev Pesach.
  
  Section 5
  
  Errors, Additions, and Omissions in the Amidah / The Law Regarding Errors in the Mention and Request for Rain
  One who unintentionally mentions rain in the summer must go back and correct his mistake, since there is no praise in mentioning rain at that time. If he did not yet finish the berachah, he goes back to the beginning of it and says “Morid hatal,” as should be recited in the summer. If he already finished the berachah, he must start the Amidah again from the beginning in order to recite it properly, since the first three berachot are considered one unit (Shulchan Aruch 114:4).
  One who mistakenly did not mention rain in the winter but instead mentioned dew, like we say in the summer, “Morid hatal,” need not repeat it since he recited some sort of praise relating to water. However, if he did not mention dew either, he must go back and repeat the entire Amidah, since he omitted such important words of praise (Shulchan Aruch 114:5).
  One who incorrectly requests rain in the summer: since he made an inappropriate request in Birkat HaShanim, he must go back and correct it. Therefore, if he did not finish his Amidah yet, he returns to Birkat HaShanim, recites it properly, and continues in order from there until the end of the Amidah. If he already finished the Amidah, he recites the Amidah again properly from the beginning (Shulchan Aruch 117:3).
  If, by mistake, one did not request rain in the winter, it depends how much of the Amidah he already recited. If he did not yet reach Birkat Shome’a Tefillah, he continues his prayer and when he arrives at Birkat Shome’a Tefillah, in which one is permitted to make any request, he asks for rain, thereby correcting his mistake. However, if he already passed Birkat Shome’a Tefillah, he missed the place in which he is able to correct himself and lost all the berachot that he recited after Birkat HaShanim. He must return to Birkat HaShanim, recite it in accordance with the halachah, and from then on continue to pray in the proper order. If he already finished the Amidah and was prepared to take three steps back, his prayer is considered insufficient since he did not request rain, and it must be repeated in the proper manner (Shulchan Aruch 117:4-5).
  
  Section 6
  
  Errors, Additions, and Omissions in the Amidah / Advice Against Mistakes
  The most frequent mistake made in the Amidah concerns the mention of, and the request for rain, because the wording is switched bi-annually. Throughout half the year, we become accustomed to a certain wording and tend to continue even though the time has come to change. As we learned, in three out of four possible errors regarding the request and mention of rain, we are obligated to repeat the prayer (see note 4).
  If a person is uncertain as to whether or not he recited the correct words, as long as thirty days have not passed since the change in wording, in the beginning of the summer or winter, we assume that he most likely erred, since he is still in the habit of using the earlier wording. If his mistake is one of the three that necessitate a repetition, he must go back and pray correctly. However, if thirty days already passed, when people become accustomed to the change in wording; we can assume that he most likely recited the correct wording, and he does not need to repeat the Amidah.
  In order to be spared this uncertainty, following which it is necessary to go back and repeat the prayer, it is best that every person accustom himself to the new wording on the day of the change by repeating it ninety times, so that his tongue will get into the habit of reciting the new wording and he will not err. In that way, even if the person is in doubt whether or not he recited the proper wording, the assumption is that he must have recited it correctly, since he already trained his tongue ninety times to say it in accordance with the halachah. Hence, it is unnecessary to repeat his prayer. (Shulchan Aruch 114:8-9).
  Therefore, when the seventh night of Cheshvan arrives, according to the Sephardic minhag, which maintains that the nusach of the entire paragraph requesting rain changes, one should accustom himself to opening the berachah properly by reciting “Rofei cholei Amo Yisrael, Barech aleinu” ninety times. According to the minhag of the Ashkenazim, he says, “v’et kol minei tevuatah l’tovah, v’ten tal u’matar livrachah.” Some six months later, when he arrives at the Musaf service of the first day of Pesach, he says, “Mechayei meitim Attah rav lehoshia, Morid hatal” ninety times. On motza’ei chag before Ma’ariv of Chol HaMo’ed, according to the Sephardic minhag he says, “Rofei cholei Amo Yisrael, Barcheinu” and according to the Ashkenazic minhag, “v’et kol mini tevuatah l’tovah, v’ten berachah” (Mishnah Berurah 114:40; Kaf HaChaim 60).4<i class="footnote">owever, if he makes a mistake concerning the mention of rain in the period of transition from summer to winter, he does not need to repeat the <em>Amidah</em>, for as we learned, even if he did not say “<em>Mashiv haru’ach u’morid hagashem</em>,” but he mentioned dew, he fulfilled his obligation. Therefore, because “<em>Morid hatal</em>” (concerning dew) is recited in the summer, then even if he recited the summer wording, he fulfilled his obligation. (Although the <em>Rama</em> 114:3 writes that “<em>Morid hatal</em>” is not said in the summer, in Israel the Ashkenazic<em> minhag</em> is to say it.) However, in the transition period from winter to summer, if he erred, he invalidated his prayer, because that would mean he said “<em>Morid hagashem</em>” (regarding rain) in the summer. Any mistake a person makes concerning the request for rain renders his prayer invalid. To summarize, in three out of the four possibilities of error, it is necessary to repeat one’s prayer.</i>
  
  Section 7
  
  Errors, Additions, and Omissions in the Amidah / The Law Outside of Israel
  The Chachamim postponed the commencement of the request for rain in Babylonia (Bavel) until the sixtieth day of the winter season (which comes out to be the 4 or 5 of December). This is because there is an abundance of water from the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, and therefore it is unnecessary to request rain in that area at the very beginning of winter. All people living outside of Israel follow the custom of Babylonia, and start asking for rain starting from the sixtieth day of the season (Shulchan Aruch 117:1).5<i class="footnote">In the countries closest to Israel, in which the climates are dry and more water is needed, it is customary to begin to request rain at the same time people in Israel do, on the eve of the seventh of Cheshvan. That is the custom even in far-away countries where the climate is similar to that of Israel, such as Djerba (<em>Yalkut Yosef</em> 117:4).</i>
  Regarding a person residing in Israel who leaves the country for a few months, there is disagreement. Some say that he should request rain as they do in Israel, for that is his home (Pri Chadash). Others say that he should request rain according to the custom of the place where he is (Birkei Yosef). In any situation of uncertainty, one should request rain in the berachah of Shome’a Tefillah and not in Birkat HaShanim, thereby fulfilling his obligation according to all opinions. See the note for details of the halachah.6<i class="footnote">The dispute of the <em>Acharonim</em> is explained in the <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 117:5. <em>Kaf HaChaim</em> 11 tends to agree with the opinion of the <em>Birkei Yosef</em> who maintains that one requests rain as they do in the place where he is at that time. Many mention the advice that one should make his request in <em>Shome’a Tefillah</em> (<em>Tefillah KeHilchatah</em> p. 235; <em>Yalkut Yosef</em> 117:15; <em>Ishei Yisrael</em> 23:37). In that way, he fulfills his obligation according to all, since even when there is an obligation to ask for rain, the request can be made up in <em>Shome’a Tefillah</em> if missed, and on the other hand, even if it is not the proper time to make such a request, if he asked for rain in <em>Shome’a Tefillah</em>, he need not repeat his prayer.Details of certain laws: An Israeli who leaves the country: 1) If he leaves before the seventh of Cheshvan, he asks for rain in <em>Shome’a Tefillah</em> starting from the seventh of Cheshvan. 2) If he leaves after the seventh of Cheshvan, since he already began requesting rain, he continues to do so in <em>Birkat HaShanim</em> (<em>Kaf HaChaim</em> 13, in the name of <em>Kesher Shel Gudal</em>). 3) If he leaves with his family for more than a year, he is considered at that time to be a resident of a different country and he follows the custom there.A person from a different country who comes to Israel: it is better that he practices like those in Israel, and therefore if he intends to return to his country after the day on which it is necessary to start requesting rain there, he requests rain as those in Israel do. If he intends to return before the day that it is necessary to start requesting rain there, some say he makes his request in Shome’a Tefillah. Others say that he requests as they do in Israel. When he returns to his country, he does not need to continue the request for rain, but it is good to do so in Shome’a Tefillah (Yalkut Yosef 117:17).In all these laws, it seems that if one erred and practiced according to one of the outlined opinions (and did not make his request in Shome’a Tefillah), he need not repeat his prayer. Concerning a chazan, even if he requests rain in Shome’a Tefillah in his silent Amidah, he prays the repetition according to the custom of the place in which he resides, because it is a prayer on behalf of the congregation (Ishei Yisrael 23:39).</i>
  In places that require rain in the spring, the request for rain in Birkat HaShanim should not be continued after Pesach. Instead, the law concerning those places resembles the law of individuals; the people in those areas pray for rain in Birkat Shome’a Tefillah in which every person may add his own personal requests (Shulchan Aruch 117:2).7<i class="footnote">If he mistakenly requested rain in <em>Birkat HaShanim</em> in a place that needs rain after Pesach, according to the <em>Shulchan Aruch</em> 117:2 he must repeat his prayer with a stipulation that if the halachah follows the <em>Rosh</em>’s reasoning, then it would be permitted for the residents of that place to ask for rain in <em>Birkat HaShanim</em> and, indeed, this prayer is a voluntary prayer (<em>tefillat</em> <em>nedavah</em>). According to the <em>Rama</em>, <em>b’dieved</em> he is not obligated to repeat the <em>Amidah</em>. If he realized in the middle of his prayer that he requested rain in <em>Birkat HaShanim</em> at the wrong time, the <em>Yabia Omer</em>, part 2, <em>Orach Chaim</em> 9:17, based on the <em>Shulchan Aruch</em>, writes that he must immediately go back and correct his mistake. However, according to the <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 10, since <em>b’dieved</em> he fulfills his obligation even after saying it, he concludes his prayer and if he wishes to repeat his prayer, he prays another <em>Amidah</em> as a voluntary prayer. The <em>Kaf HaChaim</em> 25 writes that he finishes his prayer and afterwards recites another voluntary<em> Amidah</em>.</i>
  People living in countries south of the equator, such as Argentina, Brazil, and Australia, also request rain when it is winter in Israel. Despite the fact that it is summer in those countries at that time, since Israel is the center of the Jewish world, Jews everywhere follow its custom and make the request for rain according to winter in Israel.
  However, in places where the rain causes damage in the summer, the people do not practice the minhag of Israel, so as not to request something that is harmful for them. Instead, all year round they recite the wording of the summer in Birkat HaShanim, and request rain in Shome’a Tefillah. During their winter they should have in mind the place in which they live, and during Israel’s winter they should think of Israel.8<i class="footnote">The distinction between normal circumstances in which we follow the custom of Israel, and a situation in which the rain causes damage, is clarified in <em>Torat Chaim</em> 3:7; <em>Kaf HaChaim</em> 117:17, and <em>Ishei Yisrael</em> 23:42. <em>Or L’Tzion</em>, part 2, 30 writes that even when the rain causes damage to a certain place, it is good that the people there request rain for Israel during their summer.</i>
  One traveling from Israel, or the northern countries to visit those areas should continue requesting rain according to the winter of Israel, even if the rain causes damage there (She’arim Metzuyanim BaHalachah 19:3).
  
  Section 8
  
  Errors, Additions, and Omissions in the Amidah / Making Up a Forgotten Prayer
  A person who forgot to pray, or did not pray due to circumstances beyond his control, must make up the missed prayer. If he forgot to pray Shacharit, he makes it up after Minchah. First he prays Minchah, and after the last Kaddish, he recites the Amidah again to make up for the missed Shacharit. If he wishes to pray the supplementary prayer together with the Amidah repetition, he is permitted to do so; however, he must be careful to pause between the two recitals of the Amidah for at least the amount of time that it takes to walk the distance of four amot.
  If one forgets to pray Minchah, he makes it up after Ma’ariv. Following the last Kaddish, he recites the Amidah again as a supplementary prayer for the missed Minchah. If he forgets to pray Ma’ariv, he makes it up after Shacharit; either he prays the supplementary Ma’ariv Amidah together with the Amidah repetition, or he recites it after the last Kaddish of Shacharit.9<i class="footnote">The <em>Acharonim</em> disagree as to whether or not it is permissible to fulfill one’s obligation of a supplementary prayer (<em>tashlumim</em>) by hearing the <em>chazan</em>’s repetition of the <em>Amidah</em>. According to the <em>Pri Megadim</em> and the <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 108:5, since it is an obligation to pray a supplementary <em>Amidah</em>, one who knows how to pray by himself cannot fulfill his obligation by hearing the repetition. According to the <em>Chida</em>, it is permissible to fulfill one’s obligation of the supplementary <em>Ma’ariv Amidah</em> by hearing the <em>Shacharit</em><em>Amidah</em> repetition, since in essence <em>Ma’ariv</em> is optional. That is also how <em>Kaf HaChaim</em> 108:6 rules, but he adds that a verification must be made that the <em>chazan</em>, indeed, has <em>kavanah</em> to fulfill the obligation of those who are listening to his repetition, as written in <em>Yalkut Yosef</em> 108:7. The <em>Mishnah Berurah</em>, too, is lenient <em>b’dieved</em>, and rules that if a person has <em>kavanah</em> to fulfill his obligation of a supplementary <em>Ma’ariv</em> in the <em>Amidah</em> repetition of <em>Shacharit</em>, he does fulfill it. <em>Aruch HaShulchan</em> 108:16 is completely lenient, meaning that in the <em>Amidah</em> repetition of <em>Minchah</em> as well, one can fulfill his obligation if he missed the <em>Shacharit</em> prayer. Regarding the <em>chazan</em> himself, everyone agrees that the <em>Amidah</em> repetition that he recites can effectively be considered as his supplementary prayer (<em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 108:4).It seems that when the <em>Shulchan Aruch</em> 108:2 writes that a person prays again after <em>Shacharit</em>, he is referring specifically to one who is praying individually. However, if he is praying in a <em>minyan</em>, it is preferable that he prays his supplementary prayer together with the <em>chazan</em>’s <em>Amidah</em> repetition or after the last <em>Kaddish</em>, for if he does not, he loses out on responding to some of the <em>Kaddishim</em> as well as reciting<em> Kedushah d’Sidra</em>.</i>
  Whoever forgets to recite a supplementary prayer after the obligatory Amidah can b’dieved make it up during the entire time specified to recite that prayer. This means that if one does not pray a supplementary prayer for Minchah immediately after Ma’ariv, he can b’dieved make it up until chatzot (halachic midnight), since l’chatchilah that is the last possible time to pray Ma’ariv. There are those who say that b’dieved it can be made up even until amud hashachar. If one did not pray the supplementary prayer for Ma’ariv immediately after he recited the Amidah for Shacharit, he can b’dieved make it up until the conclusion of four hours. If he did not pray the supplementary prayer for Shacharit immediately after the Minchah Amidah, he can b’dieved make it up until bein hashemashot (see Mishnah Berurah 108:15; Kaf HaChaim 11). He should not wait until the end of the time to pray. Instead, he should stand and pray immediately upon remembering that he missed the supplementary prayer so as not to lengthen the interval between the obligatory prayer and the supplementary prayer. Even if he began to eat, he must immediately stop eating and pray the supplementary prayer (Mishnah Berurah 108:10).
  The person praying must be careful to pray the supplementary prayer after the obligatory one. If he intended to recite the first prayer as supplementary and the second as obligatory, he did not fulfill his obligation of the supplementary prayer, and he must pray a third Amidah in order to make up for the forgotten prayer. For instance, if a person forgot to pray Minchah on Shabbat, and on Motza’ei Shabbat in the Amidah of Ma’ariv he did not recite the Havdalah wording, “Attah Chonantanu,” having in mind that it is for the supplementary Minchah, whereas in his second Amidah he did recite the Havdalah wording, he must repeat the supplementary prayer for Minchah. However, if he mistakenly forgot to say Attah Chonantanu in the first Amidah and then remembers in the second Amidah and recites it, since he intended the first Amidah to be for Ma’ariv and the second to be as a supplement for Minchah, he fulfilled his obligation.10<i class="footnote">he majority of <em>poskim</em> maintain that everything depends on the person’s <em>kavanah</em> (<em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 108:28, unlike the <em>Taz</em>). The <em>Magen Avraham</em> and <em>Taz</em> are doubtful concerning a case in which a person has <em>kavanah</em> in the first <em>Amidah</em> for <em>tashlumim</em> and the second one as an obligation, but he did not recite <em>Attah Chonantanu</em> and lacks tangible proof that he prayed the second <em>Amidah</em> as the obligatory prayer. Therefore, perhaps he does not need to repeat his prayer. Nevertheless, the opinion of the <em>Shulchan Aruch</em> and most <em>poskim</em> is that he must repeat the <em>Amidah</em>, and that is the halachah. It is best that he make a stipulation that if he is not obligated to recite this prayer, his prayer is considered voluntary (<em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 108:7; <em>Yalkut Yosef</em>, part 1, p. 214).</i>
  
  Section 9
  
  Errors, Additions, and Omissions in the Amidah / In What Situations Are Supplementary Prayers Not Recited?
  The Chachamim instituted the recital of a supplementary prayer solely to make up for the preceding prayer that was missed. Therefore, one who missed both Shacharit and Minchah, due to circumstances beyond his control, prays a supplementary prayer after Ma’ariv for Minchah alone. If he desires, he may pray an additional voluntary prayer for the Shacharit that he missed (Shulchan Aruch 108:4-5), although nowadays we are not accustomed to praying voluntary prayers.11<i class="footnote">According to the <em>Rambam</em><em>Rosh</em><em>Talmidei Rabbeinu Yonah</em><em>Rashbam</em>, and <em>Shulchan Aruch</em>, it is only permissible to make up the last prayer. Others say that he may make up all the prayers that he missed, as writes the <em>Rashba</em> and “<em>yesh omrim</em>” in <em>Talmidei Rabbeinu Yonah</em>. The <em>Shulchan Aruch</em> writes that it is good to make up all the prayers as voluntary (<em>tefillat nedavah</em>). However, since today we are not accustomed to praying voluntary prayers, it seems that only one who is certain that he will have the proper <em>kavanah</em> may pray a voluntary prayer to make up a missed <em>Amidah</em></i>
  One who forgot to recite Musaf cannot make it up since the Musaf offerings are only brought on specific days. Similarly, one who forgot to pray Shacharit on a day that Musaf is recited, even though we learned that one must make up the prayer in the Amidah immediately following it, the Musaf prayer does not count and one must make up Shacharit after Minchah.
  Someone who intentionally (b’meizid) missed one of the prayers cannot make it up. The Rishonim write that if he wants, he may recite it as a voluntary prayer (Shulchan Aruch 108:7). However, we already learned that today we are not accustomed to praying voluntary prayers, since one who does must be sure that he can concentrate throughout the whole prayer, from beginning to end (Kaf HaChaim 108:31).
  Nonetheless, one who did not recite Minchah or Ma’ariv when he still had the chance, thinking that after he finished the matter occupying his attention, time for prayer would remain, but was ultimately drawn into what he was doing, while the time to pray passed, is not considered to have purposely negated his prayer and must make it up after the next one. The law regarding a person who started to eat before praying, with the thought that he would have time to pray afterwards, but eventually forgot, is similar. Despite the fact that he started to eat when it was forbidden (earlier in this book 12:6-7; 24:6; 25:9), since he did not contemptuously cancel his prayer, he makes it up after the next one (Shulchan Aruch 108:8). However, consider the case of a person engaged in a game, such as soccer, who was called to go pray lest the proper time pass. Out of his enthusiasm for the game, he said, “Just one more minute,” and continued to play. Meanwhile, the time to pray passed. In such a case, he cannot make up his prayer. Were it not for the game, he would have been more than happy to pray. Nevertheless, since he knew for certain that the time to pray was about to lapse, he is, indeed, deemed one who scornfully neglected his prayer.
  
  Section 10
  
  Errors, Additions, and Omissions in the Amidah / Additional Laws and Cases of Uncertainty
  One who forgot to recite Minchah on Erev Shabbat must pray the Ma’ariv Shabbat Amidah twice, the first for Ma’ariv and the second for the Minchah that he missed. Even though that Minchah was supposed to be a weekday Amidah comprised of eighteen berachot, nevertheless, since the time to make it up falls on Shabbat, the wording of the Shabbat prayer is recited (Shulchan Aruch 108:9).
  One who forgot to recite Ya’aleh V’Yavo in Minchah of Rosh Chodesh did not fulfill his obligation. If the following day is a second day of Rosh Chodesh, clearly he must pray a supplementary prayer after Ma’ariv for the missed Minchah and in both recite Ya’aleh V’Yavo. However, if the evening already begins a regular day, there is doubt concerning this issue. On the one hand, if the whole problem is that he did not mention Ya’aleh V’Yavo in Minchah, how would it help to pray another Amidah after Ma’ariv without Ya’aleh V’Yavo? On the other hand, he did not fulfill his obligation for Minchah, since at that time it was Rosh Chodesh and he failed to recite Ya’aleh V’Yavo, whereas if he were to pray a supplementary prayer he would fulfill his obligation because he would recite the appropriate prayers for that specific time. In practice, the ruling is that one is to recite Ma’ariv twice and make a stipulation that if he is not obligated to make up the missed prayer, the additional prayer he is praying should be considered voluntary. There is no need to introduce any new personal requests at this time.
  The ruling is similar to the law regarding one who errs on Shabbat and instead of reciting Minchah of Shabbat recites the weekday wording without mentioning the sanctity of Shabbat. The law in that case requires that he recite two weekday Amidahs on Motza’ei Shabbat with a stipulation that if he is not obligated to make up the prayer, the additional prayer he is praying should be considered voluntary (Shulchan Aruch 108:11).
  
  
  
  
  
  Section 1
  
  The Chazan’s Repetition of the Amidah / The Enactment of the Amidah Repetition (Chazarat HaShatz)
  Anshei Knesset HaGedolah established that after individuals finish reciting the silent Shemoneh Esrei, the chazan repeats the Amidah out loud in order to fulfill the obligation of prayer for those who do not know how to pray by themselves (Rosh HaShanah 34b). This repetition is known as Chazarat HaShatz. However, for Ma’ariv, they did not institute an Amidah repetition since, in essence, Ma’ariv is an optional prayer (although nowadays it is an obligatory prayer, as explained further in this book 25:2) and consequently, there is no need to fulfill the obligation for those who are not well-versed in the passages of the prayer service.
  The Chachamim instituted that the chazan also prays the silent Amidah in order to organize the prayer in his mind. Additionally, they instructed that even those who know how to pray by themselves listen to Chazarat HaShatz and answer Amen after the berachot.
  Because the Amidah repetition was enacted by Chazal, it must be recited even in a minyan in which all the people know how to pray by themselves. Even after it became permissible to put Torah Sheb’al Peh (the Oral Torah) into writing, including the wording of the prayers, and though the use of siddurim has become common, the enactment of the Chachamim did not change. Moreover, today, when one rarely finds a minyan where someone needs to fulfill his obligation with Chazarat HaShatz, it is nevertheless recited, for the rule is that once the Chachamim enact a law, distinctions are not made between cases in which the law applies, and those in which it does not (Shulchan Aruch 124:3, based on the responsa of the Rambam). Further, the Chachamim instituted reciting Kedushah and Birkat Kohanim in the repetition, and if the Amidah is not repeated, they will not be recited altogether (Tur).
  The Kabbalah clarifies that in addition to the simple explanation of why both the Amidah and its repetition are necessary, namely, to fulfill the obligation of one who is not proficient in the wording of the prayers, there is a sublime reason according to the secrets of Torah (sod), that the recital of both prayers together causes them to be more effective. Therefore, even today, when there is no need to fulfill the obligation of one who is not well-versed in prayer, the chazan must still recite the Chazarat HaShatz, for the hidden reason still stands.
  It is a great privilege to answer Amen to the berachot of the Amidah repetition. Even learning Torah is forbidden at that time (see Kaf HaChaim 124:2 and 16). The virtue of the Amidah repetition is greater than the virtue of the silent Amidah. Therefore, although the themes of the Amidah are supremely recondite, permission is granted to recite it aloud. Due to its profound virtue, there is no concern that forces of impurity will take hold of it. The listeners must refrain from invalidating it by talking. It is said of one who chatters during Chazarat HaShatz “that he is sinning, and his transgression is too great to bear; therefore he must be rebuked” (Shulchan Aruch 124:7).
  
  Section 2
  
  The Chazan’s Repetition of the Amidah / Who May Fulfill His Obligation by Hearing the Amidah Repetition?
  Three conditions must exist in order for an individual to be able to fulfill his obligation of prayer by hearing the Amidah repetition.
  1) The individual must not be proficient in prayer. By contrast, one who knows how to pray is obligated to pray and beg for mercy on his own behalf; he cannot fulfill his obligation just by listening to the chazan. A person who can only pray with a siddur, and has arrived at a place where there are no siddurim, may, at that time, fulfill his obligation by hearing the chazan.
  2) There must be ten men present, because the Chachamim instituted that individuals are only permitted to fulfill their obligation by hearing the chazan in the presence of a minyan.
  3) The listener must understand the chazan’s words. One who does not understand Hebrew cannot fulfill his obligation of prayer by listening to Chazarat HaShatz.
  Even though a person who knows how to pray is not allowed to fulfill his obligation with the Amidah repetition, if he already recited the Amidah and mistakenly omitted a part of the prayer which prevents him from fulfilling his obligation, he may fulfill it by hearing the chazan, since he has already requested mercy for himself. This includes a situation in which a person inadvertently omitted Ya’aleh V’Yavo on Rosh Chodesh or Chol HaMo’ed, in which case he did not fulfill his obligation (Shulchan Aruch 124:10).1<i class="footnote">However, according to the <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 124:40, it is better that he repeats the prayer himself, for then he will have more <em>kavanah</em>.Regarding the matter of supplementary prayers (<em>tashlumim</em>), see earlier in this book 18:8, note 9, where it is explained that concerning the supplementary <em>Amidah</em> of <em>Shacharit</em>, the majority of <em>poskim</em> agree that a person cannot fulfill his obligation by hearing the <em>chazan</em>’s repetition. Concerning the supplementary<em> Amidah </em>of <em>Ma’ariv</em>, however, there is disagreement.</i>
  When a person has kavanah to fulfill his obligation by hearing the Amidah repetition, he must stand as one does for the Amidah, with his feet together, and at the end of the Amidah take three steps back (Shulchan Aruch 124:1). He answers Amen after the berachot and responds to Kedushah. However, he does not answer “Baruch Hu u’varuch Shemo” and in Modim he listens to the chazan and does not say Modim d’Rabbanan (Shulchan Aruch 124:6; Mishnah Berurah 3). He must also be careful not to interrupt by talking; even if he hears another minyan reciting Kaddish, he may not answer. 
  The chazan must be strict in saying the whole Amidah aloud, for this is the law regarding Chazarat HaShatz, that it must be recited out loud in its entirety. Some chazanim mistakenly say part of Birkat Modim quietly. Aside from the fact that the chazan does not completely fulfill the obligation to repeat the Amidah, there is reason to be concerned that perhaps there is a person present who wishes to fulfill his obligation with the repetition; however, since he does not hear the chazan recite the whole Amidah, he cannot do so (Mishnah Berurah 124:41).
  
  Section 3
  
  The Chazan’s Repetition of the Amidah / The Listener’s Conduct
  The person who is listening must be careful to answer Amen after each and every berachah of the Amidah repetition, as the Chachamim teach (Berachot 53b): “The one who answers Amen is greater than the one who recites the blessing.” One must respond Amen with the utmost solemnity, and while saying it, he must have kavanah that the content of the berachah is true. For instance, if one hears the berachah, “SheHakol Nihiyah Bidvaro,” he must have in mind that everything truly comes into existence through God’s word. When there is a request in the berachah as well, such as in Birkat Chonen HaDa’at, he should have in mind its two meanings: 1) it is true that knowledge comes from Hashem; 2) the request that Hashem endow us with knowledge (Shulchan  Aruch 124:6; Mishnah Berurah 25).
  One may not recite Amen too hastily, by saying it before the chazan finishes the berachah; nor shall one abbreviate the Amen by swallowing its letters, or pronounce it softly and in a weak voice. Also, one must not distance the response of Amen from the conclusion of the berachah, for then it is called an “Amen yetomah” (an orphaned Amen) (see Berachot 47a; Shulchan Aruch 124:8).
  The way a person responds Amen represents how he relates to belief in Hashem. When a person’s faith is damaged, the life that Hashem bestows upon him is also impaired. This is what Ben Azai means when he says, “Whoever answers an ‘Amen yetomah’ (an orphaned Amen) – his children will be orphans; an ‘Amen chatufah’ (one that is too hasty) – his days [upon this earth] will be snatched from him; an ‘Amen ketufah’ (an abbreviated Amen) – his days will be shortened. However, anyone who extends the recital of Amen – his days and years are lengthened” (Berachot 47a).
  The recital of Amen should be made in a pleasant tone and one’s voice should not be raised above that of the chazan who is reciting the blessing (Shulchan Aruch 124:12). One must not shorten the Amen, rather slightly elongate it for the amount of time it takes to say “Kel Melech Ne’eman,” although it should not be overly extended. If there are people who do prolong their response of Amen, the chazan need not wait for them; instead, after most of the congregation has finished saying Amen, he may continue on to the next berachah. However, regarding berachot with which the chazan fulfills the obligations of others, such as before the blowing of the shofar, the one reciting the blessing must wait until everyone finishes saying Amen so that those who extend their Amen can also hear the next berachah (Shulchan Aruch 124:8-9; Mishnah Berurah 38).
  Prominent Rishonim were accustomed to saying “Baruch Hu u’varuch Shemo” after the recital of Hashem’s Name in the berachah, and their minhag became widespread throughout the nation of Israel. This applies to berachot concerning which one does not fulfill his obligation through someone else, such as the Amidah repetition for one who prays silently. However, concerning berachot whose obligation can be fulfilled through another person, such as the berachot of Kiddush and blowing shofar, the common custom is not to recite “Baruch Hu u’varuch Shemo,” so as not to interrupt the berachah by reciting words not established by the Chachamim. Nevertheless, b’dieved, if one responded “Baruch Hu u’varuch Shemo” to a berachah that he was obligated to recite, he still fulfilled his obligation, since his response did not distract his mind from the berachah (Mishnah Berurah 124: 21; Kaf HaChaim 26).2<i class="footnote">However, according to the <em>Chayei Adam</em> and <em>Shulchan Aruch HaRav</em> 124:2, if he answered “<em>Baruch Hu u’varuch Shemo</em>,” he did not fulfill his obligation. That is also what is written in <em>Igrot Moshe</em><em> Orach Chaim</em>, part 2, end of section 98. By contrast, according to <em>Rav Rakach</em><em>Luv</em>) one must answer “<em>Baruch Hu u’varuch Shemo</em>” even to a <em>berachah</em> in which he fulfills his obligation.</i>
  It is proper to enhance the mitzvah of listening to the Chazarat HaShatz by standing, just as the law requires for the silent Amidah. This is because even the listeners who do not fulfill their obligation by hearing the repetition participate in its recital to a certain extent and are considered as someone who recited an additional prayer. However, this is not an obligation, and one who wishes to sit is permitted (Mishnah Berurah 124:20; Kaf HaChaim 24).
  
  Section 4
  
  The Chazan’s Repetition of the Amidah / Must Nine Men Respond to Chazarat HaShatz?
  When the chazan repeats the Amidah, each and every congregant must be silent, have kavanah to hear the chazan’s berachot, and answer Amen to them all. We have already mentioned the opinion (in the laws of the minyan, 2:7) that the chazan is prohibited from starting to recite the Amidah repetition until there are nine men who will respond Amen to his berachot. Others say that even if a few members of the minyan are still praying the Amidah, although they cannot answer Amen, they are counted as part of the minyan.
  L’chatchilah, it is customary for the chazan to be stringent and not start reciting the Amidah repetition until nine men are available to answer Amen after him. In extenuating circumstances, when there are people who are in a rush to conclude the prayer service, and it seems that the person extending his Amidah is not about to finish, it is permissible to rely on the opinion of most poskim and start Chazarat HaShatz when only eight people have concluded the Amidah. When this is impossible because there are a number of people prolonging their Amidah, if the situation is extremely mitigating, it is permissible to be lenient and begin the Amidah repetition when only five have finished praying, for together with the chazan they comprise the majority of a minyan. In order to avoid uncertainty, if it is necessary to begin the Amidah repetition when there are not yet nine people able to answer, the chazan makes a stipulation in his heart before praying. He stipulates that if the law follows those who maintain that there must be nine who answer, his prayer is voluntary (tefillat nedavah). Since a person is permitted to pray voluntarily, according to all opinions his berachot will not be in vain.
  Similarly, one who is leading the prayer service in a place in which many people normally chatter, so much so that there is doubt as to whether will be nine men there to respond Amen to his berachot, he makes a stipulation in his heart before the repetition, that if the law follows those who maintain that there must be nine who answer, if there are not nine, his prayer is voluntary.
  In order not to enter into such uncertainty, every person who hears Chazarat HaShatz must presume that without him there are not nine men; he must concentrate on the chazan’s berachot and respond Amen to them (Shulchan Aruch 124:4).3<i class="footnote">he dispute of the <em>Acharonim</em> as to whether nine people are needed in order to respond to the <em>Amidah</em> repetition is clarified by the <em>Shulchan Aruch</em>,<em> Orach Chaim</em> 55:6-8 and 124:4, and in its commentaries. A summary is presented earlier in this book in the laws of the <em>minyan</em>, chapter 2:7. <em>L’chatchilah</em>, we are stringent like the opinion of the <em>Graz</em> and the <em>Ben Ish Chai</em>. However, in extenuating circumstances we may be lenient, for that is the opinion of most <em>poskim</em>, among them <em>Tzitz Eliezer</em> 12:9 and <em>Yalkut Yosef</em> 124:14-18. Even when a person who is in the middle of his <em>Amidah</em> is included as one of the <em>minyan</em>, there is disagreement as to whether up to four may be counted, or only one, as brought by the <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 55:32. Additionally, the advice to make a stipulation is brought by the <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 124:19.</i>
  
  Section 5
  
  The Chazan’s Repetition of the Amidah / When Is the Amidah Repetition Not Recited?
  Situations arise in which there is no time to pray a silent Amidah first and then recite an Amidah repetition. For example, sometimes a number of people must leave for work and without them there is no minyan. In such cases, the Amidah repetition is not recited. In order to ensure that their prayer will be in a minyan, everyone prays silently together. So as not to miss Kedushah, the chazan starts reciting the first three berachot aloud, the congregation responds to Kedushah, and the chazan and the congregation continue from Birkat Attah Chonen to pray the rest of the Amidah silently (Rama 124:2).
  Likewise, in a small minyan, in which some of the members greatly prolong their prayer and the others find it difficult to wait until they have finished, since they are rushed to be on their way, they are permitted to forgo Chazarat HaShatz. Instead, the chazan recites the first three berachot aloud in order to recite Kedushah. Although we learned that in extenuating circumstances it is permissible to recite Chazarat HaShatz while a few of the nine are still standing in prayer, nevertheless, l’chatchilah it is preferable not to enter into this uncertainty and to forgo the recital of the Amidah repetition altogether.
  When there is a minyan whose members normally chatter and there is concern that there may not be nine men responding Amen to the chazan, there is reason to consider canceling Chazarat HaShatz. Perhaps it would be best to forgo its recital in order to reduce the desecration of Hashem’s Name caused by the talking during the Amidah repetition. Still, the prevalent minhag is not to cancel the Amidah repetition in a place that people normally chatter during the prayer service. All these laws must be decided by the local rabbi.4<i class="footnote">The <em>Radbaz</em> (section <em>elef</em> 165) writes that the <em>Rambam</em> cancelled the silent prayer due to the people who chattered during the <em>Amidah</em> repetition. He instructed the <em>chazan</em> to recite the prayer aloud, and the well-versed to pray silently with him. However <em>l’chatchilah</em>, it is clearly proper to pray twice, as the <em>Chachamim</em> instituted. See <em>Yalkut Yosef</em> 124:17 and <em>Yechaveh Da’at</em> 3:16 who summarize the obligation to recite <em>Chazarat HaShatz</em> and conclude that if there is concern that there will not be nine people to respond <em>Amen</em>, it is preferable not to recite <em>Chazarat HaShatz</em> at all.</i>
  When the chazan begins reciting the first three berachot out loud, there are two customs as to when the congregation starts to recite the silent Amidah. Some are accustomed to start after the chazan finishes Birkat HaKel HaKadosh (Mishnah Berurah 124:8), and others are accustomed to starting to pray along with the chazan (Kaf HaChaim 124:10). It seems that it is best to recommend starting to pray with the chazan in Shacharit so as not to pause in the middle of Birkat Emet V’Yatziv. In Minchah, it is best that whoever normally prolongs his prayer starts to pray with the chazan so that he can conclude his prayer and respond to the Kaddish after it. Concerning a person who is used to praying quickly, it is best that he starts praying after the chazan concludes “HaKel HaKadosh.”5<i class="footnote">he <em>minhag</em> of the <em>Ashkenazim</em> is that the congregation starts their <em>Amidah</em> after <em>Birkat</em><em>HaKel HaKadosh</em>, and according to the Sephardic custom, the congregation starts along with the <em>chazan</em>. The basis for this difference is in how each custom relates to the <em>berachah</em> of <em>Hakel HaKadosh</em>. The <em>poskim</em> disagree as to whether the halachah follows the <em>Yerushalmi</em>, which maintains that there is special virtue in answering <em>Amen</em> to the <em>berachot</em><em>HaKel HaKadosh</em> and <em>Shome’a Tefillah.</em> According to the <em>Rama</em>, a person may respond to their recital even if he is in the middle of saying <em>Birkot Keriat Shema</em>, whereas according to the <em>Shulchan Aruch</em> 66:3 the law regarding them is like the laws concerning all other <em>berachot</em> to which we may not respond while in the middle of reciting <em>Birkot Keriat Shema</em>. Therefore, according to the <em>Mishnah Berurah</em>, one starts his <em>Amidah</em> after <em>Birkat</em><em>HaKel HaKadosh</em> so that he may respond <em>Amen</em>, and according to the <em>Sephardim</em>, there is no reason for this. This is clarified in <em>Shulchan Aruch</em> 109:1.</i>
  When Chazarat HaShatz is not recited in Shacharit, and there are Kohanim present, in order not to lose out on Birkat Kohanim, it is best that the Kohanim wash their hands before praying and stand to recite the Amidah in the place in which they normally raise their hands to recite Birkat Kohanim. When the chazan reaches Birkat Retzeh, he begins to pray aloud again, so that the Kohanim can bless Israel after the conclusion of Birkat Modim. Whoever is reciting the same berachah in his silent Amidah should respond Amen to it (see Mishnah Berurah 128:71).
  
  Section 6
  
  The Chazan’s Repetition of the Amidah / Kedushah
  In the third berachah of the Amidah, Kedushah is recited. The essence of the Kedushah is in the responses, “Kadosh, kadosh, kadosh, Hashem Tzevakot, melo kol ha’aretz kevodo” (“Holy, holy, holy is Hashem, master of Hosts, the whole world is filled with His glory”) and “Baruch kevod Hashem mimkomo” (“Blessed is the glory of Hashem from His place”). Originally, it was customary for only the chazan to recite the connecting passages and the congregation would answer the verses, “Kadosh,” “Baruch,” and “Yimloch” (Shulchan Aruch 125:1). Nowadays, according to the Arizal, the congregation also recites the connecting passages, the chazan repeats them aloud afterwards, and the congregation responds with the verses of the Kedushah (Mishnah Berurah 125:2; Kaf HaChaim 2).
  Some say that the verse “Yimloch” is not an essential part of  Kedushah, but rather  one of the chazan’s connecting passages, and therefore, if a person is in the middle of reciting Birkot Keriat Shema, and he hears Kedushah, he may only recite the verses “Kadosh” and “Baruch” and not the verse “Yimloch.” Others say that he recites “Yimloch”, since this verse is included in Kedushah as well. This is the prevalent minhag.6<i class="footnote">The <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 125:1 mentions both opinions and in section 66:17 he writes that in practice one may not respond the verse <em>Yimloch</em> while in the middle of <em>Birkot Keriat Shema</em>, for that is the opinion of most <em>Acharonim</em>, and so rules the <em>Yechaveh Da’at</em> 6:3. That is also the law concerning reciting this verse in the middle of the prayers of supplication after the <em>Amidah</em><em>Elokai Netzor</em>), as explained in <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 122:4. However, <em>Aruch HaShulchan</em> 66:6 writes that this matter is left unresolved and one may do as he pleases. After bringing many <em>Acharonim</em> who maintain that <em>Yimloch</em> is not part of the main section of <em>Kedushah</em><em>Kaf HaChaim</em> 66:18 (and section 122:1 and 124:17), writes that <em>Yimloch</em> is, indeed, considered part of the <em>Kedushah</em>, as can be inferred from <em>Sha’ar HaKavanot</em>. This issue also has halachic significance pertaining to one who is in the middle of reciting the <em>Shemoneh Esrei</em>, whether he must also be quiet during <em>Yimloch.</em> See <em>Aruch HaShulchan</em> 104:13.</i>
  Kedushah is recited a total of three times in Shacharit: in Birkat Yotzer Or, in Chazarat HaShatz, and in the passage U’va L’Tzion. However, the poskim disagree as to whether the laws of the Kedushah in Chazarat HaShatz apply to the other two, and whether it is necessary to recite them in a minyan. In practice, the halachic ruling is that an individual is permitted to recite them. However, to avoid uncertainty, it is best that he recite them in a melody of cantillation as if reading from the Torah (see further in this book 16:4; 23:2). The Kedushah in the Amidah repetition is the essence of Kedushah and it is only recited with a minyan.
  It is proper to stand with one’s feet together for Kedushah, since we recite this Kedushah like the angels whose legs are so close together that they resemble one leg (Shulchan Aruch 125:2). There are those who enhance the mitzvah by remaining with their legs together until the end of Birkat HaKel HaKadosh (Eliyah Rabbah 125:6). However, this is not an obligation and many prominent rabbinic authorities are not strict concerning this.
  It is customary to raise one’s heels slightly when saying “Kadosh Kadosh Kadosh,” “Baruch,” and “Yimloch,” and to turn one’s closed eyes upward, thereby expressing the desire to transcend physical boundaries and soar upward. The source for this resides in the Midrash (Beit Yosef and Rama 125:2; Mishnah Berurah 6; Kaf HaChaim, paragraphs 2 and 9).
  
  Section 7
  
  The Chazan’s Repetition of the Amidah / When Does the Chazan Recite the Verses of Kedushah?
  The chazan must recite the verses “Kadosh,” “Baruch,” and “Yimloch” together with the congregation, in order to say them with a minyan. He must also recite them out loud, so that if someone is in the middle of the Amidah, he will be able to hear them, thereby fulfilling his obligation of Kedushah, for one who hears is like one who answers (Shulchan Aruch 104:7). After reciting the verses, he should be silent until the majority of the congregation concludes saying the connecting passages, and then he recites them aloud.
  If the chazan’s voice is not strong enough to be heard by the congregation, he should wait until most of the congregation finish reciting the verse, so that their voices fade slightly, and only then start to recite the verse. That way, on the one hand, everyone will be able to hear him, and on the other hand, since some have not finished reciting the verses of Kedushah, he is still considered to be reciting them in a minyan.
  If the congregation is very large, so that the chazan can only make his voice heard after everyone has finished reciting the verse, there are various opinions as to how he should practice. Some maintain that it is crucial that he recites the verses of Kedushah with the congregation and tries to be heard by at least ten people. Others say that it is most important that everyone can hear him; he should not be concerned that he may not be reciting the verses with ten people. Since he is the chazan, when there is a minyan there that can hear him, he is, indeed, considered to be saying them in a minyan. Therefore, he must wait until his voice can be heard by everyone. Both minhagim are valid.7<i class="footnote">The <em>Bei’ur Halachah</em> 125 s.v. “<em>Ela</em>” writes that if the <em>chazan</em> starts the verse before the congregation finishes saying it, he is considered to be reciting it in a <em>minyan</em>. However, if even then they will not hear him, the <em>Bei’ur Halachah</em> is uncertain as to whether the <em>chazan</em> may recite the verses after the congregation has finished, for perhaps because he is saying them in order to fulfill the obligation of the people listening, he need not say them with ten people, and it is enough that ten people hear him to be considered reciting them in a <em>minyan</em>. He leaves this matter unresolved.<em> Divrei Yosef</em> 13 writes that the <em>chazan</em> must say the verses with the congregation. However,<em> Beit Yehudah</em>,<em> </em>part 2, 3, writes that we are not strict that the <em>chazan</em> recite the verses with the congregation and that is also implied from<em> Igrot Moshe</em>, <em>Orach Chaim</em> 3:4.When a person is praying the Amidah and silently stops so as to hear the chazan recite the Kedushah, as explained in Shulchan Aruch 104:7, yet does not succeed in hearing him, the Levushei Mordechai, part 1:17 writes that he should have kavanah to hear a congregant instead. However, many poskim maintain that since the people in the congregation do not have kavanah to fulfill him in his obligation, this is not effective. Therefore, if he cannot hear the chazan, it is best that he continues praying the Amidah. So is written in Kaf HaChaim 104:36 and implied in the Igrot Moshe there.</i>
  
  Section 8
  
  The Chazan’s Repetition of the Amidah / Modim D’Rabbanan and Additional Laws
  When the chazan reaches Modim, the whole congregation bows with him and recites Modim d’Rabbanan, whose nusach differs from that of the Modim in the Amidah, as clarified in the Talmud (Sotah 40a).
  The entire congregation bows down in Modim d’Rabbanan. The laws concerning this bow are similar to the laws of Modim in the silent Amidah (Mishnah Berurah 127:2; Kaf HaChaim 1; see earlier in this book 17:6).
  There are those who say that it is necessary to bow again at the conclusion of Modim d’Rabbanan. Others say that it is proper to recite the full Modim d’Rabbanan while bowing. The prevalent minhag is to bow only in the beginning of Modim d’Rabbanan, as was the minhag of the Ari (see Shulchan Aruch and Rama 127:1; Kaf HaChaim 10).
  In a prayer service in which Birkat Kohanim is recited, as in Shacharit, Musaf, and in the Minchah of fast days, if there are no Kohanim present, the chazan recites the verses of Birkat Kohanim as a prayer, and the congregation responds “Ken yehi ratzon” to every verse.
  There are two versions of Birkat HaShalom – “Sim Shalom” and “Shalom Rav.” According to Nusach Sephard, which follows the Ari, Sim Shalom is recited in all the prayers. According to Nusach Ashkenaz, Sim Shalom is recited in a prayer in which Birkat Kohanim can be recited. In a prayer in which Birkat Kohanim cannot be recited, Shalom Rav is recited. If one mistakenly said the wrong wording, he still fulfilled his obligation (Rama 127:2, Mishnah Berurah 13; Kaf HaChaim 24).8<i class="footnote"><em>Bei’ur Halachah</em> 127:2, s.v. “<em>Aval</em>” writes that if he remembers in the middle of the <em>berachah</em> that he began <em>Shalom Rav</em> in <em>Shacharit</em>, he must go back and correct it as long as he did not finish the <em>berachah</em>, because the wording of <em>Shalom Rav</em> is short and lacks some of the content mentioned in <em>Sim Shalom.</em> However, if in <em>Ma’ariv</em> someone realizes in the middle of the <em>berachah</em> that he mistakenly started <em>Sim Shalom</em> instead of <em>Shalom Rav</em>, he need not go back and correct it because <em>Sim Shalom</em> includes the wording of <em>Shalom Rav</em>. The <em>Nusach</em> of most <em>Chassidim</em> is to recite <em>Sim Shalom</em> every day in <em>Minchah. </em>It seems that the reason for this is because on fast days <em>Birkat Kohanim</em> is recited in <em>Minchah</em>, since there is no concern of intoxication then. If so, we see that essentially, it is befitting to recite <em>Birkat Kohanim </em>in every<em> Minchah</em> when there is no concern of intoxication; therefore, it is appropriate to recite <em>Sim Shalom.</em></i> If a chazan becomes disoriented to the point where he cannot continue praying, the congregation waits to see if he can return to his senses. If he cannot continue, another chazan is appointed to replace him. If this happens in one of the middle berachot, the second chazan starts from the beginning of that berachah. If it happens in the middle of the first three or the last three berachot, he starts from the beginning of those three berachot (Shulchan Aruch 126:1-2).9<i class="footnote">The <em>Shulchan Aruch</em> 126:3 writes that a <em>chazan</em> who forgot to recite <em>Ya’aleh V’Yavo</em> in the <em>Amidah</em> repetition on <em>Rosh Chodesh</em> or <em>Chol HaMo’ed</em> does not repeat it. Although an individual must repeat his prayer following such a mistake, nevertheless, a <em>chazan</em> does not, since subsequently in <em>Musaf</em>, the specialness of the day is mentioned and therefore, so as not to trouble the congregation, we do not compel him to repeat <em>Chazarat HaShatz</em>. However, if he has not yet finished praying, he returns to <em>Retzeh</em> in order to insert <em>Ya’aleh V’Yavo</em>, for that is not such a big bother to the congregation. A <em>chazan</em> who errs in his silent <em>Amidah</em> does not need to repeat his prayer, since he fulfills his obligation in the <em>Amidah</em> repetition (<em>Shulchan Aruch</em> 126:4).</i>
  
  Section 9
  
  The Chazan’s Repetition of the Amidah / Is It Possible to Make Up the Amidah Repetition?
  Ten men who each prayed individually and later gather in one place do not have the status of a minyan and cannot recite Chazarat HaShatz since they each already prayed as individuals (Radbaz; Mishnah Berurah 69:1; Kaf HaChaim 1; Barchu is made up after the prayer service for those who came late, as clarified further in this book 23:9).
  However, if there is a person among them who did not yet pray, he may say Half-Kaddish and Barchu after Yishtabach. When he reaches the Amidah, he recites the first three berachot aloud and the others then say Kedushah with him. That way, everyone is able to hear Kaddish, Barchu, and Kedushah. This law is called “Pores al Shema” (“dividing the Shema”). Similarly, in Minchah, a person who did not yet pray may recite Ashrei, Kaddish, and then the Amidah, saying the first three berachot aloud.
  The law concerning an individual who arrived late to prayer is similar. If there are nine people willing to answer Amen after him, when he reaches Yishtabach, he may recite Kaddish and Barchu and when he reaches the Amidah, he says the first three berachot out loud, thereby enabling the recital of Kedushah.10<i class="footnote">Some say that when this individual, to whom the congregation agrees to respond, finishes <em>Tachanun</em>, he says Half-<em>Kaddish</em>, and when he concludes <em>U’va L’Tzion</em>, he says <em>Kaddish</em>–<em>Titkabal</em>. So write <em>Kaf HaChaim</em> 56:37 and <em>Ishei Yisrael</em> 34:4. The <em>Hagahot Ish Matzliach</em> on section 69 writes that some say that <em>Kaddish-Titkabal</em> is recited only when at least three people did not pray, and others say that it is only recited when six people who did not pray are present. Each community follows its own customs. As it seems, the prevalent <em>minhag</em> is to recite the <em>Kaddishim</em> after the <em>Amidah</em> only for six people who did not pray.In principle, if the person who did not yet pray is unable to pray aloud, someone else may be chazan for him, say the Kaddish and Barchu for him, and start the first three berachot of the Amidah out loud. Afterwards, that chazan who prayed for him must finish the rest of his prayer silently (see Rama 69 and Mishnah Berurah 17).</i>
  If six people have gathered to pray and another four who already prayed join them, the chazan may recite the entire prayer service. Since there are ten Jews there, and among them, a majority of a minyan who did not yet pray, they are considered a minyan and all the relevant laws apply.11<i class="footnote">[1] If six people start reciting the <em>Amidah</em> with the hope that four others will eventually join them, and indeed, after they conclude their silent prayer, four people who already prayed arrive and are willing to complete the <em>minyan</em>, according to the <em>Radbaz</em>, since when they prayed silently there was no <em>minyan</em>, they cannot recite the <em>Amidah</em> repetition. Many<em> poskim</em> maintain, however, that since they assembled in order to pray in a <em>minyan</em>, they hoped that people would arrive to complete their <em>minyan</em>, and they even comprised most of a <em>minyan</em>, so they may recite <em>Chazarat HaShatz</em>. So writes <em>Har Tzvi Orach Chaim</em> 1:51 and <em>Yalkut Yosef</em> 69:1.</i>
  However, if there are only five that have not yet prayed, their law is like that of an individual. When they arrive at Yishtabach they recite Kaddish and Barchu, and when they reach the Amidah, one of them recites the first three berachot out loud and subsequently they say Kedushah (see Bei’ur Halachah 69 s.v. “Omer”).
  
  
  
  
  
  Section 1
  
  The Priestly Blessing / The Mitzvah of Birkat Kohanim
  It is a positive biblical commandment for the Kohanim to bless the nation of Israel, as it is written (Numbers 6:22-26), “Hashem spoke to Moshe, telling him to speak to Aharon and his sons saying, ‘This is how you must bless the Israelites. Say to them: May God bless you and keep watch over you. May God illuminate His face towards you and be gracious to you. May God bestow favor upon you and grant you peace.’”
  This mitzvah is performed daily. Every Kohen who is asked to ascend the duchan (platform) to bless Israel but refuses, even though in principle he only nullifies one mitzvah, is considered to have nullified three biblical commandments. This is because the wording used in the verses implies that Hashem longs to bless Israel. Therefore, a language of command is employed three times to tell the Kohanim to bless Israel, as it is written, “This is how you must bless,” “Say to them,” and “Place My Name.” Hence, a Kohen’s refusal to fulfill the will of the Creator and bless Israel is considered a nullification of three mitzvot from the Torah (Sotah 38b; Rambam Tefillah 15:12).
  Even if a Kohen who already blessed Israel that day was summoned by another minyan to bless the nation, it is a mitzvah for him to ascend and bless again. However, if he refrains, he does not nullify a biblical commandment (Shulchan Aruch 128:3).
  The Sefer Charedim (12:18) writes an important novel insight, that not only the Kohanim fulfill a mitzvah from the Torah by blessing the nation, but the Israelites who stand before them in silence with kavanah and respond Amen to their blessing also participate in the fulfillment of this biblical commandment.
  In Birkat Kohanim, we learn to focus on the fundamental fact that HaKadosh Baruch Hu is the One who bestows blessing upon us, and our standing each day in readiness for Birkat Kohanim instills this belief in our hearts (Guide to the Perplexed, part 3, chapter 44; HaAkedah, Sha’ar 74). The more we are aware of the fact that HaKadosh Baruch Hu is the One who blesses the nation of Israel with love, the more we will be open and prepared to accept the blessing (see Sefer HaChinuch 378). Free will is the fundamental component of the world, and therefore the blessing that HaKadosh Baruch Hu bestows upon us is linked to our own efforts. Or, as expressed by the Kabbalah, the awakening of our will to accept His blessing awakens the Supreme Will to bestow blessing upon Israel in abundance. By fulfilling the mitzvah of Birkat Kohanim, the nation of Israel expresses its will to accept the Divine Influence (shefa) and draws Hashem’s blessing into the world.
  
  Section 2
  
  The Priestly Blessing / Yisrael’s Kavanah
  During Birkat Kohanim, each and every Jew must stand opposite the Kohanim and have kavanah to accept the blessing. He should not look at the Kohanim or at anything else, so as not to distract his thoughts from the berachah (Shulchan Aruch 128:23; Mishnah Berurah 89).1<i class="footnote">After <em>Birkat Kohanim</em> some are accustomed to recite a prayer intended for communal recital, “<em>Adir BaMarom</em>,” although the <em>poskim</em> disagree as to when it is recited. The <em>Shulchan Aruch</em> 130:1 maintains that when the prayer to transform and rectify an ominous dream into a favorable one (<em>hatavat chalom</em>) is recited in <em>Birkat Kohanim</em>, then <em>Adir BaMarom</em> is recited after it, as can be inferred from <em>Berachot</em> 55b. <em>Kaf HaChaim</em> 130:9 writes, based on the <em>Zohar</em> that it should not be recited in <em>Birkat Sim Shalom</em>. The <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 130:6 writes that there are those accustomed to reciting <em>Adir BaMarom</em> following each time the <em>Kohanim</em> bless the nation, and that it is said as the <em>chazan</em> recites <em>Sim Shalom</em>. The source for this opinion can be found in the <em>Rif</em><em>Rosh</em>, and <em>Taz</em>. In practice, it is best for every person to follow his own custom.</i>
  The Chachamim established that a Kohen who has an abnormality on his body that would likely cause people to stare at him, and divert their thoughts from the berachah, may not ascend to bless the people. Therefore, before the Kohanim became accustomed to covering their faces and hands with their tallitot, any Kohen who had a deformity on his face or hands, such as unusual facial freckles or crooked fingers, would not ascend the duchan to bless the nation. However, today, when all Kohanim are accustomed to covering their faces with a tallit, a defect on one’s face or hands does not prevent a Kohen from reciting the blessing. Nevertheless, even today, if the Kohen has a noticeable deformity on his leg, he should not ascend the duchan to bless the people, for it might distract the minds of the listeners. However, if he is a permanent resident of the community, such that his defect no longer makes people curious, he may ascend to bless the nation, for it most likely will not distract the listeners (Shulchan Aruch 128:30 and 31).
  Similarly, a Kohen who has a strange accent, such as one who confuses the pronunciation of the letters alef and ayin, may not bless the nation, since such a thing will distract the thoughts of the listeners from the berachah. However, a person who speaks in the accepted accent, even if he does not emphasize the ayin and the chet properly, does not distract the listeners’ thoughts. Likewise, all the known accents – Ashkenazic, Yemenite, etc. – do not divert attention from the berachah because they are known and familiar. Only someone who greatly confuses or garbles the pronunciation more than is acceptable, or stutters excessively, may not bless the people (Shulchan Aruch 128:33; Mishnah Berurah there).
  In summary, the Chachamim enacted that any Kohen possessing something that might distract the people from their kavanah may not ascend the platform to bless; from these laws we understand how important it is that the listeners concentrate during Birkat Kohanim.
  
  Section 3
  
  The Priestly Blessing / The Place Where the Congregation Stands
  When the Kohanim recite the blessing, the people being blessed must position themselves in front of them, as it is written (Numbers 6:23), “This is how you must bless the Israelites. Say to them.” Chazal interpret this to mean that Birkat Kohanim must be performed in the same way that people talk to their friends – by standing face to face and speaking aloud – so that all those receiving the blessing can hear them.
  Although the Kohanim reciting the blessing must stand, in principle, those being blessed may sit. Nonetheless, today, the custom is that everyone stands for Birkat Kohanim. Still, an ill or weak person who has difficulty standing is permitted to sit for the blessing (Mishnah Berurah 128:51; Tzitz Eliezer 14:18).
  Anyone standing behind the Kohanim is not included in the berachah, although one who is standing directly beside them can be included as long as he turns his face towards the Kohanim. People sitting in the first rows of the synagogue must measure their place in relation to the Kohanim. If they are in front of them or even directly to the side of them, they are permitted to remain in their place and turn their face towards the Kohanim. However, if their place is slightly behind the Kohanim, they must move to a different position for the recital of the blessing (Shulchan Aruch 128:24).
  Anyone standing in the synagogue in front of the Kohanim is included in the berachah. Even if there are tall people standing before him, separating him from the Kohanim, or if there is a pillar between him and the Kohanim, since he is on the side that is across from their faces, he is included in the berachah. However, someone who stands in front of the Kohanim and turns his back to them is not included.
  Those who do not come to synagogue due to circumstances beyond their control are still included in the berachah. For instance, someone who has to leave for work, or women and children who do not come to synagogue, are all included in the berachah, which is intended to include all of Israel. Only those who are able to go and receive the blessing, but neglect to do so, are not included in the berachah (Bei’ur Halachah 128:24 s.v. “Im”).2<i class="footnote">One who is in the middle of reciting Shemoneh Esrei<em> </em>and is standing behind the <em>Kohanim</em> may not interrupt his prayer to walk and stand in front of them. This is considered as a circumstance beyond his control, and therefore he is blessed where he stands. The <em>chazan</em> acts similarly; even when the <em>Kohanim</em> are behind him he does not go stand in front of them. Even though walking is not considered a complete interruption during the <em>Amidah</em>, still, it is prohibited unless necessary. Therefore the <em>chazan</em> is treated as one who has circumstances beyond his control and is therefore blessed where he stands. (The <em>Igrot Moshe Orach Chaim</em>, part 5, 20:23 writes that one who is in the middle of the <em>Amidah</em> should walk in front of the <em>Kohanim</em>. Yet, in part 4, 21:2, at the end of his ruling, he writes the exact opposite.)One who is in the middle of reciting the Amidah when the congregation reaches Birkat Kohanim should be silent and concentrate on the berachah. Regarding Kedushah and Amen yeheh Shemei rabbah, he is not obligated to stop if he does not want to. However, in this case, where some poskim maintain that the Israelites who are being blessed also fulfill a biblical mitzvah, he must stop and listen to Birkat Kohanim, although he may not respond Amen. If he is at the same part of the prayer as the chazan, he answers Amen to the three verses of blessing. Still, concerning the berachah recited before them, some say he may not respond Amen. See Mishnah Berurah 128:79, where he rules this way regarding the chazan.</i>
  
  Section 4
  
  The Priestly Blessing / Four Biblical Halachot
  There are four halachot specified in the Torah concerning Birkat Kohanim: “It is only recited in the Holy Tongue, while standing, with raised hands, and in a loud voice” (Shulchan Aruch 128:14). When one of these conditions cannot be met, the Kohanim may not bless the nation.
  The first halachah requires that the berachah be recited in Hebrew, the Holy Tongue. Many mitzvot are performed through speech. The Chachamim explained in the Mishnah (Sotah 32a) that the mitzvot of Keriat Shema, Amidah, and Birkat HaMazon (Grace After Meals) can be fulfilled in foreign languages (see 1:10; 16:9). Nevertheless, Birkat Kohanim must be recited specifically in the Holy Tongue, as it is written (Numbers 6:23), “This is how you must bless,” meaning, in the language in which the Torah is written.
  A possible explanation for this is that the purpose of Keriat Shema is to express the foundation of our faith, and therefore the particular language in which it is recited is less important than the understanding of what we are saying. Likewise, regarding the Amidah, the essence is that we convey our prayer in a comprehensible manner. However, Birkat Kohanim is a berachah from Hashem to us, and the language in which Hashem reveals His will in the world is the Holy Tongue. Therefore, the Kohanim are commanded to recite the Divine blessing precisely as it is written in the Torah.
  The second halachah is to recite Birkat Kohanim while standing. Therefore, a weak or handicapped Kohen who must sit in a wheelchair, and cannot stand on his feet even while only reciting the blessing, may not bless the people. This is because the law of reciting Birkat Kohanim is similar to the law of the Temple service, as it is written (Deuteronomy 10:8), “To serve Him and offer blessing in His Name.” Just as the Temple service is performed while standing, so too, the berachah must be recited while standing (Sotah 38a).
  A person presents himself fully in a standing position, for in that way he is seen from head to toe, expressing his complete range of abilities, both spiritual and practical. In order for the work of the Kohanim and Birkat Kohanim to be fulfilled perfectly, they must be carried out specifically while standing.
  The third halachah obligates the Kohanim to raise their hands while reciting the berachah, meaning that they must spread their hands out over the people being blessed, as it is written (Leviticus 9:22), “Aharon lifted his hands toward the people and blessed them.” A Kohen whose hands tremble and are weak, and who does not have the strength to hold his hands up during the berachah, is not permitted to ascend the duchan and bless. Even if he is helped in raising his hands, it would be of no use, since the Kohen must raise his hands by himself without any assistance (Mishnah Berurah 128:52).
  Rabbi Nachman of Breslav offers a spiritual explanation of this halachah, stating that the lifting of one’s hands conveys the willpower of the heart to bless Israel with love. There is a connection and relation between one’s hands and one’s heart, the proof being that a person’s hands are close to his heart. Therefore, hand motions are the heart’s instruments of expression, as it is written (Lamentations 3:41), “Let us lift up our hearts with our hands to God in Heaven.” When the Kohanim stretch their hands out to bless Israel, they are thereby expressing their heart’s great love towards Israel (Likutei Halachot Nesiat Kapayim 5:3).
  Rav Kook adds that raising one’s hands forward symbolizes the future, for, indeed, the hands transcend beyond the body. Therefore the Kohanim lift their hands to convey the yearning and prayer for an ideal and rectified world (Olat Ra’ayah, part 1, 284).
  The fourth halachah commands the Kohanim to recite the blessing aloud so that all the people praying in the synagogue can hear them, as it is written, “Say to them,” meaning, in the manner that a person talks to his friend (Sotah 38a). If the synagogue is small, it is sufficient for the Kohen to recite the blessing in an average tone, for that is how people normally talk. If the synagogue is large, he must recite the blessing loud enough for everyone to hear him, even if he were to recite it by himself. A Kohen who has such a faint voice that it is almost impossible to hear him does not ascend to recite the blessing (Mishnah Berurah 128:53). However, if there are other Kohanim present whose voices will be well heard, it is permissible for the Kohen with the weak voice to ascend with them and bless (see Tzitz Eliezer 15:21).
  
  Section 5
  
  The Priestly Blessing / The Connection of Birkat Kohanim to the Amidah and the Korbanot
  During the time of the Temple, the Kohanim would recite the Priestly Blessing after the conclusion of the Korbanot service. The Torah writes this in reference to the eighth day of the dedication of the Tabernacle, the day the Kohanim began performing their service there. “Aharon lifted his hands toward the people and blessed them. He then descended from [the altar where he] had performed the sin offering, the burnt offering, and the peace offering” (Leviticus 9:22). From here we learn that the people were blessed at the conclusion of the sacrificial offerings. The reason for this is that after offering the sacrifices, which express our readiness to surrender ourselves and sacrifice our souls to Hashem, we are worthy of receiving His blessing.
  Outside the Temple, the Chachamim established that Birkat Kohanim would be recited during the prayer service, since prayer replaced the Korbanot. There is a similarity between the Korbanot and prayer, for in both, one’s yearning for Divine closeness is expressed. Just like the Kohanim recited the blessing after the Korbanot, so it was established that towards the end of the Shemoneh Esrei the Kohanim bless the nation.
  In order to greatly emphasize the relevance of Birkat Kohanim to the conclusion of the sacrificial offerings, the Chachamim established that the Kohanim are obligated to start walking in the direction of the duchan at the time of Birkat Retzeh, for that is the berachah that discusses the return of the sacrificial offerings. Any Kohen who does not head toward the duchan (“lift his feet”) at the time of Birkat Retzeh loses the opportunity to fulfill the mitzvah and is prohibited from ascending to the duchan during that Amidah (Shulchan Aruch 128:8). L’chatchilah, the Kohen should lift his feet in the beginning of Birkat Retzeh. However, as long as the chazan did not reach the end of the berachah, the Kohen is still permitted to ascend towards the duchan (Mishnah Berurah 128:25).
  A Kohen who arrives late and realizes that he will not complete the washing of his hands before the conclusion of Birkat Retzeh is advised to take a small step in the direction of the duchan while still standing at the sink. With this step he is considered to have started to walk towards the duchan during Birkat Retzeh. When he finishes his washing, he continues to walk to the duchan to bless the people (see Mishnah Berurah 128:27, 28; Sha’ar HaTziyun 30; Sefer Nesiat Kapayim Kehilchatah 7:2, note 8).
  Because Birkat Kohanim is connected to the Korbanot, the Chachamim teach that just as the time to bring sacrificial offerings was specifically during the day, so too, Birkat Kohanim is recited during the day. Therefore, the Kohanim do not bless the nation during Ma’ariv. Although presumably there is reason to recite Birkat Kohanim during Minchah, the Chachamim decided against this since the time of the Minchah prayer is usually after a meal, and there is concern that a Kohen who drank wine at his meal will subsequently ascend the duchan to bless the people and desecrate the berachah. It is forbidden for a Kohen who is drunk to work in the Temple, and he is prohibited from blessing the people (Shulchan Aruch 128:38). However, in Ne’ilah, and during Minchah of public fast days, the blessing is recited. Since the Kohanim are fasting, there is no concern of intoxication (Shulchan Aruch 129:1). This is on condition that the Minchah of a fast day is prayed after plag haminchah (a proportional hour and a quarter before sunset), but when Minchah of a fast day is recited before plag haminchah, the Kohanim do not bless the people.3<i class="footnote">Although some maintain that it is permissible to bless the nation even at <em>Minchah Gedolah</em> of a fast day, the majority of <em>poskim</em> maintain that the blessing is only recited after <em>plag haminchah</em>. This is because the enactment to bless the nation in the afternoon pertains to the <em>Ne’ilah</em> prayer and not the <em>Minchah</em> prayer (on Yom<em> </em>Kippur, the <em>Kohanim</em> do not bless the people at <em>Minchah</em>). If <em>Birkat Kohanim</em> in the afternoon would have been instituted for the <em>Minchah</em> prayer, people might think that <em>Birkat Kohanim</em> is recited at <em>Minchah</em> of a regular day as well, when it is in fact forbidden for concern of intoxication. However, on a fast day in which there is no <em>Ne’ilah</em>, the blessing is recited at <em>Minchah</em>, on condition that it is recited at the time of <em>Ne’ilah</em>, meaning close to the end of the day.Even though there are various opinions as to how to calculate plag haminchah (a proportional hour and a quarter before sunset, or a proportional hour and a quarter before tzeit hakochavim), the main calculation is a proportional hour and a quarter before sunset, since the opinion maintaining that it is before tzeit hakochavim is calculated based on Rabbeinu Tam (meaning, 72 minutes after sunset, as explained earlier in this book, chapter 11, note 14. In other words, plag haminchah according to Rabbeinu Tam is between two to eighteen minutes before the visible sunset.) Nonetheless, it is best to start Minchah a little later than that, approximately half an hour to three quarters of an hour before sunset, closer to the time of Ne’ilah. This way, Birkat Kohanim will be recited as close as possible to sunset.</i>
  
  Section 6
  
  The Priestly Blessing / Washing Hands Before the Blessing
  Before the Kohanim raise their hands to bless the nation, they must wash their hands up to their wrists. There is an allusion to this in the verse (Psalms 134:2), “Lift up your hands in holiness and bless Hashem.” Any Kohen who did not wash his hands may not bless the people (Sotah 39a). Eminent Rishonim disagree regarding the reason for this hand washing. According to the Rambam (Tefillah 15:5), the obligation to wash one’s hands only exists when they are dirty. Therefore, a Kohen who washes his hands in the morning and is careful not to touch dirty parts of his body is not obligated to wash his hands again before Birkat Kohanim. However, according to Rashi and Tosafot (Sotah 39a), even clean hands must be washed and sanctified in honor of Birkat Kohanim.
  In practice, we are stringent, and a Kohen whose hands are clean must also wash them before Birkat Kohanim, like the opinion of Rashi and Tosafot. However, no berachah is recited on the washing even if he touched dirty places before washing, since there is doubt whether or not the Chachamim instituted a berachah for it (Mishnah Berurah 128:24, based on the Eliyah Rabbah).
  It seems from the Zohar that this washing was intended to sanctify the Kohanim, and their hands, in preparation for the berachah. In order to increase the level of sanctity, it is customary that a Levi pour the water on the hands of the Kohanim. When there is no Levi present in the synagogue, it is advisable that a firstborn, who possesses some amount of sanctity, wash the hands of the Kohanim. In the absence of a Levi and a firstborn, the Kohen washes his own hands (Shulchan Aruch 128:6; Mishnah Berurah 22).
  When the Kohen is concerned that perhaps there will not be water in the synagogue with which to wash his hands before blessing the people, he washes them in his house before the prayer service and takes care to keep them clean. In that way he can recite the blessing upon the people. However, if the Kohen is not careful to keep his hands clean after the morning washing, and he does not have water to wash them before Birkat Kohanim, he may not ascend the duchan to bless the nation.
  In every situation where the Kohen is forbidden to bless the people, it is advisable that he leave the synagogue before the time of Birkat Kohanim, so that the gabbai will not mistakenly call him up to ascend the duchan when he is not permitted to do so. If the Kohen remains present and he is not called, there is concern that perhaps people will think that he is an invalid Kohen.
  
  Section 7
  
  The Priestly Blessing / Yisrael’s Participation in Birkat Kohanim
  When the time arrives to recite Birkat Kohanim, the Kohanim are not permitted to start the berachah until the chazan or the gabbai announces “Kohanim.” This is because the Torah states (Numbers 6:23), “Say to them,” denoting that Moshe, who is not a Kohen, must tell the Kohanim to bless Israel. Thus we learn that first the Kohanim must be called, and only afterward do they begin blessing. If only one Kohen ascends the platform, “Kohanim” is not declared, since it is written, “Say to them” (in plural). Thus, the word “Kohanim” is only announced when there are at least two Kohanim present (Shulchan Aruch 128:10). Some authorities conclude that the essence of Birkat Kohanim is when there are at least two Kohanim to perform the blessing (Rabbeinu Peretz brought by the Tur 128; see Aruch HaShulchan 128:9).
  The blessing itself is not recited by the Kohanim on their own. Rather, the chazan recites each word and the Kohanim repeat after him. Some chazanim mistakenly recite the words in a quiet voice. That is incorrect. Instead, the chazan‘s voice must be heard clearly by the Kohanim and should be just slightly softer than theirs (see Tzitz Eliezer 14:17; Nesiat Kapayim Kehilchatah 12:3.) Following each verse, the congregation answers Amen.
  As we learned (in halachah 1) the awakening of our will to accept Hashem’s blessing awakens the Supreme Will to abundantly bestow blessing upon Israel. In other words, when HaKadosh Baruch Hu created the world, He established that free will was to be a key component. Therefore only after we awaken from below the desire for something positive, a parallel desire from Above awakens to aid us in achieving that thing. Hence, it is necessary that one of the Yisraelim being blessed first declares “Kohanim,” thereby expressing in words our desire to accept Hashem’s blessing, and only then the Kohanim begin to bless. Afterwards as well, the chazan must read every word first, and in doing so, express our desire for every detail of the berachah, following which the Kohanim repeat that word, and HaKadosh Baruch Hu abundantly bestows His blessing upon us (Likutei Halachot LaMaharan, Nesiat Kapayim 3:4).
  
  Section 8
  
  The Priestly Blessing / The Kohen’s Obligation to Remove His Shoes Before the Blessing
  One of the nine enactments instituted by Rabbi Yochanan ben Zakai (who lived at the time of the destruction of the Second Temple) pertains to the law of Birkat Kohanim. He decreed that the Kohanim must not ascend the duchan to bless the nation while wearing sandals or shoes. There are a number of reasons for this enactment, one being out of respect for the congregation, for it is not appropriate for the Kohanim to bless the nation with mud on their shoes. Likewise, the Temple services were performed by the Kohanim without shoes, due to the sanctity of the site. The halachic reason for this enactment is that the laces of the Kohen’s shoes might become loose, causing him to feel uncomfortable standing on the duchan, which is a high place, where he can be seen by the whole nation. To hide his embarrassment, he would have to bend down and tie his laces, and the people might misinterpret his bending and not reciting Birkat Kohanim as his admission of not actually being a Kohen (Sotah 40a).
  Based on these reasons, a Kohen may not ascend the duchan with shoes or sandals, nor with slippers that have laces. Regarding slippers, if they are made of leather, even without laces, it is prohibited to ascend the duchan in them as well, since ordinary shoes are generally made of leather, and all leather shoes are included in the enactment of Rabbi Yochanan ben Zakai. However, it is permissible to ascend the duchan in non-leather slippers that do not have laces.
  In a place where it is not customary to appear barefoot, or in sandals without socks, before respectable people, it is proper that the Kohanim ascend the platform with socks on their feet (Mishnah Berurah 128:18). In a place where it is customary to walk in sandals without socks, even in front of respectable people, it is permissible for Kohanim to bless the people while barefooted (Olat Tamid 128:11).
  At times, the question arises: what does a handicapped Kohen do if he is unable to take off his shoes, and likewise, what does a Kohen in the army do when he does not have time to remove his army boots? In cases of extenuating circumstances like these, some poskim are lenient and allow a Kohen to bless the people while standing on the floor of the synagogue, not ascending the duchan, where, because of its elevation, their feet and shoes can be seen, and this would bring disgrace to the blessing. If however, the Kohen is standing on the ground at the same level as the congregation, there is no prohibition to recite the blessing while wearing shoes. In extenuating circumstances, the Kohanim can rely on these poskim and bless Israel on the floor in shoes, provided that their shoes are clean (see Igrot Moshe, Orach Chaim, part 2, 32, regarding a handicapped person; concerning the issue of extenuating circumstances, see Tzitz Eliezer 14:11 and Yechaveh Da’at 2:13).
  
  Section 9
  
  The Priestly Blessing / The Role of the Kohanim
  The Kohanim had two main tasks: the first was to educate and teach halachah in Israel, as it is written (Malachi 2:7), “For the kohen’s lips safeguard knowledge, and Torah is sought from his mouth.” The second was to be messengers of chesed and peace, like Aharon HaKohen, whose disciples were taught to “love peace and pursue peace, love thy fellow creatures and bring them closer to Torah” (Avot 1:12). Regarding Aharon HaKohen, Chazal relate that he knew how to make peace between friends, and between husbands and wives, and that in his merit thousands of couples remained together. Consequently, children were born to them, and they named their sons “Aharon” after him.
  In order to enable the Kohanim to develop these two basic qualities, wisdom and kindness, the Torah established that Kohanim would not receive a portion of land in Israel, and that their livelihood would depend on the produce offerings and priestly gifts of the Israelites. In that way, the Kohanim would be free to learn Torah, educate the people, and guide them. Since the Yisraelim provide them with sustenance, all the people of Israel become partners in the spiritual work of the Kohanim. Due to the fact that they do not own land, and do not partake in the competition involved in earning a livelihood, they can more easily develop their love and chesed towards the entire nation.
  Ahavah (love) is also the basis for Birkat Kohanim. Out of their love to the nation, the Kohanim become worthy emissaries to bless Israel in the name of Hashem. The wording of the berachah is as follows: “Who sanctified us with the holiness of Aharon and commanded us to bless His people, Israel, with love.” The poskim write that any Kohen who is hated by the congregation, or who hates the congregation, or even just one person in it, is forbidden to recite Birkat Kohanim. If he says the words out of enmity, he will bring danger upon himself. Instead, he must eliminate the animosity from his heart, or leave the synagogue before Birkat Kohanim, since its main purpose is to bless Israel with love (Mishnah Berurah 128:37; HaRav Tzvi Yehudah HaKohen, Olat Ra’ayah 2:413).
  
  Section 10
  
  The Priestly Blessing / An Evil Kohen
  The mitzvah to bless the nation applies to all Kohanim, righteous or evil. Therefore, even a Kohen who sins by eating forbidden foods, having forbidden relations, or committing other sins (excluding those to be outlined in the following paragraphs) is obligated to ascend the duchan to recite the blessing. If he refrains from blessing, he only adds insult to injury. As the Rambam writes (Hilchot Tefillah 15:6), “Do not tell an evil person, ‘Do more evil and refrain from performing mitzvot.’”
  It is not surprising how an evil Kohen can bless Israel, because in truth, it is Hashem Who blesses His nation of Israel with love. In order for the blessing to be revealed in the world, the Kohanim are commanded to utter the prayer with their lips. Consequently, Israel will strengthen its awareness that Hashem is the source of blessing in the world. Since the Kohanim in general are the group granted the holiest tasks from among the Jewish people, they were chosen to express the Divine Will to bless the nation of Israel. Yet, the berachah is not dependent on the personal righteousness of the Kohen who blesses, but on God’s desire to bless His people (Rambam ibid., 7; and see Olat Ra’ayah, part 1, p. 283).
  However, if the Kohen commits sins which mar his priesthood, the Chachamim penalize him and forbid his ascent to the duchan. For instance, a Kohen who marries a divorcee is prohibited from reciting Birkat Kohanim. Similarly, a Kohen who is not careful to avoid becoming contaminated by the impurity of the dead is forbidden to bless the people. The reason is that since these prohibitions were intended to preserve the special sanctity of the Kohanim, one who transgresses them damages his priesthood, and therefore the Chachamim penalize him by forbidding him to ascend the duchan. Likewise, he is not called up to the Torah for the special aliyah of the Kohanim.
  If he decides to repent, he must first divorce his forbidden wife and vow in public not to marry women who are prohibited to him again. Only after that may he resume his priestly task of blessing the people. Likewise, if he was accustomed to becoming contaminated by the dead, he must accept upon himself not to do so again (Shulchan Aruch 128:40-41).
  A Kohen who worshiped idols is disqualified from reciting Birkat Kohanim. We learn this from the law of the Temple service; just as a Kohen who worships idols is ineligible to perform the Temple service, so too, he is unfit to bless the people (Menachot 109a and Tosafot there). However, if he repents completely, he may resume his priestly duties and bless the nation (Shulchan Aruch 128:37).
  There are poskim who equate the law concerning one who publicly (meaning in front of ten Jews) desecrates the Shabbat, to the law of a person who worships idols, and they maintain that a Kohen who does so is forbidden to ascend the duchan. That is how the Mishnah Berurah rules (128:134). However, according to a number of eminent Acharonim, even a Kohen who desecrates the Shabbat is permitted to ascend the duchan, for a number of reasons. First, it is not clear that the law concerning one who desecrates the Shabbat is, indeed, like that of an idol worshiper. Secondly, a distinction must be made between those who desecrate the Shabbat nowadays and those who did so in the past. In the past, it was clear that anyone who desecrated the Shabbat publicly did so partly in defiance of the Torah and the mitzvot. However, today, those who desecrate the Shabbat do not intend to purposely incite God’s wrath. Even if they publicly violate the laws of Shabbat, it is due to a lack of faith and learning, and not from an intention to arouse anger and to antagonize. Therefore, a Kohen who desecrates the Shabbat without intending to desecrate Hashem’s Name and offend the Torah is permitted to ascend the duchan, according to the lenient opinion.4<i class="footnote">Some are lenient so that the children of these<em> Kohanim</em> will not be mistaken for not being <em>Kohanim</em> and subsequently marry women who are forbidden to all <em>Kohanim</em>. So writes <em>Achiezer</em>, part 4, 3, and what is brought in the name of the <em>Aderet</em>. The <em>Igrot Moshe</em>,<em> Orach Chaim</em> 1:33 writes that, in principle, one who desecrates the Shabbat is permitted to bless the nation. There, in part 2, 4 he writes that the <em>Levushei Mordechai</em> is also lenient regarding this. See earlier in this book, chapter 2, note 10, that some <em>Acharonim</em> allow one who desecrates the Shabbat to join a <em>minyan</em>, since today such a person does not sin intentionally to arouse anger.</i>
  However, the law regarding a Kohen who desecrates the Shabbat in order to purposely incite God’s wrath is different. This includes a Kohen who participates in organizing communal desecration of the Shabbat. This includes organizing bus rides on Shabbat, partaking in a demonstration in favor of opening businesses and movie theaters on Shabbat. As long as he does not repent, he is like an idol worshiper and is deemed unfit to ascend the duchan.
  
  Section 11
  
  The Priestly Blessing / A Kohen Who Has Killed Is Ineligible to Ascend the Duchan
  A Kohen who has taken a life may not bless the nation, as it is written (Isaiah 1:15), “When you spread your hands [in prayer], I will turn My eyes away from you… [for] your hands are full of blood” (Berachot 32b). This means that only hands clean of blood are kosher for reciting Birkat Kohanim. This is similar to a sacrificial altar, whose stones are forbidden to be shaped using iron, since iron shortens human life, whereas the altar is intended to make peace and lengthen human life. Similarly, a Kohen whose hands have been contaminated by blood may not bless the people and bestow abundant blessing and peace upon Israel. The task of the Kohen is to augment kindness and life, like Aharon HaKohen, who was a lover and pursuer of peace, and a Kohen who has killed has damaged the core of his priesthood.
  According to the Shulchan Aruch (Orach Chaim 128:35), no repentance can help a Kohen who has committed murder. Even if he killed accidentally, repentance will not do him any good, since a prosecutor cannot become a defender, and hands that have committed murder are forever ineligible to bestow Birkat Kohanim upon the nation.
  However, according to the Rama, if the Kohen fully repents and goes to a sage who will arrange a process consisting of fasting, giving tzedakah, and accepting upon himself not to sin again in the future, then after concluding the process of repentance, he may resume blessing the people. Someone who repents becomes a new person, and therefore, even if he committed murder intentionally, if he completely repents, he may resume blessing the people.
  There is an intermediate opinion which maintains that a Kohen who murdered accidentally and repented may bless the people. However, a Kohen who intentionally murdered someone may not bless the nation even after he repents (Pri Chadash; Eliyah Rabbah; Bei’ur Halachah 128:35). 
  A Kohen who experiences such a serious incident must go to his rabbi to receive personal advice regarding how to practice.
  Similarly, a Kohen who has unintentionally run over and killed someone with his car may not ascend the duchan for Birkat Kohanim. As mentioned previously, the poskim disagree as to whether repentance would be effective. However, if there was no negligence on his part while driving – for example, a child suddenly jumped under the wheels of his car and he could not prevent the accident – then in such a case, he is not even considered one who kills unintentionally. Rather, he is seen as a person who killed due to circumstances beyond his control, and according to all opinions, if he repents according to the instructions of his rabbi, he is permitted afterwards to resume blessing the nation (Yechaveh Da’at 5:16).
  
  
  
  
  
  Section 1
  
  Nefillat Apayim and the Prayers of Supplication / The Uniqueness of the Nefillat Apayim Prayer
  After the conclusion of the Amidah, it is customary to “fall on one’s face” (Nefillat Apayim) and recite prayers of supplication (Tachanun) before Hashem. By doing so, we fulfill the mitzvah of prayer in all of its positions – Birkot Keriat Shema while sitting, Shemoneh Esrei while standing, and the prayers of supplication that follow, in prostration. We learn this from Moshe Rabbeinu, who prayed in those three positions on behalf of the nation of Israel after the sin of the Golden Calf, as it is written, “I sat on the mountain” (Deuteronomy 9:9);  “I stood on the mountain” (ibid., 10:10); and  “I threw myself down before Hashem” (ibid., 9:25). So too, we in our prayers, after having prayed while sitting and standing, are left with a feeling that we have not yet expressed everything, that we have not yet broken down the barriers completely, so we  prostrate ourselves in submission to the Master of the Universe (see Tur 131).
  Nefillat Apayim possesses a special power and is the most effective prayer in times of trouble. An illustration of this can be found in the dispute of Korach and his followers, when Hashem told Moshe and Aharon, “Separate yourselves from this group and I will destroy them in an instant.” They immediately understood the need to pray intensely. Therefore, they prayed in prostration, as it is written, “They fell on their faces and prayed, ‘Omnipotent God of all living souls, if one man sins, shall You direct Divine wrath at the entire community?’” (Numbers 16:21-22). From the intensity of their prayer recited in prostration, the decree was overturned.
  Nefillat Apayim is so powerful because it expresses one’s complete surrender  towards the Creator until a person reaches total sacrifice of his soul. It is as if the person is saying to the Master of the Universe, “All my senses and organs are void before You. Do to me as You will, for I am all Yours.” Therefore, with the prayer of Nefillat Apayim it is possible to repair flaws which cannot be rectified through regular prayer (see Zohar Numbers 120:2).
  In Nefillat Apayim, there is also an expression of shame towards Heaven. After having prayed the Amidah, in which we were engaged in the greatness of the Blessed One, and in which we presented all our requests, here we are, embarrassed to show our faces. How did we dare stand before Him in prayer? Therefore, we fall on our faces. Furthermore, Nefillat Apayim conveys the sorrow which derives from repentance, for due to the anguish over our wrongdoings, we cannot lift our faces (see Rabbeinu Bechaye Numbers 16:22).
  
  Section 2
  
  Nefillat Apayim and the Prayers of Supplication / The Custom of Its Recital
  Despite its great virtue, the Chachamim did not establish Nefillat Apayim to be an obligatory prayer, and they did not institute a set wording for it. Anyone who so desired would add prayers of supplication in prostration after reciting the Amidah. Perhaps specifically because of its superior value, being that it expresses total submission to the Creator, May He Be Blessed, it is befitting that it emanates from the heart, from one’s most inner resolve.
  During the period of the Geonim, a permanent wording for Nefillat Apayim, and the prayers of supplication after the Amidah, began to take shape. In the time of the Rishonim, the wording became established, until all Jews accepted upon themselves the obligation to recite certain specific supplications. Seemingly, as a result of the suffering of the Diaspora, which continued to intensify, our hearts were dulled. This necessitated the introduction of a permanent wording of supplication. Because the nusach of the supplications became widespread only after the scattering of the exiles, the differences between the Sephardic and Ashkenazic wordings are more pronounced.
  The Nefillat Apayim prayer expresses heartbreak, manifested by the submission of one’s body and sacrifice of one’s soul. Therefore, it is not recited on holidays, or days of joy due to the celebration of a special mitzvah like a brit milah. The kabbalists explain that all the tikkunim (rectifications) performed on regular days via the Nefillat Apayim prayer are achieved on days of a mitzvah celebration purely through the joyous sanctity of the day (Kaf HaChaim 131:54). Additionally, when those celebrating such a joyous mitzvah are present in the synagogue, prayers of supplication are not recited (as explained in halachot 7 and 8). We have already learned that, in principle, there is no obligation to recite Tachanun, and therefore in any situation in which there is doubt as to whether Tachanun should be said, the instruction is not to recite it.1<i class="footnote">The <em>Tur</em> section 131 writes in the name of <em>Rav Natrunai Gaon</em> that since <em>Nefillat Apayim</em> is voluntary, it is customary not to recite it in the<em> </em>house of a<em> chatan</em> (groom), as writes <em>Shut HaRivash</em> 412 in the name of <em>Rav Sar Shalom Gaon</em><em>Rabbi Yitzchak Ibn Giat</em> proves this with the story from <em>Bava Metzia</em> 59b about Imma Shalom, Rabbi Eliezer’s wife, who would not let Rabbi Eliezer say prayers of supplication after the <em>Amidah</em> so as not to cause harm to her brother, Rabban Gamliel. It is from here we learn that it is not an obligatory prayer. Other <em>Rishonim</em> and <em>Acharonim</em> have written this as well. <em>Birkei Yosef</em> 131:13 and <em>Sha’ar HaTzion</em> 131:15 write that in any case of uncertainty, it is better not to recite <em>Nefillat Apayim</em>, since it is voluntary.</i>
  Similarly, in a house of mourning, it is customary not to recite Tachanun, since the Divine attribute of judgment (midat hadin) is present there, and care should be taken not to amplify it (Mishnah Berurah 131:20). The idea behind this is that the person praying Nefillat Apayim demonstrates to himself that his existence is dependent on Hashem, and that he is null and void in relation to Him. Since a mourner already has an acute sense of this, it is unnecessary to add to it.
  
  Section 3
  
  Nefillat Apayim and the Prayers of Supplication / What Is Nefillat Apayim?
  At first, it was customary to perform the Nefillat Apayim prayer by prostrating or by bowing down. Prostration means that the person drops his whole body to the ground, and spreads out his hands and feet. Bowing means that the person gets down on his knees, bends his head forward, and rests it down on the ground (Berachot 34b; Rambam Tefillah 5:13-14).
  However, due to a number of concerns, the custom to pray Nefillat Apayim by bowing down or prostrating oneself on the ground was annulled. Some of the reasons are halachic, dealing with the prohibition against prostrating oneself on a stone floor; and the prohibition of an important person falling on his face before the congregation without a guarantee that he will be answered like Yehoshua bin Nun.2<i class="footnote">The basis for the prohibition to prostrate oneself on a kneeling stone is brought in <em>Megillah</em> 22b and it is cited by the <em>Rama</em> 131:8. The <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 131:40 explains that the biblical prohibition entails prostrating oneself on a stone floor, as it is written (Leviticus 26:1), “Do not place a kneeling stone in your land upon which to prostrate yourselves.” This prohibition has two conditions: 1) prostration, and 2) a stone floor. The <em>Chachamim</em> instituted a prohibition even when only one condition exists, meaning that prostration is forbidden even on a floor that is not made of stone, and even just bowing down on a stone floor is forbidden. <em>Chazal</em> do permit bowing down on a floor that is not made of stone. If there are stones there, one may bow by leaning on his side, or by making a separation between his head and the floor, with a towel or the like. Likewise, it is permissible to prostrate oneself on a floor without stones provided that one leans slightly on his side. There is uncertainty as to whether one may prostrate oneself on a stone floor using a separation. See <em>Sha’ar HaTzion</em> 44.Further, Chazal write in Megillah 22b that a prominent person is forbidden to fall on his face unless he knows for certain that he will be answered as was Yehoshua bin Nun, and that is how the Shulchan Aruch 131:8 rules. However, when he is alone, the Tosafot write based on the Yerushalmi, that it is permissible, and so writes the Beit Yosef in the name of some Rishonim. Similarly, the Mishnah Berurah 38 rules that the prohibition applies when he is the only one falling on his face in front of the congregation, like Yehoshua bin Nun. In a situation such as that one, were he not answered, he would feel ashamed, for those who see him would think he is not worthy. Still, it can be inferred from the Rambam that the prohibition for a prominent person applies even when he is alone. The Meiri explains that this prohibition is to prevent one from considering himself overly pious. See Yad Peshutah on Rambam Tefillah 5:14 where he brings the responsa of Rav Sherira Gaon and Rav Hai Gaon, which implies that when the congregation would prostrate themselves or bow down on the ground, the rabbis would elevate themselves slightly from the floor and turn their faces to the side, and the most prominent rabbis would not bow down at all. Perhaps also for this reason, the custom not to prostrate oneself or bow down, spread throughout the rest of the nation.</i>
  Still, the main reason is written in the Zohar (Numbers 121:1), which greatly reinforces the virtue of Nefillat Apayim, during which the person praying must sacrifice his soul to Hashem and view himself as if he has left the world, thereby atoning for all his sins. “This restorative act must be performed with great kavanah of one’s heart. Then HaKadosh Baruch Hu has mercy on him and absolves his sins. Great is the person who knows how to entice his Master and eagerly serve Him with kavanah of the heart. Woe to the one who entices his Master with a distant heart bereft of desire. As it is written (Psalms 78:36-7), ‘They beguiled Him with their mouths and lied to Him with their tongue, for their heart was untrue to Him.’ He says, ‘I lift my soul up to You’ (Psalms 25:1), but his words emanate from a distant heart, and that causes him to leave this world before his time.” Since we are concerned that perhaps we are unable to have the necessary full kavanah and are unworthy, we refrain from prostrating ourselves, or from bowing down.
  In practice, it is the custom of all Ashkenazim and some Sephardim to bend down and cover their faces on the shirtsleeve of their arm. By doing so, one maintains a certain aspect of Nefillat Apayim, for that is a type of bow, yet it is not a complete bow, and there is no fear of prostration on a stone floor (Bei’ur Halachah 131:1). Perhaps so as not to encounter the danger mentioned in the Zohar, Ashkenazim were accustomed not to recite the psalm “Eilecha Hashem Nafshi Essa” (“I lift my soul up to You”) (Psalm 25), which is explained in the Zohar to mean the surrender of one’s soul, and instead they recite Psalm 6 (Magen Avraham 131:5). Those who follow the Ben Ish Chai are careful not to fall on their faces at all, and that is how many people from Eidot HaMizrach practice.3<i class="footnote">The <em>Ben Ish Chai</em><em> Ki Tisa</em> 13, writes that perhaps just resting one’s head on his arm is to a certain degree what the <em>Zohar</em> intended, that whoever does not have the proper <em>kavanah</em> is endangering his life. Therefore, “It is good that every person refrain from placing his face on his arm and he should not change his position in any way.” So writes the <em>Yechaveh Da’at</em>, part 6, end of section 7. However, the <em>Shulchan Aruch</em> 131:1 rules that one must fall on his face, and that is the opinion of the <em>Chida</em> as well. Even the <em>Kaf HaChaim</em> 131:31 writes that anyone who does not intend to lower his soul to the forces of evil in order to purify them, but rather solely intends to surrender his soul for the sake of Torah observance and the fulfillment of <em>mitzvot</em>, does not endanger himself. It is written in the <em>Siddur</em><em>Od Avinu Chai</em> (based on <em>Rav Rakach</em>) that the <em>minhag</em> of all the North African ethnic groups (Spanish emigrants) was to fall on their faces. In practice, every person should follow his own family’s <em>minhag</em></i>
  
  Section 4
  
  Nefillat Apayim and the Prayers of Supplication / How to Perform Nefillat Apayim
  As mentioned, according to the Ashkenazic minhag, and of some Sephardim, Nefillat Apayim is performed by lowering one’s head and leaning it on the arm. In the opinion of the Shulchan Aruch, one always falls on his left arm. According to the Rama, in the morning, when one’s tefillin is placed on his left arm, he falls on his right arm, and at Minchah, he falls on his left arm – this is the Ashkenazic custom (Shulchan Aruch and Rama 131:1; Mishnah Berurah 6).
  When falling on the left arm, we tilt our faces slightly to the right, so as not to point them straight down to the floor. Similarly, when we fall on the right arm, we tilt our faces slightly to the left. We practice this just as it was practiced when people were accustomed to actually prostrating themselves on the ground, for in those times, they tilted their faces as a “fence” against the prohibition of prostrating oneself on a stone floor (Mishnah Berurah 131:40; Bei’ur Halachah 131:1).
  It is customary to cover one’s face with clothing. It is not sufficient to conceal one’s head with his arm, since the arm and the face are one body, and the body cannot cover itself (Mishnah Berurah 131:3). The main purpose of this covering is for the sake of modesty, like that of a person who hides his face from Hashem out of trepidation and shame. One who is wearing short sleeves, and has a handkerchief, should place it on his arm and place his face on it. However, if he does not have a handkerchief, he may fall on his bare arm, but not on his palm, since it is impossible to hide one’s face with one’s palm. If there is a table there, he rests his arm and head on it, and the table is considered the main cover for his face.4<i class="footnote">The <em>Bei’ur Halachah</em> 131:1 clarifies that with the way we fall on our faces today, there is no concern of transgressing the prohibition of prostrating oneself on a kneeling stone, since our heads are very far away from the floor. Therefore, even if the floor is made of stone, it is not forbidden, since there are two differences here from the biblical prohibition: 1) this is not prostration, and 2) one’s face is not touching the ground. If so, the custom to lean on one’s side exists to remember the <em>minhag</em> when people were accustomed to bowing down completely on the ground, and if the floor was stone, they would have to bow with their head to the side. According to this, even the covering of one’s face does not serve as a separation between one’s face and the ground; rather the falling on one’s face is to hide his face in shame. Perhaps even the covering of oneself with clothing is to remember the fact that they used to bow down completely on the ground, for then if it was a stone floor, one could either turn his face or make a separation between himself and the floor. However, from the <em>Magen Avraham</em> 131, paragraphs 2 and 20, it can be inferred that even when one’s face is far from the ground, it is still considered bowing down, and therefore he is obligated to lean on his side or make a separation between his face and the ground. The <em>Bei’ur Halachah</em> questions this, and it is his view that nowadays, the custom to lean exists only to remember the custom of bowing down.If so, when one does not have a sleeve or piece of fabric, it seems that he may cover his face with his bare arm, for not having fabric does not prevent one from fulfilling his obligation. If there is a table or lectern (shtender) there, it is best that one rest his head on his arm far into the depth of the table, so that the table can also be considered a cover for his face. Some lean on their watches and use them as a separation, though there is no reason for this, since a watch cannot cover one’s face. Even according to the Magen Avraham it is not considered to be a separation due to its small size. On the contrary, the kabbalists maintain that one must not lean on the palm of his hand at all, for on it are recorded all of his sins (Kaf HaChaim 131:47; Piskei Teshuvot, note 34), and one’s watch is close to his palm.See Piskei Teshuvot 131, note 31, where he writes that according to the Magen Avraham, who maintains that the cover is intended to separate between one’s face and the floor, it is not enough to rest one’s forehead on his sleeve, for if he does, he will be facing the floor without a separation. Instead, one must cover his face with his arm. If there is a table there, he may lean his forehead on his arm and then the table is considered a separation between his face and the floor. Further, according to the Magen Avraham, it is permissible to hold a siddur between one’s face and the ground which would effectively divide between them. Still, we learned that the Mishnah Berurah rules that there is no need for a divider here; rather it is merely a continuation of a custom from the time that people actually bowed down on the floor. However, concerning a covering, it is, indeed, proper that the main part of one’s face be covered.</i>
  It is customary to perform Nefillat Apayim only in places where a Torah scroll is present, or even other printed sifrei kodesh (sacred texts). In a place in which there are no sacred texts, the prayer is recited while sitting, without falling on one’s arm.
  When Nefillat Apayim is performed in the rooms adjacent to the synagogue, which do not contain a Torah scroll or sacred books, if it is possible to see the aron kodesh (holy ark) from there, one falls on his face. However, when the aron kodesh cannot be seen, the prayer is recited while sitting.5<i class="footnote">The <em>Roke’ach</em> 324 writes that <em>Nefillat Apayim </em>is only performed in a place where there is a Torah scroll, but the <em>Beit Yosef</em> questions his words. The <em>Chida</em> concludes from this that it is the opinion of the <em>Shulchan Aruch</em> that one may fall on his face even in a place where there is no Torah scroll. (In practice, however, many <em>Sephardim</em> are accustomed to not falling on their faces at all.) The <em>Rama</em> 131:2 rules like the <em>Roke’ach</em>. In the rooms adjacent to the synagogue, if the <em>aron kodesh</em> can be seen, one falls on his face (<em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 13). Even <em>sifrei kodesh</em> can be considered like a Torah scroll according to the majority of <em>Acharonim</em>, as written in <em>Siddur Olat Ra’ayah </em> p. 302, paragraph 4.</i>
  In Jerusalem, it is customary to perform Nefillat Apayim even in a place without sacred texts, since the sanctity of the city serves as a substitute for the texts.6<i class="footnote">According to <em>Rav Shlomo Zalman Auerbach</em>, this only applies to the Old City. Still, <em>Rav Tikochinsky</em> writes this about the entire city of Jerusalem, as is written in <em>Siddur Olat Ra’ayah</em> p. 302. Since we learned that there are <em>poskim</em> who completely disagree with the <em>Roke’ach</em>, and according to them there is no need for a Torah scroll at all, in every case of uncertainty concerning this law, it is permissible to follow those who maintain that one may fall on his face, especially since that is the opinion of the majority of <em>poskim</em>.</i>
  In a place where it is impossible for someone to recite the Nefillat Apayim prayer while sitting, such as in a place without a chair, or in a place in which another person is praying the Amidah directly behind him and he cannot go elsewhere, he may stand (Mishnah Berurah 131:10). It is best that one leans against a wall in such a way that without it he would fall, so that his prayer is considered to be recited partially sitting and partially in the position of Nefillat Apayim (Kaf HaChaim 38).
  
  Section 5
  
  Nefillat Apayim and the Prayers of Supplication / The Thirteen Attributes of Mercy
  After Hashem forgave Israel for the sin of the Golden Calf, and even agreed that Israel would be favored among all the nations in its special connection with Him, Moshe Rabbeinu implored, “Please let me have a vision of Your glory.” Hashem replied, “I will make all My good pass before you, and reveal the Divine Name in your presence,” meaning, I will disclose to you My Holy Name that is revealed to the world; however, it is impossible to grasp My essence, “For a person cannot see Me and live” (Exodus 33:18-20). “Hashem descended in a cloud, and stood there with Moshe, and he (Moshe) called out in Hashem’s Name. Hashem passed before him and proclaimed (Hashem called out and revealed His Names to Moshe), ‘Hashem, Hashem, merciful and gracious God, slow to anger, with tremendous kindness and truth. He remembers deeds of kindness for thousands [of generations], forgiving sin, iniquity, and error, and He cleanses’” (Exodus 34:5-7). These are the Thirteen Attributes of Mercy.
  Rabbi Yochanan said, “Were the verse not written, it would be impossible to say it. This teaches us that HaKadosh Baruch Hu wrapped Himself like a chazan and demonstrated to Moshe the order of the prayer. He said to him, ‘Any time that Israel sins, let them perform before Me this procedure and I will forgive them’” (Rosh HaShanah 17b).
  With the acceptance of faith on the most supreme level, attained by reciting the Thirteen Attributes, we connect to Hashem in such a profound and exalted manner that our sins become marginal and exterior. In that state, atonement is achieved.
  Therefore, in Selichot, on fast days and Yom Kippur, the Thirteen Attributes are recited numerous times in the prayer service. The customs vary regarding their recital on weekdays. According to the Ashkenazic and Yemenite (Baladi) minhagim, they are recited only on Mondays and Thursdays since those are the appropriate days for saying prayers of supplication. According to the Sephardic minhag (including Sephard-Chassidi), based on the Ari, they are recited every time there is Nefillat Apayim.
  The recital of the Thirteen Attributes is considered a matter of sanctity and therefore necessitates a minyan. One who prays individually is not permitted to recite them; however, he is allowed to read them with cantillation signs as one reading the Torah (Shulchan Aruch, Orach Chaim 565:5; Mishnah Berurah 12). Whoever has not yet succeeded in finishing “Kel erech apayim” before the congregation reaches the Thirteen Attributes must stop and join in with the congregation. As long as the congregation has not yet finished reciting the Thirteen Attributes of Mercy, he may still join them. However, if they have already finished, he is considered to be reciting them as an individual (Ben Ish Chai, Ki Tisa 4).
  
  Section 6
  
  Nefillat Apayim and the Prayers of Supplication / The Passages of Supplication and Nefillat Apayim
  It is proper not to interrupt by talking between Shemoneh Esrei and Tachanun, because when the recital of the prayers of supplication is linked to Shemoneh Esrei, the prayers are more favorably accepted (Shulchan Aruch 131:1; Mishnah Berurah 1).
  Concerning the nusach of Tachanun, there are differences between the various ethnic groups. The reason for this is that when most Jews lived in Israel or in Babylon, each person would recite prayers of supplication in his own tongue. Only later on, in the time of the Rishonim, when the exiles dispersed, certain set wordings took shape. Additionally, approximately four hundred years ago, some changes were made in Nusach Sephard, based on Kavanot HaAri.
  According to Kavanot HaAri, it is customary to recite Vidui (confession) and the Thirteen Attributes of mercy before the Psalm of Nefillat Apayim, so that after achieving atonement from the recital of Vidui and the Thirteen Attributes, one arrives at the pinnacle of these prayers, Nefillat Apayim (Kaf HaChaim 131:5). According to the Ashkenazic and Yemenite (Baladi) minhag, we open with Vidui and the Thirteen Attributes only on Mondays and Thursdays, the days when we recite numerous prayers of supplication. However, on the remaining days, we say Nefillat Apayim immediately following the Amidah, because it is best to adjoin Nefillat Apayim to the Amidah as much as possible.
  In Nefillat Apayim, according to the Sephardic Nusach, Psalm 25 is recited, whereas those who follow Nusach Ashkenaz and Sephard-Chassidi say Psalm 6.
  On Mondays and Thursdays, additional prayers of supplication are recited, since those days are days of Divine grace when prayer is more graciously accepted. They are said while standing (Shulchan Aruch and Rama 134:1). The prayer “V’Hu Rachum” was compiled by three elders exiled from Jerusalem, as explained in the writings of the Rishonim (Abudraham, Ra’avan, Manhig, Kolbo 18). Distinctions in wording between the various customs are slight, except that the Sephardim add more prayers of supplication before it and the Ashkenazim add prayers of supplication after it.
  Another difference is that in Nusach Sephard the additional prayers of supplication of Mondays and Thursdays are recited after Nefillat Apayim, whereas in Nusach Ashkenaz they are recited before Nefillat Apayim.
  A person who practices according to one nusach and prays in a place in which most people are praying in another nusach is permitted to pray as he wishes. If he decides to follow his own custom, he should not make his different minhag noticeable. If the chazan is reciting the Thirteen Attributes, even one who does not have the custom to recite them must join the congregation. Someone reciting a longer nusach when the chazan starts saying Kaddish, must stop his prayers of supplication, respond to Kaddish, and continue on to the next stage of the prayer service. The reason for this is that the exact wording of the prayers of supplication does not prevent a person from fulfilling his obligation, and anyone who recited even a few prayers of supplication has already fulfilled his obligation. If he so desires, he may finish the prayers of supplication after the prayer service.7<i class="footnote">See earlier in this book in the laws of the wordings and the customs of the different ethnic groups, 6:5. The <em>Igrot Moshe</em><em>Orach Chaim</em> 4:34 advises that one who is accustomed to saying <em>Vidui</em> but prays in a place in which it is not said, says it without beating his chest, so that it will not be noticeable. In a place where people praying with different wordings (<em>nusachim</em>) pray together, it is best they follow the custom of the <em>chazan</em>. Nevertheless, those who wish to say <em>Vidui</em> are permitted to beat their chest, for there is no concern of “<em>Lo Titgodedu</em>” (fragmenting the nation into divergent groups with different practices) or causing dissension, because everyone knows that concerning <em>Vidui</em> there are various customs. However, one must calculate the time in such a way that he will succeed in finishing <em>Nefillat Apayim</em> before <em>Kaddish</em>, because after <em>Kaddish</em>, he will have to continue on to say <em>Ashrei</em> with the congregation.</i>
  
  Section 7
  
  Nefillat Apayim and the Prayers of Supplication / Days on Which Tachanun Is Not Recited
  The Nefillat Apayim prayer is one that expresses sorrow concerning our errors and shortcomings, which prevent us from standing before Hashem. Instead, we fall on our faces. For that reason, it is not proper to recite it on days of joy. Since, in its essence, the Tachanun prayer is voluntary, it is therefore customary not to recite Tachanun even on days that are deemed uncertain as to whether or not they should be defined as days of joy (the sources for these laws can be found in Shulchan Aruch 131:6-7 and in the commentaries).
  On the following days, Tachanun is not recited: Shabbat, Festivals, Chol HaMo’ed, and Rosh Chodesh. The remaining days are presented in the order of the calendar year: Shacharit of Erev Rosh HaShanah; Shacharit of Erev Yom Kippur; from the 11 of Tishrei until the end of the month of Tishrei, since those days surround the Festival of Sukkot; Chanukah; Tu BiShvat; the two days of Purim, and in leap years also on the 14 and 15 of Adar I; the entire month of Nisan, since most of it possesses sanctity, for the dedication of the Tabernacle was held in the beginning of the month and the holiday of Pesach follows; the 14 of Iyar, which is Pesach Sheni; Lag BaOmer; from Rosh Chodesh Sivan to the 12 of Sivan, since the supplementary sacrifices for Shavuot were offered until that time; Tish’ah B’Av (either because of mourning or because it is called a mo’ed); and Tu B’Av. Additionally, at the Minchah service preceding all these days, Tachanun is not recited, except for Minchah of Erev Rosh HaShanah and Erev Yom Kippur, when many people recite Vidui then, but not Tachanun.
  Today, ever since Hashem began to bring forth our redemption, Tachanun is not recited on Yom HaAtzma’ut (Israel’s Independence Day), and on the 28 of Iyar, Yom Yerushalayim (Jerusalem Liberation Day), nor at Minchah before each of them.
  
  Section 8
  
  Nefillat Apayim and the Prayers of Supplication / Chatan, Ba’alei Brit, and Other Ba’alei Simchah
  Tachanun is not recited in a minyan in which ba’alei simchah (those celebrating a joyous mitzvah celebration) are praying. Therefore, Tachanun is not recited in a minyan in which a chatan (groom) within his seven days of festivity is praying. However, in Shacharit and Minchah before his wedding, Tachanun is recited, although if Minchah is prayed close to the ceremony at the wedding hall, Tachanun is not recited.8<i class="footnote">Some <em>poskim</em> disagree and maintain that <em>Tachanun</em> is not recited the whole day of the wedding. However, the primary opinion is that it is recited, for many are accustomed to fasting on that day. That is what the <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 131:21 implies and what <em>Yabia Omer</em> 3:11-12 writes as well.On the eighth day, as long as seven consecutive 24-hour days have not passed from the wedding ceremony, Tachanun is not recited, as written in Mishnah Berurah 131:26, Yalkut Yosef 131:21, and Piskei Teshuvot 22. However, regarding the recital of sheva berachot, we go according to the days, and someone who got married before sunset already finishes his first day after sunset. This is because with regard to uncertainty concerning berachot, we are lenient (safek berachot l’hakel), whereas concerning the matter of Tachanun, we follow seven full 24-hour days.</i>
  Similarly, in a minyan in which one of the ba’alei habrit is praying, Tachanun is not recited. The ba’alei habrit are: the father of the baby being circumcised, the mohel, and the sandak. This exemption lasts from the morning until the celebration meal (seudah); that is, if the brit is held in the morning, Tachanun is not recited in the Shacharit service. If the brit is held after Minchah, Tachanun is omitted in both Shacharit and Minchah (Mishnah Berurah 131:22; and see Piskei Teshuvot 19).
  Not only in a minyan in which one of the ba’alei habrit is praying is Tachanun not recited, but even in the synagogue in which the brit is held, Tachanun is not recited. In a building in which there are a number of prayer halls, Tachanun is omitted only in the particular hall in which the brit will be held.9<i class="footnote">Even if the <em>brit</em> will be conducted at <em>Minchah</em> time, <em>Tachanun</em> is omitted there in <em>Shacharit</em> as well. Additionally, even when there are a number of <em>minyanim</em> for <em>Shacharit</em>, <em>Tachanun</em> is not recited in any of them. (In the past, there was a custom that on the day of a <em>brit</em>, the whole community where the <em>brit</em> was taking place did not recite <em>Tachanun</em>, and perhaps even today it is proper to practice that way in relatively small and close-knit communities, where everyone shares in the joyous occasion.) If the <em>brit</em> is conducted in the morning, some have the <em>minhag</em> to recite <em>Tachanun</em> at <em>Minchah</em> (<em>Piskei Teshuvot</em> 131:17, note 103) and some have the custom not to (<em>Yalkut Yosef</em> 131:27-29).</i>
  Bar Mitzvah: many are accustomed not to say Tachanun in a minyan in which a youth who is reaching the age of mitzvot on that day is praying, though some do recite it.
  Pidyon HaBen: many are accustomed not to recite Tachanun in a minyan in which the father of the son is praying, yet some do.
  Likewise, in a prayer service adjoined to the ceremony of a conclusion of a tractate (siyum), or the presentation of a Torah scroll (hachnasat sefer Torah), many are accustomed not to recite Tachanun, though some do.10<i class="footnote">See the sources brought by <em>Piskei Teshuvot</em> 131:24 and in the notes there. As a rule, in all the cases of uncertainty mentioned, those who pray in <em>Nusach Sephard</em> (<em>Sephardim</em> and <em>Chassidim</em>) tend not to recite <em>Tachanun</em>, whereas those who pray in <em>Nusach Ashkenaz</em> have more of a tendency to say <em>Tachanun</em>, as is written, for example, in <em>Ishei Yisrael</em> 25:26 concerning <em>pidyon haben</em>.</i>
  We already learned that when there is doubt as to whether or not to say Tachanun, the correct way to practice is not to recite it (as brought in halachah 1).
  On days of public celebration in memory of prominent Jewish rabbis and righteous people (Yahrtzeit or Hilulah), the opinion of the absolute majority of poskim is that it is necessary to say Tachanun, and that is the custom. The Chassidic poskim maintain that those who follow in the ways of a particular righteous person, engross themselves in his teachings throughout the year, and prepare a feast in his honor on the anniversary of his passing from this world, do not recite Tachanun on that day. However, on the remaining celebration days in memory of other righteous people, Tachanun must be recited.11<i class="footnote">Many <em>poskim </em>outspokenly argued against the <em>minhag</em> of the <em>Chassidim</em> not to recite <em>Tachanun</em> on the days of the passing of prominent Jews. <em>Rav Feinstein</em> and <em>Yabia Omer</em> 3:11 taught that one who prays in such a <em>minyan</em> is obligated to recite <em>Tachanun</em>, and he should not concern himself with <em>yohara</em> (arrogance) or “<em>Lo Titgodedu</em>.” However, the <em>Beit Baruch</em> 32:191 writes that it is preferable not to separate oneself from the congregation. Regarding the rulings of the Chassidic <em>poskim</em>, see <em>Piskei Teshuvot</em> 131:24.</i>
  
  
  
  
  
  Section 1
  
  Several Laws of Torah Reading / The Establishment of Torah Reading
  The mitzvah to learn Torah is a basic commandment, on which all the other mitzvot depend. There is no specific time for Torah study; instead, it is a mitzvah to learn Torah at all times, as it is written (Joshua 1:8), “You shall meditate upon it day and night.” In order to strengthen Israel’s connection to Torah, Moshe Rabbeinu instituted the Torah reading on Shabbat, and in Shacharit of Yom Sheni (Monday) and Yom Hameshee (Thursday), so that three days will not pass without hearing Torah (Rambam Tefillah 12:1).
  The Chachamim teach (Bava Kama 82a) that this was instituted based on the verse (Exodus 15:22), “They traveled for three days in the desert without finding any water.” Moshe Rabbeinu, and his disciples, the elders and the prophets, understood that the thirst for water was a result of three consecutive days during which Israel did not communally engage in Torah study. Torah is likened to water, for just as water sustains all that lives and grows in the world, so Torah sustains the soul. Since the nation became slightly detached from the Torah, the springs of water also ceased to flow. Although the Torah scholars of that generation most probably learned Torah during those three days, for three days the nation of Israel did not engage in Torah publicly. Therefore it was established that the Torah would be read every Monday, Thursday, and Shabbat, so that never again will more than three days pass when Israel does not publically read from the Torah.
  Ezra HaSofer further instituted that, for the Torah reading on Mondays and Thursdays, three people are called up to the Torah. Each person called up reads at least three verses. All together ten verses must be read (Bava Kama 82a; Shulchan Aruch 137:1-2; additionally, in Peninei Halachah Likutim, part 1, 4:2-3, the reasons for this halachah are explained).
  
  Section 2
  
  Several Laws of Torah Reading / The Torah Scroll
  The Torah must be read from a kosher scroll. This means that it must be a Torah scroll written for the sake of Heaven, with ink on parchment, just as the first Torah scroll was written by Moshe Rabbeinu, according to the direct word of Hashem. Even a congregation which sets aside time for Torah study must assemble at least every three days to read from the original Torah scroll, just like the Torah which Hashem gave to Moshe on Mount Sinai. If there is no minyan present, the mitzvah of reading the Torah cannot be fulfilled, since it is a matter of sanctity requiring ten Jews.
  If the Torah scroll is missing even one letter, the entire scroll is invalid, and it cannot be used to perform the mitzvah of Torah reading. This halachah emphasizes the extraordinary quality of the Torah. Its entirety is one complete Divine idea which is expressed by all of its narratives, mitzvot, teachings, and letters together. If even one letter is lacking, a flaw exists in the absolute completeness of the Divine Torah.
  According to a number of Rishonim, it is permissible, b’dieved, to read from an invalid Torah scroll (Rambam’s responsa to the sages of Narvona; Mordechai). Still, in practice, the opinion of the majority of poskim is that the mitzvah of Torah reading can only be fulfilled with a kosher Torah scroll, and that is the halachah (Rashba, Rosh, and Rambam in his halachot; Shulchan Aruch 143:3).
  If, in the middle of the reading, a faulty letter is discovered which renders the Torah scroll invalid, a different Torah scroll is taken out and the reader proceeds from where he stopped in the first. We do not continue reading from the first Torah since, according to the majority of poskim, it is forbidden to read from an invalid scroll. On the other hand, we do not require the congregation to repeat the beginning of the Torah portion, since b’dieved we rely on the poskim who maintain that the obligation of Torah reading can even be fulfilled with an invalid Torah scroll.1<i class="footnote">If the mistake is found in the middle of the reading, according to the <em>Shulchan Aruch</em>, the invalid Torah scroll must be switched for a kosher one, and at least three verses must be read from it so that the one who was called up may recite the blessing after the reading on the kosher scroll. If there is no kosher Torah scroll available, the <em>berachah</em> after the Torah reading is not recited on the invalid scroll. According to the <em>Rama</em>, if the reader reached a point at which it is possible to end the reading (which is not less than three verses from the beginning or end of a section), the blessing after the reading is recited on what he read from the invalid scroll, so as not to switch scrolls in the middle of an <em>aliyah</em>. However, if the mistake is found in a place in which it is not possible to stop reading, since it is not permissible to continue reading from an invalid Torah scroll, they must switch scrolls and continue reading from a kosher one, and the person called up to the Torah recites the blessing after the reading on the kosher Torah scroll (<em>Shulchan Aruch Orach Chaim</em> 146:4; <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 13).</i>
  If a defect is found in one of the letters, and there is doubt as to whether or not it invalidates the Torah scroll, the reading is still continued from that Torah. There are two reasons to act leniently in such a case. First, it is possible that the Torah scroll is actually kosher. Second, even if the Torah does possess something which renders it invalid, we have already learned that there are opinions which maintain that b’dieved it is permitted to read from an invalid Torah scroll. Still, the Torah must be repaired promptly after the reading.
  
  Section 3
  
  Several Laws of Torah Reading / Taking Out the Torah and Returning It to the Ark
  It is customary to recite verses of scripture when opening the ark, when the Torah is escorted to the bimah (pulpit), and when it is brought back to the ark, as printed in the siddurim – each ethnic group according to its custom.
  Ashkenazim are accustomed to first say “El Erech Apayim…” which is not recited on days that there is no Tachanun, and after several verses they recite “Berich Shemei.” Sephardim are only accustomed to recite “Berich Shemei” on Shabbat and Festivals, though some say it on Rosh Chodesh as well (Piskei Teshuvot 134:13).
  The chazan holds the Torah scroll with his right hand, and when he says “Gadlu” he raises it a little. On Shabbat and Festivals he elevates it slightly when he says “Shema” and “Echad” as well. After that, he walks to his right to take the Torah to the bimah where it is read (Rama 134:2; Mishnah Berurah 13). It is customary that people kiss the Torah as it passes and partially escort it on its way. Most people are accustomed to kiss the Torah directly with their lips, yet some touch it with their hand and then kiss their hand (see Piskei Teshuvot 149:1-2). It is not proper for a person who is sick, or has a cold, to kiss the Torah directly with his mouth, so as not to infect the other people praying.
  Before the reading, it is the task of the gabbai to prepare the Torah scroll at the proper place so that it will not have to be rolled there in public, because it is disrespectful to compel the congregation to wait. Generally there is no need to prepare the scroll, since the reading is conducted according to the order of the weekly Torah portions, and thus the Torah is opened to the place where the previous reading left off. However, on Festivals, Rosh Chodesh, and fast days, the Torah is read out of its usual order, and it is necessary to prepare the Torah scroll ahead of time. Afterwards, it must be rolled back to the order of the weekly Torah portion.
  If, by mistake, a different Torah scroll was taken out, the prevalent custom is not to switch it. Even though the congregation will have to wait until it is rolled to the place of the reading, nevertheless, that is part of the honor shown to the Torah scroll; once it is removed from the ark, it is not replaced by another (Kaf HaChaim 144:13). Some say, in order not to waste the congregation’s time, it is permitted to switch a Torah scroll which was removed mistakenly, even if it was already placed onto the bimah. In times of need, when the congregation is strict about its time, we may rely on that opinion (Igrot Moshe, Orach Chaim, part 2, 37).
  
  Section 4
  
  Several Laws of Torah Reading / The Lifting of the Torah Scroll (Hagbahah) and Its Return to the Ark
  The Chachamim established that the Torah scroll be lifted and its letters displayed to the whole congregation. The original minhag was to lift the Torah before the reading (Masechet Sofrim 14:13-14), which is the custom of Sephardim and a few Ashkenazim, as well as that of the Ari. Most Ashkenazim follow the custom of lifting the Torah after the reading, so that everyone will know that the essential objective is to hear the words being read. After the reading, the Torah is displayed to the nation (Shulchan Aruch 134:2; Mishnah Berurah 8; Kaf HaChaim 17; Piskei Teshuvot 9).
  The lifting (hagbahah) is so important, the Chachamim say (Megillah 32a) that the golel, referring to the person who lifts the Torah, receives a reward equivalent to all those called up to the Torah. Therefore, it is proper to give the honor of hagbahah to one of the distinguished people in the community. Today, it is customary to honor even ordinary congregants with hagbahah, although the more correct minhag is to give the honor of hagbahah to a respected person of the community. In any case, great care should be taken not to give the honor of hagbahah to someone who may drop the Torah scroll.
  L’chatchilah, at the time of hagbahah it is necessary for the Torah scroll to be held open at the place it was read, though if it was not, it is not necessary to lift it again (see Piskei Teshuvot 134:4). Regarding an Ashkenazic Torah scroll, the one who is lifting it must open the Torah so that it is possible to see three columns (Mishnah Berurah 134:8).
  Some lift the Torah and turn it only slightly to the left and slightly to the right, and many people from the congregation standing in front of the bimah cannot see the writing. The person doing hagbahah must make sure that all the people praying can see the letters of the Torah. It is best if he slowly turns in a full circle, thereby enabling everyone to see (see Piskei Teshuvot 134:5).
  It is a mitzvah for all the men and women who see the writing to bow and say “V’Zot HaTorah…” (Masechet Sofrim 14:14; Shulchan Aruch 134:2). Many Ashkenazim are not accustomed to bow, and some poskim lend credence to that; however l’chatchilah, it is proper to bow when seeing the writing (Har Tzvi, Orach Chaim 1:64).
  There are those who are accustomed to point to the Torah with their pinky while saying “V’Zot HaTorah…” and then kiss their finger. Some also hold their tzitzit and point to the Torah scroll with it, and afterwards kiss the tzitzit.
  The Geonim introduced the recital of Half-Kaddish after the conclusion of the Torah reading, just as it is customary to recite Kaddish after verses of scripture (Piskei Teshuvot 147:9). So as not to interrupt excessively between the Amidah and the Kaddish-Titkabal after U’va L’Tzion, only Half-Kaddish is recited.
  The Ashkenazim are accustomed to say “Yehi Ratzon” while the Torah is being rolled and covered, except on days that Tachanun is not recited (see Piskei Teshuvot 147:7).
  According to the Ashkenazic minhag and the custom of some Sephardim, the Torah scroll is returned to the ark after the Torah reading and before the recital of Ashrei. The Chassidic minhag and the custom of most Sephardim is to return the Torah to the ark after U’Va L’Tzion and Kaddish Titkabal.
  It is customary to recite verses of scripture while escorting the Torah scroll and returning it to the ark.
  
  Section 5
  
  Several Laws of Torah Reading / The Torah Reader
  The Torah is read with cantillation signs, that is, in a melody which suits the meaning of the words being read. Since the cantillation signs are not written in the Torah scroll, the reader must learn the signs that accompany the reading by heart. If there is no one present who learned the particular portion with cantillation signs, another person may look into a printed Chumash with the signs and whisper them to the reader, so that he can read from the Torah with the proper melody (Mishnah Berurah 142:8). If no one is able to read the Torah with cantillation signs, it is permissible b’dieved to fulfill the obligation of Torah reading without them (Shulchan Aruch 142:2).
  It is necessary to be meticulous in the reading of the Torah. If the reader errs in reading a word, such that the meaning of that word is changed, he must repeat it properly. However, for a mistake which does not alter the meaning of the words, there is no need to repeat the reading.2<i class="footnote">A Torah reader who left out a word, even if the meaning was not changed, must repeat the word. In a case in which he omitted a letter from a word without changing the meaning of the word, such as saying <em>Haron</em> instead of <em>Aharon</em>, according to the <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 142:4 he need not repeat it, yet according to the <em>Kaf HaChaim</em> 142:2, he must.If he erred in his reading of a word and continued on a bit, he must go back to the beginning of the verse in order to correct the mistake in such a way that the text will be understood correctly, and from there he continues reading in order. If the mistake is made in the first aliyah, and it is only realized during the third aliyah, the Mishnah Berurah rules (Bei’ur Halachah 142, s.v. “Machzirim”) that the congregation must return to the beginning of the verse in which the mistake was made and then continue reading in order from there until the end of the third aliyah. If, after they conclude the Torah reading, they realize the mistake, they return to the verse in which the mistake was made and read it along with another three verses. They do not recite a blessing on this second reading, because some maintain that b’dieved they fulfilled their obligation the first time even in reading with mistakes. See Peninei Halachah Likutim I, 4:13-14.</i>
  Initially, it was customary that each person called up to the Torah would personally read his portion. For that purpose, everyone would prepare the whole weekly portion of the Torah reading. Alternatively, the gabbai would plan in advance the order of the people to be called up and notify each of them, so they could prepare their portions ahead of time. Yemenite Jews still do this nowadays.
  However, from the time of the Rishonim, the majority of congregations became accustomed to appoint a Torah reader (ba’al koreh) who would read the Torah for everyone. The one called up recites a blessing on the reading before and after it, and the ba’al koreh reads the Torah for him. This way, people who do not know how to read the Torah are not embarrassed (Ran). This also avoids the possibility that people who erroneously think that they know how to read properly will be insulted if the gabbai does not call them up (Rosh). (See Shulchan Aruch 139:1-2; Peninei Halachah Likutim I, 4:6.)
  
  Section 6
  
  Several Laws of Torah Reading / The One Who Is Called Up and the Torah Blessings
  Although every person recites Birkot HaTorah in the morning, the Chachamim established that those called up to the Torah recite the blessings again before and after the reading, so as to instill a feeling of Divine reverence and awe in the heart of the one who is called up, and in the hearts of the listeners.
  Originally, the minhag was such that only the first and last people called up to the Torah recited the blessings. The first person called up would recite the first blessing before the Torah reading, and the others called up would not make a blessing. The last person called up would recite the final blessing after the conclusion of the reading.
  Subsequently, the Chachamim established that each and every person called up to the Torah would recite the blessings before and after their portion is read. The Chachamim were concerned that perhaps someone would enter the synagogue in the middle of Torah reading and would not have heard the berachah recited by the first person called up, and  would think that no berachah is recited before Torah reading. Therefore, they established that each person called would make a blessing before his reading. Furthermore, they were concerned that perhaps a person would leave in the middle of Torah reading. Since he would not hear the last person recite a blessing, he would think that there is no berachah after the reading. Therefore, they established that every person called up would recite the blessing at the end of his individual reading (Megillah 21b). The fact that the Chachamim instituted blessings before and after each reading, demonstrates the importance of Birkot HaTorah (see earlier in this book 10:1).
  During the reading, the person who is called up must read each and every word quietly along with the Torah reader. Since he is the one who recited the blessing on the Torah, if he does not read it himself, there is concern that his blessings will have been recited in vain (Shulchan Aruch Orach Chaim 141:2).
  In extenuating circumstances, even a person who does not know how to read, or a person who is blind, can be called up to the Torah, despite the fact that it is the opinion of the Shulchan Aruch (139:3) not to call up a person who is incapable of reading the written words along with the Torah reader. Nevertheless, the Rama rules like the lenient opinion, and even in Sephardic congregations it has been customary in extenuating circumstances to act leniently regarding this matter (see Kaf HaChaim 135:16; Yalkut Yosef, part 3, 139:4).
  
  Section 7
  
  Several Laws of Torah Reading / The Order of the People Called Up
  The Chachamim established that a Kohen is given the honor of the first aliyah, a Levi the second, and a Yisrael the third. The reason for this enactment is “in the interests of peace,” so there will not be any fights concerning the honor of the first aliyah. Originally, this establishment was only for Shabbat, for many people come to synagogue then, and there is more concern that tension will develop surrounding the aliyot on Shabbat (Gittin 59b). Nevertheless, the Rishonim write to practice this way on Mondays and Thursdays as well, and so it is ruled as halachah (Shulchan Aruch 135:3).
  If the Kohen is equal to the Yisrael in status, even without the enactment of the Chachamim he would have to be called up before the Yisrael, for it is written concerning a Kohen, “V’Kidashto” (“You shall sanctify him”) (Leviticus 21:8). Still, Chazal’s ruling comes to establish that even if the Yisrael is greater in Torah than the Kohen, the Kohen is called up first for the sake of peace. However, if the Kohen is an am ha’aretz (uneducated person) and the Yisrael is a talmid chacham (Torah scholar), the Rishonim disagree as to the law in this case. According to the Rashba, the Yisrael is to be called up for the first aliyah, since he is a talmid chacham. However, according to Rav Amram Gaon, Rav Natrunai Gaon, and a number of other Rishonim, even if the Kohen is an uneducated person, concerning the matter of the ascent to the Torah, he should be called up even before the Yisrael who is a talmid chacham, and that is how we practice (Shulchan Aruch 135:4).
  Sometimes, a great need arises to add another aliyah, such as on a Monday when two chatanim (grooms) who are both Yisraelim come to pray at the same synagogue. Since the first and second aliyot are reserved for the Kohen and Levi, if another aliyah is not added, one of the chatanim is deprived of the honor of being called up to the Torah. Although according to the Rama it is permitted to add an aliyah for this reason, in practice it has been ruled that it is forbidden to add to the already existing three aliyot (Shulchan Aruch 135:1; Mishnah Berurah 3). The advice given is to ask the Kohen to leave the synagogue at the time of the first aliyah. Then, when no Kohen is present, a Yisrael will be called up for the first aliyah, thereby allowing both chatanim to be called up to the Torah that day (see Yabia Omer, part 6, 23).
  
  Section 8
  
  Several Laws of Torah Reading / The Congregation’s Conduct During Torah Reading
  It is forbidden to leave the synagogue from the beginning of the Torah reading until its conclusion. Even someone who already heard the Torah reading is forbidden to leave. If one does leave, he offends the respect of the Torah. Of him it is written (Isaiah 1:28), “Those who abandon God will perish.” One who must leave, such as a person whose only ride to work is about to depart, is permitted to leave between aliyot, for then the Torah scroll is closed and the offense to the respect of the Torah is minimal (Shulchan Aruch, Orach Chaim 146:1).
  In principle, there is no obligation to stand throughout the Torah reading, though there are some who enhance the mitzvah by standing, just as all the Jews stood at Mount Sinai (Rama 46:7). Some are strict to stand when answering “Baruch Hashem HaMevorach L’Olam Va’ed” since it is a matter of sanctity, and the recital of a matter of sanctity requires that one stands (Mishnah Berurah 146:18). According to many, it is unnecessary to stand when the Torah is being read, and that is how the Shulchan Aruch rules (146:4). The Ari HaKadosh was also accustomed to sit throughout the whole reading, even when Barchu was recited (Kaf HaChaim 146:20). Indeed this is the custom in many Sephardic and Ashkenazic synagogues.
  From the time the Torah scroll is opened to be read, the people in the congregation are forbidden to talk to one another, even concerning matters of halachah (Sotah 39a). There is an opinion which permits a few brief words of Torah between the aliyot, provided that the exchange does not continue into the berachot or Torah reading (Bach). Some say that it is even forbidden to talk matters of Torah in-between aliyot and that it is only permitted to learn alone at that time (Eliyah Rabbah). It is good to be strict concerning this, because if people start to talk about matters of Torah, it will be hard to stop when the person called up begins to recite the blessing.
  It is permissible for a rabbi to answer an urgent question in the breaks between the aliyot (Mishnah Berurah 146:6). Gabbaim are also permitted, during the breaks, to talk about essential matters that are pertinent to the prayer service. When there is no other option, it is permitted for a rabbi to answer questions even at the time of the Torah reading. Likewise, the gabbaim are permitted to talk about pressing issues which demand immediate attention; for instance, how to avoid insulting one of the people praying who expects to be given an aliyah.
  
  Section 9
  
  Several Laws of Torah Reading / An Individual and a Congregation Who Did Not Hear the Torah Reading
  Torah reading was established for the community as a whole, and does not apply to each and every individual (Ramban Megillah 5a). Therefore, a person who had to leave in the middle of the Torah reading and missed part of it, need not find another minyan in which to make up what he missed, because the important thing is that the congregation fulfilled the mitzvah of Torah reading.
  Someone who has the following two options: to pray in a minyan and leave before Torah reading, or to hear the Torah reading in a minyan, but pray individually – it is preferable that he pray in a minyan because an individual is commanded to pray in a minyan, whereas the mitzvah to read the Torah is a communal commandment and does not pertain to individuals (see Minchat Yitzchak 7:6 and Piskei Teshuvot 135:2). Likewise, even if a person who had to pray individually later discovers a minyan in which the Torah was not yet read, he is not obligated to go join them and hear the Torah being read there (Yalkut Yosef, part 3, 135:7).
  If a person arrives late to synagogue, and when he is reciting Pesukei d’Zimrah or Birkot Keriat Shema, the congregation starts to read the Torah, if he will have a chance afterwards to hear the Torah reading, he should continue to pray. However, if another opportunity to hear the Torah reading will not arise later, l’chatchilah it is best that he stop praying and listen to the Torah being read (Leket Yosher p. 18; Yabia Omer 7:9).
  If six people who prayed individually, but did not yet hear the Torah reading, assemble in the morning, another four people may join them to read the Torah (Bei’ur Halachah 143:1).
  Even if they only convened in the afternoon, according to many Acharonim, they may make up the Torah reading at Minchah (Mishnah Berurah 135:1). However, some disagree and maintain that the Torah may not be read in the afternoon. Nonetheless, in practice, those who wish to make up the Torah reading in the afternoon are permitted to do so, and that is how many prominent Jewish rabbis practiced (Shut Yehudah Ya’aleh, Orach Chaim 51). Therefore, those who did not have a Torah scroll for Shacharit, such as a minyan of soldiers or travelers, upon arriving at a place in the afternoon with a Torah scroll, may read the Torah and make up what they missed (see Yabia Omer 4:17; Piskei Teshuvot 135, note 24).
  
  
  
  
  
  Section 1
  
  The Conclusion of Shacharit and the Laws of Kaddish / Ashrei and Lamenatze’ach
  After Tachanun, (on Mondays and Thursdays following the Torah reading), three passages of prayer are recited.
  The first is Ashrei (Tehillah L’David). Although this prayer has already been recited in Pesukei d’Zimrah, the Psalm is repeated, for the Chachamim say (Berachot 4b), “Whoever recites Tehillah L’David three times daily is promised life in the World to Come.” First it is recited in Pesukei d’Zimrah; a second time after Tachanun, and a third time before Minchah (see the laws of Pesukei d’Zimrah earlier in this book 14:3 and note 5).
  Afterwards, we recite the Psalm “Lamenatze’ach mizmor l’David, ya’ancha Hashem b’yom tzarah” (“For the One Who grants victory, a Psalm of David. May Hashem answer you on the day of distress”), which serves as a continuation of the prayers of supplication (Tachanunim) recited after the Amidah.1<i class="footnote">This is Psalm 20. It is appropriate to recite Psalm 20 after the <em>Shemoneh Esrei</em> which contains nineteen <em>berachot</em>, since it follows a sequence – nineteen and then twenty. However, before the nineteeanth <em>berachah</em> was instituted, when the <em>Shemoneh Esrei</em> had only eighteen <em>berachot</em>, the reason this Psalm was still recited after it was because at that time Psalms 1 and 2 were considered to be one unit. Psalm 20 was therefore considered to be Psalm 19 and hence served as a continuation of the <em>Amidah</em></i>
  Since Lamenatze’ach is a prayer about a day of distress, it is not recited on days of joy. There are various customs surrounding this Psalm. According to the minhag of the Sephardim, the law concerning it is like that of Tachanun, and every day on which Tachanun is not recited due to the joy of that day, Lamenatze’ach is not recited either. According to the Ashkenazic minhag, in order for Tachanun to be omitted, a minor joyous occasion is sufficient; however, for Lamenatze’ach to be omitted, the joyous occasion must be great. Therefore, when a chatan or a ba’al brit (the father, the mohel, or the sandak) is praying with the congregation, Tachanun is not recited, yet Lamenatze’ach is. Likewise, regarding the month of Nisan, and the days from Yom Kippur until the end of Tishrei, although Tachanun is not recited, Lamenatze’ach is. The only times it is not recited are on holidays, the eve of holidays (erev chag), and the day following a holiday (isru chag) (Rama 131:1; Mishnah Berurah 35; Kaf HaChaim 37). These customs are printed in the siddurim before the Lamenazte’ach paragraph, and each ethnic group follows its individual custom.
  
  Section 2
  
  The Conclusion of Shacharit and the Laws of Kaddish / U’va L’Tzion
  After that, U’va L’Tzion, also named “Kedushah d’Sidra,” is recited. It contains the verses “Kadosh, Kadosh, Kadosh,” “Baruch kevod Hashem mimkomo,” and “Hashem yimloch l’olam va’ed,” with their translation into Aramaic. Chazal instituted its recital so that every person praying would merit learning some verses of the Prophets (Nevi’im) every day. That is why the verses are translated into Aramaic, so that the whole nation, which was fluent in Aramaic at that time, would understand their meaning. The Chachamim highly praise the recital of Kedushah d’Sidra, for after the destruction of the Temple, it became one of the remaining practices in whose merit the world stands (Sotah 49a). Rashi explains that its recital possesses two virtues: the virtue of Torah learning, and that the verses discuss Hashem’s holiness. In Shacharit of Shabbat, there is no need to say Kedushah d’Sidra, for one’s obligation to learn the Prophets is already fulfilled by reading the Haftarah. Nevertheless, to avoid cancelling its recital altogether, it became customary to recite it before Minchah, thereby adding some extra learning on Shabbat, particularly learning that pertaining to the sanctity of Hashem.
  Some say that the Chachamim established the recital of Kedushah d’Sidra when hostile rulers decreed upon Israel not to recite Kedushah, and persecutors would stand guard at the prayer services until after the Amidah repetition. After the guards left, the minyan would recite Kedushah d’Sidra. Even after the decree was abolished, the custom to recite Kedushah d’Sidra endured (Shibolei Haleket 44; Beit Yosef 132:2).
  Hence, Kedushah is recited three times in Shacharit: first in Birkat Yotzer HaMeorot, again in the Amidah repetition, and a third time in Kedushah d’Sidra. Similarly, we find that many important prayers were established to be recited three times, such as Tehillah L’David (Ashrei) every day, and Vayechulu on Erev Shabbat.
  In Kedushah, the congregation recites the verses “Kadosh” and “Baruch” in unison. This is true in Kedushah d’Sidra as well, and for that reason, the chazan must recite the introductory verse preceding Kedushah out loud. It is best that a person praying individually recites these verses in the tune of Torah reading with cantillation signs. This is in keeping with the opinion that, because it is a matter of sanctity, it necessitates a minyan, but when it is recited in cantillation, it resembles reading from the Torah and thus there is no need for a minyan. Someone who does not know how to recite the verses with the cantillation signs may recite Kedushah d’Sidra without them, for according to the halachah, an individual praying may also recite Kedushah d’Sidra since the verses only relay how the angels sanctify the Blessed One’s Name.2<i class="footnote">The <em>Rishonim</em> are also divided concerning <em>Kedushah</em> in <em>Birkat Yotzer HaMeorot</em>, and even in that case the majority of <em>poskim</em> maintain that an individual is permitted to recite it. Yet, in order to fulfill one’s obligation according to all opinions, it is best to recite it with cantillation signs, as implied from the <em>Shulchan Aruch</em> and <em>Rama</em>, <em>Orach Chaim</em> 59:3. Regarding <em>Kedushah d’Sidra</em>, according to more <em>poskim</em>, an individual may recite it. See <em>Yabia Omer</em>, part 5, 7:2.There are those who prefer to recite Kedushah d’Sidra while standing, as one does for the Kedushah of the Amidah repetition. However, the minhag is to recite it while sitting, which is the minhag of the kabbalists, and hence, it can be understood that this Kedushah does not require a minyan.The Mishnah Berurah 132:3 writes that an individual who did not yet finish Lamenatze’ach or Ashrei when the congregation already arrived at the verses of Kedushah should skip ahead in order to say those verses with the minyan. Kaf HaChaim writes that he should not skip, for it is more important to recite the prayers in their correct order. The Mishnah Berurah 132:4 writes that the translation of the verses into Aramaic must be recited quietly. Sha’arei Teshuvah writes that the Ari was not strict concerning this.</i>
  As a continuation of Kedushah d’Sidra, the Geonim were accustomed to reciting additional verses and requests concerning atonement, faith, and Torah. Some recited the entire wording that is before us today (the Siddur of Rav Amram Gaon), and others recited a slightly shorter wording (the Siddur of the Rasag). During the time of the Rishonim, everyone became accustomed to reciting the full wording that we have today, with slight differences between the ethnic groups.
  After Kedushah d’Sidra, the chazan recites Kaddish-Titkabal in which, in addition from the main part of the Kaddish, we request that our prayers be accepted. Therefore, the chazan must be careful not to talk from the Amidah repetition until after this Kaddish.3<i class="footnote">One who mistakenly recited <em>Kaddish-Titkabal</em> after <em>Tachanun</em> says <em>Kaddish Shalem</em> without <em>Titkabal</em> after <em>U’va L’Tzion</em><em>Ishei Yisrael</em> 26:5). If one forgot to recite <em>Titkabal</em> in the <em>Kaddish</em> after <em>U’va LTzion</em>, he says <em>Titkabal</em> in the next <em>Kaddish</em><em>Ishei Yisrael</em> 26:11).</i>
  
  Section 3
  
  The Conclusion of Shacharit and the Laws of Kaddish / When to Exit and What to Skip
  The recital of Tehillah L’David (Ashrei) and Kedushah d’Sidra is more important than saying Tachanun, for the Chachamim laud the person who recites Tehillah L’David three times daily, declaring that he has a place in the World to Come (Berachot 4b). About Kedushah d’Sidra, Chazal say that it is one of the things in whose merit the world exists after the destruction of the Temple (Sotah 49a), whereas the recital of Tachanun is voluntary (Tur 131, in the name of Rav Natrunai Gaon). Therefore it is better that an individual praying on his own, who does not have time to complete everything, recites Tehillah L’David and Kedushah d’Sidra (Yechaveh Da’at 2:8).
  Additionally, the virtue in reciting Tehillah L’David and Kedushah d’Sidra, whose basis is derived from the Talmud, is preferable to the recital of Shir Shel Yom (the Psalm of the Day), Pitum HaKetoret (the passage of the incense), and Aleinu L’Shabe’ach, which were customarily recited during the time of the Geonim and Rishonim (Avnei Yashfeh 9:58-60).
  One who is praying in a minyan, and must leave before the end of the prayer service, should try to stay at least until after Kedushah d’Sidra, and even refrain from beginning to remove his tefillin before the conclusion of its recital (Shulchan Aruch 25:13). When possible, he should leave his tefillin on until after Kaddish-Titkabal (Mishnah Berurah 25:56). All this is only in extenuating circumstances; however, l’chatchilah, one must hear another two Kaddishim – Kaddish Yehei Shelama after Shir Shel Yom and Kaddish d’Rabbanan after Pitum HaKetoret.
  
  Section 4
  
  The Conclusion of Shacharit and the Laws of Kaddish / Psalm of the Day
  The Shacharit prayer was instituted to correspond to the morning Tamid offering, and after the sacrifice of the Tamid, the Levi’im would recite Shir Shel Yom (Psalm of the Day). Therefore, it became customary to say Shir Shel Yom after the Shacharit prayer service (Masechet Sofrim 18:1). Although it was not instituted originally as an obligation, and some did not regularly recite it, by the end of the period of the Rishonim, everyone had already become accustomed to doing so.4<i class="footnote"><em>Siddur Rav Amram Gaon</em> mentions that <em>Shir Shel Yom</em> is recited. The <em>Rambam</em>, at the end of <em>Sefer Ahavah</em> in his wording of prayer, writes, “Some Jews were accustomed to reciting it…” In the Temple, <em>Shir Shel Yom</em> was also recited after the afternoon <em>Tamid</em>, nevertheless, our custom is not to recite it at <em>Minchah</em>. The reason for this, explains the <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 132:16, that at times, in the Temple as well, if they were late in bringing the libation,<em> Shir Shel Yom</em> was not recited, because songs of praise are not recited at night.</i>
  Before the Psalm, there is reference to the day: “Today is the first day of the week in relation to Shabbat,” in order to fulfill the mitzvah of remembering the Shabbat on every day of the week (based on Ramban Exodus 20:8; the Ari as brought in Kaf HaChaim 132:26).
  In Nusach Sephard, the Psalm “Tefillah L’David” (Psalm 86) is added before Shir Shel Yom, as well as a collection of verses which start with “Beit Yaakov” and “Shir HaMa’alot L’David” (Psalm 124). On days of joyous occasions, when we do not recite Lamenatze’ach mizmor l’David, ya’ancha Hashem b’yom tzarah (after Ashrei), Tefillah L’David is not said either, since the words “b’yom tzarati ekra’eka” (“on the day of my trouble I call You”) are mentioned in it (Piskei Teshuvot 132:11). These passages are also printed in the siddurim of Nusach Sephard-Chassidi, although many omit them, only reciting Shir Shel Yom, like Minhag Ashkenaz.
  Another difference between the nusachim is that in Nusach Ashkenaz, Aleinu L’Shabe’ach is recited first, then Shir Shel Yom, and finally Pitum HaKetoret; whereas in Nusach Sephard, Shir Shel Yom is recited first, then Pitum HaKetoret, and at the end, Aleinu L’Shabe’ach (the order of discussion in this book is arranged according to the order of prayers in Nusach Sephard).
  Concerning someone who practices according to one nusach and is praying with a chazan following a different nusach, there is disagreement. Some say it is best that he prays in the nusach of the chazan, and others say it is best that he prays quietly in his own family’s nusach, but that he may not sit when the whole congregation stands for Aleinu L’Shabe’ach, so as not to emphasize the differences (see also earlier in this book, 6:5).
  
  Section 5
  
  The Conclusion of Shacharit and the Laws of Kaddish / Pitum HaKetoret and Aleinu L’Shabe’ach
  After Shir Shel Yom, it is customary to recite Pitum HaKetoret, preceded by Ein K’elokeinu. There are two reasons for its recital. The first is that Pitum HaKetoret corresponds to the incense which was offered every morning and evening in the Temple. The second is so that every Jew may merit learning rabbinic teachings daily.5<i class="footnote">In <em>Siddur Rav Amram Gaon</em> there is no mention that we recite the passage of the <em>Tamid</em> and <em>Pitum HaKetoret</em> before the prayer service because the <em>Shacharit</em> prayer itself is considered to be in place of the <em>Tamid</em> offering. <em>Rav Amram </em>writes that the <em>Pitum HaKetoret</em> is recited after the prayer service. In the time of the <em>Rishonim</em>, many became accustomed to reciting <em>Korbanot</em> and <em>Pitum HaKetoret</em> before prayer, based on the <em>Gemara</em> in <em>Ta’anit</em> 27b, which states that its recital is considered to be a substitute for its offering.Further, the initial minhag was to recite Pitum HaKetoret before Shir Shel Yom, as written in the Siddur of Rav Amram Gaon. So writes the Tur, Orach Chaim 133, and Rama 132:2. This minhag was changed based on the Ari, who switched the order based on the progressive sequence of the worlds (see earlier in this book, 13:2); therefore, Shir Shel Yom now precedes Pitum HaKetoret. However, the question arises, since the order in the Temple was the offering of the incense before the song of the Levi’im, how can it be changed? The Eshel Avraham 132 explains that because the incense is already recited after the Tamid in the passages of the Korbanot, there is no need to recite the incense before Shir Shel Yom again. Still, there is reason to recite Pitum HaKetoret even after the prayer service, corresponding to its smoke, which would continue to rise for a very long time. The explanation based on the Ari, is that the recital of Pitum HaKetoret after the prayer service saves the prayer from the external forces (Mishnah Berurah 132:14). The Shlah writes, based on Kabbalah, that it is customary to recite the full Pitum HaKetoret service three times daily, twice in Shacharit and another time at Minchah. This is cited by the Mishnah Berurah 132:14 and Kaf HaChaim 133:19. In any case, as I have already written (chapter 13:1, note 2), those in a hurry are permitted to recite only the Torah verses dealing with the incense in the beginning of the prayer service, on the assumption that at the end of the service they will recite the full baraita concerning the incense.</i>
  In the Zohar (part 2, 212:2), Chazal greatly praise the recital of Pitum HaKetoret, asserting that we are saved, through its virtue, from many calamities. There are those who say that one must be very careful not to omit mentioning even one spice from the incense, therefore, it was not recited on weekdays, in fear that a person rushing to get to work would skip over one of the spices (Rama 132:2). In practice, it is the opinion of the majority of poskim that there is no need to be very meticulous regarding this. However, l’chatchilah it is proper to recite the passage from the siddur so not to skip a word (Beit Yosef; Mishnah Berurah 132:17).
  It is customary to recite Aleinu L’Shabe’ach at the conclusion of the prayer service in order to instill in our hearts faith in Hashem and in our promised redemption before we leave off from prayer. Thus strengthened, when we afterwards encounter gentiles at work, or in the course of the day, we won’t be enticed by their gods and beliefs (Bach 133).6<i class="footnote">The primary place of <em>Aleinu L’Shabe’ach</em> is in <em>Musaf</em> of Rosh HaShanah, in the beginning of <em>Seder Malchuyot</em>. However, during the time of the <em>Rishonim</em>, it had became the custom to conclude the <em>Shacharit</em> prayer with <em>Aleinu L’Shabe’ach</em>. Based on the <em>Ari</em>, it became customary to say <em>Aleinu</em> after each of the three daily prayers (<em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 132:7; <em>Kaf HaChaim</em> 11-12).The Kolbo writes that Yehoshua composed the wording of the Aleinu prayer. Some say that Achan said “Al Ken Nekaveh” when admitting his sin. However, Netiv Binah, part 1, pp. 373-374 writes that it is Rav who composed the prayer.</i>
  Due to the significance of this prayer, it is customarily recited while standing, and one bows slightly when saying the words “Va’anachnu kor’im” (Mishnah Berurah 132:9).
  
  Section 6
  
  The Conclusion of Shacharit and the Laws of Kaddish / The Kaddish and Its Virtue
  Kaddish is special in that its content deals mainly with the respect and glory of Heaven (kevod Shamayim). Therefore, one must have great kavanah in his response, be careful not to let his mind wander, and  not  chatter while it is being recited (Shulchan Aruch 56:1; Mishnah Berurah 1). The Chachamim say about anyone who answers “Amen, Yehei Shemei rabba…” with complete concentration, that a harsh decree of seventy years of judgment against him is torn up (Shabbat 119b; Talmidei Rabbeinu Yonah). Further, they say that when Jews enter the synagogues and recite “Yehei Shemei rabba mevorach” out loud, their harsh decrees are nullified (Pesikta, as cited there by the Tosafot). Additionally, they state that the response to Kaddish arouses Hashem to grant mercy to Israel in exile. When Jews enter synagogues and study halls (batei midrashot) and respond, “Yehei Shemei HaGadol mevorach,” the memory of the exiled Jews ascends before HaKadosh Baruch Hu, Who shakes His head in pain, so to speak, and says, “Fortunate is the king who is glorified this way in his house,” awakening the desire to redeem Israel  before Him (see Berachot 3a).
  By reciting Kaddish, Hashem is sanctified. Therefore, it must be recited in a minyan, for Hashem is only sanctified by an “eidah” (a group) of Jewish people. Kaddish was composed in Aramaic, the language in which all Jews were fluent during the Second Temple period. The following is a translation of the prayer: “Exalted and sanctified be His great Name in the world which He created according to His will. And may He rule His Kingdom, and produce His salvation and draw His messiah near, in your lifetime and in your days (those of the congregation praying), and in the lifetime of the entire House of Israel, speedily and soon, and say, Amen.” The congregation responds, “Yehei Shemei rabba mevorach l’Alam ul’almei almaya,” which is translated as, “May His great Name be blessed forever and ever.” The chazan continues, “Blessed, praised, glorified, exalted, uplifted, honored, elevated, and lauded be the Name of the Holy One, Blessed is He, beyond all blessings, songs, praise, consolations uttered in the world, and say, Amen.”
  That main part of the Kaddish is also called “Half-Kaddish.” Responding to it is of utmost importance, beyond compare. Even a person who is in the middle of Birkot Keriat Shema is permitted to stop to answer Amen.7<i class="footnote">According to the opinion of the <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 66:17, one who is in the middle of <em>Birkot Keriat Shema</em> or <em>Pesukei d’Zimrah</em> responds to the <em>Kaddish</em> in two places: “<em>Amen</em>,<em> yehei Shemei rabba mevorach l’alam ul’almei almaya</em>,” and also “<em>Amen</em>” at the end. According to the <em>Kaf HaChaim</em> 66:23, he responds with all five <em>Amen</em>s in the main part of the <em>Kaddish</em>. See the laws of <em>Birkot Keriat Shema</em> in this book, 16:5.It is important to state that according to Minhag Sephard, the chazan says “v’yitzmach purkanei vikarev meshichei” in the wording of the Kaddish and the congregation responds Amen, whereas in Minhag Ashkenaz, those four words are not recited. The root of this difference lies in the teachings of the Geonim. In Siddur Rav Amram Gaon and Machzor Vitri, the Kaddish is written like Minhag Ashkenaz, and in Siddur Rav Sa’adyah Gaon and in the Rambam it is like Minhag Sephard, although only “v’yitzmach purkanei” is mentioned (see Netiv Binah, part 1, p. 366). Further, it should be noted that in the main part of the Kaddish this is the only distinction; however, at the end of the Kaddish, there are many differences, for in the main part of the prayer the original nusach that Chazal instituted was better preserved. But, in the additions made by the sages of the generations after the scattering of the exiles, the discrepancies between the wordings are more pronounced.</i> It is a mitzvah to run to hear Kaddish. One who already finished praying and has before him two minyanim, one reciting Kaddish and the other Kedushah, it is preferable that he join the minyan reciting Kaddish, for the virtue of Kaddish is greater than that of Kedushah (Mishnah Berurah 56:6).8<i class="footnote">It is written in the <em>Zohar</em>, part 2, 129:2, that the virtue of the <em>Kaddish</em> is greater than the other <em>Kedushot</em> for it has in it the power to break all the barriers of evil and sanctify Hashem in all the worlds. Therefore, it is recited in Aramaic, in order to strike the external forces in their own external tongue.</i>
  
  Section 7
  
  The Conclusion of Shacharit and the Laws of Kaddish / The Various Kinds of Kaddish
  The Chachamim established the recital of Kaddish at the conclusion of each stage of the prayer service. After the recital of the Korbanot, Kaddish d’Rabbanan is recited; after the conclusion of Pesukei d’Zimrah, Half-Kaddish; after Nefillat Apayim and Tachanunim, Half-Kaddish; following Kedushah d’Sidra, Kaddish-Titkabal is recited; after Shir Shel Yom, Mourner’s Kaddish (Kaddish Yatom); and after Pitum HaKetoret, Kaddish d’Rabbanan (Shibolei HaLeket 8). With the Kaddish, we close each stage of the prayer service and elevate it towards the most supreme objective, the respect of Heaven, and from there we continue on to the next stage.
  There are four versions of Kaddish: 1) Half-Kaddish. This is the essence of the Kaddish. It is called Half-Kaddish so as to distinguish it from other Kaddishim which contain further additions. In any section of prayer where a prolonged interruption is undesirable, Half-Kaddish is recited. 2) Kaddish Yehei Shelama, also called Kaddish Shalem (Full-Kaddish). This is recited after saying verses of Scripture, and contains an added request for peace and good life for us and for all Israel. We conclude, “Oseh shalom bimromav… v’imru Amen”. Since this Kaddish is usually recited by people who have lost a parent, it is also called Kaddish Yatom (Mourner’s Kaddish). 3) Kaddish-Titkabal. The chazan recites this Kaddish after the conclusion of the Amidah. In it, before the addition of Kaddish Shalem, a request is added that our prayers be accepted. 4) Kaddish d’Rabbanan. This Kaddish is recited after learning rabbinic teachings. Before the addition of Kaddish Shalem, we add a prayer in this Kaddish for those who learn Torah, that they should merit long and prosperous lives.
  Responding Amen to these additions is not as important as responding to the main part of the Kaddish. Therefore, one may not interrupt the recital of Birkot Keriat Shema and Pesukei d’Zimrah in order to respond to them.7<i class="footnote">According to the opinion of the <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 66:17, one who is in the middle of <em>Birkot Keriat Shema</em> or <em>Pesukei d’Zimrah</em> responds to the <em>Kaddish</em> in two places: “<em>Amen</em>,<em> yehei Shemei rabba mevorach l’alam ul’almei almaya</em>,” and also “<em>Amen</em>” at the end. According to the <em>Kaf HaChaim</em> 66:23, he responds with all five <em>Amen</em>s in the main part of the <em>Kaddish</em>. See the laws of <em>Birkot Keriat Shema</em> in this book, 16:5.It is important to state that according to Minhag Sephard, the chazan says “v’yitzmach purkanei vikarev meshichei” in the wording of the Kaddish and the congregation responds Amen, whereas in Minhag Ashkenaz, those four words are not recited. The root of this difference lies in the teachings of the Geonim. In Siddur Rav Amram Gaon and Machzor Vitri, the Kaddish is written like Minhag Ashkenaz, and in Siddur Rav Sa’adyah Gaon and in the Rambam it is like Minhag Sephard, although only “v’yitzmach purkanei” is mentioned (see Netiv Binah, part 1, p. 366). Further, it should be noted that in the main part of the Kaddish this is the only distinction; however, at the end of the Kaddish, there are many differences, for in the main part of the prayer the original nusach that Chazal instituted was better preserved. But, in the additions made by the sages of the generations after the scattering of the exiles, the discrepancies between the wordings are more pronounced.</i>
  
  Section 8
  
  The Conclusion of Shacharit and the Laws of Kaddish / The Order of the Kaddishim Recited at the End of the Prayer Service
  Following the prayers of supplication after the Amidah, Half-Kaddish is recited. On days on which Tachanun is not said, the Half-Kaddish is recited immediately after the Amidah. The reason that only Half-Kaddish is recited is to prevent interruption between the Amidah and Kaddish-Titkabal, which is recited after Kedushah d’Sidra. As long as the chazan has not recited Kaddish-Titkabal, he has not yet completely finished the Amidah repetition. Therefore, the chazan need not take three steps back upon the conclusion of the Amidah repetition, for he separates from prayer by taking three steps back at the end of Kaddish-Titkabal. On Mondays and Thursdays, when the Torah is read, Half-Kaddish is also recited after the Torah reading. We already learned that after Kedushah d’Sidra, the chazan recites Kaddish-Titkabal.
  After Shir Shel Yom, Full-Kaddish is recited, the Kaddish said after the recital of Scriptural verses. Customarily, mourners are the ones to recite this Kaddish, for its recital possesses benefit for the elevation of the deceased person’s soul (see earlier in this book 4:5-6). If no mourner is present, one who does not have a parent recites it. However, if there is no one there who has lost a parent, it is customary not to recite this Kaddish, for, since it is normally recited by mourners, it is unbecoming for one whose parents are both alive to recite it.9<i class="footnote">Even though the <em>Rama</em> 132:2 writes that someone whose parents do not object may indeed recite this <em>Kaddish</em>, in actuality, this was not the custom, for fear of a bad omen (see <em>Piskei Teshuvot</em> 132:17; <em>Az Nidberu</em> 13:33). Nonetheless, when there is a great need, such as when the father is unable to recite <em>Kaddish</em> and it is necessary for a different family member to say <em>Kaddish</em> for the grandfather, and both parents agree, then the grandson would be permitted to recite <em>Kaddish</em> for his grandfather.</i>
  After Pitum HaKetoret, Kaddish d’Rabbanan is recited, for it was instituted to be recited after rabbinic study. This type of Kaddish is also usually recited by mourners. When there is no one present who has lost a parent, it is customary not to recite it. In principle, the correct practice is that the chazan recites it, because it is not called Mourner’s Kaddish. However, since orphans have become accustomed to reciting it, many treat it like Mourner’s Kaddish.
  The Chachamim greatly praise the virtue of this Kaddish, and teach that after the destruction of the Temple, it is one of the things in whose merit the world stands (Sotah 49a). The reason for this is because it is recited after a group of people (at least ten) learn Torah, and hence, its recital combines the mitzvah of Torah study, equivalent to all the mitzvot, and the sanctification of Hashem’s Name (Rashi).
  
  Section 9
  
  The Conclusion of Shacharit and the Laws of Kaddish / Barchu
  For those who arrive at the synagogue late, after the beginning of Birkot Keriat Shema, and miss the response to Barchu by the congregation, the Chachamim established that after the prayer service, the chazan repeats Barchu. The latecomers, along with the entire congregation, answer, “Baruch Hashem HaMevorach l’olam va’ed” (“Blessed is Hashem, the Blessed One, for all eternity”). That is also how we practice at the conclusion of the Ma’ariv service. According to this, on Shabbat and holidays, there is no need for the chazan to say Barchu at the end of the prayer service, because it is reasonable to assume that even those who came late succeeded in hearing the recital of Barchu by the people called up to the Torah (Shulchan Aruch 133:1; Maharitz; Mishnah Berurah, the introduction to section 69). For this reason, those who pray in Nusach Ashkenaz do not recite Barchu after the prayer service on those weekdays on which the Torah is read. However, on days when the Torah is not read, it is always customary to recite Barchu without verifying whether there is someone who needs to make it up, so as not to trouble the congregation to determine if there is a latecomer present.
  According to the Ari, Barchu is always recited after the prayer service, because according to his Kavanot, it is necessary to say Barchu twice in every prayer service, once before Birkot Keriat Shema and a second time at the end of the service. The same is true for Ma’ariv. That is the custom of those who pray in Nusach Sephard, and the minhag of the Chassidim as well (Kaf HaChaim 133:1).
  In every nusach of prayer, Barchu is recited after Kaddish d’Rabbanan, which is the last Kaddish, so that even the last of the latecomers will succeed in hearing it. It is customary that the one who recites Kaddish says the Barchu as well. However, sometimes the one reciting the last Kaddish is a child who lost a parent and has not yet reached the age of mitzvot. In such a case, the chazan, who is obligated to perform the mitzvot, must be the one to recite Barchu (Mishnah Berurah 55:4).
  
  Section 10
  
  The Conclusion of Shacharit and the Laws of Kaddish / Is Another Kaddish Recited After Aleinu L’Shabe’ach?
  After Aleinu L’Shabe’ach there is no need to recite another Kaddish Yehei Shelama because it was already said after Shir Shel Yom. Likewise, there is no reason to recite Kaddish on verses of Scripture twice within such a short amount of time. Even according to the Kavanot HaAri, there is no room for another Kaddish, and that is the custom of the Sephardim.
  Nevertheless, in Ashkenazic minyanim, mourners are accustomed to reciting Kaddish Yehei Shelama on verses of Scripture twice. In other words, Kaddish Yehei Shelama is recited after Aleinu L’Shabe’ach and again after Shir Shel Yom. This law depends upon whether or not it is permissible to recite additional Kaddishim.10<i class="footnote">Many <em>Acharonim</em> (among them, <em>Knesset HaGedolah</em>, <em>Chayei Adam</em>, <em>Shetilei Zeitim</em> 55:9) write that just like it is best to minimize the number of <em>berachot</em> that one recites, so it is best to say as few <em>Kaddishim</em> as possible. The <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 55:1 adds that some <em>Acharonim</em> forcefully challenge the practice of those who assembled to recite verses or rabbinic teachings and say <em>Kaddish</em> a few times. Instead, one <em>Kaddish</em> is recited on the verses and one on rabbinic study, and no more. That is what is written in <em>Az Nidberu</em> 13:33, and hence <em>Kaddish</em> <em>Yehei Shelama</em> may not be recited twice at the end of the prayer service. By contrast, <em>Eshel Avraham Butshatsh</em> 132:2 writes that many <em>Kaddishim</em> may be added, and that the law concerning them resembles the law of the Thirteen Attributes of Mercy which are recited many times in <em>Selichot</em>. Since Hashem’s Name is not mentioned in the <em>Kaddish</em>, the <em>Kaddish</em> is not considered to be recited in vain. He continues that this is how he practiced when he was a <em>chazan</em> and there was no mourner present – he himself recited <em>Kaddish</em> <em>Yehei Shelama</em> twice at the end of the prayer service. The <em>Ari</em>’s opinion, that there is no place for a <em>Kaddish</em> after <em>Aleinu</em>, is brought in <em>Kaf HaChaim</em> 55:1; 48:1, at the end of s.v. “<em>V’Da Hakdamah</em>.”Further, the Eshel Avraham 132:2 writes that it is proper to adjoin Barchu to Kaddish just as it is customary to do regarding the Barchu before Birkot Keriat Shema in Shacharit. Therefore, the minhag (in Nusach Sephard) to say a few verses before Ma’ariv and Kaddish after them became widespread. Similarly, at the end of the prayer service, it is proper to recite Kaddish before Barchu.Moreover, formerly, the custom in Ashkenaz was that only one person would recite Kaddish, and when there were a few mourners they would take turns. There were times that every mourner merited reciting one Kaddish per week. Perhaps that is the reason that it was customary to say Mourner’s Kaddish twice, so that more mourners could recite it. When the number of mourners increased as a result of the pogroms, a new custom was introduced – that all the mourners would recite Kaddish together. By contrast, the Sephardic custom has always been that all the mourners recite Mourner’s Kaddish together.</i>
  The poskim write that every person must hear seven Kaddishim every day, corresponding to what is written (Psalms 119:164), “Sheva bayom hillalticha” (“I praise You seven times daily”) (Beit Yosef 55:1; Mishnah Berurah 55:5). According to the Ari, one must hear twelve Kaddishim daily.11<i class="footnote">The following are the seven <em>Kaddishim</em> (as written in <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 55:5): 1) Half-<em>Kaddish</em> after <em>Pesukei d’Zimrah</em>, 2) Half-<em>Kaddish</em> after <em>Shemoneh Esrei</em>, 3) <em>Kaddish-Titkabal</em> after <em>Kedushah d’Sidra</em>, 4) <em>Yehei Shelama</em> after <em>Aleinu L’Shabe’ach</em> (according to <em>Nusach Ashkenaz</em>), 5) Half-<em>Kaddish</em> after <em>Ashrei</em> in <em>Minchah</em>, 6) <em>Kaddish-Titkabal</em> after <em>Minchah</em>, and 7) Half-<em>Kaddish</em> in <em>Ma’ariv</em> between <em>Birkot Keriat Shema</em> and <em>Shemoneh Esrei</em>. The <em>Kaddish</em> after <em>Ma’ariv</em>, even though it is a mitzvah, is not included in the seven.The Kaf HaChaim 55:1, based on the Ari, adds another five, as follows: 1) Kaddish d’Rabbanan before Hodu, 2) Kaddish d’Rabbanan after Pitum HaKetoret in Shacharit, 3) Half-Kaddish before Barchu of Ma’ariv, 4) Kaddish-Titkabal after Ma’ariv, and 5) Kaddish Yehei Shelama after the verses following Ma’ariv. Some are accustomed to adding another Kaddish on the verses recited after Minchah, which makes a total of thirteen Kaddishim. The Kaf HaChaim 55:21 writes further that if the mourners are minors, or the mourner stutters and cannot pronounce the words properly, it is necessary for another person to say Kaddish with him, so as to complete the required number of daily Kaddishim. However, regarding an optional Kaddish, not included in the twelve mentioned above, a minor may recite it himself (ibid., 19).</i>
  
  Section 11
  
  The Conclusion of Shacharit and the Laws of Kaddish / The Laws of Kaddish
  Due to the importance of the Kaddish, the laws pertaining to it resemble the laws of the Amidah prayer. Therefore, the person reciting the Kaddish must stand, customarily with his legs together. Also, just as it is forbidden to pass within the four amot of a person praying the Amidah (see earlier in this book, 18:18), so too, it is forbidden to pass within four amot of a person reciting Kaddish. This prohibition applies until the end of the Half-Kaddish (Birkei Yosef; Kaf HaChaim 55:9).
  Some say that since the Kaddish is considered to be a matter of sanctity, the congregation must stand when the main section of Kaddish is recited, or at least until they answer “Yehei Shemei rabba…” (Rama; Mishnah Berurah 56:7-8). Similarly, it is necessary to stand when responding to Barchu (Mishnah Berurah 146:18). Some say that it is not obligatory to stand for matters of sanctity, yet those who were standing at the beginning of Kaddish must remain standing, and those who were sitting before it began may continue to sit, which is also how the Ari practiced (Maharil; Kaf HaChaim 56:20; 146:20-21).
  Before the chazan reaches the last portion of the Kaddish, he performs the actions done at the end of the Shemoneh Esrei. He bows and takes three steps back. He then bows to the left and says, “Oseh shalom bimromav”, bows to his right and says, “Hu ya’aseh shalom aleinu”, and then bows in front of him and says, “V’al kol Yisrael v’imru Amen” (Shulchan Aruch 56:5; 123:1).12<i class="footnote">However, <em>Kaf HaChaim</em> 56:36 writes that the <em>chazan</em> takes three steps back only in <em>Kaddish-Titkabal</em>, since it is connected to the <em>Amidah</em> prayer, but concerning the remaining <em>Kaddishim</em> that are not linked to the <em>Amidah</em>, there is no reason to step backwards. Still, <em>Yabia Omer</em> 5:9 supports the opinion of the <em>Shulchan Aruch</em>, that in all <em>Kaddishim</em> he takes three steps back. A possible explanation is that the essence of the <em>Kaddish</em> is considered similar to the <em>Amidah</em>, and that alone necessitates taking three steps back. This is the <em>minhag</em> of all <em>Ashkenazim</em>.</i>
  Some follow the custom that the chazan bows slightly at every place in which the congregation answers Amen. Others bow at different places, and there are those who do not bow at all.13<i class="footnote">The <em>Shulchan Aruch</em> 56:4 writes that the <em>chazan</em> bows at five places during the <em>Kaddish</em>, when saying: 1) “<em>Yitgadal</em>,” 2) “<em>Yehei Shemei Rabba</em>,” 3) “<em>Yitbarach</em>,” 4) “<em>Berich Hu</em>,” and 5) “<em>Amen</em>” (at the end of the Half-<em>Kaddish</em>). The <em>Kaf HaChaim</em> 56:35 writes in the name of a number of <em>Acharonim</em> that he bows every time the congregation responds <em>Amen</em>. It seems that even according to his <em>minhag</em>, the <em>chazan</em> bows at only five places; however, he bows at the five places in which the congregation responds <em>Amen</em> in the Half-<em>Kaddish</em>. The <em>Gra</em> questions these bows, for he maintains that it is wrong to add more bows than the ones the <em>Chachamim</em> instituted for the <em>Shemoneh Esrei</em>. The <em>Aruch HaShulchan</em> 56:7 answers that the bows performed in the <em>Kaddish</em> are minor, unlike those in <em>Shemoneh Esrei</em>, and therefore they are not considered additions to what the <em>Chachamim</em> established.</i>
  There are differing customs regarding the response of “Yehei Shemei rabba….” According to the Ashkenazic and Yemenite (Baladi) minhagim, we conclude, “L’alam ul’almei almaya.” According to the Chassidic and Yemenite (Shami) custom, we add “Yitbarach” as well. According to the Sephardic minhag, we recite until “d’amiran b’alma.” Another difference is that after “Berich Hu,” the Ashkenazim answer “Berich Hu” and according to the Sephardic minhag, whoever succeeds in finishing until “d’amiran b’alma” responds Amen, and whoever does not, refrains from responding to “Berich Hu.”14<i class="footnote">The <em>Beit Yosef</em> summarizes the opinions and writes in the name of the <em>Rambam</em>, <em>Rashi</em>, <em>Kolbo</em>, and <em>Rabbi David Abudraham</em> that one only says until “<em>almaya</em>,” which adds up to a total of 28 letters, and that is <em>Minhag Ashkenaz</em>. However, the <em>Midrash </em>writes that one must be very careful not to separate the words “<em>almaya</em>” and “<em>Yitbarach</em>,” and that someone who does is punished. Therefore, many became accustomed to saying until “<em>d’amiran b’alma</em>,” a total of 28 words. So, it seems, is the opinion of the <em>Shulchan Aruch</em> 56:3. This is also written in <em>Kaf HaChaim</em> 33. <em>Minhag Chassidim</em>, based on Rabbi Yosef Gik’atlya, is to say until “<em>Yitbarach</em>,” thereby attaching “<em>almaya</em>” to “<em>Yitbarach</em>.” The <em>Magen Avraham</em> writes that this is an ancient custom. However, the opinion of the <em>Gra</em>, based on the <em>Rishonim</em>, is not to recite “<em>Yitbarach</em>” because this word begins a different praise. The <em>Mishnah Berurah </em>15 provides a possible solution – if one says “<em>Yitbarach</em>” after an interruption of a breath, perhaps even according to the <em>Gra</em>, the recital of “<em>Yitbarach</em>” would be permissible.According to the Mishnah Berurah 56:15, if he reaches a point in prayer in which it is forbidden to interrupt, he may answer only until “almaya.” Kaf HaChaim 33 writes that he says everything until “d’amiran b’alma.” Yalkut Yosef 66:1 maintains that between paragraphs or berachot he responds to everything, and in the middle of paragraphs or berachot he answers until “Yitbarach.”The Shulchan Aruch 55:2 writes that after the conclusion of “Yehei Shemei rabba…,” when the chazan says “Yitbarach,” the congregation responds Amen. Today, only the Yemenites practice this way. According to the Sephardic minhag, in which they continue to say until “d’amiran b’alma,” it is impossible to succeed in responding Amen after “Yitbarach,” and even to “Berich Hu” they do not always succeed in answering. That is also what is written in Kaf HaChaim 56:29, that according to the Kavanot, one does not respond Amen after “Yitbarach.”It is better to respond to the Kaddish in accordance with the custom of the one reciting it (“Berich Hu,” “Amen,” etc.), as explained earlier in this book 6:5. However, this is usually not the practice, and therefore many are accustomed to answering according to their own minhag, despite the fact that it appears slightly like “Lo Titgodedu” (fragmenting the nation into divergent groups with different practices).</i>
  When a person answers “Amen Yehei Shemei rabba…” he should pause between “Amen” and “Yehei Shemei rabba,” for Amen is a response to what the chazan said previously, and “Yehei Shemei rabba” is a praise in itself (Mishnah Berurah 56:2).
  
  Section 12
  
  The Conclusion of Shacharit and the Laws of Kaddish / Kaddish After Learning
  It is a mitzvah to recite Kaddish after every learning session. If verses of Scripture are learned, Kaddish Yehei Shelama is recited. Following rabbinic study, Kaddish d’Rabbanan is recited. It is customary that after rabbinic study, words of aggadah are added, for they please the heart, and consequently, the Kaddish recited afterwards is said out of happiness (Birkei Yosef 55:1; and see Mishnah Berurah 55:9). Therefore, after Pitum HaKetoret, further words of aggadah are added about one who learns halachot every day and about talmidei chachamim who increase peace in the world.
  Some maintain that Kaddish is not to be recited unless ten people learn together, be it verses of Scripture or Chazal’s teachings (Aruch HaShulchan 55:5). Others say that even when two people learn together, and immediately upon their conclusion ten men assemble there, they may recite Kaddish on their learning (Magen Avraham; Mishnah Berurah 54:9 and 55:2). The custom is that one who wishes to recite Kaddish after his learning says aloud, “Rabbi Chananya son of Akashya says, HaKadosh Baruch Hu wanted to grant Israel merit, therefore He gave them the Torah and mitzvot in abundance,” etc. Since ten people hear these rabbinic words, they are considered to have learned, and then all opinions agree that Kaddish may be recited. Similarly, when saying Kaddish upon the recital of verses of Scripture, the person saying it should first say three verses aloud, and afterwards he may recite Kaddish according to all opinions.
  
  
  
  
  
  Section 1
  
  The Minchah Prayer / Its Objective
  The Chachamim said, “A person should always be conscientious concerning the Minchah prayer, for indeed, Eliyahu was only answered through the Minchah prayer” (Berachot 6b). One must be especially careful to pray Minchah, since it is unlike Shacharit and Ma’ariv whose times are specified: Shacharit – immediately after waking up from one’s sleep; and Ma’ariv – upon returning home. At Minchah time, a person is often preoccupied with his affairs; therefore he must overcome his concerns and designate time to pray.
  Indeed, the purpose of the Minchah prayer is to sanctify a person’s daily work in the face of all obstacles and difficulties, accusers and prosecutors. Therefore, specifically through his Minchah prayer, Eliyahu was answered in his battle against the Ba’al worshipers.
  In the Minchah prayer a person infuses his daily life with holiness, lending an added sanctification of Hashem’s Name to the day. Perhaps for that reason this prayer is named “Minchah,” meaning donation and gift. By praying Shacharit, we fulfill our obligation to thank Hashem for all the good He has given us, and in Minchah we add more prayers. Shacharit refers to everything that Hashem has given us in His abundant graciousness, and Minchah arises from our daily actions.
  
  Section 2
  
  The Minchah Prayer / The Order of the Prayer
  The majority of Geonim and Rishonim maintain that there is no need to recite the passages of the Korbanot before praying Minchah. Neither the Rambam (Hilchot Tefillah 9:8), nor the Shulchan Aruch mention that Korbanot are recited at Minchah. Still, there are Rishonim who write that the passages of the Tamid and the Pitum HaKetoret are recited before Minchah, just as it is proper to say them before Shacharit (Rama 234:1; 132:2). Those who follow the Ari are more meticulous about reciting Korbanot before Minchah (Kaf HaChaim 232:6; Piskei Teshuvot 234:1).
  All are accustomed to saying Tehillah L’David (Ashrei) before the Amidah of Minchah because it is proper to praise Hashem prior to praying the Amidah. It is, indeed, a kind of Pesukei d’Zimrah before the Minchah prayer (see earlier in this book 14:1-2). However, it is not an absolute obligation to recite it before Minchah, and therefore, in a situation in which the time to pray Minchah is about to lapse, one must skip Tehillah L’David and immediately start reciting the Amidah (Mishnah Berurah 234:6). Likewise, if the congregation is ready to begin the Amidah, he should skip Tehillah L’David so that he can start praying together with them in a minyan (Mishnah Berurah 108:14; Or L’Tzion, part 2, 15:3).
  After Tehillah L’David the chazan recites Half-Kaddish, following which the congregations begins the silent Amidah. Subsequently, the chazan says Chazarat HaShatz. Birkat Kohanim is not recited in Chazarat HaShatz of Minchah, for fear that perhaps the Kohanim drank wine at the meal beforehand and will come to bless the nation when they are inebriated. However, on a public fast day, there is no such concern, and therefore they bless the nation then (on condition that the congregation prays after plag haminchah, as explained earlier in this book 20:5).
  After the Amidah, prayers of supplication (Tachanunim) are recited. According to the Sephardic custom, Vidui, the Thirteen Attributes of Mercy, and Nefillat Apayim are all said; whereas according to the Ashkenazic and Yemenite (Baladi) minhag, only Nefillat Apayim is recited. Subsequently, the chazan says Kaddish-Titkabal. On days on which Tachanun is not recited (as explained earlier in this book 21:7-8), the chazan recites Kaddish-Titkabal immediately following the Amidah repetition.
  Sephardim say “Lamenatze’ach Bin’ginot” (Psalm 67) followed by Mourner’s Kaddish, and conclude the prayer with Aleinu L’Shabe’ach. Ashkenazim do not recite Lamenatze’ach. They say Aleinu L’Shabe’ach and then Mourner’s Kaddish.
  
  Section 3
  
  The Minchah Prayer / Minchah Time Corresponds to the Time of the Tamid Offering
  The Chachamim established the time of the Minchah prayer to correspond to the afternoon Tamid. In principle, the time of the Tamid offering starts after six hours into the day, for that marks chatzot (midday), and the sun then begins to descend towards the west. However, the Chachamim were concerned that perhaps an incorrect estimation would be made regarding the position of the sun; therefore they established that the Tamid can only be offered half an hour later, which means that the time of Minchah starts at six-and-a-half hours into the day.1<i class="footnote">If one mistakenly prayed in the first half-hour after <em>chatzot</em>, the <em>Acharonim</em> disagree as to whether or not he fulfilled his obligation <em>b’dieved</em>. According to the <em>Magen Avraham</em> he did not, whereas according to the <em>Pri Chadash</em> he did. The <em>Sha’ar HaTzion</em> 233:6 indicates that this matter requires further study, and the <em>Kaf HaChaim</em> 2 concludes that because prayer is a rabbinic obligation, when there is doubt, we are lenient, and he does not repeat his prayer. Further, there is uncertainty with regard to that first half-hour, as to whether it is proportional or permanent. The <em>Sha’ar HaTzion</em> 233:8 tends to say that it is proportional.</i>
  In actuality, the Tamid offering was the final offering of the day, after which it was not permissible to offer burnt offerings, peace offerings, sin offerings, or guilt offerings. Therefore, it was customary to delay bringing the afternoon Tamid offering until after nine-and-a-half hours of the day already passed.
  Only when Erev Pesach fell on Erev Shabbat was the Tamid brought immediately after six-and-a-half hours into the day. The reason for this is because the time to bring the Pesach offering is after the time of the Tamid, and in order for all of Israel to succeed in bringing their Pesach offerings before Shabbat arrived, it was necessary to make the time of the Tamid offering as early as possible.
  That is the basis for the division of Minchah time into two parts: “Minchah Gedolah” (large Minchah) and “Minchah Ketanah” (small Minchah). Minchah Gedolah starts from six-and-a-half hours and lasts until nine-and-a-half hours, and in principle, it is the proper time to bring the Tamid offering. However, in actuality, only in rare cases is the Tamid brought at Minchah Gedolah. Minchah Ketanah lasts from nine-and-a-half hours until the end of twelve hours, meaning, until the end of the day, within which time the Tamid of the afternoon was offered. The first Minchah period is named “Gedolah” (large) since its duration is longer – three hours; the second, whose time is two-and-a-half hours, is called “Ketanah” (small). As we already learned, these hours are proportional hours. The day is divided into twelve parts and each part is called a proportional hour. In the summer, when the day is long, the hours are long as well, and in wintertime, when the day is short, the hours are concurrently short (see earlier in this book 11:10).
  Since the Tamid offering was actually brought at Minchah Ketanah, it is the opinion of the Rambam that l’chatchilah, it is necessary to recite Minchah at that time, and it is only permissible b’dieved to fulfill one’s obligation of Minchah at the time of Minchah Gedolah. That is also how the Shulchan Aruch rules (233:1). However, others maintain that since, in principle, the time of the Tamid starts six-and-a-half hours into the day, it is permissible l’chatchilah to recite Minchah at the time of Minchah Gedolah (Rif and Rosh). Some say that it is even proper l’chatchilah to pray Minchah as early as possible, for those who are expeditious perform mitzvot as soon as they can (Rasag).
  In practice, it is preferable to pray at the time of Minchah Ketanah. However, in times of need, it is permissible l’chatchilah to pray Minchah Gedolah. For example, if one has two options: to pray Minchah Gedolah in a minyan, or Minchah Ketanah individually, it is preferable that he prays Minchah Gedolah in a minyan. Similarly, one who is accustomed to eating lunch after the time of Minchah Gedolah, even though he is allowed to rely on those who are lenient and permit eating before Minchah (as explained in halachah 6), nevertheless, l’chatchilah, it is better that he prays in a minyan before that, as practiced in many yeshivot.2<i class="footnote">This is how the <em>Mishnah Berurah </em>233:1 rules and the <em>Yechaveh Da’at</em> 4:19 expands on this opinion. Another reason to pray close to sunset,<em> l’chatchilah</em>, is based on the <em>Gemara</em> in <em>Berachot</em> 29b, where Rabbi Yochanan states that it is a mitzvah to pray with the last rays of the sun, and <em>Rashi</em> interprets this to mean close to sunset. That is also the opinion of <em>Rabbeinu Chananel</em> (brought by <em>Hagahot Maymoniyot</em> in chapter 2 of <em>Hilchot Tefillah</em>). Even though the <em>Gemara</em> states that in the West (meaning Israel) they would curse a person who prayed with the last rays of the sun, this refers to someone who prayed very late, but slightly before sunset is the most praiseworthy time. That is how the <em>Arizal</em> practiced. However, the <em>Maharsha</em> interprets that the <em>Gemara</em> is referring to <em>Shacharit</em>, meaning that the mitzvah to pray with the last rays of the sun is at <em>netz</em>. See <em>Yechaveh Da’at</em> 4:19; there he cites a few <em>Rishonim</em> who maintain like <em>Rasag </em>that it is preferable to hasten to pray <em>Minchah</em> immediately when its time begins.</i>
  
  Section 4
  
  The Minchah Prayer / The Final Time to Recite Minchah
  The time to pray Minchah lasts until evening; however, the poskim disagree about the exact final time. The disagreement lies in the question: when did the time to sacrifice the afternoon Tamid offering end? Some say that the time to throw the blood of the Tamid upon the altar was only until sunset, and therefore it is permissible to recite Minchah until sunset (Talmidei Rabbeinu Yonah, the Gra, Mishnah Berurah 233:14). Others say that the time of Minchah lasts until nightfall, since the time of the afternoon Tamid service lasted until night, whether it was for the throwing of its blood, or the offering of its fats and the raising of its libation – and that is the opinion of most poskim (Shulchan Aruch Rama 233:1).3<i class="footnote">According to <em>Talmidei Rabbeinu Yonah,</em> the blood of the <em>Tamid</em> was thrown on the altar until sunset, however according to <em>Rashi</em> it was also permissible to throw the blood of the <em>Tamid</em> at <em>bein hashemashot </em>(twilight). Additionally, even according to those who maintain that the throwing of the blood can only be performed until sunset, some say that the <em>Minchah</em> prayer corresponds to the offering of the organs of the <em>Tamid</em>, its meal offering, and the incense of the afternoon, whose time lasts <em>b’dieved</em> even through <em>bein hashemashot</em>. So it is written in <em>Hagahot Maymoniyot</em> and <em>Minchat Kohen</em>. Even if it is necessary to be stringent concerning the throwing of the blood, for it is a matter of doubt concerning a biblical commandment, still, regarding prayer, which is a rabbinic obligation, the halachah follows those who are lenient. Furthermore, <em>Rabbeinu Tam</em>’s opinion maintains that <em>bein hashemashot</em> only begins at the second sunset, which is 58 and a half minutes after the visible sunset. Therefore, according to him, this time is still considered completely day. Although, in practice, we do not follow <em>Rabbeinu Tam</em>’s opinion, nevertheless, many maintain like him and his approach can be added into the equation.</i>
  In practice, one must try to finish reciting Minchah before sunset. However, b’dieved, one may rely on the opinion of the majority of poskim and pray within another thirteen-and-a-half minutes after sunset, for all opinions agree that night does not begin until then.
  It is even permissible to recite the Thirteen Attributes of Mercy and Nefillat Apayim in those thirteen-and-a-half minutes after sunset (Mishnah Berurah 131:17; Yechaveh Da’at 6:7).4<i class="footnote">According to the <em>Gra</em>, <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 233:14, and <em>Aruch HaShulchan</em> 9, the time to recite <em>Minchah</em> only lasts until sunset. However, according to the majority of <em>poskim</em>, including the <em>Shulchan Aruch</em>, <em>Rama</em> 233:1, and <em>Sha’agat Aryeh</em> 17, it is also permissible to pray at <em>bein hashemashot</em> (twilight). So explains <em>Yechaveh Da’at</em> 5:22; 6:7, <em>Yabia Omer</em>, part 7, 34; and <em>Piskei Teshuvot</em> 233:6.Although from sunset until the emergence of three stars, usually more time passes (some say approximately 18 minutes and some say approximately 25-30 minutes as explained in 25:5), nevertheless, since there are those who maintain that it is forbidden to pray Minchah at bein hashemashot, it is only permissible to be lenient regarding the time that is agreed upon by all the poskim to be bein hashemashot.The poskim disagree as to whether it is permissible to begin praying within 13.5 minutes after sunset, when he is certain that his prayer will end after 13.5 minutes have already passed from sunset. Aruch HaShulchan 110:5 and Eretz Tzvi 121 permit doing so, whereas Magen Avraham 89:4 and Kaf HaChaim 233:5 forbid it. The Yabia Omer, part 7, 34 combines the opinions maintaining that bein hashemashot lasts 18 minutes with the opinion of Rabbeinu Tam, and on that basis permits starting to pray within 13.5 minutes. However, he does not permit beginning the Amidah repetition (Chazarat HaShatz) then.Concerning the matter of Vidui and Nefillat Apayim, according to the Ben Ish Chai, Ki Tisa 8, it is permissible to recite Vidui within the whole time of bein hashemashot, and the Thirteen Attributes of Mercy until the middle of bein hashemashot (the time of the calling of the muezzin). However, regarding Nefillat Apayim, he writes in paragraph 14 that shev v’al ta’aseh (being passive and not actively doing something) is preferable and that one should not perform Nefillat Apayim during bein hashemashot. So writes the Kaf HaChaim 131:27 and 51; still, the opinion of most poskim is mentioned above.</i>
  Concerning the option of either praying individually before sunset or with a congregation after sunset, there are differing opinions. Some say it is preferable to pray individually before sunset, although most poskim maintain that it is preferable to pray in a congregation even after sunset.
  There are those who say that a minyan that began to pray late may not forgo Chazarat HaShatz, even if it is recited after sunset. Others say that it is best to skip Chazarat HaShatz so as not to recite it after sunset. In this case, the chazan starts to pray the first three berachot of the Amidah out loud, in order to grant the people praying the merit of reciting Kedushah. According to halachah, there is room for both opinions, and when there is a rabbi present, he must be the one to resolve this matter.5<i class="footnote">According to the <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 233:14, it is preferable to pray individually before sunset, which is how the prominent rabbis of Lithuania used to rule. In contrast to them, it is the opinion of the majority of <em>poskim</em> that it is preferable to pray in a <em>minyan</em>, as brought by <em>Piskei Teshuvot</em> 233:6 and <em>Yechaveh Da’at</em> 5:22. Concerning the matter of <em>Chazarat HaShatz</em>, the <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> clearly maintains that it is not recited, whereas the <em>Kaf HaChaim</em> 233:9, based on the <em>Ari</em>, writes that the <em>Amidah</em> repetition must be said even if it will last after sunset, and that is how the <em>Yalkut Yosef</em>, part 3, 233:3 and <em>Aruch HaShulchan</em> 232:6 rule as well.</i>
  
  Section 5
  
  The Minchah Prayer / Forbidden Activities Before Minchah
  To ensure the recital of the Minchah prayer, the Chachamim instituted that from the time of chatzot onward, a person must be careful not to begin activities that will likely cause him to be so distracted that he will forget to pray. Therefore, one may not start work that will be difficult to stop in the middle, and will likely continue past the end of the time to pray. Likewise, he may not begin work that might create a problem which, in order to fix it, would require continuing past the final time to pray. One may not shop if the shopping may last until after the final time to pray. Similarly, one may not swim in a pool when there is concern that he might remain there until the time to pray ends.
  However, in a situation in which there is no concern that he will forget to recite Minchah, these activities are permitted. For instance, a person is permitted to start any type of work if he is in a place where he will be called to pray Minchah. Similarly, one is allowed to begin all kinds of work when he knows that the workplace will close before Minchah time passes. It is also permissible to shop in a place where they call people to pray Minchah in a minyan, or when one asks his friend to remind him to pray Minchah. Likewise, it is permissible to swim in a place when the pool is closed before the time to recite Minchah lapses; or when a person normally swims at a certain set time, and there is no concern that he will be tempted to stay past Minchah time.6<i class="footnote">See <em>Shabbat</em> 9b, where it is written that it is forbidden to get a haircut, enter a bathhouse or a tannery, eat, or judge a case of law close to <em>Minchah </em>time. The <em>Rishonim</em> are divided as to whether or not <em>Chachamim</em> intended to forbid a significant act like a long bathing or a large feast, or even a minor act, such as a short bath or a small meal, the reason being that small acts lead to bigger ones, like a short meal eventually becoming a long one. Further, they disagree whether the prohibition begins at <em>chatzot</em> (halachic noon) – half an hour before <em>Minchah Gedolah</em>, or starts after nine hours have passed – half an hour before <em>Minchah Ketanah</em>. The <em>Rif</em>, <em>Rambam</em>, and <em>Shulchan Aruch</em> rule stringently concerning performing even a minor act near the time of <em>Minchah Gedolah</em> (<em>Shulchan Aruch</em> 232:2). <em>Rabbeinu Tam</em> and the <em>Rosh</em> forbid a significant act near the time of <em>Minchah Gedolah</em> and a small act near the time of <em>Minchah Ketanah</em> (according to the <em>Gra</em>, this is the main and median opinion). The <em>Maor</em> and the <em>Rashba</em> maintain that both significant and minor acts are only forbidden near the time of <em>Minchah</em> <em>Ketanah</em>. <em>Rabbeinu Yonah</em> maintains that a minor act is always permissible and a major act is forbidden near <em>Minchah Gedolah</em>. The <em>Hagahot Mordechai</em> and the <em>Mahariv </em>are more lenient and maintain that only a significant act is forbidden from close to <em>Minchah Ketanah</em>, but a minor act is permissible at all times. (The <em>Rama</em> 232:2 writes that we practice this way. However, it is proper to be stringent concerning a large feast from <em>chatzot</em>, like the opinion of <em>Rabbeinu Tam</em>. Regarding this entire matter, see <em>Rama</em> 232:2, <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 232:5 and similarly, paragraphs 21-26, as well as <em>Aruch HaShulchan</em> 8-16.) <em>Bei’ur Halachah</em> s.v. “<em>Labursiki</em>” writes that all activities which will likely last a long time are forbidden, like the ruling about going to a tannery.However, the Acharonim wonder why nowadays people are not careful concerning these matters. Aruch HaShulchan 15 writes that the cause for leniency lies in the Yerushalmi. The main point, it seems, is that living conditions and types of work have changed, and therefore it is hard for us to establish the halachah according to the limitations of the activity and the times. Instead, it is necessary to return to the basic rule, namely, not to start something that might distract one’s mind until Minchah time lapses, and the more bothersome the activity and the closer it is to the end of Minchah time, the more need there is to be careful. In a place where there is someone who can remind the people to pray, there is no concern, as the Rama 232:2 says. Even when there is no such person, the Aruch HaShulchan 232:16 writes that someone who is accustomed to praying in a set minyan, and normally stops in the middle of his work or business, may start any activity, for there is no concern that he will forget to pray. Today, we rely on his reasoning.</i>
  If a person began doing something that is likely to continue a long time, and he estimates that he will finish before the final time to recite Minchah, since he already began the activity, he is not required to stop in the middle. Instead, he prays upon the conclusion of his activity. However, if it seems to him that what he is doing will continue past the end of Minchah time, he must stop immediately and pray.7<i class="footnote">em&gt;Shulchan Aruch 232:2; <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 14-16. However, the <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> in 13 writes that if he began when he was forbidden to do so in the half-hour before <em>Minchah Ketanah</em>, even if he estimates that he will succeed in praying, he must stop immediately when the time of <em>Minchah Ketanah</em> arrives. Nevertheless, he adds that nowadays we normally are lenient based on the reasons mentioned above (provided by the <em>Rama</em> and <em>Aruch HaShulchan</em>). Since it is unclear which activities are prohibited by the <em>Chachamim</em>, and there are <em>poskim</em> who rule leniently, and in general we are lenient when there is doubt regarding a rabbinic commandment, therefore, I have returned to the fundamental principle that it all depends on whether or not there is concern that he will forget to recite <em>Minchah</em>. The <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 13 and <em>Kaf HaChaim</em> 23 write, “when it is necessary to stop and pray,” meaning, when the time of <em>Minchah Ketanah</em> arrives and not before then, for that is the main time to pray <em>Minchah</em>. However, I did not mention this above since, according to the <em>Rama</em> and the <em>Aruch HaShulchan</em>, when one starts work or a meal at the time of <em>Minchah Gedolah</em>, there is no concern that he will forget to pray. On the other hand, if, despite that, there is concern that he will get so involved in what he is doing that he will lose track of time, then we should side with those who maintain that if he waits until the time of <em>Minchah Ketanah</em> he will end up forgetting, and it is better that he prays <em>Minchah</em> immediately. However, when there is no concern that he will forget, such as when he sets an alarm clock to ring, or asks his friend to remind him to pray at the time of <em>Minchah Ketanah</em>, he must wait until <em>Minchah Ketanah</em> and then pray.</i>
  Although the Chachamim forbade getting haircuts at the time of Minchah, nowadays the Acharonim permit cutting one’s hair even after the time to recite Minchah has begun (Mishnah Berurah 232:6; Kaf HaChaim 14). This is because haircuts today are completed in a very short amount of time and there is no concern that perhaps a problem will occur with the scissors or the shaver, since every barber has several haircutting kits.
  
  Section 6
  
  The Minchah Prayer / A Meal Before Minchah
  Beginning at chatzot, a person must be careful not to forget to pray Minchah; therefore, he may not start a large feast before reciting Minchah. A large feast is one in which many people partake, such as meals which accompany a brit milah, sheva berachot, and a pidyon haben. However, a Shabbat meal is not considered a large feast. In extenuating circumstances, it is permitted to begin a large feast before praying Minchah, on condition that it is clear to those who are eating that they will surely end the feast before the time to pray Minchah lapses, and that they will remind one another to pray after the meal.
  Starting from half an hour before Minchah Ketanah, approximately three hours before sunset, a person must not begin eating even a small meal before he recites Minchah. However, if there is someone there to remind him to pray Minchah, he is permitted to eat. In a place in which he does not have someone to remind him, it is also possible to set an alarm clock to ring at the time that he must pray Minchah. Yet, he must be sure that immediately upon hearing the ring, he will stop his meal and go pray (Rama 232:2; Bei’ur Halachah “V’Yesh”; Halichot Shlomo 2:12).
  Once chatzot arrives, some try, l’chatchilah, not to eat even a small meal before reciting Minchah. Therefore, in many yeshivot, Minchah is held early in the afternoon so that after they pray, they can eat lunch according to all opinions.8<i class="footnote">This is based on the <em>Rif</em> and the <em>Rambam</em>, as clarified in note 6. Although the <em>Shulchan Aruch</em> 232:2 rules like them, still, <em>Sephardim</em> are accustomed to acting leniently, see <em>Kaf HaChaim</em> 30, <em>Yalkut Yosef</em>, part 3, 232:8. However, <em>l’chatchilah</em> it is good to be stringent and pray before the meal, as explained in <em>Or L’Tzion</em>, part 2, 15:1-2 and <em>Yechaveh Da’at</em> 4:19.In extenuating circumstances, it is possible to be lenient and eat a regular meal, even within the three (proportional) hours close to sunset, even when he does not have someone to remind him to pray or an alarm clock to set. This is on condition that he regularly prays in a set minyan, as maintained by Aruch HaShulchan 232:16. This is also the opinion of the Mahariv, as brought by the Mishnah Berurah 232:26.</i>
  
  Section 7
  
  The Minchah Prayer / Rabbi Yehudah’s Opinion
  The prevalent minhag is that of the Chachamim, that Minchah time lasts until the end of the day, and the time to pray Ma’ariv begins after tzeit hakochavim (the emerging of the stars) (Berachot 26a). However, according to Rabbi Yehudah, the time of Minchah lasts until plag haminchah. “Plag” means half; in other words, the time of Minchah Ketanah is divided into halves. We already learned (halachah 3) that the time of Minchah Ketanah is from nine-and-a-half proportional hours until the end of twelve hours, a total of two-and-a-half hours, and if so, one plag is an hour and a quarter. The first plag is the time to pray Minchah, and the second plag begins the time of Ma’ariv, according to Rabbi Yehudah.
  The reason for his opinion is that, in actuality, the Kohanim would rush to slaughter the Tamid and throw its blood upon the altar in the first half of Minchah Ketanah, and therefore that is the time for Minchah. In the second half they would already start offering the organs of the Minchah upon the altar, and since the Ma’ariv prayer was instituted to correspond to the sacrifice of the organs, it is then that Ma’ariv time begins. According to the Chachamim, since it is possible, in principle, to throw the blood of the Tamid upon the altar until the end of the day, the time of Minchah also lasts until the end of the day. The time of Ma’ariv is coordinated with the time to recite Keriat Shema of Ma’ariv, which begins at tzeit hakochavim.
  In practice, this disagreement is left unresolved, and the conclusion of the Talmud (Berachot 27a) is that a person is permitted to decide whether he wants to practice like the Chachamim or like Rabbi Yehudah. However, the Rishonim caution that he must make sure that he consistently adheres to one minhag. In other words, if he follows Rabbi Yehudah, he must take care not to pray Minchah after plag haminchah. If he practices like the Chachamim, he must make sure to always recite Ma’ariv after tzeit hakochavim. However, it is forbidden to pray Minchah after plag haminchah like the Chachamim, and Ma’ariv before tzeit hakochavim like Rabbi Yehudah (we shall expand on this law in the laws of Ma’ariv, 25:6-7).9<i class="footnote">The <em>poskim</em> disagree as to how the day is defined. According to the <em>Shiltei HaGiborim</em>, <em>Gra</em> and majority of <em>poskim</em>, it is from <em>netz</em> to sunset, yet the <em>Terumat HaDeshen</em> maintains that the day is from <em>amud hashachar</em> (dawn) until <em>tzeit hakochavim</em>. Based on this, the time of <em>plag haminchah</em> varies. Is it a (proportional) hour and a quarter before sunset, or before <em>tzeit hakochavim</em>? The <em>minhag</em> is to calculate <em>plag hanminchah</em> from sunset and that is what is written in <em>Kaf HaChaim</em> 233:7 and in the Israeli calendar. However, it can be inferred from the <em>Sha’ar HaTzion</em> that <em>l’chatchilah</em> both opinions need to be taken into consideration (233:4; <em>Sha’ar HaTzion</em> 235:14). Still, it is necessary to note that according to the approach of the <em>Terumat HaDeshen</em> one must calculate <em>tzeit hakochavim</em> like <em>Rabbeinu Tam</em>, meaning 72 minutes after sunset, so that <em>chatzot</em> will be in the middle of the day, as explained earlier in this book, chapter 11, note 14. Based on this, <em>plag haminchah</em> is slightly before the time of the visible sunset (between two and eighteen minutes, fluctuating according to the seasons of the year).</i>
  
  
  
  
  
  Section 1
  
  The Ma’ariv Prayer / Keriat Shema and Its Berachot
  The recital of Keriat Shema commands center stage at the beginning of the Ma’ariv prayer. It is a biblical commandment to recite Keriat Shema at night and in the morning, as written in the paragraphs of Shema and V’Hayah Im Shamo’a, “When you lie down and when you get up.” It is also a mitzvah to remember the Exodus from Egypt during the day and at night, as it is written (Deuteronomy 16:3), “Therefore you will remember the day you left Egypt all the days of your life.” From the words “all the days” (kol yemei chayechah), Chazal learn that it is a mitzvah to remember the Exodus from Egypt both at day and at night (Mishnah Berachot 12:2). For that reason, the Vayomer paragraph is also recited at night, since the Exodus from Egypt is mentioned at its end. The Vayomer paragraph, which discusses the mitzvah of tzitzit, primarily applies to the day, and although one can fulfill the nighttime mitzvah of remembering the Exodus from Egypt with other verses, it is customary to remember the Exodus by reciting Vayomer, since these verses are familiar to all (Tosafot Yom Tov there). In addition, combined with the first two paragraphs of Shema, it contains 248 words (paralleling the 248 organs in the body as explained earlier in this book 15:12), and by reciting all three paragraphs, one completely accepts upon himself the yoke of Heaven (see 15:3-4 in this book. The detailed laws of Keriat Shema are clarified in chapter 15).
  Anshei Knesset HaGedolah added the recital of two berachot before Keriat Shema and two berachot after it. The first, “Ma’ariv Aravim,” is a blessing of praise concerning the passage of time from day to night, and parallels Birkat Yotzer Or in Shacharit. The second, “Ahavat Olam,” is praise that refers to Hashem’s love for Israel and the giving of the Torah. The third, “Emet V’Emunah,” is praise about the redemption. In the fourth, “Hashkiveinu,” we ask Hashem to protect us at night and watch over us when we sleep (see also earlier in this book 16:1). Hence, Birkot Keriat Shema are comprised of seven blessings, three in Shacharit and four in Ma’ariv; and the Yerushalmi (Berachot, chapter 1, halachah 5) states that they were instituted based on the verse (Psalms, 119:164), “Sheva bayom hillalticha” (“I praise You seven times daily.”)
  
  Section 2
  
  The Ma’ariv Prayer / The Ma’ariv Amidah
  Yaakov Avinu established the Ma’ariv prayer, and based on this, Anshei Knesset HaGedolah instituted praying Shemoneh Esrei at night. They set the time of Ma’ariv to correspond to the offering of the organs and fats of the sacrifices, for whatever they did not succeed in burning during the day would be burned throughout the night (Berachot 26b). However, Ma’ariv is optional (reshut). It is a mitzvah to recite Ma’ariv, but not an obligation. Whoever wanted to engage himself in a different mitzvah, or had already gone to sleep, or found it difficult to pray Ma’ariv for another reason, was not required to do so. The reason that Shacharit and Minchah are different from Ma’ariv is that Shacharit and Minchah were instituted to correspond to the Tamid offering of the morning and afternoon, specifically, to correspond to the sprinkling of their blood. Just as a person who does not sprinkle the blood does not fulfill his obligation of bringing the offering, so too, one is obligated to pray Shacharit and Minchah. However, Ma’ariv was instituted to correspond to the offering of the organs and fats upon the altar. Although it is a mitzvah to bring them, if they were not brought, the offering still remained valid. Therefore, the Ma’ariv prayer is optional.
  Nonetheless, throughout the generations, all of Israel became accustomed to praying Ma’ariv. Therefore, at the time of the Rishonim it was established as obligatory. Even so, Chazarat HaShatz is not recited in it, since, in essence, the prayer is optional. Thus, Chazal did not institute an Amidah repetition for it, to fulfill the obligation of the uneducated (Shulchan Aruch 237:1).1<i class="footnote">In <em>Berachot</em> 27b, according to Rabban Gamliel the <em>Ma’ariv</em> prayer is obligatory, whereas according to Rabbi Yehoshua it is optional. According to Abayei it is obligatory, whereas according to Rava it is optional, and the halachah follows Rava. The majority of <em>Rishonim</em>, among them <em>Tosafot</em>, <em>Talmidei Rabbeinu Yonah</em>, and the <em>Rosh</em> (chapter 4, 2:7), maintain that “optional” (<em>reshut</em>) here means that, indeed, there is a mitzvah to recite <em>Ma’ariv</em>, and it may not be cancelled without justification, though it may be cancelled for a minor reason, as I have written above. By contrast, according to <em>Ba’al Halachot Gedolot</em>, the word “optional” means that a person is permitted to abstain from praying <em>Ma’ariv</em> for no specific reason, although he maintains that if one customarily prays <em>Ma’ariv</em>, his <em>minhag</em> obligates him to pray daily.The <em>Rif</em> writes that today, there is an obligation to pray <em>Ma’ariv</em>. The <em>Rosh</em> and <em>Tur</em> section 235 write this as well. In <em>Seder</em> <em>Rav Amram Gaon</em>, he writes that Half-<em>Kaddish</em> is recited between <em>Birkot Keriat Shema</em> and the <em>Amidah</em>, so as to separate between the obligatory and the optional sections. Even though, today, the prayer is obligatory, the <em>minhag</em> to recite <em>Kaddish</em> remains, in keeping with the essence of the original enactment. The opinions are summarized in <em>Beirur Halachah</em> <em>Berachot</em> 4b.Most poskim say that someone who begins praying Ma’ariv and remembers in the middle of the Amidah that he already prayed must stop praying immediately, like the law regarding Shacharit and Minchah, for indeed, everything that he prayed was to fulfill his obligation, but when it is clear that he already fulfilled it, he must stop (Bei’ur Halachah 107:1, s.v. “Posek,” and according to many, that is also what is implied from the Shulchan Aruch there). However, according to the Rambam (10:6), he should continue his Amidah as a voluntary prayer (tefillat nedavah). The reason for this is that even nowadays Ma’ariv is, in essence, optional, therefore the basic element of nedavah within it remains (that is also how Yalkut Yosef, part 3, 236:11 rules). One who is uncertain as to whether or not he prayed Shacharit or Minchah must repeat his prayer, but regarding Ma’ariv, the Acharonim disagree. The Mishnah Berurah 107:2 writes that one should pray and add something new in the Amidah (see earlier in this book 18:3). According to all opinions, one who forgot to pray Ma’ariv must make it up after Shacharit (tashlumim), and similarly, one who mistakenly forgot to recite Ya’aleh V’Yavo in Ma’ariv of Chol HaMo’ed must repeat the Amidah (see Beirur Halachah 27b).</i>
  Women are exempt from praying Ma’ariv, even according to those who maintain that women are obligated to pray all the prayers instituted by the Chachamim. A woman’s obligation pertains to Shacharit and Minchah, which were established as obligatory, however, she is exempt from Ma’ariv which is optional. The men’s minhag of accepting upon themselves the recitation of Ma’ariv as an obligation does not apply to women.
  
  Section 3
  
  The Ma’ariv Prayer / The Order of the Ma’ariv Prayer
  The Rishonim write that before Barchu it is customary to recite three verses, which open with the words, “V’Hu Rachum yechaper avon,” (“He, the merciful One, atones iniquity”), to request atonement for the sins that we committed throughout the day. Furthermore, at night, the Divine attribute of judgment is in force and mechablim (destructive spiritual agents) are given permission to harm. Therefore, we ask, “V’Hu Rachum yechaper avon…” (see Tur and Beit Yosef 237 and Kaf HaChaim 235:5). On Shabbat and Festivals, V’Hu Rachum is not recited.
  According to the Sephardic minhag, three verses beginning with the words, “Hashem Tzevakot…” are recited before the beginning of Ma’ariv, and according to the minhag of the Chassidim, “Shir HaMa’alot…” is recited. Followers of both minhagim recite Half-Kaddish afterwards and then V’Hu Rachum. If Torah learning was conducted before the prayer service, at the end of which Kaddish Al Yisrael was recited, it is unnecessary to recite Half-Kaddish as well, so as to avoid saying too many Kaddishim (Yalkut Yosef, part 3, 236:1).
  By reciting Barchu we introduce Birkot Keriat Shema, and therefore it is forbidden to talk after Barchu, similar to the law concerning someone who is in the middle of a passage of the Shema (Mishnah Berurah 236:1; 54:14; see earlier in this book 16:4). Therefore, whoever did not succeed in saying V’Hu Rachum before Barchu does not recite it after Barchu, so as not to interrupt in the middle of Birkot Keriat Shema (see Yabia Omer 2:5).
  The majority of Sephardim have the custom not to answer Amen after the berachot of the chazan to prevent interruption in the middle of Birkot Keriat Shema. It is best to finish the berachah with the chazan or slightly after him, so that according to all opinions there will be no need to respond Amen. After Birkat Hashkiveinu, some answer Amen (Yalkut Yosef, part 3, 236:6) and some do not (Ben Ish Chai, Pekudei 5). According to the Ashkenazic minhag, Amen is answered after the chazan’s blessings, and is not considered an interruption. However, even the Ashkenazim try not to answer Amen after Birkat Ahavat Olam so as not interrupt between the berachah and Keriat Shema, and they do this by finishing the berachah together with the chazan or after him (see earlier in this book 16:4; all matters concerning Birkot Keriat Shema are clarified in chapter 16).
  At the end of Birkat Hashkiveinu, Sephardim are accustomed to responding Amen to their own blessing, since it is a conclusion of a series of berachot. However, Ashkenazim do not answer Amen to their own berachot, with one exception, following Birkat Boneh Yerushalayim in Birkat Hamazon (Shulchan Aruch 215:1; 236:4).
  Between Birkot Keriat Shema and the Amidah, the chazan recites Half-Kaddish, and after the Amidah he says Kaddish-Titkabal. After that, according to the Sephardic minhag, Shir HaMa’alot Esa Einai is recited, following which those in mourning recite Mourner’s Kaddish, one of whom says Barchu. Subsequently, Aleinu L’Shabe’ach is recited and there is no Kaddish said after it. According to the Ashkenazic minhag, immediately after Kaddish-Titkabal, Aleinu L’Shabe’ach is recited, followed by the recital of the Mourner’s Kaddish by the mourners, one of whom says Barchu.
  
  Section 4
  
  The Ma’ariv Prayer / Adjoining Redemption to Prayer
  The main part of the Exodus occurred during the day, when the Jewish people left Egypt. Therefore, the primary obligation of adjoining redemption to prayer is in Shacharit. Nevertheless, because the redemption began at night, there is also a mitzvah to adjoin redemption to prayer at night. Yet, we are not as meticulous in adjoining redemption to prayer in Ma’ariv as we are in Shacharit. Therefore, the Chachamim instituted Birkat Hashkiveinu after Birkat Ga’al Yisrael and considered it a continuation of Birkat Ga’al Yisrael, for in Birkat Ga’al Yisrael the blessing concerns the redemption of all Jews as a collective whole, while in Hashkiveinu we request the redemption of the individual from the dangers of the night. Were we to be strict about adjoining redemption to prayer, it would be impossible to say Birkat Hashkiveinu after the blessing regarding the redemption.
  Similarly, Half-Kaddish is recited between Birkot Keriat Shema and the Amidah, for that is the order of the prayer; at every transition point from one stage to another in the prayer service, Chazal established saying Kaddish. Although in Shacharit, Kaddish is not recited immediately before the Amidah because of the great importance of not interrupting between redemption and prayer, in Ma’ariv, in which there is no need to be as meticulous in adjoining redemption to prayer, Kaddish is recited between Birkot Keriat Shema and the Amidah.
  The custom in many places on Rosh Chodesh night is that the gabbai announces the words “Ya’aleh V’Yavo” before the Amidah prayer, and on the night of the seventh of Cheshvan, when we begin to ask for rain, the gabbai declares, “Tal U’Matar.” In Shacharit, we cannot interrupt with speech; instead, the gabbai or chazan reminds the congregation that there is something different in this Amidah by pounding on the pulpit. Yet, in Ma’ariv, we are lenient and express this reminder verbally (Shulchan Aruch 236:2; Mishnah Berurah 7). Still, there are those who pound on the pulpit in Ma’ariv as well, so as not to interrupt with speech (see Kaf HaChaim 336:17; Piskei Teshuvot 236:6).
  One who arrives late, when the congregation is about to start praying the Amidah, should recite the Amidah with the minyan, and then make up Birkot Keriat Shema afterwards. In Shacharit, the halachah is that he must recite the prayers in order because adjoining redemption to prayer is more important than praying in a minyan. However, in Ma’ariv, prayer in a minyan takes precedence, and therefore he prays with the congregation and afterwards makes up Birkot Keriat Shema (Shulchan Aruch 236:3).2<i class="footnote">Although <em>Kaf HaChaim</em> 111:12 writes that according to the Kabbalah, even in <em>Ma’ariv</em> it is forbidden to switch the order of the prayers in the service, nevertheless, the <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> rules like the <em>Shulchan Aruch</em>, as do<em> Yalkut Yosef</em>, part 3, p. 661 and <em>Rabbi Chaim Palaggi</em>.There is an old custom to recite Birkat Yir’u Eineinu after Hashkiveinu, for it contains eighteen verses; see Mishnah Berurah 236:5 where he writes that its recital was instituted to replace the Shemoneh Esrei. There are Rishonim who maintain that there was no authority to institute its recital after the time of the completion of the Talmud, and therefore it is not to be recited (Meiri). Even so, many do have the custom to recite it. Talmidei Rabbeinu Yonah write that the recital of Yir’u Eineinu was instituted instead of the Ma’ariv prayer which is optional, and even after people accepted Ma’ariv as an obligation, the custom to recite Yir’u Eineinu was not cancelled. There are poskim who prove from the custom of reciting Yir’u Eineinu that there is no need to adjoin redemption to prayer in Ma’ariv. That is also the opinion of Rav Amram Gaon. Hence, Kaddish is also recited after Birkot Keriat Shema. Nevertheless, the Ramban and the Rashbam did not recite Yir’u Eineninu or Kaddish, so as not to interrupt between redemption and prayer.Already from the end of the time of the Rishonim, it had become customary not to recite Birkat Yir’u Eineinu in Sephardic congregations, although there were Ashkenazim who still recited it. Nowadays, in Israel it is not customary to recite it (see Kaf HaChaim 236:12 and Piskei Teshuvot 7). However, Kaddish is recited by all. Although it is the opinion of many Rishonim not to recite this Kaddish, so as not to interrupt the adjoining of redemption to prayer; nonetheless, all are accustomed to reciting it. The explanation of this is as I wrote above. Aruch HaShulchan 236:8 writes that Kaddish is a sort of redemption, so that the respect of Heaven will be revealed in the world, and therefore it is not considered as much of an interruption. See Beirur Halachah, Berachot 4b.</i>
  
  Section 5
  
  The Ma’ariv Prayer / The Time to Recite Keriat Shema Begins at Tzeit HaKochavim
  The time to recite the evening Keriat Shema is “when you lie down” – when people lie on their beds to sleep, which starts when it gets dark. The Chachamim established a sign for the beginning of this time, when three medium-sized stars can be seen in the sky. This is because large stars are also visible during the day or at bein hashemashot (twilight). However, when three medium-size stars (according to the naked eye) emerge after them, it is a sign that night has begun (HaZemanim BaHalachah chapters 49-50). This time is called tzeit hakochavim. To avoid error, and to prevent mistaking big stars for medium ones, the Rishonim write that one must wait until he sees three small stars appear in the sky (Talmidei Rabbeinu Yonah; Shulchan Aruch 235:1).
  However, here an uncertainty arises: how do we establish the time of tzeit hakochavim? Some say that the time of tzeit hakochavim is established according to those with good eyesight, and who know where the first stars are located. They can see the three medium stars approximately eighteen minutes after sunset, and sometimes even fifteen minutes after sunset. This is also implied from the Talmud (Shabbat 35b), which states that the time between sunset and tzeit hakochavim is the walking distance of three-quarters of a mil, which is approximately between thirteen-and-a-half minutes to eighteen minutes. Others say that it is established according to the majority of people, for most people discern three medium stars approximately 25 to 30 minutes after sunset. All this is said in reference to medium stars. However, as mentioned previously, the Rishonim write to wait until three small stars are visible; therefore, it is necessary to wait another few minutes.
  In practice, many are accustomed to start praying Ma’ariv approximately 20 minutes after sunset, for that is the halachah according to the majority of poskim. L’chatchilah, it is best to start Ma’ariv approximately 30 minutes after sunset. One who prays in a minyan in which Keriat Shema was recited before 30 minutes passed from sunset, should go back and repeat the first paragraph of Shema after Aleinu L’Shabe’ach in order to avoid uncertainty. Those who wish to be stringent say V’Hayah Im Shamo’a as well. There are those who also add Vayomer.3<i class="footnote">See <em>HaZemanim BaHalachah</em> chapters 47-51. See also <em>Peninei Halachah Shabbat</em> I, p. 52 and in the footnotes. In <em>Shabbat</em> 35 the time of <em>bein hashemashot </em>(twilight) is explained according to Rabbi Yehudah to be the amount of time it takes to walk three-quarters of a <em>mil</em>, and according to Rabbi Yossi, to be a short amount of time (approximately half a minute). The majority of <em>poskim </em>maintain that Rabbi Yossi’s <em>bein hashemashot</em> is immediately after the time of Rabbi Yehudah’s <em>bein hashemashot</em>. The halachah sides with both of them, meaning that from sunset until a little more than the time it takes to walk three-quarters of a <em>mil</em> is the time of <em>bein hashemashot</em>. (Some maintain that the <em>bein hashemashot</em> of Rabbi Yossi is a few minutes after the <em>bein hashemashot</em> of Rabbi Yehudah, as brought by <em>HaZemanim BaHalachah</em> 40:8-11, and then the time of <em>Ma’ariv</em> is later by a few more minutes.) As we learned earlier in chapter 11, note 1, there are three opinions regarding the amount of time a <em>mil</em> represents: 1) 18 minutes, 2) 22.5 minutes, and 3) 24 minutes. Based on this, three-quarters of a <em>mil</em> is between 13.5 minutes and 18 minutes. In order to incorporate the time of Rabbi Yossi, a little more time must be supplemented, and the result according to this, is that the final time of <em>bein hashemashot</em> is between 14 and 19 minutes.However, there are differences between the seasons of the year, for in Nisan (March 5th) and Tishrei (October 5th), the light fades faster after sunset and therefore it is possible to see three stars earlier. For instance, what can be seen in Nisan, 19 minutes after sunset, is visible at the peak of summer (June 22nd) almost 22 minutes after sunset, and at the height of winter, 21 minutes after sunset.It is also important to understand that one who stands high above sea level sees the sunset later. For example, one who stands on a mountain, or in a tower at a height of approximately 800 meters above sea level, will see the sunset about five minutes after his friend who stands at sea level below. In other words, the sky will darken at the same time for both of them and they will see the stars simultaneously, but if each of them were to calculate the amount of time that passed from sunset to tzeit hakochavim, there would be a difference of approximately five minutes. Those who are higher see the sun for five more minutes. Based on this, if the Chachamim were talking about Jerusalem, whose height is approximately 800 meters above sea level (at places where the mountains do not block the horizon), in regard to this calculation, 14 or 19 minutes in Jerusalem is like 19 or 24 minutes at sea level. A few laws can be clarified after understanding this point.In Israel, on a straight horizon at sea level during the days of Nisan (March 5th) and Tishrei (October 5th), 14 minutes after sunset, the sun descends only 3.75 degrees below the horizon. This approach poses difficulty, for at that time, few, save the most skilled, rarely succeed in seeing three stars. See HaZemanim BaHalachah 41:7 for explanations given by the Acharonim. Some say that perhaps the halachah is based on people with better vision, and others argue that maybe people living at that time had superior eyesight. As aforementioned, it is possible to conclude that the Chachamim were talking about Jerusalem, at a place where the hills do not block the horizon, and then the sunset is five minutes later, and it turns out that 14 minutes after sunset in Jerusalem is like 19 minutes after sunset in the Shefelah (the lowlands region of Israel).Indeed, according to those who maintain that tzeit hakochavim is 19 minutes after sunset in the Shefelah, the sun descends at that time 4.8 degrees below the horizon, and then experts who know where the first stars should be seen in the sky can see three medium-sized stars in the days of Nisan. However, in the summer days, one must wait 22 minutes for that same situation to arise, and in the winter, 21 minutes.Some say that three medium stars are actually only visible when the sun descends approximately 6.2 degrees below the horizon, which is 25.5 minutes after sunset during Nisan, 28 minutes at the height of winter (December 22nd), and 29.5 minutes at the height of summer (June 22nd). At that time, most people see three medium-sized stars. Perhaps it somewhat resembles the opinion which maintains that tzeit hakochavim is 19 minutes after sunset in Jerusalem, and at sea level it comes out to approximately 24 minutes after sunset (maybe another minute and a half were added since today eyesight has weakened, or because the abundance of electric lights make it more difficult to see the stars, although perhaps it is truly possible to see the stars slightly before that).There are those who are more stringent and maintain that in actuality, most people do not see three stars before the sun descends 7.1 degrees below the horizon, which is around 30 minutes after sunset during Nisan and Tishrei at sea level, and in the summer, approximately 35 minutes. This is what has been said in the name of the Chazon Ish. However, it is difficult to explain the words of these stringent poskim according to the Gemara who allotted that the time it takes to walk three-quarters of a mil to bein hashemashot. Additionally, concerning calculations made in open areas in which there are no lights and electricity, people saw three stars before then. See HaZemanim BaHalachah 47:12; 50:6-7. The additional aspects of this issue require further examination. For example, in Tishrei, even though the duration of the darkening of the skies is similar to Nisan, we see the stars slightly later due to the position of the stars in the skies; and the question is, do we go by the stars or according to the darkness? See Hazemanim BaHalachah, chapter 48.All the aforementioned refers to the time of three medium stars. However, so that people will not come to err, the Shulchan Aruch rules that they must wait until three small stars emerge, meaning, another few minutes. Some say that nowadays, since we use clocks, there is no need to wait. See HaZemanim BaHalachah 51, note 3. Nevertheless, even according to those who are stringent l’chatchilah, if one recited Shema after three medium-sized stars emerged, b’dieved he fulfilled his obligation.In practice, the prevalent minhag is to start Ma’ariv 20 minutes after sunset, and this is good according to the majority of poskim, as written in many halachic works. At that time, in all places, experts can see three stars, which is when the sun is at 4.8 degrees below the horizon. (Even in the Shefelah in the summer, when the congregation reaches Shema, 22 minutes will have passed.)Although it is possible to rely on the opinion of the majority of poskim and recite Shema 20 minutes after sunset, it is better to recite Keriat Shema 30 minutes after sunset. If one recites it before then, it is best that he repeats it after praying, although it is not unnecessary to say the Vayomer paragraph. Despite the fact that according to the Sha’agat Aryeh, remembering the Exodus must also be at the proper time for Keriat Shema, nonetheless, according to the Magen Avraham, it is permissible to mention it before then, at the proper time for Ma’ariv (Mishnah Berurah 235:11). Therefore, when a person recited Shema after 18 minutes following sunset, he need not repeat Vayomer. It is not even so crucial to repeat V’Hayah Im Shamo’a since, according to the majority of poskim, the obligation to recite it is rabbinic.L’chatchilah, so as to take into consideration those poskim who are stringent, it is good to set the time of Ma’ariv 30 minutes after sunset. That way, people living in the hills also fulfill their obligation throughout the whole year even according to the stringent opinions (the sun is 7.1 degrees below the horizon), and those in the Shefelah fulfill their obligation the whole year round, according to most opinions (6.2 degrees below the horizon), and most of the year they fulfill their obligation even according to those who are stringent. In order to always fulfill one’s obligation in the Shefelah also according to the stringent opinions, it is necessary to delay the recital of Barchu during the summer by another three minutes so that when the congregation arrives at Keriat Shema, 35 minutes will already have passed.The law concerning the emergence of three medium-sized stars is also significant with regard to establishing the time of a circumcision for a baby born at the beginning of Shabbat. If the baby is born after tzeit hakochavim, he must be circumcised on the following Shabbat; and if he is born at bein hashemashot, it is forbidden to circumcise him on Shabbat, and his circumcision is postponed until Sunday. The matter depends on the precise time of tzeit hakochavim is. The Yabia Omer, part 7, Orach Chaim 41:8 rules that 20 minutes after sunset is certainly nighttime, and therefore the baby is circumcised on Shabbat. Shemirat Shabbat Kehilchatah, part 2, 46:45 writes in the name of Rav Auerbach that night begins definitively 25 minutes after sunset. However, the fact that neither opinion makes a distinction between Jerusalem and the Shefelah, and between the different seasons of the year is problematic. The book Otzar HaBrit 9, 5, 7, mentions that there are those who maintain that nighttime officially starts at 24 minutes after sunset, and some say 28 minutes, but that the author himself was taught that it is no less than 32 minutes after sunset. Still, he too, neglects to distinguish between Jerusalem and the Shefelah and the different seasons of the year. It seems best to follow the approach that says that night begins when the sun is 6.2 degrees below the horizon. In Jerusalem that is approximately 20.5-24.5 minutes after sunset, and in the Shefelah, 25.5-29.5 minutes after sunset. It is possible to calculate the exact time with the help of the computer program Chazon Shamayim, based on the secular date, the place of birth of the child according to the lines of longitude and latitude, and the altitude of the location.</i>
  
  Section 6
  
  The Ma’ariv Prayer / The Time of the Amidah According to the Chachamim and Rabbi Yehudah
  The time of the Ma’ariv prayer was established to correspond to the offering of the organs and fats of the Tamid offering upon the altar. As we already learned (earlier in this book 24:7), the Chachamim and Rabbi Yehudah disagree regarding this matter. According to the Chachamim, the time of Minchah is until night, and the time to pray Ma’ariv starts from tzeit hakochavim. According to Rabbi Yehudah, the time of Minchah ends at plag haminchah, an hour and a quarter before the end of the day, and immediately after that begins the time of Ma’ariv. A person is permitted to choose whether to practice according to the Chachamim or Rabbi Yehudah, on condition that he adheres to one minhag. If he follows Rabbi Yehudah, he must make sure not to pray Minchah after plag haminchah. If he follows the Chachamim, he must make sure to pray Ma’ariv after tzeit hakochavim. However, if a person  prays Minchah after plag haminchah in the opinion of the Chachamim, it is forbidden to pray Ma’ariv before tzeit hakochavim according to Rabbi Yehudah.
  Even though according to Rabbi Yehudah the time to recite Ma’ariv and Birkot Keriat Shema starts at plag haminchah, the time of Keriat Shema itself does not begin until tzeit hakochavim. Therefore, a person praying before tzeit hakochavim must repeat the three paragraphs of Shema after tzeit hakochavim (Shulchan Aruch 235:1).4<i class="footnote">However, the <em>Tosafot </em>write in<em> Berachot</em> 2a that according to <em>Rabbeinu Tam</em>, the time to recite the evening <em>Keriat Shema</em> is the same as the time of <em>Ma’ariv</em>, and according to Rabbi Yehudah, one is permitted to fulfill his obligation from the time of <em>plag haminchah</em>. According to <em>Rabbeinu Yitzchak</em>,<em> </em>it is permissible in extenuating circumstances to be lenient regarding the time of <em>Keriat Shema</em> and to follow the opinions which say that it is a few minutes before <em>tzeit hakochavim</em>. Nonetheless, the remaining <em>Rishonim</em> maintain that the time to recite the evening <em>Keriat Shema</em> is after <em>tzeit hakochavim</em>, and therefore it is necessary to repeat <em>Keriat Shema</em> after <em>tzeit hakochavim</em>, as the <em>Shulchan Aruch</em> 235:1 rules. There is disagreement as to whether it is necessary to repeat the <em>Vayomer</em> paragraph after <em>tzeit hakochavim</em> as well. According to the <em>Magen Avraham</em>, the time to remember the Exodus from Egypt is the same as the time of <em>Ma’ariv</em> and one need not make it up, whereas according to the <em>Sha’agat Aryeh</em> its time is like the time of <em>Keriat Shema</em> and one must make it up (<em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 235:11). Regarding <em>Birkot</em> <em>Keriat Shema</em>, in principal their time is like the time of <em>Keriat Shema</em>. However, in practice, those who follow Rabbi Yehudah normally recite them before <em>tzeit hakochavim </em>and fulfill their obligation, as clarified in the <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 235:7 and 11, and <em>Sha’ar HaTzion</em> 6.</i>
  L’chatchilah, one may not switch from one ruling to another; instead, everyone must always practice according to one opinion. The prevalent minhag today is to follow the Chachamim. However, in times of need, a person is permitted to change from the Chachamim’s opinion and practice like Rabbi Yehudah. For instance, in the summer, when Shabbat starts late, there are those who wish to accept Shabbat early so that their small children can participate in the prayer service and the meal, and for that reason they pray Ma’ariv like Rabbi Yehudah, before sunset. Similarly, a person who finds himself in a place in which they practice like Rabbi Yehudah, even though he is used to praying Ma’ariv after tzeit hakochavim, it is better that he pray in a minyan like Rabbi Yehudah, instead of observing his minhag and praying individually like the Chachamim.5<i class="footnote">According to the <em>Ra’ah</em> and <em>Meiri</em>, throughout the day a person must practice according to one approach, but each day he may choose a different <em>minhag</em>. According to <em>Talmidei Rabbeinu Yonah</em><em>Rashba</em>, and the <em>Rosh</em>, one must always choose to follow one opinion and he is not allowed to switch approaches even from time to time. The <em>Shulchan Aruch</em> 233:1, <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 6:11 and <em>Kaf HaChaim</em> 9:12 rule that, <em>l’chatchilah</em>, alternating approaches is prohibited, but in times of need, one is permitted to do so (see <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 267:3).</i>
  
  Section 7
  
  The Ma’ariv Prayer / The B’dieved Custom Linking Minchah to Ma’ariv Before Its Proper Time
  In some congregations, it was customary to pray Minchah and Ma’ariv, one right after the other, between plag haminchah and tzeit hakochavim. During the time of the Rishonim, this custom was practiced primarily in Ashkenaz, and in the time of the Acharonim, mainly in Spain. Many prominent rabbis questioned this minhag and attempted to abolish it, for it is a custom which contradicts itself; since they prayed Minchah after plag haminchah like the opinion of the Chachamim, it is impossible to pray Ma’ariv at that time like Rabbi Yehudah. Hence, it is proper to arrange Torah learning between Minchah and Ma’ariv, and in that way, the people praying will merit to learn Torah and to fulfill the Ma’ariv prayer in its proper time.
  Nonetheless, the Acharonim instruct that if waiting until after tzeit hakochavim will cause the people to disperse and the Ma’ariv prayer to be cancelled, it is possible to be lenient and recite Ma’ariv immediately after Minchah. Of course, all those praying must repeat Keriat Shema after tzeit hakochavim.6<i class="footnote">The <em>Tosafot Berachot</em> 2a, <em>Rosh</em>, and <em>Talmidei Rabbeinu Yonah</em>, as well as other <em>Rishonim</em>, question this <em>minhag</em> of praying <em>Ma’ariv </em>before sunset, for it involves two lenient opinions which contradict each other. In practice, to accommodate the needs of the multitude, they ruled leniently, as written in the <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 233:11, <em>Kaf Hachaim</em> 12, and <em>Yalkut Yosef</em>, part 3, 235:1. However, all agree that <em>Keriat Shema</em> must be recited after <em>tzeit hakochavim</em>. There are two main opinions concerning the proper conduct  in a place where the congregation is praying <em>Ma’ariv</em> before <em>tzeit hakochavim</em>. There are two main opinions concerning how one must practice when in a place in which the congregation is praying <em>Ma’ariv</em> before <em>tzeit hakochavim</em>. According to the <em>Rambam</em>, he recites <em>Birkot Keriat Shema</em> with them and adjoins redemption to prayer, and after <em>tzeit hakochavim</em> he goes back and recites <em>Keriat Shema</em> in order to fulfill the mitzvah. That is how the <em>Shulchan Aruch</em> 235:1 rules. According to <em>Rav Hai Gaon</em>, he only recites <em>Keriat Shema</em> with the congregation so that from <em>Shema</em> he will begin the <em>Amidah</em> together with the <em>minyan</em>. However, <em>Birkot Keriat Shema</em>, as well as <em>Keriat Shema</em> itself (in which he will fulfill his obligation), are recited after <em>tzeit hakochavim</em>. From his opinion it appears that it is better to recite <em>Birkot Keriat Shema</em> with <em>Keriat Shema</em>, after <em>tzeit hakochavim</em>, even though in so doing one does not adjoin redemption to prayer. This is what the <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 235:12 writes and that is how he himself practiced (see <em>Igrot Moshe Orach Chaim</em> 2:60). According to the <em>Gra</em>, it is always preferable to pray <em>Ma’ariv</em> individually after <em>tzeit hakochavim</em> like the <em>Chachamim</em> rather than to pray with the congregation before <em>tzeit hakochavim</em> like Rabbi Yehudah.In a place in which Minchah and Ma’ariv are prayed one right after the other, it is better, if possible, to be careful to recite Minchah before sunset and Ma’ariv after sunset, for some poskim maintain that Ma’ariv time begins at sunset, and that is how the Or L’Tzion, part 2, 15:6, understands the opinion of the Shulchan Aruch. Even according to this opinion, the time of Keriat Shema is after tzeit hakochavim. Nonetheless, the majority of poskim rule that the time of the Ma’ariv prayer according to the Chachamim is, indeed, after tzeit hakochavim. That is what the Mishnah Berurah 233:9 writes.</i>
  Concerning an individual who normally prays according to the Chachamim’s approach, namely, Ma’ariv after tzeit hakochavim, and finds himself in a place in which they observe the minhag of extenuating circumstances – Minchah and Ma’ariv one right after the other before tzeit hakochavim – there is disagreement. Some say that it is preferable that the individual prays with them, so that he prays in a minyan. Others say that it is better that he preserves his minhag, prays Minchah with them in the minyan, but prays Ma’ariv individually after tzeit hakochavim.7<i class="footnote">The first opinion is inferred from <em>Kaf HaChaim</em> 233:12. One makes up the three paragraphs of <em>Shema</em> later. The second opinion can be inferred from <em>Sha’ar HaTzion</em> 235:16. However, if one prayed <em>Minchah</em> before <em>plag haminchah</em> he prays <em>Ma’ariv</em> with the <em>minyan</em> and follows one of the two opinions mentioned in the previous note.</i>
  
  Section 8
  
  The Ma’ariv Prayer / The Final Time to Recite Keriat Shema and the Amidah of Ma’ariv
  Biblically, the time of the Keriat Shema of Ma’ariv lasts the whole night, for it is written, “beshochbecha,” “when you lie down,” and people normally lie on their beds throughout the entire night. However, the Chachamim “created a fence” to this law and established its time until chatzot (halachic midnight), so that a person won’t postpone the recital of Keriat Shema, then fall asleep and miss it. Nevertheless, b’dieved, if the time passed, and he did not recite it before chatzot, he says it with its berachot before amud hashachar (dawn), since biblically, the time to recite it lasts the whole night.8<i class="footnote">The <em>Mishnah</em> in <em>Berachot</em> 2a states that, according to the <em>Chachamim</em>, the time of <em>Keriat Shema</em> lasts until <em>chatzot</em>, and according to Rabban Gamliel, it is until <em>amud hashachar</em>. In the <em>Gemara</em> 8b, the conclusion is that the halachah follows Rabban Gamliel. That is also how the <em>Rosh</em> and <em>Rashba</em> rule, that it is permissible <em>l’chatchilah</em> to recite <em>Shema</em> until <em>amud hashachar</em>. However, the opinion of the <em>Rif</em>, <em>Rambam</em>, <em>Smag</em>, and the majority of <em>Rishonim</em> is that its time is until <em>chatzot</em>, and only if the time passed and one did not recite it until then, he may recite it until <em>amud hashachar</em>. In such a case the <em>Gemara</em> teaches that the halachah follows Rabban Gamliel (and perhaps that is the opinion of Rabban Gamliel himself). That is how the <em>Shulchan Aruch</em> 235:3 rules. The <em>Bei’ur Halachah</em> supports this opinion. (Regarding the <em>Chachamim</em>’s opinion, the <em>Rishonim</em> disagree: according to <em>Talmidei Rabbeinu Yonah</em>, the <em>Chachamim</em> maintain that one cannot recite <em>Keriat</em> <em>Shema</em> after <em>chatzot</em>, and according to the <em>Smag</em>, <em>b’dieved</em>, it can be recited after <em>chatzot</em>. The <em>Gra</em> explains that the <em>Bavli</em> and the <em>Yerushalmi</em> are divided concerning this. According to the <em>Bavli</em>, the <em>Chachamim</em> maintain that <em>b’dieved</em> one may recite <em>Shema</em> after <em>chatzot</em>, and according to the <em>Yerushalmi</em>, one may not. Additionally, see <em>Beirur Halachah Berachot</em> 2a.)The time of the Amidah of Ma’ariv: according to the Derech HaChaim, l’chatchilah, lasts until chatzot, and according to the Pri Megadim, lechatchilah, it is all night. These opinions are cited by the Mishnah Berurah 108:15. (See earlier in this book, chapter 17, note 13, concerning the matter of someone who is traveling and finishes his trip after chatzot.) Or L’Tzion, part 2, 15:9, writes that it is preferable to pray individually before chatzot rather than in a minyan after chatzot.</i>
  A person who found himself in circumstances beyond his control and did not recite Shema before amud hashachar has until netz hachamah (sunrise) to do so (these times are clarified earlier in this book 11:2). When reciting Shema after amud hashachar, it is said with three berachot, though without Birkat Hashkiveinu, for since amud hashachar already arrived, it is no longer considered time “to lie down.” Ma’ariv may not be prayed after amud hashachar either, because it was instituted for the night, and after the break of dawn, daytime has already begun (Mishnah Berurah 235:34; Sha’ar HaTzion 41).9<i class="footnote">If, because of circumstances beyond his control, one recites the <em>Ma’ariv Shema</em> after <em>amud hashachar</em>, he cannot fulfill his obligation of the daytime <em>Shema</em> before <em>netz</em> that same day, for after treating this time as a time to lie down, he cannot consider it also a time to get up (<em>Shulchan Aruch</em> 58:5; <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 22). However, there are those who say that after the time of <em>misheyakir</em> he may recite the<em> Shema</em> of <em>Shacharit </em>(<em>Kaf HaChaim</em> 58:21).The Mishnah Berurah 235:30 explains that, biblically, it is permissible to recite the Keriat Shema of Ma’ariv until netz; since at that time there are still people lying in their beds, it is called a time of “when you lie down.” However, at amud hashachar, the day already begins, and therefore the Chachamim established not to recite the Shema of Ma’ariv after amud hashachar. Only someone who did not recite the Shema before amud hashachar due to circumstances beyond his control is permitted to recite it until netz. Rav Kook in Tov Ro’i 55 clarifies that, biblically, the time for the nighttime Keriat Shema is until amud hashachar and the Chachamim instituted that one who finds himself in circumstances beyond his control can make it up until netz.</i>
  L’chatchilah, it is preferable to recite Shema and pray Ma’ariv immediately after tzeit hakochavim, for those who are expeditious perform mitzvot early. However, someone who is engrossed in Torah study is permitted l’chatchilah to delay his prayer until after his learning, as is done in many yeshivot where it is customary to pray Ma’ariv at the end of the afternoon learning session and not immediately at tzeit hakochavim. Similarly, a person who prefers to pray in a late minyan because he believes he will be able to concentrate better is permitted l’chatchilah to delay his prayer. Obviously it is better to pray in a late minyan rather than to pray individually immediately after tzeit hakochavim.10<i class="footnote">The basis for the enhancement to be expeditious can be found in the words of <em>Talmidei Rabbeinu Yonah</em> and is brought by the <em>Shulchan Aruch</em> 235:3 and <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 26. However, other <em>Rishonim</em> do not mention this enhancement, and according to the <em>Aruch HaShulchan</em> 235:18, there are even those who disagree with it. Therefore, many are not strict to pray <em>Ma’ariv </em>early. See <em>Beit Baruch</em> 34:17.</i>
  
  Section 9
  
  The Ma’ariv Prayer / Forbidden Activities Prior to Praying Ma’ariv
  It is forbidden to start eating, even a light meal, half an hour before tzeit hakochavim, for perhaps one will continue his meal until he becomes tired and falls asleep. It is also forbidden to drink alcoholic beverages. However, fruits and vegetables may be eaten. Even the consumption of bread or grains in an amount less than a kabeitzah is permissible.11<i class="footnote">em&gt;Shulchan Aruch 235:2; <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 235:16; 232:35. The <em>Mishnah Berurah</em> 232:34 explains that it is even permissible to eat cooked food made from grain if one does not intend to become full from it. From this we can learn that if he intends to become full from fruits and vegetables or from food made from legumes, indeed, it is considered a meal that is forbidden before reciting <em>Keriat Shema</em> and praying the <em>Amidah</em></i> If a person began eating before half an hour prior to tzeit hakochavim, since he started to eat when he was permitted to do so, he may continue, provided that he will have enough time after his meal to recite Shema and pray (Mishnah Berurah 235:21).
  If a person began to eat when it was forbidden to do so, he must stop his meal in order to recite Shema, which is a biblical commandment. However, with regard to Birkot Keriat Shema and the Amidah, since they are rabbinic mitzvot, he is permitted to delay their recital until after he finishes eating (Shulchan Aruch 235:2).
  If he asks a friend who is not eating to remind him afterwards to recite Shema and recite the Amidah, he is permitted to begin eating even after tzeit hakochavim in times of need (Mishnah Berurah 235:18). If two people need to eat and did not yet pray Ma’ariv, in times of need they may make an agreement between themselves that they will remind each other to pray Ma’ariv, and in that way, there is no concern that they will forget (see Mishnah Berurah in the introduction of section 669). Likewise, a person who always prays in a certain minyan at a particular time, and knows that he will not forget to pray because the consistency of the minyan serves as his reminder, is permitted in extenuating circumstances to eat before Ma’ariv (see Aruch HaShulchan 232:16).
  In many yeshivot in the summer, dinner is started within the half-hour before tzeit hakochavim, and they rely on the fact that the time of prayer is set and known to all, and that everyone reminds each other to pray Ma’ariv after the meal. Although l’chatchilah it is proper to pray before dinner, nevertheless, it is correct to practice the way many yeshivot do in order to preserve the order of the learning sessions. If the meal is delayed until after praying Ma’ariv, the afternoon learning session will be too long and the evening learning too short, and it will likely cause neglect of Torah study.
  One who must eat before praying and has neither a permanent time to pray nor someone to remind him, may create a reminder to pray. For example, he can set an alarm clock to ring, or he can ask his friend to call him and remind him to pray, and the minute he hears the ring or his friend’s call, he must recite Shema and pray (Halichot Shlomo 2:12). B’dieved, he can tie something to his clothing, so that he cannot take off his clothes before going to sleep without noticing the reminder to recite Shema and pray.
  Similarly, it is forbidden to sleep a regular sleep starting half an hour before tzeit hakochavim. In extenuating circumstances, in the beginning of the evening, when everyone is normally still awake, a person may go to sleep after appointing someone to wake him up before the time to pray (see Aruch HaShulchan 232:17).
  A person who intends to pray Ma’ariv individually may not begin learning after tzeit hakochavim without praying first. However, before tzeit hakochavim, he may start learning even if he intends to continue learning through tzeit hakochavim. If he is accustomed to going to pray in a synagogue in a particular minyan that begins later, he is permitted to start learning in his house after tzeit hakochavim for there is no concern that he will forget his regular schedule (Shulchan Aruch 89:5; Mishnah Berurah 89:30-31; 235:17).
  Some say that all activities prohibited by the Chachamim before Minchah are also forbidden before Ma’ariv, such as a task that will likely last a long time (Rashba; Mishnah Berurah 235:17). Others say that the Chachamim only prohibited starting those types of work before Minchah, because a person is used to working in the afternoon and can get so involved in what he is doing that he will forget to pray. However, in the evening, people do not usually get caught up in their work (Aruch HaShulchan 235:16, as implied from the Rambam and other Rishonim). L’chatchilah, in a situation in which there is concern that he will be tempted to continue working, it is proper to act stringently (see earlier in this book 24:5).
  
  
  
  
  
  Section 1
  
  The Bedtime Shema / The Passages of the Bedtime Shema 
  The Chachamim teach (Berachot 60b), “One who goes to sleep in bed must recite Shema Yisrael until V’Hayah Im Shamo’a, and the blessing Baruch HaMapil Chevlei Sheinah….” Likewise, Rabbi Yehoshua ben Levi says, “Even if a person recited Keriat Shema in the synagogue, it is a mitzvah to recite it [again] on his bed.” Chazal base their words on the verse (Psalms 4:5), “Meditate in your hearts [while] on your beds and be silent” (Berachot 4b).
  Rabbi Yehoshua ben Levi was accustomed to reciting an additional two Psalms before his sleep: “Yoshev B’Seter Elyon” (Psalm 91) and “Hashem Ma Rabu Tzarai” (Psalm 3), which are useful in warding off the evil spirits (Shevuot 15b), and many follow his minhag. Further, throughout the generations, people became accustomed to adding on Psalms, verses, and prayers. Since these are late additions, there are differences between the nusachim of the various ethnic groups. Some say that it is good to recite the paragraph of V’Hayah Im Shamo’a as well, and others maintain that it is best to recite all three paragraphs.1<i class="footnote">The <em>Chachamim</em> instituted only the recital of the <em>Shema</em> paragraph before going to sleep, as the <em>Rif</em> (3:1), <em>Rambam</em>, and the <em>Rosh</em> (chapter 1, 6) write. However, in chapter 9, 23, the <em>Rosh</em> brings the opinion of <em>Rabbeinu Chananel</em> who maintains that <em>V’Hayah Im Shamo’a</em> is recited as well. Perhaps <em>Rabbeinu Chananel</em> understood the <em>Gemara</em>’s words “until <em>V’Hayah Im Shamo’a</em>” to mean, including <em>V’Hayah Im Shamo’a</em>. <em>Divrei Chamudot</em> 67 interprets that he is referring to a place in which <em>Ma’ariv</em> is recited before <em>tzeit hakochavim</em>, for there, in order to fulfill the mitzvah of <em>Keriat Shema</em>, it is necessary to recite both paragraphs. <em>Rabbeinu Yerucham</em> (<em>netiv</em> 3, part 2) and <em>Rabbeinu Yonah</em> in <em>Sefer HaYir’ah</em> write that all three paragraphs are recited, for together they contain 248 words, and saying them provides a special protection against harmful forces.</i>
  To summarize, in accordance with the enactment of the Chachamim, it is necessary to recite the paragraph of Shema and Birkat HaMapil before one goes to sleep, but the remaining Psalms are not an obligation. The minhag to recite them became widespread because of the custom of Rabbi Yehoshua ben Levi (see Magen Avraham 239:2).2<i class="footnote">It is written in <em>Berachot</em> 5a, “Rav Nachman says, One who is a <em>talmid chacham</em> need not [repeat <em>Keriat</em><em>Shema</em> before going to sleep] (for his learning protects him). <em>Abayei</em> says that even a <em>talmid chacham</em> must say one verse concerning Hashem’s mercy, such as, ‘Into Your hand I entrust my spirit. You redeem me, Hashem, God of truth’ [(Psalms 31:6)].” The <em>Rif</em> and the <em>Rosh</em> agree that a <em>talmid chacham</em> is not obligated to repeat <em>Shema</em>. However, the <em>Rambam</em> and <em>Shulchan Aruch</em> do not mention this, implying that according to them, a <em>talmid chacham</em> must repeat it as well. Perhaps the source for their opinion is in the <em>Yerushalmi</em> (chapter 1, halachah 1) which discusses <em>talmidei chachamim</em> who were accustomed to reciting <em>Keriat Shema</em> a few times in order to fall asleep while saying <em>Keriat Shema</em>. Nevertheless, regarding the other verses, the recital of which is not obligatory, it seems that a <em>talmid chacham</em> can prefer to fall asleep while learning from a book or while deep in his thoughts. However, <em>Kaf HaChaim</em> 239:1 writes that by reciting the passages of <em>Keriat Shema</em> according to the <em>Ari</em>, a restorative act (<em>tikun</em>) is performed to the world and therefore even a <em>talmid chacham</em> must say them.</i>
  There are those who are strict to recite Birkat HaMapil immediately before they sleep, after reciting Shema and all the other verses. However, according to the custom of the kabbalists, Birkat HaMapil precedes Shema and the other verses. One who is concerned that he will fall asleep while reciting the prayers or before concluding them should start with Shema and HaMapil, thereby ensuring that before he falls asleep he recites the passages instituted by Chazal (see Mishnah Berurah 239:2).
  
  Section 2
  
  The Bedtime Shema / The HaMapil Blessing 
  Regarding the recital of HaMapil, some are concerned that perhaps they will not fall asleep and their berachah will have been said in vain. However, in practice, the fact that the Chachamim instituted reciting HaMapil means that they were not concerned about this. The blessing is a thanksgiving berachah to Hashem about sleep, and even for a person who does not succeed in falling asleep, the expression of thanks is not made in vain (Chayei Adam 35:4). Still, l’chatchilah, the Chachamim instituted the recital of this berachah for those who intend to sleep, and therefore one who has no intention of sleeping does not recite HaMapil on that particular night.
  The HaMapil blessing is not recited on daytime sleep, although some say that it is good to say Viyhi No’am before a nap taken during the day (Mishnah Berurah 239:8 and see Bei’ur Halachah “Samuch”). HaMapil is also not recited on a temporary sleep at night. However, sleeping in one’s bed for half an hour or more is considered a regular sleep (Eshel Avraham 239; Beit Baruch 35:10). 
  A person who went to sleep at night after reciting HaMapil, arose later to attend to certain matters, and then went back to sleep, does not repeat the HaMapil blessing, since HaMapil is only recited once a night (Beit Baruch 35:9; Piskei Teshuvot 239:1, note 4). One who fell asleep without reciting HaMapil, and woke up in the middle of the night with the intention to continue sleeping, must recite the berachah before falling asleep again. If he does not wish to get up from his bed and wash his hands, he may rub his hands on his blanket and then recite it (Shulchan Aruch Orach Chaim 4:23; Mishnah Berurah 61; unlike Piskei Teshuvot 239:1 who maintains that washing one’s hands is a requirement).
  There are those who learned, based on the Kabbalah of the Arizal, that only a person who goes to sleep before chatzot (halachic midnight) recites the HaMapil blessing, and whoever goes to sleep after chatzot does not. Hence, many Sephardim are accustomed to reciting HaMapil without Shem u’Malchut (Hashem’s Name) when going to sleep after chatzot (Kaf HaChaim 239:8; see Yechaveh Da’at, part 4, pp. 122-124). However, according to the Ashkenazic minhag and that of some Sephardim, as long as one goes to sleep before amud hashachar, HaMapil is recited.
  
  Section 3
  
  The Bedtime Shema /  Additional Laws 
  After reciting Shema and HaMapil, whoever must talk, eat, drink, or tend to an urgent matter is permitted to do so since Birkat HaMapil is unlike Birkot HaNehenin, concerning which it is forbidden to interrupt between the berachah and the pleasure derived. Rather, it is a berachah of praise on the night’s sleep. However, l’chatchilah, it is best to recite the bedtime Shema immediately before sleep (see Rama 239:1; Tzitz Eliezer 7:27; Yechaveh Da’at 4, pp. 118-122; Piskei Teshuvot 239:3; however Mishnah Berurah 239:4 is stringent after HaMapil).
  One may recite the passages of the bedtime Shema while lying down, but he must be careful to lean on his side. There are a number of reasons why the Chachamim prohibited a man to sleep while lying on his back (Mishnah Berurah 239:6). However, before one’s sleep, a man is permitted to read a book while lying on his back and it is unnecessary for him to turn on his side. Only when he is about to fall asleep must he beware of lying on his back (Az Nidberu 6:50).
  The Ba’alei Mussar (Jewish ethicists who composed books of reproof for the nation) wrote that it is good for a person to make a personal accounting (cheshbon nefesh) before sleep. If he remembers sinning, he confesses his sin and takes it upon himself not to sin in that manner again. It is also proper that before going to sleep, every person forgives anyone who sinned against him or caused him harm, so that no one is punished because of him. By doing so, one merits long life (Mishnah Berurah 239:9).