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text: Peninei Halakhah, Women's Prayer
  פניני הלכה, תפילת נשים
  Peninei Halakhah, English ed. Yeshivat Har Bracha
  
  
  Peninei Halakhah, Women's Prayer
  
  Introduction
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  Section 1
  
  Fundamentals of the Laws of Prayer / Prayer
  Prayer is one of the principal expressions of belief in God. People are not perfect; they are flawed and they long to improve themselves. They therefore turn to the Creator of the world in prayer.
  Human imperfection is apparent on two levels. Most people feel a need to pray to God only when their daily routines are disrupted. For example, when someone is ill or injured and her pain intensifies, when she understands that all the doctors in the world cannot guarantee her health and well-being, and only God, in Whose hands is the soul of every living thing, can cure her and grant her a long happy life – then she prays to God from the depth of her heart to heal her. So it is, whenever a calamity befalls a person, her livelihood suffers, enemies rise against her, or her close friends turn their backs on her. She then understands how the good things in her life hang in the balance and she turns to God to help and save her. However, when daily routines function in their usual proper manner, most people do not detect anything missing and generally do not feel a need to pray to God.
  Those who delve more deeply understand that even their everyday lives are not perfect. Even when they are healthy and earning a steady income, their family life is good, their friends are loyal, and the situation in their country is stable, perceptive people sense their existential inadequacy. They know that their lives are finite, and even if all goes well, there will come a day when they will die of old age. Now, too, when they are young and strong, they are unable to comprehend everything in their lives, and not everything turns out the way they intended. They cannot achieve all of their aspirations or fully attain even one goal. Out of this sense of inadequacy, they turn to God, the God of the heavens and the earth, the only One Who can redeem them from their imperfection. By connecting with God in prayer, people begin the process of fulfillment and redemption.
  
  Section 2
  
  Fundamentals of the Laws of Prayer / The Prayers of Our Ancestors and Prophets
  We learn in the Tanakh that whenever our ancestors and the prophets needed help, they turned to God in prayer.
  The patriarch Avraham stood in prayer and begged that Sodom not be destroyed. God answered him that if there were ten righteous people in Sodom the city would be saved. But ten righteous people were not to be found there, and Sodom was demolished (Bereishit 18). Childless for many years, the patriarch Yitzḥak and matriarch Rivka prayerfully pleaded with God and were answered with the birth of Yaakov and Esav (Bereishit 25). The patriarch Yaakov prayed for God to save him from his brother, Esav, who set out against him with four hundred warriors, and he was answered and saved (Bereishit 32). Following the sin of the Golden Calf, God’s wrath was kindled against the people of Israel, and our teacher Moshe prayed intensely until God canceled the terrible decree that He had threatened to visit on His people (Shemot 32). When Miriam, Moshe’s sister, fell ill with leprosy, Moshe stood and prayed, “Kel na refa na la” (“O God, please heal her!”), and she was healed (Bamidbar 12). To turn back a heaven-sent plague, Aharon used the incense to pray, and the plague ceased (Bamidbar 17). After the army of Israel was defeated by Ai, God heard Yehoshua’s prayers and guided him to rectify the sin of Akhan, after which they won their next battles (Yehoshua 7). When the Philistines waged war against Israel, Shmuel cried out to God for help on behalf of the nation. God answered his prayer, and Israel struck and vanquished the Philistines (1 Shmuel 7). King David of Israel would often pray to God; his prayers eventually became the book of Tehilim. After King Shlomo finished building the Temple, he prayed that the Divine Presence (Shekhina) dwell therein, and that all people who pray there would be answered; God acceded to his prayer (1 Melakhim 8-9). When Eliyahu the Prophet fought against the false prophets of Ba’al on Mount Carmel, he prayed that fire would descend from the sky and so it transpired (1 Melakhim 18). Likewise, Elisha the Prophet prayed to God that He revive the son of the Shunamite woman, and the boy came back to life (2 Melakhim 4). When King Ḥizkiyahu faced death from his disease, he too prayed to God and was cured (2 Melakhim 20).
  One of the prayers that left a lasting impression on all generations is the prayer of Ḥana. Barren for years she would often pray at the Mishkan (Tabernacle) in Shilo and was the first to refer to God in her prayer by the holy name “Tzevakot” (“Lord of Hosts”). Eventually, she merited a son, none other than Shmuel the Prophet (1 Shmuel 2). Shmuel the Prophet is said to have been equal to Moshe and Aharon. Through Moshe and Aharon, the word of God was revealed in the transcendental miraculous existence of the Jews in the desert, and through Shmuel, the word of God was revealed in the tangible reality of the people of Israel living in Eretz Yisrael. Shmuel unified the nation, founded the kingdom of David, mentored a generation of prophets in Israel, and inspired the building of the Temple. It was difficult to bring Shmuel’s great and lofty soul down to earth, and Ḥana had to pray intensely until she was worthy of giving birth to him. Her prayer is so important that the Sages learn numerous laws from it (Berakhot 31a and see below, 12:6).
  
  Section 3
  
  Fundamentals of the Laws of Prayer / The Effect of Prayer
  God established a law in creation: when we awaken ourselves to approach the Almighty and request a blessing from Him, He, in turn, is aroused from above to bestow good on us, according to our needs and the world’s needs. This is mentioned in the Zohar in many places.
  In other words, even when an individual or the world is worthy of God’s bounty, it is sometimes withheld until man knows his predicament and prays to God from the depths of their hearts.
  There are two types of prayer. The first is for the continuous existence of the world; without prayer, the world would cease to exist. This kind of prayer parallels the Tamid sacrifice, the merit of which sustains the heavens and the earth (see Ta’anit 27b).
  The second type of prayer concerns specific circumstances, such as when disaster strikes and people pray for salvation, or when people pray for something they desire.
  Every prayer has an influential effect, as Rabbi Ḥanina says, “The prayers of one who prays for a long time do not return unanswered” (Berakhot 32b). Sometimes the effect is immediate, and at other times in the distant future; sometimes the prayer is answered completely, other times partially. As the Sages say (Devarim Rabba 8:1), “Great is prayer before God. Rabbi Elazar says, ‘If you want to know the power of prayer – if it does not accomplish all it is meant to do, it at least achieves half.’” God is the One Who knows how to help and support a person. Sometimes, for various reasons, one’s misfortune is for her own good, and therefore God does not accept her prayer. Nevertheless, her prayer benefits her, and its blessing will be revealed in one way or another.
  Even the most righteous people, whose prayers were generally accepted, sometimes went unanswered. No one was greater than Moshe, whose prayerful intercession on Israel’s behalf after the sins of the Golden Calf and the Spies annulled decrees of destruction and gained forgiveness (Shemot 32 and Bamidbar 14). Yet when Moshe begged to be permitted to enter Eretz Yisrael, God said to him, “Enough! Do not talk to me further about this matter” (Devarim 3:26)
  Therefore, one must make great efforts in prayer and not assume that since she is praying, God must grant her request. Rather, she should continue praying, knowing that God hears her prayers and that her prayers are most certainly beneficial, though we do not know how much, when, and in what way.
  
  Section 4
  
  Fundamentals of the Laws of Prayer / Is Prayer a Biblical Obligation?
  The Rishonim disagree about whether there is a Torah commandment to pray every day. According to Rambam (Sefer Ha-mitzvot, mitzva 5), there is a biblical commandment to pray daily, as the Torah states (Shemot 23:25), “Serve God your Lord,” and (Devarim 6:13) “Revere the Lord your God and serve Him.” Although these verses contain a general commandment to serve God, they also include a specific commandment to pray. The Sages interpreted “service” (avoda) to mean worship through prayer, as it is written:  “Love God your Lord and serve Him with all your heart” (Devarim 11:13), and they explained (Ta’anit 2a), “What is serving with the heart? It must mean prayer.” By praying daily, one fulfills her biblical obligation to pray. To fulfill one’s obligation, one must begin with praise to God, then petition God for her needs, and conclude by thanking God for the good He has bestowed upon her. The Torah does not specify how long one’s prayers must be. Therefore, some shorten their prayers and others lengthen them, yet they all fulfill their biblical obligation (MT, Laws of Prayer 1:2-3). Later, the Men of the Great Assembly formulated a set prayer text, as will be explained below (section 6).
  However, according to Ramban (Glosses to Rambam’s Sefer Ha-mitzvot), there is no biblical obligation to pray every day, because, in his opinion, the extrapolation from the verses that Rambam mentions is not a bona fide exegesis, but merely an asmakhta (reference). Rather, the Men of the Great Assembly instituted daily prayers but based their enactment on biblical verses. Ramban maintains that only in times of trouble is there a biblical commandment to pray to God, as we learn from the mitzva of the trumpets (ḥatzotzrot), where it says (Bamidbar 10:9), “When you go to war against an enemy that attacks you in your land, you shall sound a teru’a (short blasts) on the trumpets. You will then be recalled before the Lord your God and will be delivered from your enemies.”
  Thus, according to all opinions, there is a biblical obligation to pray in times of trouble. Therefore, anyone who finds herself or her friend in a state of crisis is required to add a special request for assistance in her prayer, since it is a biblical commandment to petition God to save her from that trouble. It is certainly a mitzva to pray communally when the public or the nation is in danger. The Sages even instituted fast days for that purpose.
  Next, we will continue to study the order of the prayer service instituted by the Men of the Great Assembly, and in chapter 2 we will learn which specific prayers are incumbent on women.
  
  Section 5
  
  Fundamentals of the Laws of Prayer / The Institution of Prayer by the Men of the Great Assembly
  The Men of the Great Assembly instituted the prayers and the blessings (Berakhot 33a). They set the wording of the Shemoneh Esrei and formulated all the berakhot, including those recited before and after the recitation of Shema (Birkhot Keri’at Shema) and Birkhot Ha-nehenin (blessings recited upon deriving pleasure from something). They also instituted the recitation of the three daily prayers, Shaḥarit, Minḥa, and Ma’ariv – Shaḥarit and Minḥa as obligations and Ma’ariv as a voluntary prayer.1<i class="footnote">In Megilla 17b-18a, it is told that Shimon Ha-Pekuli formulated and arranged the Shemoneh Esrei in the presence of Rabban Gamliel. A beraita is then cited, which explains the order of the berakhot on the basis of biblical verses. A question is then raised there: If the Men of the Great Assembly instituted it what was left for Shimon Ha-Pekuli to arrange? The Gemara answers that it was forgotten until Shimon Ha-Pekuli reestablished it. We may ask, how can they have forgotten the prayers that they were obligated to recite every day? Shita Mekubetzet (on Berakhot 28b) states an answer: they merely forgot the order of the berakhot, which is what Shimon Ha-Pekuli then restored. In R. Ḥananel and Meiri’s version of the Gemara, there is no mention that Shimon formulated any part of Shemoneh Esrei, so the question does not even arise.  </i>
  The members Ezra the Scribe’s court, established at the beginning of the Second Temple period, are called the Men of the Great Assembly (Anshei Knesset Ha-gedola). This was the greatest beit din ever convened in Jewish history. It was comprised of 120 elders, among them prophets and sages such as, Ḥagai, Zechariah, Malachi, Daniel, Ḥanania, Mishael, Azaria, Neḥemia b. Ḥakhalia, Mordechai Balshan, and Zerubavel, as well as many other sages, the last one being Shimon Ha-tzaddik (Rambam, Introduction to Mishneh Torah).
  During the time of the First Temple, the Jewish people attained superior spiritual accomplishments: the Shekhina dwelled in the Temple and the great scholars of Israel achieved prophecy. Nevertheless, grave sins like idolatry, forbidden sexual relations, and murder proliferated amongst the masses, ultimately causing the Temple’s destruction and the exile of the people of Israel. Therefore, when Israel was able to rebuild the Temple, the Men of the Great Assembly constituted a large beit din, set safeguards for the Torah, made enactments, and formulated and arranged prayers and berakhot. They created a full framework for Jewish life, giving expression to Torah values in an organized and established manner within everyday living, thereby distancing the nation from sin and bringing them closer to serving God.
  Of course, even in the First Temple era, Israel prayed to God and thanked Him for all the good and blessing they received. However, those prayers did not have a set formula. Since it had no set formula, righteous and devout people would pray and recite berakhot with great kavana (focus), but the masses would minimally fulfill their duties with shallow prayers. Passionate prayer from the heart in one’s own words is the ideal form of prayer, but in actuality, the routine demands of everyday life wear us out, and without regular fixed prayers, the public gradually drifts away from worshipful prayer and eventually from God. Following the establishment of the prayers and their fixed wording, all of Israel started to pray, and as a result, faith in God intensified. That is what sustained the nation’s devotion that even two thousand years of exile could not extinguish.
  Moreover, during the time of the First Temple many people mistakenly regarded the offering of korbanot as idolatrous acts possessing magical powers, able to grant good fortune in matters such as livelihood, health, and the abolishment of evil decrees. The prophets severely condemned this misguided notion and taught that a korban in its essence, is an expression of the people’s desire to get closer to God through total devotion. That is the primary purpose of humanity in this world, as The torah states (Devarim 10:12): “What does God want of you? Only that you revere the Lord your God, follow all His ways, love Him, and serve the Lord your God with all your heart and with all your soul.” When the person who brings the offering does not demonstrate true devotion to God nor the desire to improve, not only is the offering ineffective, but it is repulsive in God’s eyes, as it is written: “‘Why do I need all your sacrifices?’ God asks. ‘I am sated with your burnt offerings of rams and the fat of fed beasts, and I have no desire for the blood of cattle, sheep, and goats. When you appear before Me, who asked you to do this, trampling My courts? Do not bring any more vain meal offerings; incense is offensive to Me…’” (Yeshayahu 1:11-13). By instituting the prayers, the Men of the Great Assembly restored the proper priorities to the worship of God, reminding us that faith, focus, and devotion are primary. These values indeed find their clear expression in the prayers, as R. Elazar said, “Prayer is greater than sacrifices” (Berakhot 32b). By emphasizing our kavana, we pray to God that He rebuild the Temple speedily in our time so that we may express our devotion to Him fully – through both prayer and sacrifice.
  
  Section 6
  
  Fundamentals of the Laws of Prayer / The Fixed Formula (Nusaĥ)
  Establishing a uniform formula that is repeated thrice daily in prayer has a certain disadvantage. Prayer is likely to become routine and one may lose the kavana that is aroused when one prays to God in her own words. On the other hand, had the Sages not established a fixed formula, though the righteous would utter beautiful and sincere prayers from the depths of their hearts, most people would recite hurried and brief and defective prayers.
  Rambam explains (MT, Laws of Prayer 1:4) that especially after the destruction of the First Temple and the exile of Israel among the nations, this problem has intensified. Many Jews lost their proficiency in holy tongue (the Hebrew of the siddur), in which it is proper to pray. Moreover, they did not have any appropriate formulas for prayer in other languages. Therefore, the Men of the Great Assembly established the wording for all the berakhot and prayers so that all Israel would be fluent in them and so that the theme of each berakha would be stated articulately even by those who are otherwise unable to do so.
  Another advantage to a fixed wording of prayer is that it includes all the general and specific needs for which it is proper to pray. Without a standard formula, everyone would presumably pray for one specific thing. Doctors would pray for the health of their patients, farmers would pray for rain, and with time, every Jew would pray only for the things close to her heart while remaining disconnected from the table of collective aspirations. The Sages therefore instituted eighteen berakhot, which incorporate all of the Jewish people’s material and spiritual aspiration. Thus, three times a day, everyone who prays balances and unifies her personal ambitions with the general needs of the nation.
  In addition to whatever we understand of the fixed prayers, there are innumerable profound allusions, some of which are explained within the Jewish mystical tradition. As R. Ḥayim of Volozhin writes (Nefesh Ha-Ḥayim 2:10):
  The enlightened will understand on their own why 120 sages, among them prophets, were needed to formulate a small plea or short prayer. Through Divine inspiration and supreme prophecy they grasped the order of creation and the deep mysteries of divine chariot (“the merkava”). This is why they enacted and formulated the berakhot and the prayers using these specific words – for they observed and apprehended how the light of each individual word refracts, and how each word is quite necessary to properly rectify the multiplicity of supernal worlds and powers and to bring harmony to the merkava.
  He further writes (ibid. 2:13) that all the profound meanings revealed by Arizal and other saintly figures are only a drop in the sea compared to the profound innermost meaning of the Men of the Great Assembly, who instituted the prayers. Through the prophecy and divine inspiration that manifested itself upon them when they formulated the prayers and berakhot, they successfully encapsulated the rectification (tikun) of all worlds in such a way that every day new tikunim are drawn forth each day.
  
  Section 7
  
  Fundamentals of the Laws of Prayer / Instituting Three Prayers
  In addition to the special prayers that our forefathers said in times of trouble, they also set times in which they prayed to God (Berakhot 26b). Avraham established Shaḥarit. It was he who first illuminated the world with his faith, and accordingly he established a prayer said while the sun rises. Yitzḥak established Minḥa. He continued on the path of his father Avraham. Sometimes it is easier forge a new path than it is to stay on the same one. Yitzḥak’s strength was that he remained on the path of faith. This corresponds to Minḥa, which expresses continuity, for the whole day is sustained by the power of faith. Yaakov established Ma’ariv because he endured many hardships and vicissitudes, emerging stronger from each and every one. He therefore established the nighttime prayer, since even in the dark, when reality is obscured, it is possible to connect to God and to reveal the supreme eternal light.
  Once the patriarchs invented these prayers, there were devout and righteous people who followed in their path and prayed Shaḥarit, Minḥa, and Ma’ariv. As King David said (Tehilim 55:17–18), “As for me, I call out to God, and the Lord saves me. Evening, morning, and noon, I express my grief and moan aloud, and He hears my voice.”
  Following the custom of our forefathers, the Men of the Great Assembly established the three prayers, Shaḥarit and Minḥa as obligatory, and Ma’ariv as voluntary. They were instituted to correspond to the communal offerings, since their purpose was to express the inner significance of the sacrifices. Since the morning and afternoon Tamid sacrifices were obligatory, Shaḥarit and Minḥa are obligatory prayers. Ma’ariv corresponds to the burning of the fats and organs on the altar at night. Since failure to bring the latter did not prevent the fulfillment of the mitzva, so too Ma’ariv was also deemed voluntary. However, as time passed, men took upon themselves to recite Ma’ariv as an obligation. On Shabbat, festivals, and Rosh Ḥodesh, we were commanded to bring a musaf sacrifice; hence, the Sages established the recitation of the Musaf prayer to represent it. Women are exempt from praying Musaf (according to most poskim, as detailed below, 2:9).
  Since the prayers were instituted to correspond to the sacrifices, the times of the prayers were set according to the times of the offerings (as explained below, 8:1 and 18:1). In the next chapter we will learn which prayers are obligatory for women and which are optional.
  
  Section 8
  
  Fundamentals of the Laws of Prayer / Kavana and Those Who Find it Difficult to Concentrate
  Prayer is considered avoda she-ba-lev (worship of the heart); therefore its essence is dependent upon kavana.
  This is what the pious and people of deeds would do: They would meditate and concentrate on their prayers until all physicality fell away and the power of the mind would gain strength, to the point that they were on the verge of prophecy. If another thought would intrude on their prayer, they would be still until that thought passes” (SA 98:1).
  There are two kinds of kavana in prayer: One is a general kavana, where the person praying stands before the Supreme King of kings filled with awe and love; the second is a specific kavana – concentrating on the words she utters.
  People are innately different from one another. Some can focus effortlessly, and though they repeat the same words every day, it is easy for them to follow each word and mean them. Others naturally find it difficult to concentrate, and the more familiar a subject is to them, the harder it is for them to focus on it. Try as they might to have kavana, their thoughts wander from one matter to the next. Despite great effort to have kavana while reciting Avot (the first berakha of Shemoneh Esrei), their minds are flying away, and suddenly they find themselves saying Selaḥ Lanu (the seventh berakha). They attempt to refocus, but their minds wander off again. Before they know it, they are already bowing for Modim (the seventeenth berakha).
  Even in the time of the Talmud there were Amora’im who lamented the difficulty of focusing during prayer. Y. Berakhot 2:4 records that R. Ḥiya says that he was never able to have kavana throughout his entire prayer. Once, when he tried to concentrate for the duration of his prayer, he began wondering, right in the middle, whether Minister A or Minister B is more important in the king’s eyes. Shmuel said, “I counted newly hatched chicks while I was praying.” R. Bon bar Ḥiya said: “While I was praying I counted the rows of the building.” R. Matania said, “I am grateful for my head, for even when I am not paying attention to what I am saying, it knows by itself to bow at Modim.” The statements of these leading Amora’im teach us that it is difficult to have kavana from the beginning of the prayer service until the end. Even though we must try as hard as we can to concentrate, one should not lose heart when she does not focus properly. Even one who daydreamt throughout most of her prayer should not despair; rather, she should strive to have kavana while reciting the remaining berakhot.
  One should not say, “If I do not have kavana, perhaps it is better not to pray.” Rather, the very fact that she stood before God in prayer expresses something very profound – her sincere desire to connect to God and to pray before Him. Every person is measured according to her nature, and at times, someone who finds it difficult to concentrate, yet struggles and succeeds in having kavana for a number of blessings, is more praiseworthy than someone for whom focus comes easily through the entire prayer service. Moreover, people who find it easy to concentrate on the routine prayers generally pray without any particular passion, even on special occasions, or when a tragedy befalls them. However, those individuals who find it difficult to concentrate on the routine words usually succeed in attaining higher levels of kavana in exceptional circumstances.
  It is said in the name of Arizal that kavana is like the wings upon which prayer soars heavenward and is accepted. When one prays without kavana, her prayer lacks the wings with which to ascend, and so it waits until she utters one prayer with kavana, whereupon all the prayers that she recited without kavana ascend to God together with the prayer that achieved kavana. The reason for this is clear: The very fact that she chose to pray demonstrates that she wants to connect to God, to praise Him, and ask Him for her needs. She simply failed to have kavana. However, the moment she succeeds in having kavana, she opens the gate for all her prayers to ascend.
  In practice, one who has kavana during the first berakha of the Shemoneh Esrei fulfills her obligation, even if she did not have kavana for the rest of the prayer (SA 63:4, 101:1; below, 12:8).
  
  
  
  
  
  Section 1
  
  The Mitzva of Prayer for Women / A Brief Outline of Women’s Obligation
  According to most poskim, women and men are equal regarding the obligation to pray, and therefore women are obligated to recite Shemoneh Esrei of Shaḥarit and Minḥa, while Ma’ariv remains voluntary. Others maintain that women are only obligated to recite the Amida (the term for the silent standing prayer, used interchangeably with “Shemoneh Esrei”), once a day, preferably Shaḥarit, so that the day begins with prayer. Still others maintain that women need only recite a brief prayer, and that Birkhot Ha-shaḥar and Birkhot Ha-Torah are sufficient to discharge this obligation.
  Le-khatḥila, it is best for women to follow the opinion of most poskim and recite Shaḥarit and Minḥa every day. Still, a woman who only prays once fulfills her obligation, and in extenuating circumstances, just Birkhot Ha-Torah and Birkhot Ha-shaḥar suffice. A woman who is fully engrossed in caring for her children is permitted le-khatḥila to fulfill her obligation by reciting only Birkhot Ha-Torah and Birkhot Ha-shaḥar.
  In any case, even a woman who prays Shemoneh Esrei must recite Birkhot Ha-Torah and Birkhot Ha-shaḥar (see below, 6:1 n. 1; 7:3 n. 3).
  Some women are accustomed to recite the passages of the sacrificial offerings (Korbanot), and some poskim even say that women are required to recite the passage of the Tamid. Nevertheless, the halakha is that they are not obligated to do so (see below, ch. 15 n. 1).
  Additionally, there are poskim who say that women must recite Pesukei De-zimra (verses, mainly from Tehilim, that praise God) in preparation for the Amida; however, in practice they are not required to recite them (see below, 15:4).
  Women are exempt from the recitation of Shema and its berakhot, since these prayers are time-bound and women are exempt from positive time-bound mitzvot (see chapter 3). Nevertheless, a woman who recites these passages is praiseworthy. There is an opinion that women are obligated in the daytime and nighttime mitzvot of remembering the Exodus from Egypt, and according to this opinion it is best that they fulfill this mitzva by reciting Emet Ve-yatziv in Shaḥarit and Emet Ve-emuna in Ma’ariv. However, most poskim maintain that they are not obligated to do so. Although women are exempt from reciting Shema, it is good for every woman to recite the first two verses, “Shema Yisrael” and “Barukh Shem,” daily, so that she accepts upon herself the yoke of heaven (see below, 16:1).
  Women are exempt from the recitation of all the prayers of supplication and the passages recited after the Amida.
  Women must say the bedtime Shema and recite the Ha-mapil blessing (as explained below, chapter 19 n. 1).
  Women are exempt from praying Musaf of Shabbat, festivals, and Rosh Ḥodesh. Some poskim say that just as women must pray Shaḥarit and Minḥa, so too they must pray Musaf, and although, le-khatḥila, it is proper to follow their opinion, the opinion of most poskim prevails, and women are exempt from Musaf. Regarding the recitation of Hallel, all opinions agree that women are exempt (see below, section 9).
  Some poskim maintain that women have an obligation to fulfill the mitzva of Torah reading on Shabbat; however, in practice, the halakha follows most poskim who maintain that women are exempt from hearing the Shabbat Torah reading (below, section 10).
  
  Section 2
  
  The Mitzva of Prayer for Women / According to Most Poskim Women Are Obligated to Pray Shaĥarit and Minĥa
  The Sages of the Mishna say that women are obligated in the mitzva of prayer (Berakhot 20b). According to most poskim, this mishna means the prayers instituted by the Sages apply to men and women alike. Of the three daily prayers enacted by the Sages, Shaḥarit and Minḥa are obligatory and Ma’ariv is voluntary. However, as time went on, men accepted upon themselves to pray Ma’ariv as an obligation. Women, on the other hand, did not, and therefore, for them, Ma’ariv remains voluntary.
  It would seem, based on the rule that exempts women from positive time-bound mitzvot, that women should be exempt from prayer, since the obligation to pray is dependent upon time – Shaḥarit in the morning and Minḥa in the afternoon. However, because the purpose of the Amida is to request God’s mercy, and women need to request mercy just like men, the Sages instituted the Amida for men and women alike, and women are obligated to pray Shaḥarit and Minḥa.
  Women must also pray Shaḥarit and Minḥa on Shabbatot and festivals. Even though the thirteen intermediate petitionary berakhot of the weekday, which constitute the essence of the supplication for mercy, are not recited, the Shabbat and festival Amidot nevertheless  include appeals for mercy like “kadsheinu be-mitzvotekha ve-ten ḥelkeinu be-Toratekha…” (“Sanctify us with Your mitzvot and grant us our share in Your Torah…”).1<i class="footnote">According to Ramban, who maintains that the mitzva of prayer is a rabbinic decree, everything instituted by the Sages regarding prayer applies to men and women alike, and that is the meaning behind the Mishna’s statement in Berakhot 20b that women are obligated to pray. The Gemara explains that since women also need mercy, they are required to pray even though the obligation is time-bound. Likewise, Rashi, Rosh, and Ra’ah maintain that women must pray because the purpose of prayer is to request mercy; hence, women are required to pray both Shaḥarit and Minḥa. MA 106:2 and MB 106:4 state that this is the opinion of most poskim. SAH 106:2 rules this way as well. (According to Rashi, there is the additional reason that women are exempt from time-bound positive Torah mitzvot but obligated in time-bound positive rabbinic enactments.)According to Rambam, who maintains that the mitzva of prayer is biblical, women are obligated, since the Torah does not specify a particular time for prayer. According to Rif and Rambam, there is a version of the Gemara which explains women’s obligation to pray “because it is a positive mitzva that is not time-bound.” Based on this, many poskim have explained that women are obligated to recite one prayer, like the biblical command (see below, n. 2). In contrast, several prominent Aḥaronim maintain that Rambam obligates women to pray both Shaḥarit and Minḥa, but that Ma’ariv is voluntary. In their view, since the basis for the obligation of prayer is the same for both men and women, and the Sages established that the mitzva of prayer is fulfilled by reciting two obligatory prayers, women are also required to do so. See Maharam ben Ḥaviv in Kapot Temarim, Sha’agat Aryeh §14, Erekh Ha-shulḥan, Or Le-Tziyon 2:7:24, Yad Peshuta on MT, Laws of Prayer 1:1, and Maḥazeh Eliyahu §19. All these Aḥaronim maintain that, in practice, women must pray Shaḥarit and Minḥa, since both Rambam and Ramban agree on this matter.See Berur Halakha (Zilber) OḤ 2:106, which states that many Rishonim agree with Rambam and maintain that prayer is a biblical commandment. Presumably, this contradicts what MB 106:4 states, namely, that according to most poskim women are obligated to pray both prayers. However, in keeping with what we have seen, many poskim maintain that even according to Rambam, women are obligated in both prayers. </i>
  
  Section 3
  
  The Mitzva of Prayer for Women / The Poskim Who Maintain that Women Are Obligated to Pray One Daily Prayer
  Some poskim say that according to Rambam, women are only obligated to pray once daily because in Rambam’s opinion, the mitzva of prayer is rooted in the biblical commandment to turn to God in prayer daily. Since this mitzva is not dependent on time, women are obligated to fulfill it. Women are only exempt from time-bound positive mitzvot, but are required to fulfill mitzvot that are independent of time. Although every day brings with it a new mitzva to pray, nevertheless, prayer is not considered a time-bound mitzva as all days are equal, without exception for festivals, Shabbat, and weekdays. Additionally, within the 24-hour period itself, the Torah did not fix a specific time for prayer; hence the biblical commandment to pray is a daily mitzva that is not dependent on time.
  It follows, then, that the rabbinic enactment that men pray three times daily does not apply to women; rather, women are biblically obligated to pray only one prayer daily. However, since the Sages established a fixed prayer formula, women must fulfill their biblical commandment to pray by reciting the Shemoneh Esrei instituted by the Sages. Additionally, since the Sages set fixed times for prayer, women must pray during one of those times, be it during the time for Shaḥarit, Minḥa, or Ma’ariv.1<i class="footnote">As we saw in the previous note, according to the interpretation of Rif and Rambam, the Gemara states that women are obligated in prayer because it is a mitzva that is not time-bound. Biblically, there is an obligation to pray every day and the whole day is valid for prayer; therefore it is not bound by time. Many Aḥaronim, among them Baḥ and Pri Ḥadash, understand Rambam’s and Rif’s opinion to mean that women must pray once a day. Many poskim (such as Pri Megadim) maintain that SA also rules accordingly. This is the ruling and explanation given in Yabi’a Omer 6:17 and Yeḥaveh Da’at 3:7, where other Rishonim and Aḥaronim who also take this stance are mentioned.  </i>
  
  Section 4
  
  The Mitzva of Prayer for Women / The Poskim Who Maintain that Women Fulfill Their Obligation with Birkhot Ha-shaĥar and Birkhot Ha-Torah
  There are lenient poskim who maintain that according to Rambam’s opinion women are only bound by the biblical command, that is, they are required to recite some sort of prayer every day. They fulfill this mitzva with any petition to God. Therefore, when the Sages instituted the recitation of three prayers in the specific wording of eighteen berakhot, the enactment applied to men but not to women.
  Some poskim question how is it possible to fulfill one’s obligation with any sort of petition, for according to Rambam (MT, Laws of Prayer 1:2) even the sequence of the prayers is biblically mandated; one must begin by praising God, then beseechingly and imploringly make requests, and conclude by giving praise and thanks to God. This indicates that when the prayer is not recited in this order, one’s obligation is not fulfilled. So how is it possible for women to fulfill their biblical obligation with any kind of request (Pri Megadim, Magen Giborim)? A few Aḥaronim explain that women may fulfill their obligation of prayer by reciting Birkhot Ha-Torah and Birkhot Ha-shaḥar, for Birkhot Ha-Torah open with praise, “Blessed are You, Lord our God, King of the universe, Who has sanctified us with His mitzvot,” continue with words of request, “Please Lord, our God, make pleasant the words of Your Torah in our mouths…and may we and our offspring…know Your Name and study Your Torah…,” and end with thanksgiving, “Blessed are You, Lord our God, King of the universe, Who selected us from among all the nations and gave us His Torah.”
  The same is true of Birkhot Ha-shaḥar. In all of the blessings there is praise, followed by request in Ha-ma’avir Sheina, “May it be Your will…that You accustom us to [study] Your Torah and attach us to Your mitzvot, and do not bring to error…,” and at the conclusion, thanks, “Blessed are you God, Who bestows beneficial kindnesses upon His people Israel.”1<i class="footnote">MA 106:2 states that perhaps according to Rambam it is possible to fulfill the mitzva with any kind of a request, noting that it is upon this assumption that women who suffice with some sort of request in the morning, rely. (It is noteworthy that also in Birkat Ha-mazon and in Me-ein Shalosh there is praise, request, and thanks, and women who recite those berakhot during the day fulfill their biblical obligation of prayer.) However, MA adds that according to most poskim, women must pray Shaḥarit and Minḥa. Likewise, MB 106:4 concurs that although many women rely on the reasoning that it is possible to fulfill the mitzva with any kind of a request, it is best that they pray two prayers, as in the opinion of most poskim. R. Shlomo Zalman Auerbach also states that women customarily practice leniently by fulfilling their obligation with a brief prayer (Halikhot Shlomo 2, n. 5). However, it can be inferred from all of the above-mentioned poskim that le-khatḥila one should not rely on a brief prayer.    </i>
  
  Section 5
  
  The Mitzva of Prayer for Women / The Practical Halakha
  Le- khatḥila it is best for women to recite the Amida of both Shaḥarit and Minḥa every day. If they pray only once a day, they have fulfilled their obligation. Even though, according to most poskim, women are obligated to pray both Shaḥarit and Minḥa, since this is a rabbinic ruling, women who wish to act leniently are permitted le-khatḥila to rely upon the poskim who maintain that women must pray only one daily prayer. It is best that the one prayer recited be Shaḥarit, so that one begins the day with prayer. A woman who missed Shaḥarit may recite Minḥa, and be-di’avad, if she missed Minḥa, she may pray Ma’ariv.
  Women accustomed to recite only Birkhot Ha-shaḥar and Birkhot Ha-Torah have on whom to rely if necessary; however this is not proper practice, because according to the vast majority of poskim, women have an obligation to pray the Amida at least once a day.
  
  Section 6
  
  The Mitzva of Prayer for Women / Women Occupied with the Care of Their Children
  Women who are busy tending to their young children and occupied with managing the household are permitted le-khatḥila to fulfill the mitzva of prayer by reciting only Birkhot Ha-shaḥar and Birkhot Ha-Torah. As we learned (section 4 above), some poskim maintain that in principle women can fulfill the obligation of prayer with Birkhot Ha-shaḥar and Birkhot Ha-Torah. Although under normal circumstances it is not proper to rely on this opinion, nonetheless women who are taking care of their children are permitted le-khatḥila to fulfill their obligation with Birkhot Ha-shaḥar and Birkhot Ha-Torah. Similarly R. Aryeh Leib, the son of R. Yisrael Meir Kagan (the Ḥafetz Ḥayim), attests that his mother hardly prayed at all in the years that her children were under her care. She said that her husband told her that she is exempt from prayer because she is busy raising her children.1<i class="footnote">That is the prevalent minhag, attested to by R. Aryeh Leib in Siḥot He-Ḥafetz Ḥayim, 1:27. There are two reasons for this. First, in extenuating circumstances it is possible to rely le-khatḥila on the reasoning of MA. Second, some explain that the constant stress of tending to children’s needs falls under the same category of things that negate one’s kavana, for, in principle, one who is preoccupied is exempt from the mitzva of prayer. As the Sages say (Eruvin 65a), “One who returns from a journey is exempt from prayer for three days, and the same applies to other preoccupations.” Similarly, SA 108:2 states that one should not pray where or when his kavana will be disrupted. However, in practice, SA concludes, “Nowadays we are not cautious about this, because we do not have that much kavana in our prayers today [anyway </i>.” Still, it is possible that women follow the principle of the law, for since during the years in which they are busy tending to their children they are greatly hassled, much more than one who has just returned from a trip. Therefore they do not customarily pray the Amida. See similarly Responsa Maḥazeh Eliyahu 20:5 in the name of Ḥazon Ish. Moreover, there is a rule that one who is engaged in the performance of one mitzva is exempt from the performance of another mitzva, and a woman who is caring for her children is engrossed in the continuous mitzva of ḥesed (loving-kindness). Therefore she is exempt from the mitzva of prayer which requires the effort of concentration. (This is according to Ran, as cited in BHL 38:8, s.v. “Im Tzarikh,” that even if one could exert himself and succeed in fulfilling two mitzvot simultaneously, the Torah does not compel one who is engaged in the performance of one mitzva to perform the other mitzva as well.)
  We have already seen (section 4) that women fulfill their obligation of prayer by reciting Birkhot Ha-Torah and Birkhot Ha-shaḥar, for those berakhot incorporate praise, request, and thanksgiving. Additionally, berakhot do not demand as much kavana as the Amida, in which one stands before the King of kings. Hence, one’s preoccupations do not significantly prevent one from reciting Birkhot Ha-Torah and Birkhot Ha-shaḥar, and therefore all women must accustom themselves to recite them every day. ]
  Even if a woman raising her children decides to go to work out of the need to help support the family financially, or sends her children to daycare, nursery, kindergarten, and school, and remains home to organize the house and rest a bit, since overall she is tired and busy with the care of her children, she may fulfill the obligation of prayer by only reciting Birkhot Ha-shaḥar and Birkhot Ha-Torah. If it is possible for her to have kavana in the Amida, it is better that she prays the Amida. Every woman may determine for herself if the burden of caring for her children is so stressful that she cannot pray Shemoneh Esrei. If this decision is too difficult for her to make by herself, she may consult a rabbi or rabbanit.
  However, it is not proper for a woman who goes to work, not out of financial necessity, but because she has leisure time, to rely upon the lenient opinion. Instead, she should be strict to pray Shemoneh Esrei every day, in addition to Birkhot Ha-Torah and Birkhot Ha-shaḥar.2<i class="footnote">However, there are different levels of preoccupation generated by the burden of running a household, depending on several factors: the number of children, their personalities and ages, whether they are in daycare, and how much assistance the woman has. Nevertheless, it is clear that if a woman is blessed with many children, even if she sends her children to daycare and does not work, the burden upon her is heavy and stressful, and she may fulfill her obligation le-khatḥila with Birkhot Ha-shaḥar and Birkhot Ha-Torah. If a working woman is able to pray while seated on her way to work, there is uncertainty about whether it is preferable that she prays Shemoneh Esrei sitting or that she suffices with a short prayer, as explained below 12:14. A woman who wants to pray the Amida while sitting on a regular basis may do so. </i>
  A woman, who, while caring for her children, prayed only a brief daily prayer must take care to resume praying Shemoneh Esrei every day once her children are grown and the burden of caring for the house has diminished.
  
  Section 7
  
  The Mitzva of Prayer for Women / The Rules Governing Which Mitzvot are Incumbent upon Women
  As a rule, women and men are equally obligated to perform the mitzvot, with the exception of time-bound positive mitzvot, from most of which women are exempt, as the Sages say in the Mishna (Kiddushin 29a), “Concerning all positive time-bound mitzvot, men are obligated and women are exempt.”
  The following are positive, time-determined mitzvot from which women are exempt: 1) The recitation of Shema each day and night (including the mitzva to remember the Exodus from Egypt, see below, 16:3); 2) tefillin of the head; 3) tefillin of the arm; 4) tzitzit; 5) sukka; 6) lulav; 7) shofar; and 8) counting the Omer.1<i class="footnote">There are a few other mitzvot from which women are exempt for different reasons: 1. Torah study (for the sake of learning; however, in order to live a life of Torah women must learn. See below 7:2); 2. writing a Torah scroll; 3. betrothal (kiddushin); 4. procreation (these last two mitzvot are actively performed by the man); 5. brit mila (circumcision); and 6. pidyon ha-ben (the redemption of the first-born male). This list is based on Rambam’s Sefer Ha-mitzvot, at the end of his enumeration of the positive mitzvot. However, there is disagreement regarding some of the laws; for example, Sha’agat Aryeh §35 states that women have an obligation to write a Torah scroll.  </i>
  There are other positive time-bound mitzvot that are incumbent upon women: 1) Eating matza on Pesaḥ night (Pesaḥim 43b); 2) rejoicing on the holidays (Pesaḥim 109a); 3) sanctifying Shabbat (by making kiddush; Berakhot 20b); and 4) affliction on Yom Kippur (Sukka 28b).
  According to most poskim, women are exempt from rabbinic time-bound mitzvot as well, for all laws enacted by the Sages were established to resemble biblical laws. Therefore, women are exempt from the recitation of Hallel on Rosh Ḥodesh. On the other hand, some poskim maintain that women must fulfill the rabbinic time-bound mitzvot. Nonetheless, everyone agrees that mitzvot that were instituted by the Sages as a result of a miraculous event are obligatory for women, for they too participated in the same miracle. These mitzvot are: 1) Four cups of wine on the night of the Seder; 2) reading Megilat Esther on Purim; and 3) lighting Ḥanuka candles.2<i class="footnote">According to most poskim, including, She’iltot, Tosafot, Ran, Ritva, and Ra’ah, women are exempt from rabbinic time-bound mitzvot, whereas according to Rashi, Rabbeinu Tam, and Manhig, women must fulfill positive time-bound mitzvot instituted by the Sages.  </i>
  However, concerning all other mitzvot, there is no difference between men and women, and as explained later in that mishna (Kiddushin 29a), “All positive mitzvot that are not time-bound – both men and women must fulfill.” A few examples include: affixing a mezuza to one’s doorpost, tithing terumot and ma’asrot, and giving loans and tzedaka.
  Further, the Sages say there: “Regarding all negative mitzvot, whether they are time-bound or not time-bound, both women and men are obligated.” For example, women are commanded just like men to heed the prohibition of ḥametz on Pesaḥ and of eating and drinking on Yom Kippur. Despite the fact that these prohibitions are dependent on time, women’s obligation is the same as men’s because they are negative mitzvot (mitzvot “lo ta’aseh”).
  Some mitzvot lo ta’aseh pertain solely to men: bal takif (the prohibition against cutting the hair from the corner of one’s head), bal tashḥit (the prohibition against destroying the corners of one’s beard), and the prohibition on kohanim coming into contact with corpses (Kiddushin ad loc.).3<i class="footnote">The mishna in Kiddushin discusses individual personal mitzvot that women perform nowadays, but there are other general mitzvot that are different for men and women, such as testifying as a witness, in which only men are obligated, and the mitzva of war for the purpose of conquering our land, which pertains to men, although women are commanded to assist the men in fulfilling that mitzva.In contrast, the mitzva of nida (the laws of family purity) pertains solely to women. Furthermore, women possess the initial entitlement to perform certain mitzvot before men, such as hafrashat ḥalla (tithing dough) and lighting Shabbat candles. </i>
  In the next chapter, we will explain the reason for the difference between men and women concerning positive time-bound mitzvot.
  
  Section 8
  
  The Mitzva of Prayer for Women / Are Women Permitted to Recite Blessings on Time-Bound Mitzvot?
  A woman who wishes to voluntarily fulfill the positive time-bound mitzvot receives reward for doing so, although it is not the same as a man’s reward. As R. Ḥanina states, “Greater is the [reward for] one who is commanded to do and does than one who is not commanded and does” (Kiddushin 31a). Ritva explains that the reason for this is that one who is commanded to perform a mitzva encounters the resistance of his; therefore his reward is greater, as the Sages say, “lefum tza’ara agra” (according to the torment is the reward) (m. Avot 5:23).
  However, the Rishonim disagree about whether a woman may recite a berakha on positive time-bound mitzvot. According to Rambam and several other Rishonim, women are forbidden to do so, for included in the berakha are the words, “Who has sanctified us in His mitzvot and commanded us” (“asher kideshanu be-mitzvotav ve-tzivanu”). How can women say “commanded us” (“ve-tzivanu”) when they were not commanded? Would this not be a needles berakha (berakha le-vatala)? SA 589:6 rules against reciting a berakha, and this is the widespread practice among Sephardim.
  However, according to Rabbeinu Tam and most Rishonim, women may recite berakhot on positive time-bound mitzvot, for indeed, to a certain extent, those mitzvot pertain to them as well, as evidenced by the fact that they receive reward for fulfilling them. Regarding the phrasing of the berakha, there is no concern, because the word in the berakha is not “ve-tzivani (“commanded me,” in the singular), rather “ve-tzivanu” (“commanded us,” in the plural), referring to the entire Jewish people, of which women are part. They may therefore praise and thank God for sanctifying Israel through this mitzva. Rema rules accordingly, and this is the practice among Ashkenazim.1<i class="footnote">It seems that the common practice in medieval France, Germany, and Provence was that women were permitted to recite blessings on positive time-bound mitzvot. This is also the opinion of Rabbeinu Tam (Tosafot, RH 33a; Eruvin 96a), R. Zeraḥya Halevi, Ritz Gi’at, Ramban (on Kiddushin 31a), Ran, Rashba, Ritva, Me’iri, and many others. In contrast, those who maintain that these berakhot should not be recited base themselves on halakhic argument, not on an attempt to justify common practice. Rambam, Smag, and Or Zaru’a thus question how women can say “ve-tzivanu.” Moreover, Raavad and Or Zaru’a further maintain that the halakha is in accordance with the opinion that there is no (voluntary) mitzva for women to perform these actions, and the berakha is therefore prohibited. According to Rid, women should not recite berakhot because if they do, they will consider themselves obligated, thereby transgressing the prohibition of “bal tosif” (adding to the laws of the Torah).In practice, SA (589:6), which tends to rule leniently in cases of uncertainty concerning a berakha, states that women must not recite these berakhot, whereas Rema ruled, based on the prevalent Ashkenazic custom, that women do recite a berakha. Even though SA teaches not to recite berakhot on these mitzvot, many Sephardic poskim write, based on prevailing practice, that women do recite berakhot on positive time-bound mitzvot. So state Ḥida and Zekhor Le-Avraham (cited by Kaf Ha-ḥayim 17:4 and 589:23), and Rav Pe’alim, Sod Yesharim 1:12 regarding the berakha on shaking the lulav. This is also how the family of R. Ovadia Hadaya practiced. R. Messas (Shemesh U-magen 2:72:3) writes in Morocco the custom was that women did not recite these berakhot, but a Sephardic woman whose custom was to recite them may continue in her practice. In Yeḥaveh Da’at 1:68 and Yabi’a Omer 1:39-42 and 5:43, R. Ovadia Yosef strongly reinforces the Sephardic custom not to bless and even mentions that there are Ashkenazic poskim who teach not to recite the blessing, among them Ḥakham Zvi and Divrei Ḥayim. In conclusion, every ethnic group should continue to follow its own custom until this matter is resolved by the Sanhedrin, which will be established, with God’s help, speedily in our time. </i>
  Time-dependent berakhot of praise and thanksgiving, like the berakhot of Pesukei De-zimra and Birkhot Keri’at Shema, may even be recited by Sephardic women, since they do not contain the word “ve-tzivanu,” and indeed there is a mitzva for them to recite these berakhot. Nevertheless, R. Ovadia Yosef maintains that according to Sephardic custom women are not permitted to recite these berakhot because they are exempt from the recitation of those passages of prayer. He therefore asserts that in schools where both Ashkenazic and Sephardic girls study, it is the teachers’ obligation to instruct the Sephardic girls not to recite the conclusion of Birkhot Pesukei De-zimra and Birkhot Keri’at Shema. Still, the opinion of many poskim is that even according to the Sephardic custom it is permissible and even a mitzva for women to recite the Pesukei De-zimra blessings and Birkhot Keri’at Shema since they are berakhot of praise and thanksgiving. This is the common practice, so teachers need not instruct Sephardic girls to practice differently than their Ashkenazic peers, especially when such a thing will lead to confusion in the classroom.2<i class="footnote">Yeḥaveh Da’at 3:3 states that Sephardic women must not recite the berakhot of Pesukei De-zimra and so states Yabi’a Omer 2:6 regarding Birkhot Keri’at Shema, because the law concerning these blessings resembles the law regarding the recitation of berakhot on positive time-bound mitzvot. However, according to many Sephardic poskim (Kaf Ha-ḥayim 70:1; Responsa Or Le-Tziyon part 2, p. 44, which states that R. Ezra Attia, the Rosh Yeshiva of Yeshivat Porat Yosef, rules thus; R. Messas in Shemesh U-magen 3:63:5; Halikhot Shlomo 7:2; Tzitz Eliezer 9:2; R. Ovadia Hadaya, and R. Mordechai Eliyahu), there is a difference between berakhot recited upon the performance of a mitzva and berakhot of praise and thanksgiving; not only are women permitted to recite the latter, but it is even preferable that they do so. That was the practice of righteous women in the past, and that is how women practice in most schools today. This is also the consensus of virtually all Ashkenazic poskim, as outlined in SAH 70:1 and AHS 70:1. MB 70:2 even cites an opinion which states that women are obligated to recite Pesukei De-zimra. Since many Sephardic poskim also maintain that it is best that women recite these berakhot, so as not to augment distinction between the girls and increase dissention between the ethnic groups, it is proper to teach everyone to recite the blessings. Moreover, the principle that we act leniently in uncertain matters of berakhot does not apply where there is a prevailing custom. Nevertheless, girls who know that the women in their family are strict not to recite these berakhot should be strict themselves. Girls who are unsure of their family’s custom should practice like the rest of the girls in their class.It is my humble opinion that as a general rule, in a place in which people from all different ethnic communities live together, when there is difference between the different customs of the different ethnic groups, each ethnic group should be instructed to practice according to its own custom, rather than having everyone follow the opinion of the majority of poskim. However, when within one ethnic group the law is settled and in the other there is disagreement, it is best that everyone practices according to the majority, so as not to increase conflict among the Jewish people. </i>
  
  Section 9
  
  The Mitzva of Prayer for Women / Musaf and Hallel
  It is a biblical commandment to bring additional communal korbanot (sacrificial offerings) on specific special occasions to honor the sanctity of those times. These offerings are called “musafim” (additions). To correspond to these offerings, the Sages instituted the recitation of the Musaf prayer on those days: Shabbat, Rosh Ḥodesh, festivals, and Ḥol Ha-mo’ed.
  The poskim disagree about whether women must pray Musaf. Some say that since in Musaf a request for mercy is made, it is therefore similar to the other obligatory prayers, which are obligatory for women as well according to Ramban. Furthermore, since these prayers were instituted in honor of the sanctity of the day, just like women are commanded to say kiddush on Shabbat, so too they must pray Musaf (Magen Giborim). Others say that because the Musaf prayer is time-dependent, women are exempt (Tzlaḥ). In practice, because this is a rabbinic mitzva, the halakha follows the lenient opinion, and women are not obligated to pray Musaf, although one who wishes to may do so and it is to her credit. On Rosh Hashana and Yom Kippur, it is proper that every woman prays Musaf, since the primary request for mercy on the Days of Awe is made in the Musaf prayer.1<i class="footnote">The crux of this disagreement may hinge on the dispute between Ramban and Rambam. According to Ramban, women must recite all prayers instituted by the Sages, including Musaf, whereas according to Rambam, they are only obligated in one daily prayer but exempt from Musaf, for which time is a determinative factor. One may argue that even according to Ramban women are exempt from praying Musaf because women are only obligated to recite prayers whose essence is for mercy, and the essence of the Musaf prayer is the fact that it corresponds to the korban musaf and not that it is a request for mercy. Moreover, since the korban musaf was taken from the half-shekel that was given as a donation to the Temple (maḥatzit ha-shekel), and women are exempt from the mitzva to give half a shekel, they are therefore also exempt from praying Musaf. Conversely, one might argue that in Musaf a request for mercy is made and therefore it pertains to women just like men. Furthermore, women also were granted atonement by bringing the musaf offering, and therefore they too must pray Musaf. As a rule we are lenient regarding rabbinic uncertainties, and therefore women are exempt from praying Musaf; however, if they wish to recite it, they may. (Still, Yalkut Yosef part 1, p.187, states that it is best that they fulfill their obligation by hearing the ḥazan recite the prayer, because these berakhot are dependent on time, and according to him, even though they are not technically considered berakhot recited upon mitzvot, it is necessary in this case to be cautious not to recite a berakha le-vatala. Nonetheless, he agrees that if they pray by themselves, they have on whom to rely, especially concerning Musaf of the Days of Awe and  Ne’ila. Kaf Ha-ḥayim 286:7 states that the custom is that women pray Musaf just as they pray Shaḥarit.) </i>
  The Sages instituted the recitation of Hallel for men on holidays and on Ḥanuka. It is also customary to recite Hallel on Rosh Ḥodesh. Because the recitation of Hallel is dependent on time, women are exempt, although one who wishes to recite it is praised. As noted, Sephardic women do not make a berakha on the Hallel, whereas Ashkenazic women do.2<i class="footnote">See above n. 9. As noted, even among the Sephardic poskim there are those who maintain that women are permitted to recite a blessing, whereas some Ashkenazic poskim say that it is preferable not to recite a blessing. So state Yaavetz and Yeshu’ot Yaakov 422:6. See below, ch. 23 n. 9. </i>
  
  Section 10
  
  The Mitzva of Prayer for Women / Torah Reading
  All agree that women are exempt from Torah reading on weekdays and holidays; however, on Shabbat, according to MA 282:6, women must hear the Torah reading, for the Sages instituted that the whole Torah must be heard through the course of the year. Nevertheless, according to the overwhelming majority of poskim, women are exempt from Torah reading on Shabbat, since this is a time-dependent mitzva. This is indeed the practical halakha. Still, if she is able, it is good that a woman hear the Torah reading on Shabbat, since all poskim agree that although she is exempt, if she hears it, she fulfills a mitzva and receives credit for it.1<i class="footnote">Megilla 23a states: “Every Jew can be counted among the seven people called up to the Torah, even a minor and even a woman, but the Sages say that a woman does not read the Torah out of consideration for the dignity of the congregation (kevod ha-tzibur).” MA 282:7 states that from the fact that women can be included in principle among the seven people called up to the Torah, it can be inferred that they are also obligated in Torah reading. This is explained in Sofrim 18:4, where it is implied that they are even obligated to hear the haftara. Even though women are not obligated in the mitzva of Torah study, MA maintains that the Sages also instituted the reading for women so that they will hear the whole Torah, just like they are obligated in the mitzva of hak’hel. However, most poskim disagree, and some reinterpret MA to mean that it is advisable for women to hear the reading but not compulsory. This can be inferred from Tosafot and Rosh, as well as other Rishonim. See also Mor U-ketzi’a and AHS 282:11. MB 12 adds that there are places where women customarily leave the synagogue at the time of Torah reading.   </i> (The disagreement about whether a woman must hear Parshat Zakhor will be addressed in 23:5 below.)
  During hagbaha (the lifting of the Torah) it is a mitzva for both men and women to see the script, bow, and recite “Ve-zot ha-Torah…” (“This is the Torah…”) (SA 144:2). Some women are accustomed to acting stringently and refrain from looking at the Torah scroll when menstruating, while others are lenient. Those who wish to be lenient are permitted, since technically there is no prohibition against this.2<i class="footnote">Rema 88:1 writes that some women customarily do not enter the synagogue during menstruation (yet once the blood ceases, although they have not yet immersed in the mikveh, this stringency does not apply). Some poskim permit everything, and this is the accepted position. Nevertheless, people are stringent in practice, and only on the Days of Awe does everyone customarily attend the synagogue. MB 88:7 states that women customarily attend the synagogue but do not gaze at the Torah scroll while it is being lifted. It is clear that in principle it is permitted for a woman who is menstruating to look at the Torah scroll, SA YD 282:9 states that all people in a state of impurity, even nidot, may hold the Torah scroll and read from it. Many women practice this le-khatḥila and even at the time of their menstrual cycles look at the Torah while it is being lifted. See Yalkut Yosef part 1, p. 135, and below 9:7 n. 5.  </i>
  
  
  
  
  
  Section 1
  
  The Reasons behind Women's Mitzvot / Mutually Complementary
  As a rule, there is equality between the sexes. Men and women are all created in the divine image, and the uniqueness of the Jewish people inheres in Jewish women and men alike. The Torah was given to all Israel, men and women alike (see below, 7:1). The Sages derive from the verse “These are the laws that you must set before them” (Shemot 21:1) that “The Torah equated woman to man concerning all the laws in the Torah” (Kiddushin 35a).
  Nonetheless, it is impossible to ignore the specific differences between men and women, whether innate physical and emotional differences or halakhic differences like those regarding positive time-bound mitzvot. These dissimilarities enable man and woman to complement each other.
  In order to unveil the divine ideal in this world, revelation must occur through two complementary facets. Every individual creature is limited, and therefore cannot grasp divine perfection, but the people of Israel as a collective allows divine perfection to be manifest in the world. This indicates the tremendous importance of a unified Israel, because only the Jewish people, in all its components, can receive the Torah and with it rectify the world. Just as there is a difference between souls, so do the words of the Torah have multiple meanings, as it is written: “God said one thing from which I have heard two” (Tehilim 62:12) and: “Indeed, My word is like fire, like a hammer shattering rock” (Yirmiyahu 23:29). The Sages extrapolate, “Just as this hammer fragments into sparks, so too each and every statement that came from God’s mouth refracts into seventy languages” (Shabbat 88b). “Just as this hammer is divided into many fragments, so one verse of scripture generates many meanings (Sanhedrin 34a). Likewise, it is said about the disagreements between Beit Hillel and Beit Shamai, and all other rabbinic disputes, “These and those are the words of the living God” (Eruvin 13b).
  The most significant human reciprocal completion is the one between male and female, for with it human beings can reveal the divine image within them and achieve perfection. Not only concerning humanity, but in all of creation, from the sublime realms down to this earth, there is a division into male and female; neither sex can exist and endure independently, without the completion of the other. This fundamental principle is clarified at length in the wisdom of the Kabbala. That is what R. Elazar meant when he said: “Every man without a woman is not a [complete] person, as it is written: ‘Male and female He created them, and He blessed them and called them man’ (Bereishit 5:2)” (Yevamot 63a). Likewise, the Sages teach us: “Every man without a woman is inundated by unhappiness, without blessing, without goodness…without Torah, without fortification” (Yevamot 62b).
  Just as the dissimilarity between men and women enables them to marry and have children, so too the spiritual and emotional difference between them allows them to unite so that they may complete and enrich one another spiritually.
  Based on this, it is possible to grasp to some extent the basic reason for the halakhic differences between the mitzvot given to men and those given to women.
  
  Section 2
  
  The Reasons behind Women's Mitzvot / Why Women Are Exempt from Positive Time-Bound Mitzvot
  The simple and conventional reason why women are exempt from positive time-bound mitzvot is so that they can fulfill their destiny of building the family home. An enormous responsibility is placed upon women: to create and sustain the family, upon which our personal and national future is founded. This responsibility stems from their innate constitution as child-bearers and nursing mothers, as well as from their feminine and maternal character, which possesses unique qualities suitable for building and nurturing a family. The responsibility of managing the house and raising and educating the children often demands a devotion that extends to all hours of the day and night. Were women to be given the responsibility of fulfilling the positive time-bound mitzvot, which require one to cease all regular activity, they would be unable to tend to their family’s needs properly (based on Abudraham and Sefer Ḥasidim §1011).
  This view can also explain why women are exempt from the mitzva of Torah study. Torah study demands a great deal of dedication, both in adolescence, when acquiring the tools for Torah study, and subsequently throughout one’s entire life, when devoting hours every day to Torah study. If women were to be commanded to study Torah, they would not be able to devote themselves to building a family. Although women undoubtedly must learn Torah in order to live by its guidance, they are not obligated to study Torah for the sake of inquiry, theoretical profundity, and comprehensive knowledge. Thus, women are relieved of the constant pressure that accompanies men, who are commanded to commit themselves to continuous advancement in their knowledge of Torah.
  This illustrates the cardinal value of family. In order to foster the family, the Torah exempted women from the mitzva of Torah study and the positive time-bound mitzvot.
  It must be added that the very law that women are exempt from the mitzva of Torah study and time-bound positive mitzvot suggests that women, by nature, have less of a need for those mitzvot and that they can achieve personal completion without them (as will be explained below in section 5; see also Yalkut Shimoni, Shmuel §78). Based on this, we can learn that even a woman who does not bear the burden of family is exempt from these mitzvot.
  
  Section 3
  
  The Reasons behind Women's Mitzvot / Intellect and Emotion
  My teacher, R. Zvi Yehuda  Kook, regularly emphasized the principle that men and women are equal. However, after positing that key precept, he would occasionally dwell on the differences between man and woman: “The element of intellect is more discernible in men. By contrast, human emotion is more prominent in women” (Siḥot Ha-Ritzya, Bamidbar p. 413). Of course, men also have feelings and women are also intelligent, but in general men incline more toward the intellect and women toward emotion. This approach has recently been reinforced by various research studies on the brain and mind, from which it emerges that there are two types of intelligence, intellectual (IQ) and emotional (EQ).
  As a result of this distinction, in certain areas the man is more active, whereas the woman is more passive. After the intellect arrives at conclusions, it produces and constructs, whereas emotion is characterized by perceiving impressions from surrounding events; it does not initiate them, rather is impacted by them. Thus, we find that the Torah sages of earlier generations described men as being more inclined to influence and women as being more apt to receive.
  These two complementary traits allow us to connect wholly to the Divine ideal, grow stronger in faith, live a Torah existence, and rectify the world under the Almighty’s sovereignty.
  Through the analytical and discerning intellect, we establish the principles with which we govern our lives, and via spontaneous, raw emotion we are able to better absorb the faith and vitality of the Torah.
  In the following paragraphs I will attempt to further refine this concept based on the words of Rav Kook and his son, R. Zvi Yehuda.1<i class="footnote">For more, see Siḥot Ha-Ritzyah, Bereishit pp. 77-78; Bamidbar pp. 411-416; discourse 9 – man and woman; Olat Re’iyah vol. 1, pp. 71-72; Ein Ayah, Berakhot 7:46. See also Shabbat 33b; Tanḥuma Vayera §22; BM 59a; Nida 45b. </i>
  
  Section 4
  
  The Reasons behind Women's Mitzvot / The Virtue of Men and Intellect
  Intelligence is what separates human beings from all other living creatures. It enables man to investigate, reach conclusions, plan action, and make significant changes in the world. It allows people to cooperate, organize themselves as a community, and achieve tremendous accomplishments. Thus, it governs humanity and society. With it, the core principles and fundamental beliefs upon which human life rests are established. From this perspective, intelligence is collective. Emotion, however, is individual, consistent with one’s personal impressions and not in keeping with what general rules and principles dictate. Intellect allots every notion an established universal definition, and when those ideas are perceived emotionally, they indeed refract into innumerable hues, according to each person’s individual character. Even within the same person, ideas are perceived in varying ways, based on shifting moods.
  Based on this, we can understand the virtue of the mitzva of Torah study, which is performed by the intellect. Through meticulous and methodical study, an intellectual Torah worldview, with which it is possible to lead the world and rectify it, takes shape. This is also the purpose of the positive time-bound mitzvot: they champion, in a focused manner, important ideas that guide the people of Israel with their light. The recitation of Shema, for example, reminds us of the fundamentals of Torah and faith; tzitzit remind us of all the mitzvot and make us wary of the evil inclination; thus, all the time-bound mitzvot highlight Torah values that must govern our lives.
  Within this framework, we can also understand why leadership tends to be placed in the hands of men – kings, rabbinical court judges, judges, enforcers, and military men. As the Sages say: “There is no more kosher (upright) a woman among women, than a woman who does the will of her husband” (Eliya Rabba §10; Yalkut Shimoni, Melakhim 42).
  
  Section 5
  
  The Reasons behind Women's Mitzvot / The Superiority of Women and Emotion
  By contrast, emotion, which receives and is impressed upon, is able to grasp faith more naturally and spontaneously. From this standpoint, women are closer to the Divine ideal and are more universal. It is through the manifestation of the divine universal, which sustains the world, that all of the fundamental parameters that the intellect discerns and delineates is drawn. This virtue of women is embedded in the material from which she was created. Whereas man was created from dust, woman was created from a more refined substance – man’s rib. Since the substance from which the woman was created is of higher quality, she is more capable of naturally perceiving the divine ideal. Feminine intuition is closer to faith, and therefore even without the intervention of intellectual Torah analysis, and without the mediation of specific time-bound mitzvot, women can connect profoundly to the Torah and its purpose. In contrast, men require the study of Torah and the time-bound mitzvot in order to firmly establish their connection to faith and Torah.
  Likewise, we find that in all the great events which occurred to the Jewish people, the great virtue of women was manifested, for they preceded men in choosing the path of faith. It seems, then, that masculine intellectual analysis is sufficient under normal circumstances; however, where additional spirituality and more faith are required, it is specifically the feminine attributes which are necessary. “R. Akiva preached, ‘In the merit of righteous women, the people of Israel left Egypt’” (Yalkut Shimoni, Tehilim 795, and see Rashi on Shemot 38:8). At the giving of the Torah on Mount Sinai, the women were addressed first (Rashi on Shemot 19:3, based on a midrash). Similarly, we learn how to honor the Torah from women (below, 7:1). Men even learn Torah in the merit of women’s profound insight (see Berakhot 17a and below, 7:1). Additionally, women did not participate in the sin of the Golden Calf (Pirkei De-Rabbi Eliezer §45) or the sin of the Spies (Tanḥuma Pinḥas §7). Concerning the future, the Sages say “Generations are only redeemed in the merit of its righteous women” (Midrash Zuta, Ruth 4:11).1<i class="footnote">It seems that from the standpoint of the human intellectual virtue, men are more universal, whereas from the standpoint of the perception of the divine idea and faith, as expressed via intuitive vitality, women are more universal. Therefore, women grasp momentous historical divine processes to a greater degree.  </i>
  The virtue of woman also finds expression in the holy language of Hebrew. Many universal ideas are expressed in the feminine form: ḥadashot (news), nifla’ot (wonders), netzurot (secrets), and nisgavot (sublime ideas). Also, emuna (faith), Torah, mitzva (commandment), tefila (prayer), segula (uniqueness), Yahadut (Judaism), kehuna (priesthood), and melukha (royalty), are in the feminine form. As noted, this is because the feminine nature is closer to divinity (Siḥot Ha-Ritzya, Bereishit p. 77).2<i class="footnote">Perhaps, therefore, when discussing the principle of Jewish tradition, it is said (Mishlei 1:8), “Do not forsake the Torah of your mother,” for the primary building block of education is the construction of the natural universal connection with God and his Torah, a quality more prominent in women. In contrast, the father’s guidance centers on detailed and prescriptive guidelines, and since sometimes it is difficult for one to completely identify with those limiting and restricting teachings, it comes with an aspect of reproof – “Listen, my son, to the rebuke of your father” (ibid.). </i>
  This same trait that enables women to integrate and accept the divine idea also allows them to accept masculine principles and apply them to life. Men are more able to define the ideas, but women are better able to apply them in life. The conception of a fetus originates with the man, but it is the woman who actually develops it in her womb, gives birth to it, nurses it, and raises it. Therefore, women constitute the essence of the home and it is they who merit managing the grand ideal of constructing the family.
  
  Section 6
  
  The Reasons behind Women's Mitzvot / A Hierarchy of Virtues
  First there must be an acknowledgment of the value of the Torah and its study and an awareness of the virtue of the time-bound mitzvot, which illuminate every-day life. It is man’s job to be responsible for the preservation of the universal values expressed through these mitzvot, and to declare them publicly at the established times, as the Torah commands. By recognizing the value of the male role, women can transmit the light within these mitzvot to all strata of life.
  At first glance, it seems that the status of men is higher than that of women; men rule and influence while women receive and are acted upon. However, in the longer term, feminine influence becomes stronger. The Sages teach (Bereishit Rabba 17:7), “There is a tale of a ḥasid (pious man) who was married to a certain ḥasida (righteous woman), and they did not have any children together. They said: ‘We are not helping God at all.’ So they got divorced. The man went and married an evil woman who, in turn, made him evil. The woman went and married an evil man and she made him righteous. We thus learn that everything stems from the woman.”
  Man’s human aspects are more pronounced; intellect is indeed the pinnacle of humanity. Woman’s ability to receive divinity is more pronounced. Therefore, even though it is the husband who is commanded to learn Torah and establish the values, the general attitude toward those values is more affected by woman; her righteousness or wickedness radiates onto her husband. In the long term, the broader approach to faith is more influential. Therefore, if the woman is righteous and she and her husband have a good relationship, it follows that her husband will also eventually become a righteous person, and if she is evil, her husband will presumably also be wicked.
  There are allusions to this idea within the mystical tradition: Initially the man’s advantage is more apparent, but in the future, the advantage of women will be more apparent, as alluded in the verse (Yirmiyahu 31:21), “ For God has created something new on earth: A woman courts a man.” In this world, our gaze is external, and therefore the advantages of man, the one who learns and leads, are greater than those of woman. However, in the future we will gain a more profound vision and then the virtue of faith and intuitive perception will be revealed, such that the status of men and women will become equal. In the World to Come, the virtue of faith and the Divine perception will be so evident that the status of woman will be greater than that of man. Even then, there will be a place and a need for learning as well as for rigorous definitions, yet the feminine emotional aspect will take primacy.
  It can be said that after Adam’s original sin and the introduction of the evil inclination into human beings, it is more difficult to rely upon one’s intuition and natural emotions; hence, the primary struggle with the evil inclination is guided by one’s intellect, which must control and direct emotion. However, as the world becomes rectified and faith and morals become a common legacy, the concern that natural emotion will erupt in a misguided and destructive manner lessens. As a result, impediments to emotional expression will be removed, its merit revealed, and with it, the virtue of women.
  We should not say that the World to Come is so remote from us that it has no influence on our lives at all, because even today it is buried deeply inside of us. The external soul corresponds to this world, the internal spirit corresponds to the future, and the innermost soul corresponds to the World to Come. Therefore, even today, the deeper we delve, the more we find women’s influence. However, the arrangement is such that woman’s humility in accepting man’s virtue and influence allows her to express more and more of her own virtue.
  It is possible to expand upon this topic, but this is not the place. We shall only briefly allude to the fact that the relationship between the sun which radiates and the moon which receives resembles the male/female relationship. Initially, they were both equal, but as a result of the moon’s arrogance, it was diminished. However, in truth, at the heart of the matter, its virtue is great, for it receives the light here in this world. To a certain extent, this is also the relationship between the heavens and the earth; at first glance, the skies are more exalted, but upon second glance, the purpose of creation was for the earth and the final outcome was conceived at the outset. This is also the relationship between the tribe of Yehuda and the tribe of Yosef. On one hand, Yehuda reigned; however, the most cherished and beloved son was Yosef, who was beautiful like a woman, and who was capable of revealing all the highest ideals within this world, in beauty and splendor.
  
  Section 7
  
  The Reasons behind Women's Mitzvot / Love and Partnership
  On its own, every attribute is deficient. The discerning, studying intellect is liable to lose the vitality that stems from its connection to the divine. Likewise, due to its constant involvement in principles and rules, it is liable to lose touch with real life. In contrast, emotional intuition, when it comes to organize life in the world, is likely to get carried away and err, straying from the precise law.
  Consequently, the task of setting rules and principles was given to men, who are commanded to occupy themselves in Torah and to fulfill positive time-bound mitzvot, thereby laying the foundations of Jewish life. Women, on the other hand, express the general connection to faith and the tangible life of Torah, by virtue of which men connect to natural faith and better comprehend the value of the analytic principles.
  On the surface, it seems that the task of men is more important; on account of these virtues, they are worthy of the mitzva of Torah study as well as the positive time-bound mitzvot, and consequently, men are given leadership and authority. After all, one who is occupied with Torah principles must lead and guide others. However, looking deeper, we see that the value of women is actually greater. Although it is true that men are more engaged with principles and leadership, the building of a family, which is the most significant element in life, was placed in the hands of women. Moreover, the purpose of creation is to receive divine illumination within actual life and to experience it with the utmost intensity. Women are more attuned to this.
  Specifically because of women’s quality of humility, she is able to receive the divine and absorb the illumination that stems from Torah study and from positive time bound mitzvot. This, in turn, enables her to express her great virtues. It is thus no coincidence that man’s virtues are more noticeable, while women’s are internal and concealed. “The king’s daughter is all glorious within” (Psalms 45:14). This also allows us to understand the meaning of the berakha of She’asani Ki-rtzono (as explained below, 6:2).
  When the uniqueness of each sex is blurred or subjected to struggle and hostility, man and woman are unable to make each other more productive. Young couples have difficulty building their families, and existing family structures deteriorate and collapse.
  On the other hand, when we understand the value of each sex, thereby allowing for a greater connection and love, the divine Presence dwells with the couple (Sota 17a), faith and joy increase in the world, and the intellectual and emotional elements develop and integrate. The people of Israel, with all its families, thus continues to grow, speaking God’s praise in the world.
  
  Section 8
  
  The Reasons behind Women's Mitzvot / Communal and Personal Elements
  Based on what we have learned, it is possible to better comprehend the significance of women’s prayer. Two elements come into play in prayer, one personal and one collective. The personal is the individual’s appeal to the source of life, to her God, to petition Him for mercy. The collective element gives expression to the permanent connection between God and the Jewish people, thereby sanctifying His name in the world and drawing blessings down upon His creation. The collective element of prayer is the perpetuation of the sacrificial rites in the Temple, and therefore the prayers were instituted to correspond to the daily Tamid offerings.
  Sometimes there is some tension between the personal and collective aspects of prayer. From the individual perspective, prayer should theoretically be poured out from the heart with no limitations, without any fixed formulas or set times, so that it can spontaneously and emotionally express one’s yearning and longing to be close to God. That is how people prayed during First Temple era. However, the Men of the Great Assembly, in their enactments, emphasized the collective element, for they understood that without a fixed prayer rite, most people would become stuck in their routines and would not recite even a personal prayer. Moreover, personal feelings are often flawed and deficient. However, when one prays with a community, his prayers are complemented and perfected by virtue of the collective. Therefore they instituted the recital of prayers at set times, corresponding to the bringing of the Tamid offering in the Temple. They established a fixed formula for prayer, including in it all the values important to the people of Israel as a whole. They composed the prayers in the plural and instituted communal prayer – in a synagogue with a minyan – for the essence of Israel’s greatness is that they can express sanctity publicly, thus revealing God’s name in the world and bringing it closer to perfection.
  As a result of the emphasis on the collective and fixed aspects of prayer, the personal component, with its intense and fervent passion, is liable to be pushed aside. This is the meaning of R. Shimon’s warning: “Do not make your prayer fixed, but [make it] a plea for mercy and supplication before God”(Avot 2:13). Rabbi Eliezer similarly said: “If one renders his prayer fixed, his prayer is not supplication” (Berakhot 28b).
  Nevertheless, the Sages emphasized the collective component in their enactment, thereby instituting the fundamentals of faith within life. From this standpoint, prayer is a continuation of the Temple service, and just as the korbanot expressed the connection that the Jewish people and the entire world have with God, so too the prayers give public expression to this connection in every Jewish community. Even in the Temple Mount precincts, there was a synagogue for prayer in the time of the Second Temple. Although this emphasis is likely to result in the sidelining of personal feeling, the general impact of fixed public prayer on the entire world as well as each individual is tremendous. Therefore, the Sages preferred to set a defined framework for prayer (see 1:8 above).1<i class="footnote">In recent generations, the greatest Ḥasidic leaders tried to find ways to reintroduce long-neglected personal feelings and kavana into prayer, even sacrificing halakhic details to this end. Some introduced melodies into prayer, which is not halachically problematic whatsoever. Others repeated words over and over until they felt that they had enough kavana, a practice which poses a halachic problem. Some would shout their prayers, which also goes against the Sages’ guidance. Some delayed the time of prayers until they felt that they were sufficiently prepared to concentrate properly; if in the interim the deadline for prayer passes, this goes completely against halakha. Still others would pray alone so as to arouse kavana (on the value of minyan, see Peninei Halakha: Prayer 2:1,2, and 5). Consequently, opposition to their practices arose. However, they insisted that individual kavana is so important that they warrant ignoring halakhic details. In actuality, after a few generations, most Ḥasidim returned to observance of halakhic rules in accordance with Jewish tradition. </i>
  
  Section 9
  
  The Reasons behind Women's Mitzvot / Women’s Prayer
  In contradistinction to the aforementioned, in women’s prayer, the personal element is more pronounced. Because women are exempt from time-bound positive mitzvot, they do not need to recite Pesukei De-zimra, the Shema and the berakhot associated with it, or the other passages that men recite in their prayers. Although women must use the text of Shemoneh Esrei instituted by the Men of the Great Assembly, since their prayer rite is shorter, there is less concern that routine will erode their kavana. In practice, even with regard to Shemoneh Esrei, women may decide whether to recite it twice daily in accordance with the stringent view, or once daily in accordance with the lenient opinion (see above, 2:5).
  Moreover, since a woman need not pray in a synagogue and with a minyan, she may pray when she feels she will be able have more kavana. Likewise, the pace of her prayer is not dictated by that of the communal prayer. It thus emerges that the personal, petitionary element is more prominent in a woman’s prayer. Furthermore, the Sages instituted that men who do not know how to pray may come to synagogue and fulfill their obligation by hearing the ḥazan‘s repetition of the Amida (Ḥazarat Ha-shatz), whereas women who do not know how to pray need not hear Ḥazarat Ha-shatz. The simple explanation for this is that it is impossible to burden women with this, but perhaps in women’s prayer, kavana is more prominent and halakhic details less so. Thus, a woman who does not know how to recite the fixed liturgy may pray in her own words as best as she can, for the essence of women’s prayer is to ask God for mercy.1<i class="footnote">According to Ramban, women must pray daily to request mercy on behalf of themselves. Some say, based on a different version of the Gemara, that Rambam agrees. However, the general, public element, corresponding to the Tamid offerings and the sanctity of the Temple (of which the synagogue is a miniature version) is more prominent in the Sages’ enactments for men. Additionally, men must recite the Shema and its berakhot. In contrast, for women, the first principle of prayer – praise, petition, and thanksgiving – remain. We also saw (2:4 above) that women who are preoccupied with raising their children are exempt from prayer, as they cannot have the proper kavana, though for men in the same situation, the poskim are not lenient. Again we find that regarding women there is more of an emphasis on kavana and the request for mercy, whereas concerning men, preservation of the framework for expression of the divine Presence in prayer is preserved. This is consistent with what we explained in n. 2, namely, that from an intellectual standpoint, women are more private, but from the aspect of accepting faith, she is more general. The institution of prayer services with a minyan corresponding to the korbanot offers greater expression to the intellectual aspect, imparting the fundamentals of faith in the world, to which men are more suited. In contrast, kavana is more prominent among women and expressed more in personal prayer. This is the mitzva of prayer for women, in which the voluntary element is more prominent. For this reason, many basic principles of prayer were learned from the prayer of Ḥana. For further study see Peninei Halakha: Prayer 2:2, 5 as well as below, ch. 15 n. 1, which notes that women are exempt from reciting the Tamid passage because the obligation of women to pray stems from the need to request mercy, not as a replacement of the Tamid. Mabit (Beit Elokim, Sha’ar He-yesodot ch. 39) explains that until the destruction of the Temple, the divine Presence was revealed through the Temple service, and the individual’s prayer was also heard. After the destruction of the First Temple, the Men of the Great Assembly instituted prayer with a minyan so that the divine Presence would dwell among them, thereby allowing their prayer to be accepted.  </i>
  
  
  
  
  
  Section 1
  
  Waking Up in the Morning / Wake Up Like a Lion
  “One must become strong like a lion to arise in the morning to serve his Creator, for he should be the one who awakens the dawn” (SA 1:1). The way one gets up in the morning largely indicates her spiritual and emotional state and influences her functioning throughout the entire day. One who has purpose in life wakes up driven and filled with alacrity to face a new day. She usually wakes up early in the morning so she can accomplish more throughout the day. However, one who has lost her moral bearings and sense of mission has lost the reason for living and has no challenge that makes it worth getting up in the morning. She therefore feels fatigued and distressed in the mornings. Only when left with no choice does she finally wake up, late and sluggish, to another dull and despondent day. Nevertheless, if she were to bolster her faith and arise eagerly, vitality and joy would ignite her spirit, and she would be able to start her day invigorated.
  The Aḥaronim recommend saying Moda Ani, “I thank You, living and eternal King, for You have returned my soul with compassion. Abundant is Your faithfulness” immediately upon waking up  (Seder Ha-yom, aYHaYMB 1:8). Faith gives purpose to life. If God chooses to grant someone life, it means that her existence has great value. From that conviction, one can arise in the morning with enthusiasm and strength. The Sages state that one must wake up like a lion because a lion symbolizes one who has self-esteem and self-respect and uses that insight to courageously overcome all obstacles (see R. Naḥman of Breslov’s Likutei Halakhot ad loc.).
  
  Section 2
  
  Waking Up in the Morning / Modesty (Tzni’ut)
  Even when one is alone is her house, it is proper that she acts modestly, and covers her body. She should not say, “Here I am in the privacy of my own room; who can see me?” for God’s honor fills the whole world. She must cover her body in God’s honor and out of respect for the divine image within her. For men, every body part that one usually covers out of respect when he is among family and close friends should also be covered when he is alone. Concerning women, since the rules of modesty are defined – sleeves until the elbow and skirts until below the knee – it is proper to walk around the house in that manner even when no other person is present.
  Similarly, it is inappropriate for girls who live in a same-sex dormitory to walk around in immodest clothing. When getting dressed, it is proper for her to be strict and not change her undergarments in the room. She should change in the bathroom, shower room, or under a cover (Peninei Halakha: Prayer, ch. 7 n. 1).
  Regarding a hair covering for a married woman in her house, some say that since the laws concerning hair-covering are not as strict as those governing the covering of one’s body – after all, it is unnecessary for single women to cover their hair yet they are required to cover their bodies – then as there are no strangers in her home, she may walk around without her hair covered. Other poskim are stringent and rule that she must cover her hair even when she is alone in her house (Peninei Halakha: Collected Essays IIICollected Essays III 3:6:18). However, when she is in her bedroom alone or with her husband while in a state of purity, she need not cover her hair.
  To explain the idea tzni’ut a bit, it is necessary to begin with the creation of mankind. When created, Adam was pure and clean, both spiritually and physically, and he did not feel any need to cover himself with clothing. However, after his sin, he began to feel ashamed of his nudity. From then on, we all cover our bodies with clothes, especially those parts connected to physical drives and disposal of waste.
  The bare body emphasizes in an extreme manner the materialistic and animalistic side of humans. However, the form of the human body, with all the details and intricacies of its limbs, also contains profound and phenomenal allusions to the soul, which the wisdom of the Kabbala discusses in great length. It is the destiny of the body to actualize all those ideas. However, following the sin, our view became more external. At first glance, we only see the corporeal component of the human body, which causes us to forget its spiritual core. Therefore, it is proper to conceal the body, to better emphasize one’s inner spirituality, which is the source of his allure, and allow refined beauty to extend over his whole body. That is what the Sages allude to when they state that modesty in particular preserves beauty, by the fact that it nourishes its eternal root (see Bamidbar Rabba 1:3).
  As we have learned, the restraint expressed by modesty emphasizes one’s spiritual component. In addition, modesty greatly contributes to the concentration of the body’s vital energies on the reinforcement of the connection between husband and wife. Modesty turns lust into love. Many people incorrectly think that tzni’ut is meant to dull beauty and the joy of life; however, the exact opposite is true. Tzni’ut preserves one’s beauty and vitality for her spouse, with whom one enters a covenant, in order to increase love, devotion, and life.
  
  Section 3
  
  Waking Up in the Morning / The Practice of the Pious
  The practice of the pious (minhag ḥasidim) is to begin with the right side in all matters, because the Torah attributes more importance to one’s right side (as in the ritual of sprinkling the blood of a leper’s guilt offering onto his right thumb and big toe). According to Kabbala, right signifies lovingkindness (ḥesed), and left signifies judgment (din). By favoring the right, we help ḥesed overcome din. Thus, the scrupulously pious eat with their right hands, wash and anoint the right before the left, and put on the right sleeve, pant leg, and sock before the left. When bathing, they wash the head first, and then wash the right arm before the left arm and the right leg before the left leg. When getting undressed, they first remove the article from the left side.1<i class="footnote">The order of precedence for washing and anointing is detailed in Shabbat 61a. The order for dressing is detailed in MA and Kaf Ha-ḥayim 2:7, in the name of Sha’ar Ha-kavanot, as well as SAH 2:4 and Kitzur SA 3:4. </i>
  Concerning shoes, the law is more complex. On one hand, one should begin with the right side. On the other hand, we learn from the mitzva to tie tefillin on one’s left arm, that for all matters involving tying one is to start with the left side. Therefore, one first puts on her shoes, right before left, without tying them, and when tying the laces, she starts with the left and then ties the right (Shabbat 61a; SA 2:4).2<i class="footnote">Halikhot Beitah 1 n. 14, expresses uncertainty about whether women, who do not put on tefillin, need to ascribe importance to the left side when tying. In his Sha’ashu’ei Zvi §3, R. Zvi Pesaḥ Frank writes that a woman may tie whichever side she prefers first. Even so, it seems that it is better that women also tie the left before the right, since the precedent from tefillin teaches that left precedes right in all matters of tying. </i>
  One who is left-handed and left-footed begins with the right when she puts her shoes an as well as when she ties them. Since lefties tie tefillin on their right arms, the right takes precedence for tying as well.3<i class="footnote">MB 2:6, based on Bekhor Shor (and see Minḥat Yitzḥak 10:1) . This implies, therefore, that concerning putting on other clothing, even a lefty who takes on pious practices should start with her right side, just as blood would be sprinkled on a lefty’s right thumb (based on the opinion of most poskim; see Encyclopedia Talmudit, vol. 1, s.v. “iter”). However, regarding eating, we obviously do not trouble a lefty to eat with his right hand. Regarding the recitation of a berakha, it is the opinion of MB 206:18 (based on several Aḥaronim) that a lefty should hold the object on which he is reciting a berakha in his left hand. The kabbalists maintain that he should hold it in his right hand (Kaf Ha-ḥayim 206:30).  </i>
  The purpose of these practices is to ensure that everything we do, even a routine act like putting on shoes, is done mindfully and meticulously. After all, everyone puts on shoes every day, and if so, why shouldn’t she do it in the most optimal way? Certainly, the order is not a sine qua non; one who puts her shoes on out of order need not take them off to put them on again in the appropriate order.
  Through these halakhot, the Sages teach us to attribute value to every act we perform. This allows us to grasp all the details of the actions that make up our lives more deeply.
  
  
  
  
  
  Section 1
  
  Netilat Yadayim in the Morning / The Morning Netilat Yadayim
  
  
  
  
  Yisrael 2:29 and Halikhot Shlomo 2:5).The essential objective of netilat yadayim before Shaḥarit is cleanliness, as it is written (Tehilim 26:6): “I wash my hands clean,” and as detailed in Berakhot 15a. The reason for washing one’s hands before a meal is purification and sanctification, similar to the washing of the kohanim’s hands in the kiyor (laver) before serving in the Temple. Although there is a difference between the objectives of the two washings, the Sages instituted the morning netilat yadayim based on the model of washing before a meal, and even the berakha has the same wording. Le-khatḥila, when washing in the morning, one should take care that all the necessary requirements for washing one’s hands before a meal are met – that there is at least a revi’it of water, that she washes with a vessel, that there is human force involved in the pouring (ko’aḥ gavra), and that the appearance of the water has not changed. Be-di’avad, even if there is no revi’it of water there, or a vessel, or human force, since the water does in fact clean one for prayer, it is the opinion of SA and Rema that Al Netilat Yadayim is recited. If the appearance of the water has changed and has become unacceptable for washing before a meal, one may use it to wash her hands for Shaḥarit, but instead recite “al nekiyut yadayim” (SA 4:1, 6, 7, and 22). However, MB, 4:7, and BHL state that according to many Aḥaronim, even if the water becomes invalid for washing before a meal, one may recite Al Netilat Yadayim when washing before Shaḥarit because the water does clean her hands enough for prayer. Kaf Ha-ḥayim 4:11 and Halakha Berura 4:12 state that one does not recite a berakha on the morning netilat yadayim if there is anything that renders it invalid for washing before a meal. ]
  
  Section 2
  
  Netilat Yadayim in the Morning / Ru’aĥ Ra’ah (Evil Spirit)
  In addition to the reasons mentioned, the Sages of the Talmud state (Shabbat 108b) that one must be careful that her hands do not touch her mouth, nose, eyes, or ears before washing her hands in the morning because there is a ru’aḥ ra’ah (evil spirit) which rests upon one’s hands after sleep, and it is likely to damage those organs. Only after she washes her hands three times alternately will the ru’aḥ ra’ah disappear and, subsequently, the danger caused by touching any of her bodily orifices will be eliminated.
  Although the main reason for netilat yadayim is to prepare and sanctify oneself for praying Shaḥarit and for the service of a new day, and it is for this reason that the Sages instituted the berakha of al netilat yadayim, we are also careful about the ru’aḥ ra’ah and therefore take care to wash our hands three times alternately. This means that we first wash the right hand, then the left, then again the right and left, and again right and left.
  Prior to washing, one must take care not to touch those organs that open towards the inside of the body – such as the mouth, nose, ears, and eyes (SA 4:3-4; MB 13). Similarly, one must be careful not to touch food or drink before washing (MB 4:14).
  The Kabbala teaches (see Zohar 1:184b) that at night, when one falls asleep and remains inanimate, without thought or action, she experiences a taste of death and a spirit of impurity (ru’aḥ tum’a) rests upon her. This is in line with the Sages’ statement (Berakhot 57b), that sleep is one-sixtieth of death. The essence of human grandeur lies in the ability to think, feel, and engage in activities leading to the rectification of the world (tikun olam). During sleep, when dormancy spreads throughout the body, one loses, to a certain extent, the image of God (Tzelem Elokim) within her, and ru’aḥ ra’ah rests upon her. When she awakens from her sleep and her consciousness returns, the ru’aḥ ra’ah disappears, remaining solely on the extremities of her hands. By washing one’s hands three times alternately, the spirit of impurity is removed.
  In order to completely eradicate the ru’aḥ ra’ah, one must begin washing her right hand, which symbolizes the attribute of ḥesed. Therefore, one should take the washing cup initially in her right hand and pass it over to her left, so that she pours the water over the right hand first and then the left, continuing this way until she has washed each hand three times (see Kaf Ha-ḥayim 4:12).
  Some explain that the main damage caused by the ru’aḥ ra’ah is spiritual; if one were to touch her eyes or ears before washing, her inner sense of vision and understanding would be adversely affected, and on that day she would be like a blind and deaf person concerning matters of Torah and faith. Similarly, if she were to touch her mouth or nose, the ru’aḥ ra’ah would harm her spiritual senses of eating and smelling (Kaf Ha-ḥayim 4:19, based on Solet Belula).
  
  Section 3
  
  Netilat Yadayim in the Morning / Ru’aĥ Ra’ah Today
  According to Zohar and the kabbalists, one must wash her hands immediately upon waking from her sleep so as not to prolong the ru’aḥ ra’ah upon her hands. They also caution against walking more than four amot before washing one’s hands in the morning. Therefore, one must prepare water before going to sleep and place it near her bed so that she can wash her hands immediately upon rising (Sha’arei Teshuva 1:2). There are those who are lenient regarding this because, in their opinion, the entire house is considered a single space of four amot. As long as one does not leave the house for more than the space of four amot, she is not considered to have walked four amot before washing (Responsa Shevut Yaakov 3:1).
  Others maintain that ru’aḥ ra’ah has been eliminated from this world. Tosafot (Yoma 77b) cites an opinion that ru’aḥ ra’ah does not dwell in “these kingdoms” (France and Germany). Leḥem Mishneh states that it is implied from Rambam, who lived in Spain and Egypt, that he, too, is not concerned about the ru’aḥ ra’ah mentioned in the Talmud (MT, Laws of Observing Yom Kippur 3:2). Maharshal one of the greatest Ashkenazic poskim of the sixteenth century, writes no ru’aḥ ra’ah is found nowadays (Yam Shel Shlomo, Ḥullin 8:31). Several other poskim agree with this approach.
  In earlier generations, spiritual and mystical power was more pronounced and intense. This was expressed on the one hand by the ability to attain greater and more transcendental experiences, emotionally and spiritually, such as prophecy, and on the other hand, by the presence of all sorts of sorcery and impure spirits. Over time, intellectual prowess took center stage at the expense of spiritual forces, and together with the cessation of prophecy, the impure spirits weakened and disappeared; their place was taken by the “evil spirits” of false and deceitful ideas.
  Furthermore, there is an amazing tradition regarding Count Valentine Potocki, the Polish nobleman who had his heart set on joining the Jewish people and converting to Judaism. Since such a thing was prohibited in his time, he converted secretly and engrossed himself in Torah. Eventually, the Christians captured him and offered him two options: to return to Christianity or to be burned alive. The righteous convert chose to die by fire, thereby publicly sanctifying God’s name. At that moment, Vilna Gaon said that the ru’aḥ ra’ah lost some of its strength, particularly regarding the ru’aḥ ra’ah of the morning. For this reason, the students of the Vilna Gaon are lenient regarding walking four amot before washing.
  In practice, according to Ḥida, MB (1:2), and Ben Ish Ḥai, one should be careful not to walk more than four amot before washing. In contrast, there are poskim who are lenient, whether because the entire house is considered four amot or because today there is no longer any ru’aḥ ra’ah on one’s hands. Therefore, the common custom is to walk more than four amot before washing. However, even according to those who rule leniently, the custom is to be strict about anything mentioned in the Talmud, such as washing one’s hands three times and not touching bodily orifices prior to washing.
  
  Section 4
  
  Netilat Yadayim in the Morning / The Time to Recite Al Netilat Yadayim
  The correct time to recite “al netilat yadayim” is immediately after washing and before drying one’s hands. However, the general rule regarding all berakhot recited upon the performance of mitzvot, is to recite the berakha first and then perform the mitzva. Hence, we make a berakha on the separation of the ḥalla (hafrashat ḥalla) before separating and make a berakha on the mezuza before affixing it to the doorpost. Yet, regarding netilat yadayim, the law is different. Since it is inappropriate to recite the berakha while one’s hands are unclean, its recitation is delayed until after the washing. Therefore, immediately after washing, even before drying one’s hands, the berakha must be recited.
  In actuality, the berakha is usually not recited immediately following the first washing upon waking. This is because people generally need to relieve themselves upon waking up and one should not recite a berakha while having to tend to one’s bodily needs. Furthermore, according to Rosh, the washing was instituted to prepare the person for prayer; therefore, one is obligated to recite a berakha on netilat yadayim before praying. Hence, after relieving oneself in the morning, one washes her hands again but need not wash three times alternating, since the ru’aḥ ra’ah was removed the first time she washed. She then recites the berakha before drying them. One who does not need to relieve herself in the morning should recite the berakha on the first washing immediately upon waking up (SA 6:2; MB 4:4).1<i class="footnote">MB 4:4, based on MA, states that one who wakes up and needs to relieve herself must first wash her hands three times without a berakha in order to remove the ru’aḥ ra’ah from upon them. After relieving herself, she must wash her hands with a berakha because, according to Rosh, the morning washing with a berakha was instituted as preparation for prayer. However, R. Ovadia Yosef (Halakha Berura 4:4; Berur Halakha 4:4) rules that one should first relieve herself in the bathroom and then wash her hands three times so that the berakha will be on the first washing of the day, for that is the more correct way according to Rashba. Moreover, if one has a great need to relieve herself, to the point where if she abstained she would be transgressing the prohibition “Do not abominate yourself” (“bal teshaktzu”) the law is that one must relieve herself first and only after that wash her hands. It is possible to retort that there is no concern for “bal teshaktzu” in such a case, since washing one’s hands takes so little time. The practical custom follows the opinion of MB and the kabbalists, so that ru’aḥ ra’ah can be quickly removed. Regarding the berakha before drying one’s hands, see Kaf Ha-ḥayim 4:8. According to the Ashkenazic practice, one may delay reciting the berakha and combine it with Birkhot Ha-shaḥar. Nevertheless, it is best to recite it immediately following the performance of the mitzva, as per MB 6:9.  </i>
  Le-khatḥila it is preferable to recite Birkhot Ha-shaḥar and the Amida soon after waking up. First, it is proper to thank God by reciting Birkhot Ha-shaḥar at the very beginning of the day. Likewise, it is best to pray the Amida before becoming involved in other matters (see below, 8:4). Additionally, it is not appropriate to have a long break between the berakha of al netilat yadayim and the Amida, for some poskim maintain that the washing was essentially instituted as preparation for prayer (Rosh). Even a woman who does not pray in the morning because she is involved in household concerns should at least recite Birkhot Ha-shaḥar immediately after rising and washing her hands, so that her netilat yadayim will be considered preparation for Birkhot Ha-shaḥar.
  A woman who wakes up before dawn must wash her hands, recite al netilat yadayim, and then recite all Birkhot Ha-shaḥar. This is if she wakes up after ḥatzot (halakhic midnight). However, before ḥatzot it is forbidden to recite Birkhot Ha-shaḥar, and therefore she may not recite al netilat yadayim either. Instead, she waits until after ḥatzot, and after she uses the bathroom she washes her hands and recites al netilat yadayim as well as the remaining Birkhot Ha-shaḥar.2<i class="footnote">In Peninei Halakha: Prayer, ch. 8 n. 3, a dispute among the Aḥaronim is recorded, concerning how a man should act if he wakes up much earlier than the time to pray and he knows that he will need to relieve himself again before praying. Some say that according to Rashba he must recite the blessing on the washing closest to his sleep, whereas according to Rosh, he must recite the blessing on the washing closest to prayer. I maintain that it is best to recite the blessing on the washing closest to sleep. Certainly women, for whom the obligation to pray Shaḥarit is not definite, should preferably recite the blessing on the washing closest to sleep as part of Birkhot Ha-shaḥar (based on the explanation given above, n. 1).Regarding when one who woke up after ḥatzot for a few hours and then went back to sleep until morning should recite Birkhot Ha-shaḥar, see below, 6:6.  </i>
  
  Section 5
  
  Netilat Yadayim in the Morning / One Who Did Not Sleep All Night
  The poskim disagree about the status of one who stayed up all night. In practice, SA 4:13 states that such a person must wash her hands before prayer without a berakha. That way, on one hand, she fulfills her obligation according to the opinion that she must wash her hands, but on the other hand, she avoids possibility of having recited a berakha le-vatala.
  According to MB 4:30, it is best for one who did not sleep all night to use the bathroom before prayer. After touching body parts that are normally covered, she can wash her hands with a berakha according to all opinions. This is the Ashkenazic custom.
  In sum, according to Ashkenazic custom, one who did not sleep all night but is preparing to pray the Amida of Shaḥarit must use the bathroom before praying and subsequently wash netilat yadayim with a berakha. According to the Sephardic practice, even in this situation a woman does not recite the blessing after washing her hands (Kaf Ha-ḥayim 4:49; see below, 6:7 and 7:7, for the laws regarding Birkhot Ha-shaḥar and Birkhot Ha-Torah).
  
  Section 6
  
  Netilat Yadayim in the Morning / Hand Washing Three Times after Daytime Sleep
  Why exactly does the ru’aḥ ra’ah linger specifically on one’s hands? Is it the mere state of sleep, when one’s consciousness abandons her and she is left without the ability to function? If so, even one who sleeps during the day would be required to wash her hands three times upon awakening. Or does the night, when the whole world ceases its activities, cause ru’aḥ ra’ah, in which case even one who was awake all night must wash her hands three times?
  In practice, when both factors converge and one sleeps a regular slumber (at least half an hour), the ru’aḥ ra’ah rests upon her in full force. In such a case, immediately upon rising one must hurry to wash her hands three times and refrain from touching her bodily orifices or food prior before washing.
  If one slept a regular slumber during the day, it is proper to be stringent and wash her hands three times alternately, but it is unnecessary for her to rush to do so since the ru’aḥ ra’ah is not in full force. Also, there is no prohibition on touching bodily orifices before washing.
  If one remained awake all night, it is best for her to wash netilat yadayim three times after dawn, as there are those who maintain that the night itself, or its end, causes ru’aḥ ra’ah to descend upon the hands. Likewise, it is proper for one who arose in the middle of the night and already washed her hands three times when she woke up to wash her hands again at dawn, (Peninei Halakha: Prayer, ch. 8 nn. 4-5).
  
  Section 7
  
  Netilat Yadayim in the Morning / Waking in the Middle of the Night to Tend to a Baby or for Any Other Reason
  A woman who wakes up in the middle of the night in order to cover her child or give him a pacifier need not, technically speaking, wash her hands before doing so, although she must be careful not to touch her child’s mouth or any other bodily orifice.
  However, if she wakes up to prepare food for the child or change the child’s diaper, it is proper for her to wash her hands beforehand, so that she does not touch food or one of her child’s orifices with unwashed hands. Likewise, it is proper that a woman who wakes up in the middle of the night to nurse her child wash her hands before starting. However, if it is very difficult for her to go wash her hands, she may rely on lenient opinions that do not netilat yadayim of those who wake up in the middle of the night (Eshel Avraham [Buczacz] 4:1; see also section 3, which mentions that some say that nowadays the ru’aḥ ra’ah does not exist). In any case, according to all opinions, no berakha is recited on netilat yadayim performed in the middle of the night, because the Sages instituted a berakha only on the morning washing, which prepares us for prayer and the new day.
  Le-khatḥila, one wakes up in the middle of the night to drink something should preferably wash her hands three times without a berakha before reciting She-hakol. Similarly, one who wakes up in the middle of the night to use the bathroom should preferably wash her hands three times so that she can touch her bodily orifices without concern. After relieving herself, she must wash her hands so that she may recite Asher Yatzar. If she wishes, she need not wash her hands prior to using the bathroom in the middle of the night, relying on the opinion that one only needs to wash her hands three times after rising in the morning. However, after relieving herself, she must wash her hands in order to recite Asher Yatzar. If she does not have water, she must clean her hands by rubbing them on her shirt and then recite Asher Yatzar (SA 4:22).1<i class="footnote">SA 4:14-15 maintains that every regular sleep at night causes ru’aḥ ra’ah, and in order to remove it, one must wash her hands three times alternately. Even so, in the cases above, I wrote “should preferably” because the author of Eshel Avraham (Buczacz) states in the name of his father-in-law that ru’aḥ ra’ah is present only after waking up in the morning. Many who do not wash their hands when they arise in the middle of the night rely on this. The opinion of most kabbalists, according to Arizal, is that ru’aḥ ra’ah only lingers after one sleeps through ḥatzot, but if one went to sleep after ḥatzot, the ru’aḥ ra’ah does not rest upon her hands. Moreover, even if one who slept through ḥatzot already woke up once after ḥatzot and washed her hands three times, the ru’aḥ ra’ah does not rest upon her hands a second time. Hence, according to this, it is not necessary to wash one’s hands three times every time one awakens at night. Additionally, there are those who say that nowadays ru’aḥ ra’ah does not exist. Therefore, only one who wakes up in the morning must be careful to wash her hands three times because the source for this stems from the Talmud. However, beyond that, concerning waking up in the middle of the night, it is not an obligation to wash one’s hands, though it is proper to do so. Those who follow kabbalistic practices must ensure that the first time they wake up after ḥatzot they wash three times. It is also preferable but not obligatory for one to wash her hands before reciting She-hakol, as explained in SA 4:23. Even if she touched normally covered parts of her body, it is sufficient for her to rub her hands on a cloth of some sort, as clarified in MB 4:61. Similarly, before using the bathroom, it is advisable to wash one’s hands because of the ru’aḥ ra’ah, but it is not an obligation, as clarified above. Additionally, see the opinion of R. Ovadia Yosef in n. 2. An elaboration of these issues appears in Peninei Halakha: Prayer 8:6-7.   </i>
  
  Section 8
  
  Netilat Yadayim in the Morning / Food Touched by Unwashed Hands
  We learned (section 2 above) that because ru’aḥ ra’ah rests upon one’s hands in the morning, one must not touch food or drink before netilat yadayim. If a Jew touched food without washing her hands, the ruling is as follows: If it is a dry, washable food, like fruit, she should rinse it under water three times. Just as the washing of each hand three times purifies them, so too it will cleanse the fruit. However, if she mistakenly touched drinks or food that will become ruined when washed, some rule stringently that the food must be discarded out of fear that ru’aḥ ra’ah rests upon them (Od Yosef Ḥai, Toldot 6), but according to most poskim, even those foods that cannot be washed may be eaten.
  There are two reasons for this: first, according to most poskim, the ru’aḥ ra’ah on one’s hands does not have the ability to render food unfit for eating (Ḥayei Adam 2:2; MB 4:14; AHS 4:15). Regarding alcoholic beverages, there are poskim who are stringent, but it is the consensus of most poskim that all other foods do not become invalidated by the touch of unwashed hands (BHL 4:5 s.v. “Lo”). Furthermore, as we have seen (section 3 above), some maintain that ru’aḥ ra’ah has been eradicated from this world and thus need not be feared. Therefore, one should not discard or waste food touched by unwashed hands.
  Similarly, it is permissible le-khatḥila to buy bread or other food from off a store shelf, even though there is concern that it was touched by Jews who did not wash their hands in the morning. This is because, as we have already learned, according to most poskim, food is not invalidated by the touch of unwashed hands. Additionally, there is doubt as to whether these foods were actually touched by someone who did not wash his hands in the morning. Moreover, almost all people usually wash their hands in the morning, and it is said in the name of Arizal (Od Yosef Ḥai, Toldot 8), that even washing one’s hands once effectively weakens the power of ru’aḥ ra’ah.
  
  Section 9
  
  Netilat Yadayim in the Morning / Minors
  Several major Aḥaronim write that it is important to ensure that even small children wash their hands in the morning. Even though they have not yet reached school age (gil ḥinukh), since they touch food, their hands must be washed so that the food is not damaged by the ru’aḥ ra’ah on their hands (Ḥida; Pri Megadim, Mishbetzot Zahav 4:7; MB 4:10). Additionally, there are some who practice the extra-pious custom of washing even a newborn’s hands (Ben Ish Ḥai, Toldot 10), for by doing so, the children are raised in purity and sanctity.
  However, in practice, most people are not strict about washing their children’s hands three times after they wake up, because according to some prominent Aḥaronim, ru’aḥ ra’ah only lingers on the hands of girls who are at least twelve years old and boys who are at least thirteen. This is because the spirit of impurity affects those who can connect to holiness and act to repair the world. Hence, the ru’aḥ ra’ah does not rest on the hands of gentiles, for they are not obligated to perform mitzvot. Similarly, ru’aḥ ra’ah does not rest in full force on the hands of children who have not been initiated into the duties of mitzvot. Still, there is a mitzva educate minors in mitzva observance, and once they start connecting to mitzvot, ru’aḥ ra’ah lingers upon them a bit as well. Therefore, from the time they reach the age of education and are capable of comprehending how to wash their hands, one is obligated to educate them and accustom them to washing (based on SAH 2:4:2; Eshel Avraham [Buczacz] 4:3; Tzitz Eliezer 7:2:4).
  In conclusion, there is a mitzva to habituate children in netilat yadayim from the time they reach the age of education, and it is an obligation to wash their hands starting from the age of mitzvot, meaning twelve years old for a girl and thirteen for a boy. Some are strict and wash their baby’s hands from the time he touches food (MB 4:10). Additionally, there are individuals who enhance the mitzva by washing their baby’s hands from the time of his brit mila or even from birth, for even then Israel’s unique holiness begins to appear (cited parenthetically in SAH ad loc.; see also Kaf Ha-ḥayim 4:22).
  
  
  
  
  
  Section 1
  
  The Morning Blessings / Berakhot of Thanksgiving
  The Sages instituted the recitation of many blessings immediately upon awakening in the morning. The purpose of these blessings is to thank God for the good that He bestows upon us every day. The Talmud (Berakhot 60b) teaches that when one wakes up, she thanks God and says: “My God, the soul which you have placed within me is pure… Blessed are You, Lord, Who restores souls to dead bodies” (Elokai Neshama). When she hears the crow of the rooster, announcing the arrival of a new day, she says: “Blessed are You, Lord our God, King of the universe, Who gives the rooster understanding to distinguish between day and night” (Ha-noten La-sekhvi Vina). Upon opening her eyes, she recites, “…Who gives sight to the blind” (Poke’aḥ Ivrim). When she stretches her limbs and sits on her bed, after being held captive in the shackles of sleep, she declaims: “…Who releases the imprisoned” (Matir Asurim). When she dresses, she says: “…Who clothes the naked” (Malbish Arumim). When one stands on her legs, she recites: “…Who straightens the bent” (Zokef Kefufim). When placing her feet on the ground, she says: “…Who spreads the earth upon the waters” (Roka Ha-aretz al Ha-mayim). When she puts on her shoes, she says: “…Who has provided me with all my needs” (She-asa li Kol Tzorki).  As she begins to walk, she declaims: “…Who prepares a person’s strides” (Ha-mekhin Mitzadei Gaver). When she fastens her belt, she says: “…Who girds Israel with strength” (Ozer Yisrael Bi-gevura). When she puts on a head covering, she recites: “…Who crowns Israel with glory” (Oter Yisrael Be-tifara). When she washes her hands, she recites Al Netilat Yadayim. When washing her face, she recites: “…Who removes sleep from my eyes” (Ha-ma’avir Sheina).
  Life’s routine generally erodes our awareness of all the bounty that God showers upon us. As a result of this ingratitude, even the blessings that God bestows on one daily fails to delight her, and her life becomes dull and empty. In order to emerge from this desolation, she seeks various pleasures. The Sages instituted Birkhot Ha-shaḥar so that we will not be ungrateful. In these blessings, we thank our Creator for all things, big and small, that help us function in this world. By expressing our gratitude, we are able to contemplate the world in its richness and fullness. We learn that every single element in our lives has godly value, and this in turn arouses our desire to add goodness to the world with every new day.
  Women and men alike must recite Birkhot Ha-shaḥar in order to thank God for all the good that is renewed daily.1<i class="footnote">The straightforward meaning of Tur and SA 46:4 indicates that women are obligated to recite Birkhot Ha-shaḥar, which is what MB 70:2 and AHS 70:1 state explicitly. However, MB cites the opinion of Rashba and Derekh Ha-ḥayim (cited in MB 52:10 and BHL ad loc.) that since the time for reciting Birkhot Ha-shaḥar is limited to the first four seasonal hours, like the time allotted for the Amida of Shaḥarit, their recitation is time-bound, and women are exempt. Nevertheless, MB concludes, according to the custom outlined by Rema in 17:2, women may extend the obligation to themselves and recite the blessings. In practice, it is clear that women are required to recite Birkhot Ha-shaḥar, and that is even the Sephardic practice. There are several reasons for this, each of which is sufficient to determine the halakha. First the halakhic ruling is that the time of Birkhot Ha-shaḥar lasts the entire day (as clarified below in section 5 and stated in Yeḥaveh Da’at 4:4). Second, these are blessings of thanksgiving, in which women are obligated just as men, for it is forbidden for any person to derive pleasure from this world without reciting a blessing (Berakhot 35a). Responsa Maḥazeh Eliyahu §13, based on the rationale of Turei Even and Ḥokhmat Shlomo, maintains that Birkhot Ha-shaḥar are not considered time-bound mitzvot even according to Derekh Ha-ḥayim, yet the reality that we wake up in the morning dictates that they be recited at that time, immediately when we begin to derive that pleasure. (Or Le-Tziyon 2:4:1 states that women are indeed exempt from Birkhot Ha-shaḥar because they are time-bound; however, it is good that women recite them since they are berakhot of praise and thanksgiving. According to the reasons we have just outlined, women are in fact obligated.) Also, as we have already seen above (2:4-5), it is possible be-di’avad to fulfill the obligation of prayer with Birkhot Ha-shaḥar.There are two berakhot that were instituted in keeping with the men’s behavior, but since they include general praise for Israel, women are also required to recite them, as we will see below in section 4. The first is Ozer Yisrael Bi-gevura, which was instituted upon the girding of a belt used to separate between one’s heart and one’s nakedness (Rema 46:1), a law that pertains to men, as explained below (10:7). The second is Oter Yisrael Be-tifara, instituted for men’s head-covering (MB 46:9), as explained below, 10:5-6. </i>
  
  Section 2
  
  The Morning Blessings / For Having Made Me According to His Will
  The Sages instituted three special berakhot of thanksgiving within Birkhot Ha-shaḥar. They are: “…for not having made me a gentile” (She-lo Asani Goy), “…for not having made me a slave” (She-lo Asani Aved”), and “…For not having made me a woman” (She-lo Asani Isha). Women recite, “…Who made me according to His will” (She-asani Ki-rtzono).
  There are two interpretations of this berakha. According to one interpretation, it is a sort of acceptance of a harsh judgment (hatzdakat ha-din), of the fact that even though women do not have as many mitzvot, they bless God “for having made me according to his will” out of faith that everything is for the good (Tur 46:4). In contrast, the second interpretation emphasizes women’s superiority in this world. In this blessing, the innate additional virtue of women is brought to fruition, for women are inherently more in tune with God’s will. Therefore, only they can say “…Who made me according to His will.” The fact that women must fulfill less mitzvot than men is because by nature they are more refined and therefore require less mitzvot to improve themselves. Man was created from dust of the earth, whereas woman was created from a more sublime substance, man’s rib. In other words, women are a manifestation of a more advanced stage of development than men (Siḥot Ha-Ritzya, Bereishit pp. 77-78; Shemot p. 380; Olat Re’iyah vol. 1, pp. 71-72).
  It is no coincidence that the simple interpretation shows favor to men and the deeper meaning to women. Indeed, at first glance, men have greater virtue. The virtue of women can only be recognized by means of a more profound analysis. Therefore modesty, a trait which emphasizes one’s inner virtue is more significant for women.
  In practice, Ashkenazic women have the custom to recite this berakha in full: “Barukh Ata Hashem Elokeinu Melekh Ha-olam She-asani ki-rtzono” (“Blessed are You, Lord our God, King of the universe, Who made me according to His will”), whereas Sephardic women recite this berakha without God’s name: “Barukh She-asani Ki-rtzono” (“Blessed is He Who made me according to His will”).  Even though SA 46:4 rules that God’s name should be uttered in this berakha, most Sephardic women customarily omitted it for fear of reciting a berakha le-vatala, as this blessing is not mentioned in the Talmud (Kaf Ha-ḥayim 46:41).
  In the berakhot of She-lo Asani Goy and She-lo Asani Aved, Sephardic women customarily use the feminine forms of the berakha’s objects: “goya” and “shifḥa.” In contrast, Ashkenazic women customarily to recite these berakhot as they are said by men, because the words “goy” and “eved” can include both men and women.
  
  Section 3
  
  The Morning Blessings / The Order of the Morning Blessings
  As we have learned, the original institution of the Sages was to bless and give thanks for each and every act immediately upon enjoying it: as one wakes up, she thanks God for the soul He placed within her and says Elokai Neshama; as she opens her eyes, she recites, Poke’aḥ Ivrim; as she stretches her limbs, she recites, Matir Asurim; and so on with all the blessings in that manner. However, today the custom has changed and we recite Birkhot Ha-shaḥar consecutively.
  Why did this custom change? It is obviously more appropriate to thank God immediately upon enjoying His bounty. In that way, the process of awakening attains profound significance, as blessings of thanksgiving to God accompany each and every stage. Indeed, Rambam rules that all Birkhot Ha-shaḥar must be recited exactly as mentioned in the Talmud, each berakha at its appropriate time. There are some Yemenite Jews following this ruling even today.
  However, as noted, the prevailing custom is to recite all Birkhot Ha-shaḥar at once. The reason for this is that if they are recited in the process of waking, there is concern that one berakha or more will be forgotten; however, if they are recited consecutively, it is more likely they will all be remembered. Moreover, we want to enhance the mitzva and recite Birkhot Ha-shaḥar in the most respectful manner, that is to say, with clean hands and while properly dressed, and therefore we delay the recitation of the berakhot until after all the preparations for prayer are finished. Furthermore, some people find it very difficult to concentrate immediately upon waking up, and only after they dress and wash their faces are they able to recite Birkhot Ha-shaḥar with kavana (based on SA 46:2 and Seder Ha-yom).
  
  Section 4
  
  The Morning Blessings / Birkhot Ha-shaĥar for One Who Does Not Derive Pleasure
  There is a dispute among prominent Rishonim about whether one may recite one of the Birkhot Ha-shaḥar from which she does not derive direct personal pleasure. For instance, may a blind person recite Poke’aḥ Ivrim?
  According to Rambam (MT, Laws of Prayer 7:9), only one who derives pleasure from something may recite a berakha on it. Therefore, one who slept in her clothes does not recite Malbish Arumim, as she does not get dressed in the morning. A cripple does not recite Ha-mekhin Mitzadei Gaver. A paralytic does not recite Matir Asurim or Zokef Kefufim. Some people of Yemenite descent follow Rambam’s opinion. SA 46:8 considers this opinion and rules that these berakhot are recited without God’s name.
  In contrast, according to the Ge’onim including Rav Natronai Gaon and Rav Amram Gaon, one must recite all Birkhot Ha-shaḥar in order, whether or not one enjoys the object of the berakha, because they were instituted based on the general pleasures of the world. Furthermore, the fact that others derive pleasure from something can be indirectly useful for someone who does not directly derive pleasure from it. Thus, a paralytic blesses God for all the other people who can help her. A blind person recites Poke’aḥ ivrim for the fact that others are able to see, show her the way, and tend to her needs. This is how Rema rules (46:8).
  Likewise, the opinion of Arizal is that every Jew must recite all of the Birkhot Ha-shaḥar to thank God for all the general good that He showers on the world. Sephardic practice generally follows Arizal on matters of prayer, and therefore Sephardim also recite all Birkhot Ha-shaḥar in order.1<i class="footnote">The berakha of She-asah li Kol Tzorki was instituted with regard to footwear. According to the custom of Ashkenazim and some Sephardim, we recite this blessing on Yom Kippur and Tisha Be-Av, days on which wearing shoes is forbidden, to give thanks for the general pleasure of shoes and for the ability to wear non-leather shoes on those days. Still, the custom of most Sephardim is not to recite She-asah li Kol Tzorki on Tisha Be-Av and Yom Kippur (Peninei Halakha: Prayer, ch. 9 n. 1).  </i>
  
  Section 5
  
  The Morning Blessings / Until When May One Recite Birkhot Ha-shaĥar?
  Le-khatḥila, Birkhot Ha-shaḥar should be recited as close as possible to the time one wakes from her sleep, for they were essentially established to be recited as part of the awakening process. Although we customarily recite them later consecutively, it is not proper to delay their recitation further.
  Whoever did not recite Birkhot Ha-shaḥar upon waking must try to recite them before the time to pray Shaḥarit lapses, since some poskim link the time of their recitation to the time of the Shaḥarit prayer. In other words, one should try to say them within the first four seasonal hours of the day, and be-di’avad until ḥatzot (midday). However, if one does not manage to recite them before ḥatzot, be-di’avad she may recite them the whole day. The reason for this is that according to most poskim, the time to say Birkhot Ha-shaḥar differs from the time to recite Shaḥarit, because Birkhot Ha-shaḥar are blessings of thanks for the good things from which people derive pleasure throughout the day (see Peninei Halakha: Prayer, ch. 9 n. 3).
  A woman who recited Birkhot Keri’at Shema and prayed the Amida and then realized that she forgot to recite Birkhot Ha-shaḥar must make up all the missed berakhot with the exception of Birkhot Ha-Torah and Elokai Neshama. This is because according to many poskim, even without intending to do so, she fulfilled her obligation of Birkhot Ha-Torah with Ahavat Olam before Shema and fulfilled her obligation of Elokai Neshama with Meḥayei Ha-metim in the Amida (SA 47:7; MB 59:9; see below 7:5, and Peninei Halakha: Prayer, ch. 9 n. 2).
  
  Section 6
  
  The Morning Blessings / The Time to Recite Birkhot Ha-shaĥar when Waking Up in the Middle of the Night
  As noted, le-khatḥila, all the blessings should be recited as close as possible to the time one wakes up, and it is not necessary to say them specifically after dawn. Therefore, one who arises before dawn in order to work or learn, or for any other purpose, must recite Birkhot Ha-shaḥar immediately upon waking up. However, Birkhot Ha-shaḥar may not be recited before ḥatzot. Therefore, one who wakes up before ḥatzot must wait until after ḥatzot, and once she relieves herself, she recites Al Netilat Yadayim as well as the remaining Birkhot Ha-shaḥar. If she recites them before ḥatzot, she does not fulfill her obligation (the time of ḥatzot, or midnight, fluctuates depending on location and season; most locales have calendars specifying the relevant times; MB 47:31, Kaf Ha-ḥayim 29; Peninei Halakha: Prayer, ch. 9 n. 4; above 5:4.)
  One who wakes up after ḥatzot for a few hours with the intention to go back to sleep until morning should say Birkhot Ha-shaḥar after her main waking. If her main waking is the one in the middle of the night, and her sleep after that before morning is like a nap for her, then it is then best that she recites Birkhot Ha-shaḥar after her initial waking. However, if her main waking is in the morning, she must recite Birkhot Ha-shaḥar after the second rising.1<i class="footnote">That is the opinion of most poskim and this is the halakha. However, one who wishes to study further will note in Peninei Halakha: Prayer, ch. 9 n. 5 that according to the kabbalists it is preferable to recite Birkhot Ha-shaḥar after the first waking. Someone who is afraid that she might forget to recite the blessings after the second rising, despite the fact that this is her main waking, may rely on the poskim who permit her to recite the blessings after the first time she wakes up. However, as a general rule, when there is disagreement among poskim who rule according to halakha and the kabbalists, practice follows the poskim, except for individuals who follow the Kabbala in all aspects of their lives.  </i> That is the way she should practice regarding Birkhot Ha-Torah as well (see below 7:7).
  
  Section 7
  
  The Morning Blessings / One Who Was Awake All Night
  As a general rule, even one who stayed up all night recites Birkhot Ha-shaḥar. As we learned (section 4 above), these berakhot were instituted on the basis of general enjoyment, and therefore, even if one does not personally derive pleasure from something, she still recites a berakha on it. However, there are differing customs regarding the number of berakhot recited.
  With regard to netilat yadayim, according to Sephardic custom one does not recite a berakha (Kaf Ha-ḥayim 4:49). According to the Ashkenazic custom, if one is getting ready to pray the Amida, it is best that before praying, she goes to the bathroom and touches a part of the body which is normally covered, thereby necessitating netilat yadayim with a berakha (MB 4:30; see above, 5:5).
  There is a dispute about whether or not one must repeat Birkhot Ha-Torah with the dawn of a new day. Therefore, it is best that the woman praying recites Ahavat Olam, which in addition to being one of the Birkhot Keri’at Shema, can take the place of Birkhot Ha-Torah. One who does so must take care to recite the Shema following the berakha in order to learn Torah after its recitation.1<i class="footnote">For men there is uncertainty whether the recitation of Shema is considered Torah study or not, as explained in Peninei Halakha: Prayer, ch. 10 n. 2. However, concerning women, since they are not obligated to recite Shema, clearly its recitation is considered Torah study, as explained in MB 47:17. According to many poskim, men must recite Birkhot Ha-Torah with the dawn of a new day, and that is the practice of Sephardim and some Ashkenazim, as clarified in Peninei Halakha: Prayer 10:7. However, a woman, in any case of uncertainty, should be lenient and refrain from reciting the berakhot (Birkei Yosef; Kaf Ha-ḥayim 47:34). One reason for this is that in the opinion of many poskim, men have a biblical obligation to recite Birkhot Ha-Torah, and therefore in cases of uncertainty they must act stringently and recite the berakhot, whereas women are not biblically commanded to recite Birkhot Ha-Torah. Hence, the correct ruling is that in any case of uncertainty, a woman must recite Ahavat Olam (Ahava Rabba in the Ashkenazic liturgy) and with that she will have fulfilled her obligation of Birkhot Ha-Torah, as explained in SA 47:7. Even a woman who is not accustomed to reciting Ahavat Olam every day can still fulfill her obligation by reciting it. This is explained below, 7:5 (see also above, ch. 2 n. 10.) </i>
  Likewise, there is doubt concerning Elokai Neshama and Ha-ma’avir Sheina, since some say that only one who has slept may recite them. In order to avoid uncertainty, it is best to hear these berakhot being recited by someone who has slept with intent to fulfill her obligation. If there is no one around to recite them, according to Sephardic practice and some Ashkenazic poskim, she may recite them herself (Peninei Halakha: Prayer 9:6 and n. 6; however, those who follow MB do not recite them).
  
  
  
  
  
  Section 1
  
  The Blessings on the Torah / Women’s Connection to Torah
  The Torah belongs to all of Israel, men and women alike. When we recite “Who has chosen us from among all the nations” in Birkat Ha-Torah, we mean that God chose all of Israel, men and women, and consequently “gave us His Torah.” There is an accepted tradition: If even one Jewish maidservant would have been absent at the time of the giving of the Torah on Mount Sinai, the giving would have been delayed. Likewise, the mitzva of hak’hel (the assembly at the Temple at the end of the Shemita year, at which the king would read part of the Torah to all Israel) applies to men, women, and children (Devarim 31:12).
  Nevertheless, women are exempt from the mitzva to study Torah, as it is written: “You shall teach them to your sons, to speak them [– words of Torah]” (Devarim 11:19). The Sages extrapolate: “Your sons and not your daughters” (Kiddushin 29b).
  However, when it comes to the general connection to the Torah, we find that women precede men. For example, when the Torah was given Moshe was instructed to address the women first. It is written: “Thus you shall say (tomar) to the house of Yaakov and tell (tageid) the sons of Israel” (Shemot 19:3). The Sages teach, “The house of Yaakov” (“Beit Yaakov”) refers to the women, who he must address in a gentle voice. “The sons of Israel” refers to the men, to whom he must speak more harshly, telling them of punishments and particular details. The word “tageid” alludes to the body’s tough sinews (“gidin”), connoting harshness. Further, the Sages derive from the introductory phrase “Thus you shall say” that God instructed Moshe to be meticulous about this sequence, namely, first the women and then the men (Mekhilta, cited in Rashi).
  Moreover, we learn about proper respect for the Torah and respect for Torah scholars from the Shunamite woman, who would visit the prophet on Shabbat and Rosh Ḥodesh (2 Melakhim 4:23; RH 16b). It is no coincidence that respect for the Torah is learned from the example of a woman, because women have more of a connection to the sublime general aspect of the Torah (Siḥot Ha-Ritzya, Shemot pp. 178-181).
  That is, there are two ways to connect to the Torah. One is intellectual: the mitzva for men to study Torah. The second is a general attachment, which pertains more to women. In daily life, the mitzva for men to study Torah is clearly more prominent; however, over the long-term, the holistic manner with which women relate to faith and to the Torah has a greater impact. This is the meaning of the Sages’ dictum: “Greater is the promise that God made to women than to men.” The Sages explain that women received an extra guarantee by virtue of the fact that they send their sons to study Torah and encourage their husbands to study in the beit midrash, waiting happily for them to conclude their studies without pressuring them to come home soon (based on Berakhot 17a).
  It is the very exemption of women from the scrupulous study of the Torah’s details that allows them to absorb the general, morals-oriented aspects of the Torah, thereby better enabling them to encourage their husbands and sons to study Torah and thus perpetuate the Torah among Israel. There is no doubt that men also have a profound connection to the holistic aspect of the Torah, for all the details and particular nuances stem from the Torah as a whole. By the same token, women, too, must know the parameters of the fundamentals of faith as well as practical halakha, as will be clarified in the next section. However, as a rule, men more easily connect to the Torah’s precise definitions, whereas women connect to the general expression of the Torah in life. Through men and women together, the Torah is expressed in its entirety.
  
  Section 2
  
  The Blessings on the Torah / The Mitzva of Torah Study for Women
  There is a fundamental difference between the mitzva of Torah study for men and for women. The men’s mitzva is to study Torah, whereas the mitzva for women is to know the mitzvot of the Torah so that they can life accordingly. In other words, a woman who knows all of practical halakha, as well as all the fundamentals of faith and ethics on the level and with the profundity necessary to guide her through life, has no further mitzva to continue studying. However, a man who already learned the entire Torah, even if he were to know it by heart, is still required to continue studying and delve deeper into the Torah.
  Hence, there are two parts of Torah study. The first is to understand the Torah’s instructions, in halakha and faith, in order to live a full life. Men and women are equally obligated in this aspect. The second part inclines toward in-depth scrutiny, analysis, and abstraction. Men are obligated in this, but not women. Men and women therefore have different curricula. The most important part of the women’s syllabus is to know all the fundamentals of faith, ethics, and halakha, whereas, the men’s syllabus, in addition to the study of halakha, faith, and ethics, should emphasize learning Gemara and its commentaries. 
  Nevertheless, women who wish to delve into the Torah for God’s sake may study Gemara in-depth as well, on condition that they first learn thoroughly the fundamentals of faith, morality, and the laws that they must know. In particular, intellectually sophisticated women must study extensively and internalize the fundamentals of faith and halakha before delving into the Gemara, so that their reverence for God precedes their wisdom.
  For women who do not possess an especially strong desire to delve deeply into the Torah, the Sages’s general guideline is: do not engage in theoretical debates about differing opinions; rather, study a clear, practical summary of the halakhot and their reasons, and delve deeply into the principles of faith and ethics.
  There were eras in which it was sufficient for women to learn the laws relating to the household and family on a rudimentary level and then hear a bit of moral admonishment. This was enough to instill an identity within them and generate the proper dedication to fulfilling the Torah and leading a Jewish life. However, in recent generations, with the increase in leisure time, the development of general education, and professional specialization in various fields, it is obvious that women must learn much more than they had in the past. Indeed, under the guidance of prominent rabbinic leaders of recent generations, educational and religious institutions for girls and women have been founded. One prominent example is the “Bais Yaakov” movement, established in Poland by Mrs. Sarah Schenirer, with the encouragement and support of eminent Polish rabbis.
  These modern changes do not negate the fundamental halakhic difference between men, who are commanded to study Torah as a theoretical and intellectual endeavor, and women, who are not obligated to do so. Rav Kook explains that it is precisely this distinction between men and women that allows for the emergence of a state of harmony between analytic intellectualism and the vibrant and natural emotion that unites and establishes the words of Torah in real life (Ein Ayah, Berakhot 7:46).1<i class="footnote">In Sota 20a, according to Ben Azai, a father must teach his daughter Torah, whereas according to R. Eliezer, he may not do so, for one who teaches his daughter Torah is as if he has taught her frivolity (“tiflut”). That is also the opinion of R. Yehoshua. Y. Sota 3:4 explains that according to R. Elazar b. Azaria, women are commanded to hear the Torah but not to study it in depth. Rambam (MT, Laws of Torah Study 1:13) rules in accordance with R. Eliezer that one should not teach his daughter Torah, because most women’s minds are not geared for that, and if they are taught the Oral Torah it is as if they are taught frivolity. All this is said in reference to the Oral Torah, but teaching one’s daughter the Written Torah (Scripture) is not considered teaching her frivolity (Tur and SA, YD 246:6, even though Rambam says that a father should not reach his daughter Scripture either), since hak’hel includes a commandment to make the Written Torah heard to all of Israel, including women. Therefore, it is impossible to say that one who teaches his daughter the Written Torah is considered to have taught her frivolity.However, a woman who wants to learn on her own, not because her parents or institutional context obligates her, may do so. It is even a credit to her, as Rambam says (ad loc.): “A woman who learned Torah receives rewards, but not the same as a man’s reward, as she was not commanded, and whoever performs an action that he is not commanded to perform is not rewarded like one who was commanded. Rather it is less.” It seems, therefore, that the entire prohibition is for a father to initiate Torah study with his daughter; but if she herself is interested in doing so for heaven’s sake, there is no prohibition; on the contrary, she is rewarded. Likewise, Rambam explains  (MT, Laws of Torah Principles 4:14) every single person has a mitzva to love God and fear Him. The way one achieves total love and fear for God is through Torah study, initially by studying talmudic debates and knowing what is permitted and what prohibited, and later through the study of the esoteric “work of creation” (“ma’aseh bereishit”) and “work of the chariot” (“ma’aseh merkava”). Concerning this, Rambam writes: “These are the greatest good that God bestowed on the civilized world so that it may inherit the World to Come; and it is possible that everyone understands them – adult and minor, man and woman, one whose mind is expansive as well as one with limited knowledge…” (R. Rabinovitch writes this as well in his commentary on MT, Yad Peshuta). It seems, therefore, that the future ideal of a world filled with the knowledge of God where is one where all women study Torah of their own volition and with complete understanding, thereby arriving at the love and fear of God in its totality. As we know, in the past there were women prophets and sages. However, it seems that even in the ideal there is a difference between the character of men’s and women’s learning. In summary, a woman whose heart is set on in-depth Torah study may engage in it, and it is to her credit. Still, good and righteous women who have no desire for this type of study should not be taught, and if one does teach them, it is as if he has taught them frivolity. It seems that the reason for this is twofold. One aspect pertains to the feminine nature, which makes it appropriate that she delve into Torah study out of her own desire and freedom. The second reason is that for most women, during the time that the domestic yoke is great and there is very little leisure time, theoretical Torah study cannot be undertaken properly. This makes it like frivolity, and the damage caused by this learning is greater than the benefit gained. All of this applies solely to theoretical study. Women are obligated to study Torah in order to perform mitzvot (Rema YD 246:6, based on Agur and Smak). Therefore, SA 47:14 rules that women must recite Birkhot Ha-Torah, since women must learn what is necessary for them to live a life of Torah. Today, it is apparent that women need to learn halakha and its reasons, along with the fundamentals of faith, for without this learning, their religious lives would certainly not be on the appropriate level. Therefore, it is an obligation to teach girls however much is necessary in order for them to uphold the Torah and become settled in their faith.  </i>
  
  Section 3
  
  The Blessings on the Torah / The Content of Birkhot Ha-Torah and Their Pertinence to Women
  Birkhot Ha-Torah are comprised of three parts. In the first part, we bless God Who sanctified us with His mitzvot and commanded us to occupy ourselves with words of Torah. In the second, we request that the Torah, which God taught His nation of Israel, be sweet for us, that we study it with relish, and that we and our descendants have the privilege of knowing the Torah.1<i class="footnote">The Rishonim and Aḥaronim disagree regarding how many Birkhot HaTorah there are. According to Rabbeinu Tam, Rosh, and others, there are two berakhot, as the second part is a continuation of the first. Therefore, one must begin the second part (“Ve-ha’arev”) with a conjunctive vav, and one does not answer “Amen” upon the conclusion of the first part. According to Rambam and others, there are three berakhot. The first section is its own berakha and is followed by “Amen”; the second part begins “Ha’arev” (without a vav). SA 47:6 states that it is preferable to start “Ve-ha’arev” in order to fulfill the obligation according to all opinions. MB 47:12 states that it is the opinion of most Aḥaronim not to answer Amen at the end of the first part. Therefore, it is best to say it quietly in order to avoid uncertainty. Nonetheless, Ben Ish Ḥai and Kaf Ha-ḥayim 47:10 and 47:13 state in the name of Arizal that one should answer “Amen” after it, even though we say “Ve-ha’arev,” for they are two separate berakhot. </i>
  In the third part, we bless and thank God for choosing us from among all the nations and giving us His Torah. The Sages say (Berakhot 11b) that this is the choices of all berakhot because it mentions Israel’s uniqueness – that God “chose us from among all the nations” and consequently “gave us His Torah.” This is the nature of Israel’s soul: it cleaves and clings to God and His Torah, and so only Jewish people can receive the Torah and with it illuminate the world. Among the nations of the world, there may be righteous and devout gentiles, but this is a personal piety of individual people who lack the ability to repair the entire world. As is apparent from our long history, only the Jewish people can serve God within a national framework and strive to rectify the world in the path of truth and ḥesed.
  The second and third parts of Birkhot Ha-Torah certainly pertain to women. In the third part, we praise and thank God Who chose us from among all his nations and gave us His Torah. In this regard, men and women are equal, as noted (section 1). The second part, too, pertains to women, for women also pray that the Torah be pleasant in our mouths and in the mouths of our descendants. However, regarding the first part, a question arises: How can women recite “Asher kideshanu be-mitzvotav ve-tzivanu” (“Who has sanctified us with His mitzvot and commanded us”) on engaging in Torah when they are exempt from the mitzva of Torah study? Some maintain that women may recite a blessing on any mitzva from which they are exempt, because the phrasing of the berakha is not “ve-tzivani” (in singular person) – that they themselves as individuals were commanded – but rather “ve-tzivanu” (in the plural), meaning the entire Jewish people. This includes Birkhot Ha-Torah (Rabbeinu Tam, Ran, Rema). Others say, as a rule, that women may not recite a berakha on mitzvot from which they are exempt (Rambam, Or Zaru’a, SA), but nevertheless they may recite Birkhot Ha-Torah, since, as we have seen, women must learn practical halakhot and the fundamentals of faith; they may therefore recite the words “Asher kideshanu be-mitzvotav ve-tzivanu.”2<i class="footnote">SA 47:14 states, “Women recite Birkhot Ha-Torah.” Beit Yosef cites Agur and Responsa Maharil Ha-ḥadashot §45, which state that although women are not obligated and the Sages even say that teaching one’s daughter Torah is like teaching her frivolity (Sota 20a), this refers to the Oral Law, not the Written Law. Furthermore, women recite Korbanot and must recite a berakha before their recitation. Moreover, they must learn the laws that pertain to them, as Smak states. According to this approach, a woman may recite the berakha even on behalf of men. The Vilna Gaon explains (Bi’ur Ha-Gra, end of §47) that they recite the blessings on the Torah just like on all other time-bound mitzvot, for according to Rabbeinu Tam, Ran, and Rema (589:6) they may recite a berakha on those mitzvot. Many other Aḥaronim agree. According to Gra’s approach, women may not recite the berakha on behalf of men. Still, based on this reason, it is difficult to understand how SA permits women to recite the berakha, for it follows Rambam that women may not recite a berakha on mitzvot that they are not obligated to perform (17:2; 589:6). Indeed Responsa Ḥikrei Lev (OḤ 10) maintains that women may not recite “Asher kideshanu be-mitzvotav ve-tzivanu la’asok be-divrei Torah”; however, he implies that they may recite the berakha “Asher baḥar banu,” for it is a blessing of praise. Ḥida (Responsa Yosef Ometz §67) explains that it is permissible for women to recite the berakha according to SA since that was the ancient custom. This must be because women must learn the laws that pertain to them in order to know how to fulfill them (as written in Sefer Ḥasidim §313). Although this requirement does not stem from the mitzva of Torah study, nevertheless, since women may actually learn, they may recite the blessing. It is explained in the name of R. Ḥayim Soloveichik of Brisk that Birkat Ha-Torah is not merely a berakha recited upon the performance of the mitzva but reflects a separate law: that one is required to recite a berakha before engaging in Torah study. And since women must engage in Torah study in order to know the laws that pertain to them, they must recite the berakha. A similar approach appears in Oraḥ Mishpat §11. For further study, see Halikhot Beitah 3:1-2 and Yalkut Yosef 47:18 which summarize the issue, as well as Ishei Yisrael 7, nn. 31-32. </i>
  
  Section 4
  
  The Blessings on the Torah / The Value of Birkhot Ha-Torah
  After the decimation of Eretz Yisrael and the exile of the Jewish people, a major question arose, reflected in the words of the prophet (Yirmiyahu 9:11): “Why has the land been lost?” Everyone certainly understood that we were exiled from our land because of our sins; they were asking which sin was at the root of the spiritual collapse that led to the destruction. The Sages, the prophets, and the ministering angels were asked this question and did not know how to answer, until God Himself explained. “God says: ‘Because they abandoned My Torah which I had given them’” (ibid. 9:12). The Sages of the Gemara interpret this to mean that they did not recite the berakha on the Torah before engaging in its study (Nedarim 81a). That is, although they studied Torah, they did not relate to it as divine instruction. Because of this, they were considered to have forsaken the Torah of God. For anyone who learns Torah as if it is just another discipline of human wisdom is not considered to be one who studies Torah. However, when we recite Birkhot Ha-Torah properly, we indeed approach Torah out of faith and attachment to its Giver.
  The Sages further inquire (Nedarim 81a): Why is it that not all the children of Torah scholars continue in their parents’ paths and become Torah scholars themselves? Presumably, the parents made efforts to educate their children to follow in their footsteps and become engrossed in Torah all their lives. If so, why did they not all succeed? Moreover, in those days, it was widely accepted that every son continued in his father’s profession; sons of carpenters became carpenters, sons of farmers became farmers, and so on. Consequently, the Gemara’s question is all the more perplexing – why don’t a relatively large percentage of sons of Torah scholars become Torah scholars themselves? The Gemara offers several reasons, the last of which is that of Ravina: it is because they do not recite Birkhot Ha-Torah before studying. That is, the sons of Torah scholars often study Torah only because they saw their fathers doing so; as sons like to mimic their fathers, they too make efforts to study Torah. However, Torah can only be acquired by studying for God’s sake, out of a personal attachment to its Giver. Therefore, those sons who study out of habit or by mimicking their fathers do not succeed in their studies.
  
  Section 5
  
  The Blessings on the Torah / Whether the Recitation of Birkhot Ha-Torah is a Biblical Mitzva and the Status of Birkat Ahavat Olam
  “R. Yehuda says in the name of Rav: whence do we derive that a berakha prior to Torah study is of biblical origin? As it is written: ‘When I call the Lord’s name, ascribe greatness to our God’ (Devarim 32:3)” (Berakhot 21a). The meaning of this passage is that the Torah is comprised entirely of God’s names (Zohar 2:87:1; Tikunei Zohar §10), for He is completely concealed from us, and through the Torah God is revealed to the world. Thus, the Torah is God’s “names” – the way He is made manifest in the world. That is the meaning of the verse, “When I call the Lord’s name” – before studying Torah, “Ascribe greatness to our God” – recite a berakha to its Giver.
  In practice, the Rishonim are divided concerning the meaning of this derivation. Most Rishonim, among them Ramban and Rashba, understand these words straightforwardly: there is a biblical mitzva to recite Birkhot Ha-Torah. Consequently, when one is uncertain about whether he recited Birkhot Ha-Torah, he must be stringent and recite them, in keeping with the principle that we we are stringent concerning matters of biblical uncertainty. This is the Ashkenazic custom (MB 47:1; Peninei Halakha: Prayer 10:3). However, according to Rambam and SA (209:3), Birkhot Ha-Torah are a rabbinic enactment, and the extrapolation from the verse is a mere asmakhta (reference). Accordingly, in a case of uncertainty, one must be lenient and not recite the berakhot. This is is the custom of the Sephardim (Kaf Ha-ḥayim 47:2).
  Nonetheless, all agree that a woman who is not sure whether she recited Birkhot Ha-Torah does not repeat the berakhot. If she wishes to avoid uncertainty, she should recite the berakha of Ahavat Olam (Ahava Rabba in the Ashkenazic version) and make sure to recite Shema afterwards, so as to study a passage of Torah after having recited the berakha on it.1<i class="footnote">According to Birkei Yosef 47:8, even those who maintain that the recitation of Birkhot Ha-Torah is a biblical commandment, women only have a rabbinic obligation, and therefore in any case of uncertainty, they do not recite the berakha. However, according to BHL 47:14, based on the explanation of MA, a woman may recite the berakha on a man’s behalf, despite the fact that his obligation is biblical, which suggests that a woman’s obligation is also biblical. Nevertheless, by reciting Ahavat Olam, all opinions agree that she evades doubt. Earlier (chapter 6 n. 4), we explained that the recitation of Shema is certainly considered a fulfillment of Torah study for women, even if it is not clear whether it is so for men. </i>
  The reason that one who recites Ahavat Olam fulfills her obligation, be-di’avad, of Birkhot Ha-Torah is because Ahavat Olam incorporates within it all the content of Birkhot Ha-Torah (SA 47:7). Although the Torah is not mentioned in its conclusion at all, since it mentions Israel as the chosen people – “Who chooses His people Israel with love” – and the Torah and Israel are intertwined, it is as if the Torah is mentioned. Likewise, we see that the most important of the Birkhot Ha-Torah states “Who chose us from among all His nations and gave us His Torah,” which illustrates that the subjects of Israel and the Torah are interconnected and co-dependent.
  
  Section 6
  
  The Blessings on the Torah / Before What Type of Learning Must the Berakhot Be Recited?
  One must recite Birkhot Ha-Torah before studying any part of the Torah (SA 47:2). In other words, even one who only intends to learn Midrash or halakha on a particular day must recite Birkhot Ha-Torah at the onset of that day. The reason for this is that the entire Torah – whether the Written Torah or the Oral Torah, halakha and theology – was all given from God to Moshe at Sinai (y. Pe’ah 2:4), and when studying them, one must recite, “Who chose us from among all His nations and gave us His Torah.”
  The poskim disagree about whether Birkhot Ha-Torah must also be recited before thinking Torah thoughts. For example, one who arises in the morning with the desire to ponder a few ideas of Torah, according to most poskim does not need to recite the berakhot. Still, there are those who disagree. In order to avoid uncertainty, one who wakes up and wishes to reflect upon words of Torah should first recite Birkhot Ha-Torah and immediately afterwards recite a few verses. However, one who temporarily wakes from her sleep in the middle of the night and wants to contemplate Torah ideas until she falls back to sleep need not recite Birkhot Ha-Torah beforehand. Those who listen to Jewish music when they wake up in the morning or in the middle of the night do not need to recite Birkhot Ha-Torah since they do not have intention to learn (Peninei Halakha: Prayer 10:4 and n. 4).
  One may recite Birkhot Ha-Torah and Birkhot Ha-shaḥar while standing, sitting, lying down, or walking. Nevertheless, there are those who insist that Birkhot Ha-Torah be recited while standing or walking, not while sitting or lying down (ibid. ch. 10 n. 5).
  
  Section 7
  
  The Blessings on the Torah / Birkhot Ha-Torah for the Whole Day
  Birkhot Ha-Torah recited by a woman in the morning remains effective all day. Even if she goes to eat and to work afterwards, she does not need to repeat the berakhot upon returning to her studies.
  The poskim disagree about whether men must repeat Birkhot Ha-Torah after regular sleep (ibid. 10:6). However, it is a matter of consensus that women only recite Birkhot Ha-Torah once in a 24-hour period and do not repeat them after a regular sleep. Therefore, a woman who wakes up after midnight and intends to go back to sleep a few hours later recites Birkhot Ha-Torah and Birkhot Ha-shaḥar after her main rising (as explained above, 6:6).1<i class="footnote">Tzlaḥ, Berakhot 11b offers a novel insight: A woman who interrupted her studies to do other things and then returned to her studies must repeat Birkhot Ha-Torah. Men do not repeat the berakhot because their obligation to study lasts through the day and night, but a woman has no such obligation; rather, every time she studies she must make a new berakha. However, this opinion was not accepted as halakha. Rav Kook (Tov Ro’i on Berakhot, §95) writes that since the basis of women’s obligation of Birkhot Ha-Torah is inferior to that of men, it makes no sense for the less important obligation to exceed the more significant one. In addition, Birkei Yosef (cited in Kaf Ha-ḥayim 47:34) states that in any case of uncertainty women do not recite the berakhot. Although in n. 4 we mentioned that there are poskim who disagree with Birkei Yosef, which maintains that all agree that women’s obligation in Birkhot Ha-Torah is rabbinic, nevertheless, in practice, it seems that they agree they do not recite the berakha in cases of uncertainty (Halikhot Beitah 3:3,5; Halikhot Shlomo 6:4).Furthermore, based on what we explained in sections 1 and 3 above, we can explain that the primary reason that women recite Birkhot Ha-Torah is is their connection to the whole of the Torah, its fulfillment, and their requirement to study practical laws, principles of faith, and ethics. Therefore, the berakha does not pertain to any particular study; rather it is a general berakha regarding the essence of the Torah, and it resembles all of Birkhot Ha-shaḥar in that there is no need to say it more than once a day. </i>
  The poskim disagree about whether a man who was awake all night must recite Birkhot Ha-Torah (Peninei Halakha: Prayer 10:7). However, a woman who was awake for a full 24-hour period does not recite Birkhot Ha-Torah in the morning; instead, she says Birkat Ahavat Olam and afterwards recites the first paragraph of Shema, thereby fulfilling her obligation of Birkhot Ha-Torah (see above, ch. 6 n. 4).
  If a woman sleeps a regular sleep during the day prior to the night she stayed awake, she recites Birkhot Ha-Torah the following morning (MB 47:28; Peninei Halakha: Prayer, ch. 10 n. 9).
  
  
  
  
  
  Section 1
  
  The Shaĥarit Prayer and the Laws Prior to its Recitation / The Time of Shaĥarit
  As we learned (above, 2:2-5), according to most poskim, women must pray the Amidot of Shaḥarit and Minḥa every day, and this is the proper practice le-khatḥila. Hence, it is important to know when the times of Shaḥarit and Minḥa are. 
  Even the many women who recite only one daily Amida, be it Shaḥarit or Minḥa, must familiarize themselves with the prayer times so they can gauge the proper time for Shaḥarit or Minḥa.
  The times of the prayers were fixed by the Men of the Great Assembly on the basis of the corresponding Tamid offerings: Shaḥarit with the morning Tamid and Minḥa with the afternoon Tamid. The time for Minḥa is explained below (18:1); we will now explain the time for Shaḥarit.
  The morning Tamid could be brought starting from dawn (“amud ha-shaḥar,” when the first light appears in the east), and the time for praying Shaḥarit should begin at dawn le-khatḥila. Nonetheless, the Sages said that it is proper to recite the Amida after sunrise (“hanetz ha-ḥama”), as it is written: “They shall revere You along with the sun” (Tehilim 72:5; Berakhot 9b). Be-di’avad, if one recites the Amida after dawn but before sunrise, she fulfills her obligation because she prayed at the time when the morning Tamid offering was brought (SA 89:1; and see Peninei Halakha: Prayer, ch. 11 n. 4). The most praiseworthy time to pray is when the early saints, the “vatikin,” who would recite the Amida at the moment of sunrise to fulfill “They shall revere You along with the sun.”1<i class="footnote">There are various opinions about the precise time of amud ha-shaḥar, and they are detailed in Peninei Halakha: Prayer, 11:2 n. 1. As a rule, amud ha-shaḥar is never less than 72 minutes before hanetz ha-ḥama. Meaning, by the time it is 72 minutes before hanetz ha-ḥama, amud ha-shaḥar has definitely already occurred.It is important to know that the earliest time for all daytime mitzvot, such as shofar blowing and brit mila, is sunrise, because the day is defined by the presence of the sun. However, be-di’avad if such mitzvot are performed from the time of amud ha-shaḥar, one’s obligation is fulfilled, because from a certain standpoint, the day begins from first light (Megilla 20a).  </i>
  The time to pray the Amida lasts four seasonal hours, for that is the last time that the morning Tamid offering may be brought. Be-di’avad, a woman who did not manage to pray during the first four hours of the day may pray Shaḥarit until ḥatzot. Although she does not receive reward for praying on time, nevertheless, she does receive reward for the prayer she recites (SA 89:1). However, a woman who wishes to recite Birkhot Keri’at Shema must not say them after four hours have passed, even be-di’avad.
  A woman who customarily prays the Amida once a day, be it Shaḥarit or Minḥa: if four hours have passed and she has not yet prayed Shaḥarit, it is best that she pray Minḥa on that day. However, if she is concerned that she might forget to pray Minḥa, she may pray Shaḥarit until ḥatzot.2<i class="footnote">The Tanna’im disagree about the latest time to bring the Tamid offering and, consequently, about the latest time for Shaḥarit. According to R. Yehuda, it is until the end of the fourth hour, whereas the Sages maintain that it can be brought until ḥatzot. The halakha follows R. Yehuda because his opinion is cited in m. Eduyot, whose mishnayot were chosen as the prevailing halakhic position. Therefore, the final time to recite Shaḥarit is at the end of the first four hours of the day (Berakhot 27a). Even so, according to most poskim, the Sages’ opinion was not completely rejected, and be-di’avad it is permissible to pray Shaḥarit until ḥatzot. Although one who does so is not credited as fulfilling the mitzva on time, she neverthelessis credited for her prayer (SA 89:1). However, R. Shlomo Zalman Auerbach (Halikhot Shlomo 8:42) says that since there are poskim who maintain that according to R. Yehuda it is forbidden even be-di’avad to pray Shaḥarit later than four hours (see Peninei Halakha: Prayer, ch. 11 n. 16), and because a woman may fulfill her obligation to pray by reciting only Birkhot Ha-shaḥar, it is preferable that she avoids controversy and refrains from reciting the Amida after four hours have already passed. Still, he concedes that women customarily women pray until ḥatzot, and that this is the opinion of SA. It seems that women are also permitted to recite Pesukei De-zimra and their berakhot before the Amida. Responsa Maḥazeh Eliyahu 19:14 is careful not to urge women to pray within the first four hours of the day, due to their preoccupations. Women are considered anusot (coerced by elements out of their control) and therefore cannot pray on time. This opinion is cited in Halikhot Beitah 6:20 and Halikhot Bat Yisrael 2:11. I have already written what I deem to be the proper practice.Concerning Birkhot Keri’at Shema, the poskim disagree about whether one may recite them be-di’avad until ḥatzot. Although MB maintains that, for men, one who does not recite them due to circumstances beyond his control may recite them until ḥatzot (see Peninei Halakha: Prayer, ch. 11 n. 7), regarding women, since they are not obligated to recite Birkhot Keri’at Shema and there is no option to recite them voluntarily, it seems evident that it is best for women to avoid uncertainty and refrain from reciting Birkhot Keri’at Shema after the first four hours of the day have passed.     </i>
  
  Section 2
  
  The Shaĥarit Prayer and the Laws Prior to its Recitation / Seasonal Hours and the Calculation of the Morning Times
  The hours referred to by the Sages are seasonal hours (“sha’ot zemaniyot”). That is to say, the day is divided into twelve equal parts, and each part is called a “seasonal hour.” In the summer, when the days are long, so are the hours, and in the winter when the days are short, the hours are short too.
  The question is: When do we begin to calculate the day? According to Magen Avraham, the hours of the day are calculated according to the hours of light. That is, the calculation begins from dawn and lasts until total darkness. According to Gra, the calculation is based on the hours that the sun is visible, meaning from sunrise until sunset. This explains the two different times that appear in calendars. The earlier time follows Magen Avraham’s approach, which begins the calculation of the day from dawn, whereas the later time is in keeping with Gra’s opinion, which begins the calculation from sunrise (Peninei Halakha: Prayer, ch. 11 nn. 13-14).
  In practice, most poskim follow Gra. Additionally, since the time of prayer was established by the Sages, the halakha follows the lenient opinion, and therefore the latest time for Shaḥarit is calculated according to Gra.1<i class="footnote">Similarly, we follow Gra regarding the latest permissible time to eat ḥametz on Erev Pesaḥ, because the Sages are the ones who established that it is forbidden to eat ḥametz after four hours, and when there is uncertainty concerning a rabbinic mitzva, halakhic practice follows the lenient opinion. However, regarding a mitzva whose time is specified by the Torah, such as the mitzva of reciting Shema (which is obligatory for men and must be done by the end of the third hour of the day), it is proper to follow the stringent approach and recite it before the end of the third hour according to MA’s calculation. When there is uncertainty concerning a biblical commandment, we are stringent.  </i>
  
  Section 3
  
  The Shaĥarit Prayer and the Laws Prior to its Recitation / Order of Preference in the Shaĥarit Service
  A woman who is preoccupied with raising her children may fulfill her obligation to pray by reciting Birkhot Ha-shaḥar and Birkhot Ha-Torah. In extenuating circumstances even a woman without that burden may fulfill her obligation by reciting only those berakhot (above, 2:4-6). 
  However, a woman who wishes to fulfill the mitzva of prayer in accordance with the main thrust of the halakha recites Birkhot Ha-shaḥar, Birkhot Ha-Torah, the first two verses of Shema, and Shemoneh Esrei (above, 2:5).
  If she wants fulfill the mitzva more meticulously, she mentions the Exodus, in order to fulfill her obligation according to the poskim who maintain that a woman must commemorate the Exodus daily. If she wishes to perform the mitzva of remembering the Exodus in the best may, she recites the berakha of Emet Ve-yatziv and adjoins the Amida to the berakha on redemption (see below, 16:3).
  One who has more time and wants to enhance the mitzva even further recites the main parts of Pesukei De-zimra: Barukh She-amar, Ashrei until the end of the Halleluyot (six psalms), and Yishtabaḥ (below, 15:4). One who wants to add more prayers recites Shema and its berakhot. Beyond that, she may add the passages of the Tamid and the incense before Pesukei De-zimra (below, 15:1-2). If she wishes to say more, she may completes all of Pesukei De-zimra.
  Nonetheless, it must be reiterated that the mitzva of prayer for women in accordance with the halakha is fulfilled in its totality by reciting Birkhot Ha-shaḥar, Birkhot Ha-Torah, the first two verses of Shema, and the Amida. Beyond that, women are not obligated. The woman praying must take care not to allow her desire to enhance the mitzva by adding more passages and berakhot to ruin her kavana in the main passages of prayer. Therefore, if she is concerned that increasing the quantity of her prayer will diminish her kavana, she should recite the obligatory prayers without adding to them.
  However, in educational institutions, girls should be taught to pray the whole prayer service: Birkhot Ha-shaḥar, Birkhot Ha-Torah, the passage of the Tamid offering, Pesukei De-zimra, the Shema and its berakhot, and the Amida. Since these girls are single and in an organized framework, it is good that their prayers, too, possess an enhanced structure and that they become familiar with the entire prayer service. Still, after the girls have learned the order of the prayers and are accustomed to it, care should be taken to ensure that the essence of their prayers is kavana and the request for mercy. If the teachers see that lengthy prayers detract from kavana, it is proper to let the girls who wish to shorten their prayer to say what they are obligated to say without additions.1<i class="footnote">Avot 2:13 states: “Do not make your prayer fixed, but [make it a plea for mercy and supplication before God.” Similar words are written in m. Berakhot 4:4. Women especially must be meticulous about this, as explained above (3:8-9). For me, the structured framework of prayer has become more important than kavana and sadly overshadowed it, and consistency has prevailed over supplication; yet, this is the customary practice, as it establishes and institutionalizes sanctity within communities. However, there is no reason to impose this upon women as well. Therefore, if extra prayers will detract from her kavana, it is a case of subtraction by addition. Everything we have written about prioritizing extra prayers applies to one who will not lose kavana by taking on additional prayers.The prioritization is established in accordance with two principles. The first principle is the extent of women’s obligation, and the second is the individual significance of each part of prayer. Thus, a biblical commandment is of greater priority than a rabbinic requirement. Thus, most important is the recitation of Birkhot Ha-shaḥar (including Birkhot Ha-Torah) and the Amida, for they are obligatory. Although it is uncertain whether or not there is a full obligation to recite Birkhot Ha-Torah, it is clear that women customarily recite them every day, as explained in SA 47:14. Additionally, according to most poskim, they have a biblical basis. Moreover, they are brief and there is no burden in saying them. Therefore, they must be recited with Birkhot Ha-shaḥar. Concerning the first verses of Shema, although there is no obligation to recite them, SA 70:1 rules that it is proper to recite them (see below, 16:1). Since they have a biblical basis, their significance is well known, and they do not take a long time to say, they take priority over other prayers. Next in importance is the commemoration of the Exodus, for according to MA, women are obligated to remember the Exodus. Although most poskim disagree with MA, there is a great mitzva in doing so, for it is a biblical commandment, and it can be fulfilled with the recitation of just one verse at the end of Va-yomer (the third paragraph of Shema). If she wishes to enhance the mitzva, she can mention the Exodus from Egypt in the recitation of Emet Ve-yatziv, thereby also gaining credit for adjoining the berakha of redemption to the Amida, as explained below, 16:13. Next in virtue is Pesukei De-zimra, for there are poskim who maintain that women must recite them. Although it is evident that, according to most poskim, women are exempt from Pesukei De-zimra, their recitation is a rabbinic command, and the halakha follows the lenient opinion (below, 15:4). Still, all agree that their recitation is preparation for prayer, and therefore they precede other passages. One should recite the essential parts of Pesukei De-zimra, that is, the berakhot and the six Halleluyot.Next in priority are the rest of the Shema and its berakhot. Although some poskim maintain that women must recite the Tamid passage, in practice it is clear that they are not obligated to do so, as explained below (15:2). Moreover, this is a matter of uncertainty concerning a rabbinic command, in which case the halakha follows the lenient opinion. Therefore, it is preferable that whoever has extra time recites Shema and its berakhot. Although it is clear that women are exempt from them, there is great virtue in the recitation of both Shema and its berakhot. Next in priority is the Tamid passage, a prayer which some poskim maintain that women should preferably recite. Next in importance is the recitation of verses of the incense that are connected to the Tamid passage, as explained below (15:1-2, n. 1).Next in priority are the remaining passages and verses of Pesukei De-zimra, which are not the main part of Pesukei De-zimra (see below in 15:5 and Peninei Halakha: Prayer, 14:2 n. 3). There are women who wish to enhance the mitzva even more and say the whole prayer service in order, from the passage of Akedat Yitzḥak in the beginning of Korbanot until Aleinu, as brought by Kaf Ha-ḥayim 70:1.Perhaps we can suggest that instead of the verses of Birkat Kohanim and the beraita recited after Birkhot Ha-Torah, women can recite a verse mentioning the Exodus and perhaps the Tamid passage as well, thereby fulfilling the obligation according to those poskim who maintain that women are required to recite them. After all, it is necessary to study Torah right after Birkhot Ha-Torah, but it is not necessary to recite specifically that beraita and those verses. Perhaps a verse that mentions the Exodus and the Tamid passage should be printed in siddurim instead.Berur Halakha (Zilber) 1:70 and Ishei Yisrael 7:18 present a different order regarding three things. First, they state next in priority after Emet Ve-yatziv is are Barukh She-amar, Ashrei, and Yishtabaḥ and only then should Birkhot Ha-shaḥar and Birkhot Ha-Torah be recited. This is very difficult to explain, for according to practically all of the poskim the recitation of Birkhot Ha-shaḥar is obligatory (see above, ch. 6 n. 1). Likewise, regarding Birkhot Ha-Torah, women are so accustomed to saying it that it is considered an obligation (SA 47:14; see above, 7:3 n. 3). In contrast, women are exempt from the recitation of Pesukei De-zimra according to virtually all poskim, as explained below, 15:4 n. 2. Additionally, it is always proper to say Birkhot Ha-shaḥar, for in extenuating circumstances, a woman may fulfill her obligation to pray by reciting them, as explained above, 2:5. If they are not recited first, in extenuating circumstances one will not recite anything. The second change mentioned by Berur Halakha and Ishei Yisrael pertains to Pesukei De-zimra and is explained below, 15:7 n. 5. The third change is that they maintain that Pesukei De-zimra takes priority over the first verse of Shema. From my words above, it is clear why I do not concur.</i>
  
  Section 4
  
  The Shaĥarit Prayer and the Laws Prior to its Recitation / Prohibitions Prior to Prayer
  When dawn breaks and the time to pray Shaḥarit arrives, one must stand before his Creator in prayer. He should not place his own honor before God’s honor. Therefore the Sages teach that a man is prohibited from working, traveling, and eating before he prays. Additionally, one must not put his friend’s honor before God’s honor, and therefore he must not go to his friend’s house and speak to him before praying.
  In principle, this pertains to women as well; however, any woman who is accustomed to acting leniently by fulfilling the mitzva of prayer with Birkhot Ha-shaḥar and Birkhot Ha-Torah alone must be careful not to perform these actions before reciting these berakhot. A woman who follows the opinion of most poskim and prays the Shaḥarit Amida every morning must refrain from performing these acts before praying the Shaḥarit Amida. However, in times of need, even a woman who is accustomed to praying the Amida of Shaḥarit every morning may rely on the lenient poskim and may work and travel after reciting Birkhot Ha-shaḥar and Birkhot Ha-Torah.
  Even a woman who sometimes prays the Shaḥarit Amida and other times prays the Amida of Minḥa should try to make sure that on the days that she prays Shaḥarit she refrains from performing those actions before praying. In times of need, she may be lenient and perform them after she recites Birkhot Ha-shaḥar and Birkhot Ha-Torah.1<i class="footnote">Simply stated, all prohibitions that apply to men also apply to women, since according to most poskim women must pray Shaḥarit and Minḥa, as explained above (2:2). Yet there are poskim who maintain that women fulfill their obligation of prayer by reciting only Birkhot Ha-shaḥar and Birkhot Ha-Torah, and consequently, after saying them, they may do other activities. Likewise, according to the poskim who maintain that women must pray one daily prayer, that prayer can be Minḥa, and therefore the prohibitions before Shaḥarit do not apply to them. Therefore, it seems, a woman who is accustomed to praying Shaḥarit every day must be strict concerning all these laws, just as men are. For other women, it is proper to be strict and to say Birkhot Ha-shaḥar and Birkhot Ha-Torah before performing any other actions. However, a woman who is accustomed to praying Minḥa as her one daily prayer is presumably permitted to perform any action mentioned here, because these prohibitions were only instituted for before Shaḥarit. Still, it is proper to take care to say Birkhot Ha-shaḥar and Birkhot Ha-Torah right after waking up; hence, I did not make a distinction in their laws. Additionally, if a woman handles her dealings before Birkhot Ha-shaḥar and Birkhot Ha-Torah, there is concern that she will forget to recite them. Therefore, it is proper to teach that women must recite Birkhot Ha-shaḥar and Birkhot Ha-Torah before engaging in activities, regardless of the case.Even women who regularly pray Shaḥarit every morning may act leniently regarding all these issues before prayer when they absolutely must, as long as they recite Birkhot Ha-shaḥar and Birkhot Ha-Torah first. This is because it is possible to consider the opinions of the poskim who maintain that after Birkhot Ha-shaḥar it is already permissible to deal with work matters and travel, as stated by Rema 89:3. Further, some say that with Birkhot Ha-shaḥar and Birkhot Ha-Torah women already fulfill their obligation to pray and therefore they need not be cautious regarding all these issues. It is based on these principles that I write the following halakhot. See also Igrot Moshe OḤ 4:101:2; Minḥat Yitzḥak 4:28:3; Halikhot Shlomo: Prayer 2:3-4; Halikhot Bat Yisrael 2:3-4; Halikhot Beitah 6:7; Ishei Yisrael 13:30.  </i>
  
  Section 5
  
  The Shaĥarit Prayer and the Laws Prior to its Recitation / Greetings Before Prayer
  A woman who is about to pray Shaḥarit must take care not to address her parents or friends prior to doing so. If she does, she sins, as she ascribes more importance to their honor than to God’s honor, for rather than standing in prayer before God, she first goes to greet another person (Berakhot 14a).
  If a woman’s parents require assistance and she has not time to pray beforehand, she may go to their aid before prayer, for in doing so she fulfills the mitzva of honoring her parents; however, she must first recite Birkhot Ha-shaḥar and Birkhot Ha-Torah. Likewise, when it is necessary to help people who are ill, and she will not be able to pray beforehand, she may assist them before prayer.
  This prohibition is to visit a friend to to ask her how she is; however, if her friend comes to her house, she may greet her. If her friend does greet her, it is best that she responds “good morning” and not “Shalom” so as to remind herself that she has not yet prayed. Similarly, girls who pray at school and along their way meet their friends are permitted to address them and talk to them, although it is best to say “good morning” and not “Shalom.”
  When it is necessary to call someone on the phone, be it to ask a question or relay a message, one may make a phone call before praying. However, it is forbidden to conduct an ordinary friendly phone conversation before prayer (see Peninei Halakha: Prayer, 12:1 n. 2).
  It is proper that a woman who does not intend to pray Shaḥarit refrains from greeting her friend before she recites Birkhot Ha-shaḥar and Birkhot Ha-Torah.
  
  Section 6
  
  The Shaĥarit Prayer and the Laws Prior to its Recitation / One May Not Work or Travel Before Prayer
  As we have learned, a woman who is about to pray Shaḥarit must le-khatḥila follow the same laws as a man, and from the break of dawn she may not become involved in her work or do any traveling until she prays. The Sages say (Berakhot 14a), “Anyone who prays and then goes on his way, God grants him what he desires.”
  Nevertheless, one may perform small tasks or make short trips before prayer. There is an opinion that if the trip lasts less than 72 minutes, it is allowed before prayer. If the entire trip is for the sake of prayer, for example, traveling to pray at the Kotel, one may go, even if the travel time will be more than 72 minutes (Responsa Or Le-Tziyon 2:7:6; Peninei Halakha: Prayer 12:5).
  Before dawn, one may begin a large project or embark on a long trip, for since the time of Shaḥarit has not yet arrived, she is not considered one who puts her needs before prayer. She must be strict in saying Birkhot Ha-shaḥar before that, because the time to recite them is immediately upon waking up. Since she started her work or departed on her journey before the time to pray began, she may continue even after dawn, on condition that she prays before the time to pray lapses (SA 89:7; Peninei Halakha: Prayer 12:2).
  It is proper that a woman who does not normally pray Shaḥarit strictly refrain from occupying herself with work or departing on her way before reciting Birkhot Ha-shaḥar and Birkhot Ha-Torah.
  
  Section 7
  
  The Shaĥarit Prayer and the Laws Prior to its Recitation / Actions Permitted before Prayer
  A woman may engage in mitzva acts before praying, for this is no affront to God’s honor since these acts are not done for one’s personal needs. Therefore, it is permissible and it is a mitzva to bathe and clothe children and to prepare food for them before they leave for preschool and elementary school. If the house lacks essential breakfast foods, it is permissible to purchase them before praying. Similarly, if a woman is concerned that after she finishes her prayer there will not be enough food left in the store for Shabbat, she may buy food before praying (MB 250:1; Kaf Ha-ḥayim 89:25). However, it is forbidden to buy even one item if it is not for the purpose of a mitzva.
  Minor activities are permissible before prayer. For example, one may make her bed before praying and she may take the garbage from her house to the public garbage bin. Similarly, she may read the newspaper a bit and do a little exercise before prayer. She may put laundry that is already sorted into the machine and turn it on, since this is considered a minor act. However, it is prohibited to sort the laundry and then put it into the machine (Halikhot Shlomo 2:5).
  It is forbidden to cook or bake before praying; however, one may light a fire under a pot that was prepared the day before or place a previously prepared food pan into the oven. 
  Nevertheless, one should make an effort to recite Birkhot Ha-shaḥar and Birkhot Ha-Torah as soon as possible after waking up, and it is best to refrain from even minor activities and mitzvot before then.
  This law forbids engaging in one’s own needs before prayer, including getting a haircut and entering a bathhouse (MT, Laws of Prayer 6:7). Likewise, it is forbidden to go swimming or take a pampering bath before prayer. However, oone is obligated to wash her hands before prayer. One should also preferably wash her face and brush her teeth before praying (SA 4:17; 46:1). Similarly, one may take a shower and cleanse oneself with soap as preparation for prayer (Peninei Halakha: Prayer 12: 3-4).
  
  Section 8
  
  The Shaĥarit Prayer and the Laws Prior to its Recitation / Eating and Drinking Before Prayer
  From the break of dawn, it is forbidden to eat or drink before praying. The Sages support their words (Berakhot 10b) on the verse (Vayikra 19:26), “Do not eat upon the blood,” which they interpret as, “Do not eat before praying for your ‘blood.’” Further, they teach, “Anyone who eats and drinks first and [only] afterwards prays, Scripture says of him (1 Melakhim 14:9), ‘You have thrown Me behind your body (“gavekha,” the word used for “your body,” alludes to “ga’avatekha” – your pride).’ God said, ‘After this person acts arrogantly he accepts upon himself the yoke of heaven?!’”
  However, one may drink water before praying because there is no element of pride in drinking it. Similarly, one may eat food and drink beverages that are medicinal, as there is no element of pride in taking medicine (SA 89:4). For example, someone who is suffering from constipation may eat prunes before prayer, since she is eating them as medicine (see MB 89:24).
  A woman who is so hungry that she cannot concentrate on her prayer may eat before praying, because she is considered like a sick person who must eat; her eating does not contain any element of pride (SA 89:4; and see MB 26).
  It is proper that women who generally fulfill the obligation of prayer with the recitation of Birkhot Ha-shaḥar and Birkhot Ha-Torah (as explained above, 2:4) be strict not to eat or drink before saying those berakhot, in addition to reciting them as soon as possible after they wake up.
  
  Section 9
  
  The Shaĥarit Prayer and the Laws Prior to its Recitation / Eating at Home if one will Pray at School
  Girls who normally pray Shaḥarit in school and who will go hungry and will jeopardize their health or adversely affect their concentration on studies and prayers unless they eat and drink at home may do so. If a small meal without bread is sufficient, that is preferable; at their first recess they can wash their hands and eat bread. The argument should not be made that it is better that they pray Shaḥarit at home and not eat before Shaḥarit because the consistency of prayer in school edifies the students and validates the status of prayer. Still, it is best to recite Birkhot Ha-shaḥar and Birkhot Ha-Torah before eating and drinking.1<i class="footnote">It is hard to be lenient for boys who have become bar mitzva, because their obligation in prayer is explicit. However, concerning women, the obligation of the Shaḥarit prayer is indistinct, as some poskim say that women are only obligated to pray one prayer daily and that they can fulfill their obligation by praying Minḥa. Some even say that they can fulfill their obligation by reciting only Birkhot Ha-shaḥar and Birkhot Ha-Torah, as explained above, 2:3-5. Hence, the prohibitions before Shaḥarit are indeterminate as well, and as a result, in times of need, one may be lenient and eat before prayer. Igrot Moshe 4:101:2, and Halikhot Shlomo 2:4 state similarly. Halikhot Bat Yisrael 2 n. 10, quotes a letter from R. Shlomo Zalman Auerbach allowing seminary girls to eat in their house before going to school. He adds that they must say a brief prayer prior to eating (I recommend reciting Birkhot Ha-shaḥar and Birkhot Ha-Torah which they must say anyway). Further, he adds that it is good that they accept upon themselves the yoke of Heaven by saying “Shema Yisrael.” </i>
  Minors who have not yet reached the age of mitzvot – twelve for girls and thirteen for boys – may eat before prayer. Although we generally train minors not to eat forbidden food, this applies when the food itself is forbidden because it is not kosher. However, when the Sages prohibited eating before prayer or before kiddush, they did so as a safeguard. Since the food itself is not forbidden, minors need not abide by that safeguard. Nevertheless, le-khatḥila it is proper that they do not eat before prayer, though when it is necessary they are permitted (MB 106:5; Yabi’a Omer 4:12:15; Kaf Ha-ḥayim 106:11).
  
  Section 10
  
  The Shaĥarit Prayer and the Laws Prior to its Recitation / When may a Married Woman Eat before Prayer?
  Often, a woman must care for her children and cannot pray immediately after waking. Much time will pass before she finishes tending to her young, and if she does not drink coffee or tea, her mind will remain unsettled. This woman may drink coffee or tea before she prays because her drinking does not display arrogance; rather she drinks out of the need to settle her mind and enable her to properly take care of her children. If she must eat a piece of fruit or some cake lest she feel weak and incapable of caring for her children properly, she may eat, because the purpose of her eating is to strengthen herself, and there is no display of arrogance. Nevertheless, she should try to recite Birkhot Ha-shaḥar and Birkhot Ha-Torah before drinking and eating.
  If the husband of a woman who usually prays Shaḥarit arrives home from the synagogue before his wife had a chance to recite Shaḥarit, she should recite Birkhot Ha-Torah, which contain a short prayer, and then eat with with her husband. She later completes her prayer by reciting Birkhot Ha-shaḥar and praying the Amida. This is because a healthy and halakhic family context dictates that a woman eats with her husband. Therefore, so as not to keep him waiting, she eats with him and makes up Birkhot Ha-shaḥar and the Amida after the meal. If possible, she should try to say Birkhot Ha-shaḥar before the meal, since one must try to say those berakhot immediately upon waking up. This applies if the husband is hurried or pressured. However, when possible, it is better for the woman to first recite Birkhot Ha-Torah, Birkhot Ha-shaḥar, and the Amida, and then they can eat together.1<i class="footnote">According to SA, EH 70:2, it is impossible to obligate a husband to eat with his wife more than on Shabbat night, on the condition that he provides his wife with her sustenance as he promised to do when he married her and as is written in the ketuba. However, according to Rema, based most Rishonim, if a woman wants her husband to eat with her, he must eat with her every day. It is clear from this that if a man, too, wants to eat together with his wife, she is required to fulfill that request. Likewise, Igrot Moshe, OḤ 4:101:2 states that a woman “is enslaved to her husband to eat specifically with him.” Avnei Yashfeh 16:3 states in the name of R. Elyashiv that, practically speaking, a woman who normally prays Shaḥarit but did not manage to pray before her husband returned from synagogue, must eat with him; therefore she should fulfill her obligation to pray by reciting a short prayer, so that he will not have to wait for her. R. Auerbach writes that the woman “must do what her husband asks of her, because she is subservient to him.” It seems that this all applies when time is tight or the husband is annoyed. However, where possible, it is better for the woman to first say Birkhot Ha-Torah and Birkhot Ha-shaḥar, then recite the Amida, and then eat together.  </i>
  
  
  
  
  
  Section 1
  
  Preparing the Body for Prayer / Netilat Yadayim
  One who prays the Amida must cleanse herself; it is therefore a mitzva to wash one’s hands before prayer. However, there is a distinction between a situation in which she knows that her hands are sullied and the normal case where she does not know whether her hands have been dirtied.
  For example, if one knows that her hands are dirty because she relieved herself or touched body parts that are normally covered – areas that soiled from perspiration – she must wash her hands before praying. Le-khatḥila, she should pour water over her entire hand with a vessel, as one washes before a meal. However, be-di’avad, if she rinses her hands with water without a vessel, she fulfilled her obligation of preparing herself for prayer, because most important is that her hands are clean before she prays.
  If there is no water nearby, she must take the trouble to walk up to the distance of a mil (912 m). If there is no water even within a mil, or there is water but the designated time for prayer will pass if she treks to it, she may rub her hands with sand or on her clothing in order to remove any trace of dirt from them – and then she may pray (SA 92:4; MB 92:20, Peninei Halakha: Prayer, 5:2 n. 1).1<i class="footnote">If one is walking on her way and within the four mil (c. 3.65 km) ahead of her there is water, she must walk to it and only then pray. SA 92:7 states: “A dirty area is [defined as the [normally] covered parts of one’s body, because they contain beads of sweat. For instance, scratching one’s head [is considered touching a dirty place].” This refers to rubbing the roots of one’s hair, but if someone only touches the top of her head, she does not need to wash her hands (SAH; MB 162:58, 164:10).Concerning a woman who knows that her hair is clean, for example, one who just recently washed her head, in the opinion of some Aḥaronim, she does not need to wash her hands even is she scratches the roots of her hair (Tzitz Eliezer 7:2:14). One may rely on this opinion as long as she feels that this area is clean from the washing, although when her hair is covered, sweat accumulates there faster. See Peninei Halakha: Prayer, ch. 5 n. 2.Concerning one who touches other normally covered parts of the body: If her body is washed clean and does not have beads of sweat on it, the Aḥaronim disagree as to whether or not she must wash her hands. Eshel Avraham (Buczacz) 4:21 is stringent, and Yabi’a Omer, part 5, 1:4-5, cites poskim who are lenient.Touching earwax and mucus is considered touching a normally covered part of the body (Rema 92:7 and Peninei Halakha: Prayer, ch. 5 n. 2).With regard to Torah study and reciting berakhot, one who normally touches covered parts may be-di’avad rub her hands on her clothes and then study Torah or recite berakhot (SA 4:23 and MB 4:61).</i>
  Under normal circumstances, that is, when a woman did not wash her hands recently but does not remember touching something dirty or body parts that are normally covered, the poskim disagree about whether she must wash her hands before prayer. Hence, if there is water available, she should wash her hands. However, if there is no water near her, she does not need to wash her hands and may rely on the poskim who maintain that hands under normal circumstances need not be washed before prayer. To dispel uncertainty, she should preferably rub her hands on her clothing (SA 92:5, 233:2; MB 92:26; BHL s.v. “Ve-im”).
  One who leaves the bathroom after having washed her hands and is then careful not to touch the parts of her body which are normally covered need not wash her hands again before praying. However, if she was not mindful of that, she must wash her hands. If no water is available, since she is not certain that her hands are unclean, she may pray without washing.
  
  Section 2
  
  Preparing the Body for Prayer / Preparing One’s Body for the Amida
  The Sages teach that one who needs to use the bathroom, be it to urinate or to defecate, may not pray (Berakhot 23a). There are two reasons for this: 1. The need for relief is likely to disrupt one’s kavana (Rambam); and 2. It is not proper to come to pray before God when the body is made repulsive by the excrement inside it (Hagahot Maimoniyot). Even if one is uncertain as to whether or not she needs to use the bathroom, the Sages say that le-khatḥila one should use the bathroom (Berakhot 15a). The Sages support their statement with the verse (Amos 4:12), “Israel, prepare to meet your God.” It is also written: “Guard your foot when you go to the House of God” (Kohelet 4:17), which they interpret to mean that one should ensure that she does not need to relieve herself when she gets up to pray.
  One who has a cold should wipe her nose before praying so that she need not do so while praying. If the phlegm in her throat bothers her, she should expel it before praying so that it does not distract her during prayers (SA 92:3). If she must wipe her nose while praying, she should do so in the most polite way possible. Similarly, if she needs to yawn, she should cover her mouth with her hand, because one who stands in prayer must be very careful to show honor to heaven, and all actions that are considered impolite before people are also prohibited during prayer (see SA 97:1-2).
  
  Section 3
  
  Preparing the Body for Prayer / One Who Must Relieve Herself While Praying
  There are two levels of need: 1) a need so pressing that the person praying estimates that it is impossible to wait even the amount of time it takes to walk a parsa (approximately 72 minutes); 2) a need to relieve oneself, but which can be held in for longer than 72 minutes. We will now describe the particular laws of each level.
  If one begins to recite the Amida when she will not be able to hold in the need to defecate for 72 minutes, her prayer is considered abominable and she does not fulfill her obligation. She must repeat her prayer after relieving herself. If she recites the Amida when she when she will not be able to hold in the need to urinate for 72 minutes, though she clearly acted improperly, there is a dispute among Aḥaronim about whether her prayer is considered abominable. Since this ruling remains in doubt, she is not obligated to repeat her prayer, but one who wishes to avoid uncertainty may repeat the Amida as a voluntary prayer (tefilat nedava) (Peninei Halakha: Prayer, ch. 8 n. 7).
  If one is able to control herself for 72 minutes and she recites the Amida, her prayer is considered valid because her need to relieve herself is not so urgent.  Le-khatḥila, even one who can wait 72 minutes should not pray. If the time to pray will pass if she goes to the bathroom, she should pray immediately so that she will not miss praying altogether (SA 92:1; MB 92:5).
  The determination of how long one can hold it in depends on the person. If one initially thought she could wait 72 minutes after praying realizes that she cannot hold out that long, her prayer is still considered valid since at the time she started to pray she believed that she could contain her need (BHL 92:1, s.v. “Shi’ur Parsa”).1<i class="footnote">The Rishonim disagree about one who needs to relieve herself but can wait 72 minutes. According to Talmidei Rabbeinu Yona, Rambam, and Rosh, she should not pray, and that is the ruling in SA 92:1. Rif and Rashi maintain that she may pray le-khatḥila. In practice, when the need to relieve oneself is slight, one may be lenient, especially since there are people who always feel a slight need to relieve themselves. If, in order to relieve herself, she needs to exert herself to help push out the waste, then there is an opinion that she is not at all transgressing the prohibition, “Do not abominate yourself” (“bal teshaktzu”), and she may pray (the notes of R. Mordechai Eliyahu to Kitzur SA 12:3, in the name of an opinion cited in Ben Ish Ḥai, Vayetzei 3). As I initially mentioned, le-khatḥila one must try to relieve herself before prayer, as explained in Berakhot 15a and SA 2:6. Also see Peninei Halakha: Prayer, ch. 5 n. 8. </i>
  
  Section 4
  
  Preparing the Body for Prayer / One who Needs to Relieve Herself in the Middle of the Amida
  If one began praying when she had no need to relieve herself but a great need arose in the middle of her prayer, since she began praying in a permitted state, she may continue her prayer for as long as she can hold it in. 
  Even if she knew ahead of time that she needs the bathroom, but she thought she could hold it in for 72 minutes, but when she started praying she suddenly felt that she could no longer control herself for 72 minutes, although le-khatḥila she should have relieved herself before praying, since she began praying with the thought that she would be able to wait, she may finish praying.
  If her need to relieve herself is so urgent that she cannot wait any longer, she should go immediately. If the interruption in her prayer lasts long enough that in that time she could have prayed the full Amida prayer from beginning to end, she must start the Amida again. But if the interruption lasts less time, she continues from the berakha at which she stopped.1<i class="footnote">A woman who recites the entire prayer service and started to pray when she did not need to relieve herself, yet suddenly feels that she cannot wait 72 minutes, but still does not need to urgently hold it in to suppress the need to relieve herself, and if, when she goes, she will have to exert herself slightly to relieve herself: since she began praying in a permitted fashin, and her need is slight, she may complete the section she is reciting. If the need arises in the middle of Pesukei De-zimra, she waits until she finishes all of Pesukei De-zimra by saying Yishtabaḥ, and then goes to relieve herself. If the need arises during the recitation of Birkhot Keri’at Shema, she relieves herself at the end of the berakha or passage she is reciting (MB 92:9; BHL s. v. “Ya’amid”; Peninei Halakha: Prayer, ch. 5 n. 10).If her sudden need is so pressing that she must actively suppress it to prevent herself from urinating or defecating, at which point she transgresses “bal teshaktzu” (Rema 92:2, based on SAH 3:11), the law is as follows: If she is in the middle of Pesukei De-zimra or Birkhot Keri’at Shema, since interruption at that point is not so serious, she must go immediately to relieve herself. However, if she is in the middle of the Amida, where a pause at that point is serious, and if, when she began reciting the Amida, she did not feel the need to relieve herself, she should finish praying. If she cannot wait at all, should she go relieve herself (Peninei Halakha: Prayer, ch. 5 n. 11). </i>
  
  Section 5
  
  Preparing the Body for Prayer / The Status of One Who Needs to Relieve Herself vis-à-vis Other Sacred Matters
  Just as one who needs to relieve herself and cannot wait 72 minutes is forbidden to pray, so too she may not recite berakhot, say Shema, or study Torah, for it is not proper to engage in sacred matters when one’s body is offensive. Yet there is a significant difference between the Amida and other sacred matters (“devarim she-bikdusha”). During the Amida, we are like subjects standing before the King. If one does not pray in the proper manner, she disgraces the honor of heaven, and her prayer is an abomination. Therefore, when the person reciting the Amida cannot control her need for 72 minutes, her prayer is invalid. This is not so regarding other matters of sanctity. While saying them, one is not considered to be standing before the King. Hence, be-di’avad, if she recites berakhot or Shema even when she is not able to control her need for 72 minutes, she fulfills her obligation (MB 92:6; BHL s.v. “Afilu Be-divrei Torah”; Kaf Ha-ḥayim 3).
  One who can wait 72 minutes, according to most Aḥaronim, is permitted le-khatḥila to recite berakhot and study Torah, though there are those who say that it is preferable for her to relieve herself first (MB 92:7). However, if she must exert herself in doing so, she is not required to relieve herself.
  One who begins studying Torah when she does not need to relieve herself, but in the course of studying feels a need, to the point where she can no longer wait 72 minutes, should le-khatḥila go and relieve herself. If she is in the middle of a topic, some say that she may continue to learn until she completes it (BHL 92:2 s.v. “Koreh”; Yalkut Yosef, vol. 2, p. 338), whereas others say that she should relieve herself immediately (Kaf Ha-ḥayim 3:48).
  If she is teaching Torah, she should finish her class and then relieve herself, for human dignity (kevod ha-briyot) is so great that it overrides the rabbinic prohibition of “bal teshaktzu” (MB 92:7). Likewise, it is proper that a student in a class waits and does not leave in the middle out of respect for the class, as long as the need to relieve herself is not that great. If, out of respect for the class, we are lenient regarding the prohibition of “bal teshaktzu,” we certainly refrain as much as possible from going in and out of the class for other reasons, and it is certainly forbidden to disrupt the class by talking.
  
  Section 6
  
  Preparing the Body for Prayer / One Who Is Drunk or Tipsy
  One must be clearheaded when she prays. Unlike many idol worshipers, who perform their rituals using drugs and alcohol to attain a state of ecstasy, our petitions to God are achieved through seriousness and deep thought. That is why the Torah commands the kohanim not to enter the Temple and perform the Divine service while inebriated (Vayikra 10:8-11). The Sages derive from this that one who is drunk or tipsy may not pray.
  “Tipsy” (“shatui”) describes one who is slightly under the influence of alcohol, and finds it somewhat difficult to concentrate and focus her thoughts, but is still capable of talking before the King. “Drunk” (“shikor”) describes one who drank so much that she cannot properly speak before the King.
  A drunken person who mistakenly starts to pray must stop immediately, for the prayer of one who is intoxicated is an abomination. Even if she concludes her prayer, she does not fulfill her obligation. If she becomes sober before deadline to pray, she must repeat the prayer properly (SA 99:1). However, be-di’avad, one who prays while tipsy fulfills her obligation, since she is able to speak before the King. Likewise, if she begins praying and then remembers that she is tipsy, she may finish her prayer (Eliya Rabba; Kaf Ha-ḥayim 99:2).1<i class="footnote">Regarding men, the halakha is that since kavana has diminished over the years, we are not so strict on this matter, and in extenuating circumstances, even one who is slightly tipsy may pray, especially when he is praying with a siddur, for there is no concern that he might become confused in his prayer (Rema 92:3; MB 99:3 and 17; see also Kaf Ha-ḥayim 22). However, we are not lenient when it comes to women, since there are poskim who maintain that women can fulfill their obligation by praying one prayer daily, and some say even by reciting Birkhot Ha-shaḥar and Birkhot Ha-Torah. If so, why should she recite a prayer that would be considered be-di’avad? Likewise, concerning the recitation of Shema and its berakhot, the poskim disagree whether a drunk or tipsy person may recite them, as explained in Peninei Halakha: Prayer 5:11. Because women are exempt from the recitation of Shema and its berakhot, a woman may certainly not recite them when she is possibly tipsy. As a general rule, it is important to know that drunkenness is repulsive and even more so for, women as explained in Ketubot 65a. Therefore, there is reason for women to be especially stringent on this matter. </i>
  A tipsy person may le-khatḥila recite other berakhot, for example, Birkhot Ha-nehenin (the berakhot one recites from deriving pleasure from something) and Asher Yatzar, but a drunken person should not recite them. Nevertheless, even a drunken person should recite berakhot that she can only recite at that time. For instance, if she became drunk at a meal, she should still recite Birkat Ha-mazon (Grace After Meals). Similarly, if she relieves himself, she recites Asher Yatzar (Rema 99:1; MB 11).
  One who has reached a state of intoxication such as Lot, and is unaware of what is happening to her, is considered a shota (a deranged person) and is exempt from performing all the mitzvot. Even the berakhot that she did recite are considered invalid (MB 99:11).
  
  Section 7
  
  Preparing the Body for Prayer / The Status of a Nida
  A nida (a woman who has menstruated and not yet purified herself by going to the mikveh) is obligated to recite all the berakhot and prayers and may study Torah, for words of Torah cannot become impure, as it is written: “Indeed, My word is like fire” (Yirmiyahu 23:29). Just like fire cannot become impure, the words of Torah do not contract impurity (Berakhot 22a).
  There are women who customarily act stringently at the time of menstruation by refraining from entering the synagogue and touching the Torah scroll. Although in principle there is no explicit prohibition against this, these women customarily separate themselves out of respect for the synagogue. Nonetheless, the widespread custom is that women enter the synagogue during the time of menstruation, but only refrain from looking directly at the letters of the Torah scroll when it is lifted (hagbaha).1<i class="footnote">See Beit Yosef and Rema §88; Tzitz Eliezer 10:8, Yeḥaveh Da’at 3:8; Taharat Ha-bayit vol. 2, pp. 202-206. The above-mentioned practice of entering the synagogue but refraining from looking at the Torah scroll during hagbaha is cited by MB 88:7 and Darkhei Tahara p. 57. The time of menstruation refers to the time that blood flows from a woman’s body, but does not include the seven clean days of purity, as noted by Rema there. Some poskim (AHS 88:2 and Kaf Ha-ḥayim 11) maintain that when women are menstruating, they do not recite berakhot and prayers and do not enter the synagogue. However, in practice, as long as the blood does not emit a putrid smell, there is no prohibition. Likewise, the Vilna Gaon (Ma’aseh Rav §58) rules that it is unnecessary to be as stringent regarding menstrual blood as we are concerning urine, for menstrual blood is similar to blood from a wound. See Halikhot Beitah 11:1-10 and MB 76:15.  </i>
  As an aside, we shall mention that there are various customs regarding women going to a cemetery. Some say that it is not proper for women to go to a cemetery at all, some say that women who are nidot and have not yet purified themselves in the mikveh may not go to a cemetery, some say that only during menstruation women should not go, and others permit going any time. Some women refrain from going to a cemetery when they are pregnant, whereas others do not. Every woman should practice according to her family’s or her husband’s family’s custom. Even those who are customarily stringent may practice leniency in times of need. For example, permission to be lenient and go to a cemetery is granted to one who will regret not going to her parents’ graves on their yahrzeit (the anniversary of a death). Also, one who is concerned that her absence will upset others, or a woman who is afraid that people might deduce from her absence that she is menstruating, may be lenient. If possible, though, she should make an effort not to get close to the graves.2<i class="footnote">Darkhei Tahara p. 57 states, based on kabbalistic literature, that that it is improper for women to enter a cemetery. MB 88:7 rules, based on Ḥayei Adam, that women should not go to the cemetery until they are pure. However, the fact that single women and widows, who do not go to the mikveh when they are nida, regularly go to the cemetery validates the custom of married women, who only refrain from going to the cemetery while they are menstruating, but not during the seven clean days. See Taharat Ha-bayit, vol. 2, p. 76. Also see Berakhot 51a regarding women who return from visiting the deceased. </i>
  
  
  
  
  
  Section 1
  
  Mental Preparation and Proper Attire / Mental Preparation
  The Sages teach (Berakhot 31a; SA 93:2), “One should not stand to pray while in a state of sadness or ennui.” Prayer elevates people. Therefore, one must approach prayer out of happiness, knowing that she is about to be uplifted and brought closer to God.
  The Sages further teach (ibid.), “One should not pray out of laughter,” because laughter negates one’s reverence for God, and one must pray out of a sense of awe and submission. “Nor amidst conversation,” because conversation distracts one from her inner world, and prayer is supposed to emerge from the depths of one’s soul. “Nor from frivolity and idle chatter,” because prayer is based on the recognition of one’s ability to do great things with her speech, and if she approaches prayer with idle words, she demonstrates that she does not value her speech (see Olat Re’iyah vol. 1, p. 29).
  In the prayer service for men, the Sages instituted the recitation of joyful and heartwarming words prior to reciting the Amida in order to settle the mind; before Shaḥarit and Ma’ariv, we recite the berakha of “Ga’al Yisrael” (“Who redeemed Israel”), and before the Minḥa Amida we say Ashrei (SA 93:2). Although women are not obligated to recite these prayers, it is at least incumbent upon every woman to pause for a few seconds, about the amount of time it takes to walk the distance of four amot, before praying, in order to settle her mind.
  The pious people of yore (“ḥasidim rishonim”) would greatly augment their preparations for prayer, spending a full hour directing their hearts toward their Father in heaven before praying (Berakhot 30b; SA 93:1; MB 1).
  If a woman plans on giving tzedaka, whether by putting money in the tzedaka box in her house  or by writing a check for a donation, it is best that she does so before praying, so that she enters her prayer with the joy of having performed a mitzva (SA 92:10).1<i class="footnote">The Aḥaronim write, based on Rambam (Ahavat Ḥesed 1:1:14) that it is better for one who wants to give a large sum of money to tzedaka to donate money on several occasions instead of giving all of it away at once. However, this statement was made in a case where the small donation would benefit the starving poor, allowing them to buy their next meal with the money received. Nowadays, the needs of the poor have changed, there are almost no people starving for food, and the existing organizations and soup kitchens for the poor people need of large sums of money, it seems that there is no virtue in dividing the money into smaller amounts, for doing so only burdens fundraisers and undermines the primary objective, which is to help the poor. Therefore, instead of 1,000 people giving small sums of money to 1,000 charity organizations, it is preferable that each person gives their whole tzedaka donation to a limited number of places. They thereby save the trouble and the tremendous cost entailed in the collection of the funds, despite the fact that this may prevent them from being able to give tzedaka every day before prayer. Nonetheless, people often have small change, and it is appropriate to give this as tzedaka before prayer.   </i> Furthermore, when one beseeches God for kindness and compassion, it is appropriate that she first give something of hers to the needy. Arizal recommends reflecting, before prayer, on the mitzva to love your fellow as yourself, which is a great Torah principle, as all the prayers are formulated in the plural as we pray for the nation as a whole.
  
  Section 2
  
  Mental Preparation and Proper Attire / Preventing Possible Disruptions in Prayer
  While reciting the Amida, one may not hold an object that she fears will fall, such as a book, bowl, or knife, because her concern that it may drop will disrupt her kavana (SA 96:1). However, one may hold a siddur, because it is necessary for prayer (ibid. 1-2). Even while reciting other parts of the prayer service it is good to be careful about this. Le-khatḥila, one should not hold anything in her hand while reciting the Amida, not even a valueless object, about which one is not concerned for it is not respectful to stand in front of God while holding something extraneous (see MB 96:1 and 5). Before praying, one must turn off  her cellular phone. In a synagogue or where there are siddurim available, one should not use her hand-held device as a siddur so that it does not distract her and so that she does not appear to be reading messages during prayers. One who does not have a siddur available and must therefore use a device should first disable the possibility of receiving calls or messages. One who must be available for urgent calls may leave the device on, but should set it to vibrate, so that its ringing does not disrupt prayer.
  Le-khatḥila, one should not recite the Amida with a knapsack on her back, for that is not a respectful way to appear before important people, and all the more so, it is not respectful to pray in that manner. However, if she is already traveling with a knapsack on her shoulders and it is more comfortable to leave it on, she may pray with it on her it weighs less than four kabin (c. 5.5 kg or 12 lbs, 1.5 oz). If the knapsack is heavier than four kabin, she may not pray while wearing it, as it is liable to impair her kavana (SA 97:4).
  Additionally, if someone holding a wallet full of money or other expensive objects fears that if she puts these items down they will be stolen, and she does not have pockets in which to put them or a friend there to watch them, it is preferable, be-di’avad, to keep them in her hands while praying, so that she will be less troubled (MB 96:6; Kaf Ha-ḥayim 7). Likewise, if someone carrying a heavy knapsack on her back is worried that it will be stolen and she has no other choice than to carry it, she may pray while wearing it.
  A woman may not pray while holding a baby in her arms, because the child requires constant attention to make sure he does not fall. Furthermore, the baby is likely to disturb her kavana. Even when the baby is wrapped inside an infant carrier or sling, it is not respectful to pray with him on her. Still, if no other option exists and the woman praying knows that she will be able have kavana in her prayer while holding the baby, she may pray with him on her. When there is concern that she will not be able to have kavana, she may not pray in that manner; instead, she fulfills her obligation by reciting Birkhot Ha-Torah and Birkhot Ha-shaḥar, which may be recited even while holding a baby.  1<i class="footnote">Le-khatḥila, one must not pray while holding a weapon  nor even enter the synagogue with it, for it is inappropriate to pray about life and peace while wearing an instrument of death. However, he may enter the synagogue and pray with it on him if he is carrying it for security reasons (see Tzitz Eliezer 10:8).  </i>
  
  Section 3
  
  Mental Preparation and Proper Attire / Appropriate Attire for Prayer
  One must prepare herself for prayer, revere God’s majesty and glory, and rejoice at the opportunity to stand before the King of kings in prayer. This preparation should also be apparent in her dress; one’s clothes should be respectable, fitting for one who stands before the King.
  The laws of prayer are not like the laws of other matters of sanctity. Regarding all other matters of sanctity, such as Birkhot Keri’at Shema, as long as one’s nakedness is covered, they may be recited (SA 74:6). However, regarding prayer, since one is standing before the King, she must dress in a respectable manner (SA 91:1). With regard to women, as long as her clothes are modest in accordance with the halakha, they are indeed valid for prayer.1<i class="footnote">Regarding men there is a question: What does one do if he finds himself in a place in which there is nothing but underwear to cover his nakedness and he does not have a blanket to cover the rest of his body? Some say that since he is in a situation beyond his control, he should pray the way he is (Kaf Ha-ḥayim 91:3). Others say that he may not pray in this manner (BHL 91:1). This issue is clarified in Peninei Halakha: Prayer, 5:4 n. 6. However, it is clear that a woman in the same set of circumstances may not pray in that manner, because her lack of clothes is much more severe. Furthermore, there are poskim who maintain that women can fulfill their obligation of prayer by reciting only Birkhot Ha-shaḥar and Birkhot Ha-Torah. Yet, if she has a blanket, she can, under extenuating circumstances, use it to cover her whole body and pray.It is worth noting that these laws are more complex for men because rules governing their modesty are less strict. Therefore, there are men who throughout the day walk around in clothes that are not considered respectable, such as shorts and undershirts, but for prayer they must come in distinguished attire, as explained in Peninei Halakha: Prayer 5:4-5. In contrast, women must dress modestly throughout the day, and the modest clothes that they wear during the day are certainly valid for prayer. </i>
  Le-khatḥila one should enhance the mitzva by wearing respectable clothing for prayer, so that one honors God at least as much as one honors human beings. Just as one is careful to wear dignified attire when meeting important people, so too, she must dress at least as respectably for prayer. Indeed, one who goes out once in her life to greet a king makes sure to wear her nicest clothing. However, one who sees the king every day does not wear her fanciest garments; but she does make sure to wear clothes that suit her profession and status. Similarly, we come before the King three times a day, and we therefore dress nicely for prayer, but save our finest apparel for Shabbatot, festivals, and joyous celebrations.
  
  Section 4
  
  Mental Preparation and Proper Attire / Attire Fit for Prayer
  Although le-khatḥila one must wear respectable clothing for prayer, when it is difficult to change one’s clothes, it is permissible to pray in everyday clothing, as long as they are not undignified. Therefore, a woman who is engaged in household chores and is caring for her children, and does not have time to dress for prayer, may pray in her regular clothes or a nice robe that she wears around the house. As long as she is not embarrassed to open the door to her house in these clothes, they are not considered disgraceful.
  One should not pray in pajamas (MB 91:11). However, one who is ill may pray in pajamas, because it is accepted that one who is not feeling well wears pajamas, even when important people come to visit her.
  One should not stand in prayer wearing a raincoat, boots, and gloves, because that is not the way to stand before important people (MB 91:12). Yet, when it is very cold, it is permissible to pray in a raincoat and gloves, because this is not an affront to the honor of prayer. Moreover, in a place where everyone regularly wears boots, one may wear them while praying.
  Similarly, girls who are on a field trip are permitted to pray as they are, as long as the clothes conform to the laws of tzni’ut. Although these clothes would not be considered respectable attire at home, and perhaps may even be considered slightly disgraceful, on a trip they are acceptable, and even if an important person would appear before them they would not feel a need to change their clothes. Therefore, as long as the clothes are modest, they may be worn for prayer for the duration of the field trip.1<i class="footnote">Regarding men, a question sometimes arises: Which is preferable, respectable clothing or praying in a minyan? See Peninei Halakha: Prayer 5:4-5, which states that if the clothing is merely “not respectable” it is preferable to pray in them with a minyan; however, if they are truly disgraceful, it is best to change them and pray individually. Additionally, see earlier in this chapter, n. 3, which mentions that since for men the limitations of modesty are less strict, there are gray areas. For example, a man who is going on a hike may wear shorts. However, if it is not accepted for him to wear shorts before and after the hike, he must wear long pants for prayer. Concerning women, who are bound by rules of tzni’ut, these laws are not applicable, because the modest clothing that they wear all day is valid for prayer.   </i>
  
  Section 5
  
  Mental Preparation and Proper Attire / Head Covering for Men
  In order to assess whether women are required to cover their heads when praying or reciting berakhot, we must first clarify the law regarding men. Originally, a few eminent sages practiced the extra pious custom of not walking four amot bareheaded. Rav Huna b. R. Yehoshua is praised for not having walked four amot without a head covering (Shabbat 118b). He said, “Indeed the Shekhina is above my head, so how can I go around with it uncovered?” (Kiddushin 31a). Similarly, the Talmud teaches (Shabbat 156b) that after it was made known to Rav Naḥman bar Yitzḥak’s mother that he would become a thief according to his astrological sign, she was extremely meticulous about keeping his head covered constantly, enabling him to grow in Torah and mitzvot. Once, when his head covering fell, the evil inclination attacked him and his temptation to steal dates from the palm tree overtook him. He then understood his mother’s strictness. In time, this extra pious act became accepted in all of Israel until it became an obligatory custom (SA 2:6).
  Some poskim say that there is an obligation to cover one’s head while mentioning God’s name and reciting berakhot. Others maintain that while there is no specific obligation for men to cover their heads when mentioning God’s name and reciting berakhot, accepted custom requires the covering of one’s head throughout the whole day, including when mentioning God’s name. Shulḥan Arukh cites the stringent opinion as halakha, according to which one is required to cover his head when mentioning God’s name and reciting berakhot (91:3; 206:3).1<i class="footnote">Sofrim 14:15 states that according to the tanna kama it is permissible to mention God’s name bareheaded, whereas others forbid it. Rabbeinu Yeruḥam and Or Zaru’a 2:43 rule that it is forbidden to recite berakhot without a yarmulke, and this is also the ruling of SA 91:3 and 206:3. However, Or Zaru’a states that the rabbis of France customarily recited berakhot bareheaded. Rambam’s opinion (MT, Laws of Prayer 5:1 and 5) is that a head covering is necessary for the Amida, but when reciting berakhot there is no need. Pri Ḥadash 91:3 and Gra 8:6 state that a head covering is not technically required for reciting berakhot, as implied by the Gemara’s explanation of the order of Birkhot Ha-shaḥar (Berakhot 60b): all the berakhot recited before Oter Yisrael are recited without a yarmulke. Thus, Rosh, Mikhtam, Rashba, and other Rishonim, as well as Beit Yosef §46 and Responsa Maharshal §72, who interpret the Gemara to mean that each berakha of Birkhot Ha-shaḥar was said immediately upon performing the action, would agree that there is technically no requirement to wear a yarmulke to say God’s name. However the practice for men is clear: they need a yarmulke for all matters of sanctity, as SA rules. It has even become the accepted custom not to walk four amot without a yarmulke (see Peninei Halakha: Prayer, ch. 5 n. 3).  </i>
  
  Section 6
  
  Mental Preparation and Proper Attire / Head Covering for Women
  Women do not customarily cover their heads in order to arouse fear of heaven within themselves. As a matter of tzni’ut, married women must cover their hair, but single women, who are not required to cover their hair for reasons of tzni’ut, do not normally walk around in a head covering like men. Perhaps the reason that women do not need a yarmulke is that they naturally find it easier to improve themselves. Men are perhaps bolder, and therefore they need yarmulkes on their heads to restrain and focus that trait. Women, who by nature are more reserved and more modest, have no such need.
  Another possible explanation is that by observing the laws of tzni’ut in the way they dress, women more clearly convey acceptance of the yoke of heaven upon herself and therefore do not require a head covering to express their fear of God. In contrast, even if a woman who does not abide by the rules of modesty were to wear a yarmulke, it would be to no effect, for her transgression of the laws of tzni’ut is very severe; by neglecting to observe the halakhot which pertain to her, it is as if she is declaring that she is not bound by halakha, the word of God.
  There are, however, poskim who maintain that single women, too, must cover their heads when reciting God’s name and saying berakhot. They maintain that in this matter there is no distinction between men and women; rather the command to cover one’s head when mentioning God’s name is a separate obligation (Ish Matzli’aḥ, Yaskil Avdi). Others say that at the very least, women must cover their heads while reciting the Amida (Yabi’a Omer 6:15). However, in practice, single women are not strict concerning this, and even while praying the Amida they do not normally cover their heads. The reason for this is that men have adopted the pious custom of covering their heads all day in order to inspire their fear of God. Therefore, there is ample reason to require them to wear a head covering when mentioning God’s name. But for single women, who do not practice this custom, a head covering does not demonstrate fear of God, and hence they are not obligated to wear one while praying and reciting berakhot.
  Nonetheless, married women certainly must cover their hair for prayer, since without a hair covering they are not dressed in accordance with the laws of tzni’ut; certainly if they were to pray in that manner it would be disrespectful. One must come to prayer in distinguished clothing, befitting someone who stands before the King of the universe, so certainly one must properly observe the halakhot of modest attire. Therefore, even women who do not abide by the law and do not normally cover their hair should cover it while praying.
  When mentioning God’s name, some poskim say that married women must be strict about head-covering, even in complete privacy. Others say that since single women are not obligated to do so, married women are not obligated either. The rationale is that the obligation of married women to cover their hair is a function of tzni’ut alone, and since there is no obligation to dress in a respectable fashion when reciting berakhot, there is no reason to distinguish between married and unmarried women, so married women may recite berakhot and Shema without a hair covering.1<i class="footnote">Responsa Ish Matzli’ach OḤ 24-25, and Yaskil Avdi vol. 7, p. 289 state that single women must cover their heads when reciting berakhot. Yabi’a Omer 6:15 provides a comprehensive summary of the issue and concludes that single women should not be prevented from reciting a berakha bareheaded; however, it is proper for them to cover their heads while praying the Amida, as Rambam says. Married women, even when reciting a berakha, must cover their heads, as indicated in Ḥesed La-alafim 2:8.However, the widespread custom is that single women pray, whether at home or in the synagogue, without a head covering. The rationale behind Rambam’s ruling that a head covering is necessary when praying is that by covering one’s head, one expresses his or her fear of God, and therefore certainly this is how one must pray the Amida. Yet, for single women, the yarmulke does not symbolize fear of God, and hence they may pray bareheaded. Tzitz Eliezer 12:13 reinforces the practice of praying pare-headed with the reason offered by Ḥatam Sofer: since gentile women customarily cover their heads in their houses of worship, Jewish women should be careful not to imitate that custom. Nevertheless, if a married woman, who must cover her hair for reasons of tzni’ut, stands in prayer while not dressed in keeping with the mandatory parameters of tzni’ut in front of others, it certainly constitutes an affront to the honor of Heaven. Reciting berakhot is not considered to be standing before the King, so a woman in private, when the laws of tzni’ut do not require her to cover her hair, there is no need for her to cover her head while reciting a berakha. However, Yabi’a Omer 6:15 and Halikhot Bat Yisrael 5:3 state that married women must cover their heads when mentioning God’s name, even when in complete privacy. Still, in practice, many married women normally recite the bedtime Shema and Ha-mapil without a head covering. It seems that the reason for this is what I wrote above, that the obligation to wear a yarmulke when reciting berakhot is based on the pious custom to cover one’s head throughout the entire day. Since the yarmulke inspires fear of God all day, it follows that one must also wear it while invoking God’s name. However, women, who do not customarily wear a yarmulke to inspire fear of God, need not wear one when mentioning God’s name either. There is proof for this in m. Ḥalla 23: “A woman may sit and separate the ḥalla while nude.” Nude here obviously means bareheaded, for it would not make sense that she is required to cover her head but allowed to recite the berakha while nude. R. Shlomo Zalman Auerbach rules this way too, saying that women’s custom to cover their heads in the mikveh while making the berakha on immersion does not obligate them in this practice for all other berakhot (Halikhot Bat Yisrael 5 n. 6). Therefore, a woman who wakes up in the middle of the night to relieve herself is not obligated to cover her head while reciting Asher Yatzar. Likewise, a woman who walks around her house bareheaded (when there are no strangers around) and wants to drink something is allowed to recite She-hakol and Borei Nefashot without a head-covering. </i>
  
  Section 7
  
  Mental Preparation and Proper Attire / Wearing a Belt
  A man may not recite sacred words (devarim she-bikdusha) while there is no separation between his heart and his erva (nakedness). Thus, one wearing a long cloak or robe without underwear who wishes to recite sacred words must wear a belt to divide between his heart and his erva. However a woman’s nakedness is lower down, and her heart naturally cannot “see” her erva. Hence, a woman may recite sacred words while dressed in a robe, even without a separation between her heart and her erva.
  Prior to the Amida, a man must put on a belt. Some poskim maintain that the reason for this is to create a division between one’s heart and one’s erva, in which case wearing underwear is sufficient and there is no need for a belt. Others say that specifically a belt must be worn in honor of the Amida, so as to more effectively emphasize the division between one’s heart and one’s erva (SA 91:2; Peninei Halakha: Prayer 5:3).
  However, women, who are not required to create a division between their hearts and their erva, do not need to wear a belt when praying.
  
  
  
  
  
  Section 1
  
  The Place of Prayer / The Place of Prayer
  The Sages instituted that men pray with a minyan and in a synagogue, but they did not institute that women pray with a minyan. Clearly there is value in praying with a minyan in a synagogue for women as well, because the divine Presence dwells within the minyan and the synagogue is a place dedicated for prayer. Additionally, if a woman prays with a minyan she has the opportunity to answer “amen” Kaddish and Ḥazarat Ha-shatz, to participate in the recitation of Kedusha and Modim, and to hear Birkat Kohanim. Nevertheless, the Sages did not institute prayer with a minyan for women, in order to prevent conflict between the obligations prayer with a minyan in a synagogue and care for her family, for devotion to the family is more important (above, 3:2). As we learned, women are obligated to pray because they too must ask for mercy.1<i class="footnote">This is based on Ramban’s approach, as explained above, 2:2 n. 1, where we learned that according to Ramban and most poskim, the Sages instituted Shaḥarit and Minḥa as obligatory for women. Even though these prayers are time-bound mitzvot, women are required to recite them, since they too must request mercy. Rambam (according to the accepted interpretation) maintains that prayer is a biblical commandment independent of time, whose obligation is once a day, regarding which women are commanded from the Torah. Following the establishment of the specific times for the prayers by the Sages, women must also pray at the designated times for Shaḥarit or Minḥa, as explained above, 2:3 n. 2.   </i> However, the institution of prayer with a minyan is not linked to the actual request for mercy; rather, it is an separate matter mitzva that demands more time. Women are thus exempt (see above, 3:8-9, regarding the conceptual difference between men’s and women’s prayer).
  On Shabbat and festivals, when there is more free time, many women habitually pray in the synagogue. Likewise, there are women, mainly older women no longer burdened by family demands, who enhance the mitzva by praying every day in the synagogue. Below (20:1-2; 22:7) we will expand on the virtue of prayer with a minyan in a synagogue.
  
  Section 2
  
  The Place of Prayer / Establishing a Regular Place to Pray
  It is a mitzva to designate a permanent place for prayer. This is what the patriarch Avraham did, as it is written: “Avraham woke up early in the morning [to go] to the place where he had stood (amad) before God” (Bereishit 19:27), implying that he had a regular place where he would stand before God. The primary importance of establishing a place to pray pertains to the recitation of the Amida (lit. “standing”) prayer (Ben Ish Ḥai, Miketz 4).
  The designation of a place of prayer expresses the complete connection that we have with God. Everything else in the world can change, but one’s connection to God is the most permanent and stable reality and should therefore transpire at a fixed place. The Sages say: “Whoever sets a place to pray is helped by the God of Avraham, and his enemies fall to him” (Berakhot 6b, 7b; see Maharal, Netiv Ha-avoda, ch. 4).
  Men fulfill this mitzva by establishing a set place to pray in the synagogue (SA 90:19). Women fulfill it by establishing a permanent place to pray at home, a place where she tries to pray constantly. A woman whose house bustles with people or children should set a place to pray in a secluded corner, so that her concentration is not disrupted (see SA 90:20).
  One must pray in a room with a window, and le-khatḥila it is good that a window opens toward Jerusalem, so that if her kavana is disrupted, she can look up towards the heavens (SA 90:4; MB 90:8). However, one should not establish her place of prayer next to a window with a view of the public domain, for whatever is happening on the street is likely to disturb her prayer (SA 90:20).
  If she is in a place with no windows, she should pray in a well-lit place, since some poskim explain that the reason for praying in a room with windows is because the light that comes in settles the thoughts of the person praying (Talmidei Rabbeinu Yona); therefore, good lighting can be considered a substitute for a window.
  
  Section 3
  
  The Place of Prayer / Praying next to a Wall
  Ideally there should be no barrier between one praying the Amida and the wall, so that nothing distracts her from prayer. Permanent furniture standing against the wall, such as a closed cupboard, is not considered a barrier since it does not cause distraction, and le-khatḥila one may pray next to it (SA 90:21; MB 63:65).
  Pieces of furniture which were made for praying purposes, like shtenders (lecterns), are not considered barriers. Likewise, a table on which one puts her siddur is not considered a barrier. However, when the table is of no use, it should not be allowed to divide the person praying from the wall (MB 90:66; Peninei Halakha: Prayer, ch. 3 n. 6).
  If a person is standing between a woman praying and the wall, if that person is also engaged in prayer, he is not considered a barrier. However, if he is not engaged in prayer, he is indeed considered a barrier (SA 90:22; Rav Kook in Tov Ro’i on Berakhot 5b).
  It is not proper to pray facing pictures, lest it be a distraction (SA 90:23). However, if the picture is above eye level it is permitted, for then there is no concern that people will be distracted by it while praying (MA 90:37; MB 71).
  One may not pray facing a mirror because one who does so looks like she is bowing to her own reflection. Therefore, even if she were to close her eyes, it is still forbidden (MB 90:71). Le-khatḥila, one should not pray at night in front of a window in which her image is reflected, since looking at her reflection will likely disturb her kavana. But if there is no alternative, she should close her eyes or look in the siddur. Since the window does not reflect her image clearly like a mirror does, she does not really seem to be bowing to her reflection (see Peninei Halakha: Prayer, ch. 3 n. 7).
  
  Section 4
  
  The Place of Prayer / One May Not Pray in a High Place
  One who stands before God in prayer should know that her existence and all of life’s blessings are dependent on God’s kindness and that God is not required to fulfill her requests; hence, she should stand before Him humbly. That is what the Sages meant when they said (Berakhot 10b): “One may not stand on a chair, on a stool, or on any other high place and pray, because there is no haughtiness before the Omnipresent, as it says (Tehilim 130:1): ‘From the depths I called You, Lord.’” The Talmud (Ta’anit 23b) relates a story about R. Yona who was known as a righteous person whose prayers were answered. When he was asked to pray for rain, he went to a low place in order to fulfill the verse: “From the depths I called You, Lord.” He prayed there until he was answered and rain began to fall. For that reason, it is customary in some congregations that the ḥazan’s place is lower. This also explains why the ḥazan is described as “descending before the ark” (“yored lifnei ha-teiva”).
  As a rule, the Sages prohibited an elevated place higher than three tefaḥim (c. 24 cm) above the ground. However, in practice, it is forbidden to pray even on a less elevated place, for two reasons. First, one standing on a stepstool or rock even only one tefaḥ in height is worried about losing her balance and cannot have the proper kavana while praying. Second, if the floor is even, elevating oneself on pillows, cushions, or anything else suggests a sense of haughtiness, and it is improper to pray in such a manner. Nevertheless, praying on rugs and mats which are normally laid out on the floor is permitted le-khatḥila. Likewise, one who prays on uneven ground may stand on the elevated parts, as long as they are not three tefaḥim higher than the rest of their surroundings (Peninei Halakha: Prayer, ch. 3 n. 4).
  A sick or elderly person who has trouble getting out of bed may pray in bed, even though it is elevated from the ground, for that does not display haughtiness.
  If the high place stands on its own – for instance, it is wider than four amot by four amot (c. two meters by two meters) – one may pray on it, because it is not measured in relation to other places. Rather it is considered its own domain. Even an area which is smaller than four amot squared is considered to be its own domain if it is surrounded by partitions, and it is permissible to pray on it.
  
  Section 5
  
  The Place of Prayer / One May Not Pray Near His Primary Rabbi
  One may not recite the Amida prayer too close to his primary rabbi (“rav muvhak”), for if he prays alongside him, and certainly in front of him, he presents himself as his rabbi’s equal at least. On the other hand, he may not pray behind his rabbi, for should the rabbi finish praying before he does, the rabbi will feel uncomfortable because he cannot take three steps backwards – and it would be terrible for one to make his mentor feel uncomfortable. Furthermore, the student may appear as though he is bowing down to his rabbi (SA 90:24; MB 74).
  If the student distances himself by four amot (c. two meters), it is permitted. However, if he prays behind his rabbi, he must distance himself four amot and another three paces (c. 60 cm), so that even if he were to prolong his prayer, his rabbi would be able to take three steps backwards.
  Who is considered one’s primary rabbi? The one from whom she has learned the majority of her wisdom in one area of the Torah. One of the great Torah leaders of the generation has the same status. 
  Likewise, the rabbi of a place is considered a primary rabbi (AHS YD 242:29; see also Peninei Halakha: Prayer, ch. 3 n. 8). Some say that during the time period that one is learning from a certain rabbi, even if he did not teach her most of her knowledge, at that time, the teacher has the status of her primary rabbi (Divrei Malkiel 2:74).
  Concerning a rabbanit (a rabbi’s wife, who is often a teacher and religious guide in her own right), there is a prohibition on praying alongside her in two situations: 1. when she is married to one’s rav muvhak or to one of the prominent Torah leaders of the generation, and her main goal is to assist her husband in his sacred mission; and 2. when she herself is an educator and most of her students’ Torah knowledge or teaching has come from her, in which case, her students must relate to her as they would to a rav muvhak.
  Some say that these rulings apply only in a situation where the student chooses to pray next to the rabbanit. But if they were seated near each other in the women’s section, she may pray there, for there is no question of arrogance on the part of the student. In times of need, one may rely on this opinion (Peninei Halakha: Prayer, ch. 3 n. 9). Certainly when the rabbanit invites the student to sit next to her or agrees to the student sitting next to her there is no prohibition or concern of arrogance on the part of the student, and she may pray there.
  
  Section 6
  
  The Place of Prayer / Prayer in Open Areas
  One should not recite the Amida in an open area, and one who does so is called “insolent” (Berakhot 34b), because in an open area one’s thoughts scatter, whereas in a private place place the King’s awe is upon her and her heart is humbled (SA 90:5). Furthermore, in an open space, there is concern that people will pass by and disturb her concentration. Those who are traveling may pray along their way, and if there are trees there, it is better to pray among them (MB 90:11). Similarly, it is preferable to pray next to a wall than in a completely open area (Eshel Avraham [Buczacz] 90:5). A courtyard surrounded by walls is considered a private place, almost like a house, since the defining factor is the presence of walls, not a ceiling (MB 90:12).
  It is permissible le-khatḥila to pray in the plaza of the Kotel (the Western Wall) because it is surrounded by walls on three sides. Moreover, the holiness of the site reinforces one’s love and awe of God, causing one’s prayer to be said with more kavana. The patriarch Yitzḥak did this when he recited Minḥa on Mount Moriah, which was then an open field, as it says: “Yitzḥak went out to meditate in the field” (Bereishit 24:63; Berakhot 26b; Midrash Tehillim §81).
  It is forbidden to pray in front of a synagogue because if person praying faces the direction of Jerusalem, her back will be disrespectfully turned towards the synagogue. If she faces the synagogue, her back will be turned to Jerusalem, in the opposite direction towards which the congregants inside are praying. However, one may pray alongside the synagogue or behind it when facing Jerusalem (SA 90:7).
  
  Section 7
  
  The Place of Prayer / Cleanliness of the Area from Excrement and Foul Odors
  It is forbidden to say or think about sacred matters in a place that contains feces or other foul-smelling substances, as the Torah states: “You will return and cover your excrement. This is because Lord your God walks among you in your camp…. Your camp must therefore be holy” (Devarim 23:14-15). This law contains many details, and we will learn only a few of them.
  Anything within four amot (c. two meters) of a person is considered to be within her “camp.” Hence, if there is excrement within her four amot, her camp is not holy and she may not pray there. If the excrement is in front of her, as long as she sees it, she may not pray. If the smell spreads, she must distance herself four amot from the place where the smell dissipates. Even one whose sense of smell is impaired must distance herself, like one who smells the odor (SA 79:1).
  This law applies to anything rancid whose stench revolts people. Thus, one must distance herself from a carcass and from malodorous animal dung just as she must distance herself from human feces (MB 79:23). Foul-smelling vomit has the same status as excrement, but if it does not stink, some rule leniently and do not consider it like feces (see MB 76:20 and Ishei Yisrael 51:12).
  When the odor spreads to another domain, for example, from the bathroom into the next room, one may not recite sacred words anywhere that the smell pervades. Some poskim are stringent and maintain that even when the foul odor comes from another domain, one must move four amot away from the place where the smell ends, and le-khatḥila this opinion is worth following (MB 79:17 and Kaf Ha-ḥayim 79:1; Peninei Halakha: Prayer, ch. 3 n. 10).
  
  Section 8
  
  The Place of Prayer / What is the Law Be-di’avad?
  If one recited the Amida within four amot of feces, she did not fulfill her obligation, and the Amida must be repeated. Even if she was unaware that there was excrement there, but there was a reasonable concern that the place would contain excrement, she acted negligently by not examining the cleanliness of the place before praying, and therefore she did not fulfill her obligation. However, if the place was unlikely to contain excrement, since she was not required to check, she fulfilled her obligation (SA 76:8; MB 76:31 and 81:13).
  The poskim disagree about one who recited berakhot within four amot of excrement. Some say that because she transgressed a biblical prohibition, she did not fulfill her obligation and must repeat all the berakhot (MB 185:7; BHL ad loc.). Others maintain that the Sages are only strict about the recitation of Shema and the Amida, but concerning other berakhot, be-di’avad she fulfilled her obligation (Ḥayei Adam 3:33; Kitzur SA 5:10; Kaf Ha-ḥayim 76:37, 185:14). Since this is a matter of dispute concerning berakhot, and repeating the berakha raises concerns about making a berakha le-vatala, the principle of leniency in matters of uncertainty about berakhot (“safek berakhot le-hakel”) applies, and she may not repeat the berakha. It is best that she meditates on the words of the berakha, for some poskim maintain that one fulfills the obligation to recite a berakha just by thinking it (Rambam), and the prohibition to recite a berakha le-vatala does not apply to thought.
  
  Section 9
  
  The Place of Prayer / The Law Concerning a Baby
  Feces of young infants do not smell that bad and therefore it does not have the status of excrement. When a child reaches the age that he can eat a kezayit of cereal grain within a shi’ur akhilat pras (the time it takes to eat half a loaf of bread; c. 6-7 minutes), one must distance herself from the excrement as she would from an adult’s excrement (SA 81:1); some write that this starts at one year of age. Speaking sacred words near a baby’s feces is only permitted in extenuating circumstances. Le-khatḥila it is better to distance oneself from the excrement of even a week-old baby when speaking sacred words (MB 81:3; Kaf Ha-ḥayim 1:6).
  When praying near a baby at least one year old who is still in diapers, one should first make sure that no foul odor is present. If there is a foul odor and it reaches the person praying, she must stop her prayers. However, as long as the child does not smell, she may pray near him, for even if he did defecate, since the feces are covered in a diaper and clothing and there is no scent, it is not forbidden to speak sacred words near him.1<i class="footnote">The poskim disagree about feces that are in a different domain or are covered. All agree that it is forbidden to speak sacred words anywhere the odor reaches. The dispute is about whether it is necessary to distance oneself by four amot from the place where the smell ends. Some are stringent, though most poskim are lenient (see Peninei Halakha: Prayer, ch. 3 n. 10). This also applies to the feces of a baby that are covered in a diaper and undergarments: one may not speak sacred words anywhere the foul odor reaches, and the poskim disagree about whether one must distance herself by an additional four amot from there. If the baby’s odor is completely undetectable, there is no need to move away, and it has the status of covered feces (SA 79:1-2). Therefore, as long as one does not smell a bad odor from the child, there is no need to check the child’s diaper; this is the prevalent custom. MA 81:1 rules very stringently that one may not pray next to a baby under any circumstances. However, this opinion was not accepted by most poskim, as explained in SAH 76:6 and Kaf Ha-ḥayim 81:7.R. Shlomo Zalman Auerbach (Halikhot Shlomo: Prayer 20:4-5) also rules that one may pray near a baby who does not smell and there is no need to check him. However he adds a novel insight: If the person praying knows that the baby defecated in his diaper, the diaper has the status of a graf shel re’i (a vessel that holds feces, such as a chamber pot), which in turn has the status of actual feces even if it does not smell. Thus, one must move four amot away from a baby with a dirty diaper unless there is another piece of clothing on top of the diaper and there is no foul odor. If the baby urinated in his diaper, even if he is not wearing clothes, one may pray near him as long as there is no foul smell. Some disagree and maintain that since diapers are either disposable or cloth, and is thrown out or laundered after each use, they are not considered a graf shel re’i (R. Nisim Karelitz, cited in Ve-zot Ha-berakha p. 150. R. Auerbach further states that one may bring a baby to synagogue when he is diapered and dressed, and there is no need to be concerned that he might defecate. </i>
  When a woman is in the middle of the Amida and her child comes to her with a dirty, smelly diaper, she may not continue praying. If someone else can take care of the child, she must signal with her hands that they should distance the child from her, and then she can continue her prayers. However, when no one else is present to care for the child at that moment, she should, if possible, place him in a crib or in a different room where he can play until she completes her prayer. If no such option is available – for example, if the child is crying and requires her attention – since she is prohibited from continuing to pray while he is next to her anyway, she must stop praying, clean the child, change his diaper, and wash her hands. She should try to return to her prayer as quickly as possible, because if the interruption is shorter than the time it takes for her to recite the whole Amida, she may continue praying from the place where she stopped. If in her estimation, however, the interruption lasts longer that the time it would take her to recite the entire Amida, from start to finish, she must begin the Amida from the beginning (SA 104:5).
  If a soiled child approaches a woman while she is reciting a short berakha, she should distance herself from him to a place where the odor cannot be smelled and then finish the berakha. If she is reciting Birkat Ha-mazon, which takes more time to say, and she cannot distance herself from him long enough to complete all four berakhot of Birkat Ha-mazon because he is crying and she needs to pick him up to calm him down, since she cannot continue her berakha while she smells his excrement anyway, she should clean him, change his diaper, wash her hands, and continue from the beginning of the berakha at which she stopped (SA 65:1; BHL 183:6, s.v. “Afilu”).
  
  Section 10
  
  The Place of Prayer / Additional Laws
  A woman who is facing the bathroom may recite sacred words and pray as the door is closed and no foul odor reaches her. If the door is open, she may not pray there. However, if her back or side is turned towards the bathroom, as long as no foul smell reaches her, she may pray and recite sacred words (SA 83:1; MB 83:5).
  Occasionally, a sewer emits a stench into a nearby home or synagogue. In such a case, it is forbidden to pray inside. Sometimes closing the windows that face the sewer helps, and if the odor lingers, air freshener can be used to eliminate it. In the past, people would eliminate a stench by burning a garment (Kaf Ha-ḥayim 79:20).
  The status of a particular smell depends on accepted local norms. In the past, sewage, including feces and urine, would flow alongside streets, and the air in crowded cities was full of foul odors. Even so, prayers would be recited in synagogues and houses near the sewage canals because everyone was accustomed to them and did not consider them foul. Only on summer days or when the sewage canals were clogged would the stench intensify to the point that people would not pray nearby (see MB 79:5). Nowadays, however, sewage is drained, the air is purer, and we are more sensitive to bad smells; hence, wherever we sense a foul odor by today’s standards, it is forbidden to pray.
  Similarly, in farming communities, the smell from the barns and chicken coops that regularly reaches homes and synagogues is not considered by the local residents to be a bad smell. The same smell in the city may be considered foul, and it is prohibited to pray as long as it persists. Those who are guests in communities like these should follow the local custom.
  People who pray outside must be careful not to pray in close proximity to garbage bins that smell bad. Even when the garbage cans do not emit a foul odor, it is proper not to pray within four amot of them or facing them.
  
  Section 11
  
  The Place of Prayer / The Prohibition of Reciting Sacred Words in the Presence of “Erva”
  It is prohibited to recite sacred words in the presence of erva (nakedness), as the Torah states: “Your camp must therefore be holy. Let Him not see any erva among you and turn away from you” (Devarim 23:15). Regarding a man who sees another man or a woman who sees another woman, it is only prohibited to recite sacred words in view of the other’s privates. Therefore, if a woman is sitting on the floor or a chair in a manner that conceals her private part, even if she is naked, another woman may pray or speak sacred words in her presence (MB 75:8).
  However, from the perspective of modesty, it is not proper for a woman to sit without clothing (above, 4:2). When necessary, it is permissible, and in such a case there is no prohibition for another woman to recite sacred words in her presence.
  Concerning a man who sees a woman, the Sages teach (Berakhot 24b), “A tefaḥ of a woman is considered erva.” What they meant is that it is forbidden to reveal any part of a woman’s body which is normally covered, and that if such a part is exposed, one may not speak sacred words its presence (the specifics of this rule are explained in SA §75 and in Peninei Halakha: Collected Essays IIICollected Essays III 6:3-6).
  Although we must educate girls to dress modestly starting from a young age, the prohibition against speaking sacred words in the presence of a tefaḥ that is normally covered begins when the girl begins to mature (ibid. 6:7).
  Likewise, regarding the hair on one’s head, the Sages teach: “A woman’s hair is erva” (Berakhot 24a). This refers to a married woman, and if her hair is not covered, a man may not recite sacred words in her presence (the specific of the laws of hair covering are detailed in Peninei Halakha: Collected Essays III 6:14-15).
  A man who must pray, recite berakhot, or learn Torah and finds himself in the presence of a woman who is revealing a tefaḥ of areas that are normally covered, le-khatḥila, he should turn away so that he cannot see her. If he cannot turn away, he must look into his siddur, or close his eyes, and only then speak sacred words (SA 75:6; MB 75:1, 29).
  Concerning hair covering, some Aḥaronim write that since, unfortunately, many married women do not cover their hair, uncovered hair has become, to some degree, something that not everyone is accustomed to covering, and be-di’avad one may speak sacred words in its presence. This only pertains to hair, regarding which has a more lenient status than other normally covered parts, as single women are not obligated to cover their hair. However, concerning the normally covered parts of the body, which even single women must cover, as we have learned, one may not be lenient; rather, he must close his eyes or look in a siddur (AHS 75:7; Ben Ish Ḥai, Bo 12; Igrot Moshe OḤ 1:44; see Peninei Halakha: Collected Essays III 6:16).
  Similarly, a man may not recite sacred words near a woman who is singing (SA 75:3). However, according to some Aḥaronim, be-di’avad, hearing a female singer on the radio does not prohibit reciting matters of sanctity (see ibid. 6:11).
  
  
  
  
  
  Section 1
  
  The Amida / Three Steps toward Prayer
  During the Amida prayer we stand before God, the King of kings. This is not the case regarding other berakhot and prayers: although all prayers must be recited with solemnity and kavana, they are not on the same level as the Amida, in which we stand before the King. Therefore, the Sages instituted special halakhot that pertain solely to the Amida prayer.
  In order to express one’s desire to come closer to God and to stand before Him, we customarily take three steps toward the Amida prayer (Rema 95:1). After finishing these steps, one stands in place and only then recites the verse “Ado-nai sefatai tiftaḥ u-fi yagid tehilatekha” (“My Lord, open my lips and my mouth will speak your praises”; Tehilim 51:7), since that verse is part of the Amida.
  One who goes to synagogue or prays in a designated place in her house has already taken more than three steps to get there, and therefore need not take another three steps prior to praying the Amida (Eliya Rabba). Some poskim say that it is proper even for one who already walked to her place of prayer to take another three steps forward, immediately before beginning the Amida, if a significant amount of time has elapsed since she arrived at her place of prayer (Ben Ish Ḥai, Be-shalaḥ 3; Kaf Ha-ḥayim 95:7). However, because it is not appropriate to take three steps back and immediately afterwards three steps forward, one who wishes to be meticulous about this should take three steps back a short time before the Amida, and, after waiting a bit, take three steps forward to begin the Amida (Minhagei Maharil; MB 95:3).
  
  Section 2
  
  The Amida / Facing Jerusalem
  While reciting all the various berakhot and prayers, it is permissible to face in any direction. However, when one stands before the King of the world in the Amida, she must turn to face Jerusalem, the place that God chose to manifest His Presence in the world.
  One who stands in prayer outside of Eretz Yisrael must face the land and direct her heart toward Jerusalem, the site of the Temple, and the Kodesh Ha-kodashim (the Inner Sanctum of the Temple). If is in Eretz Yisrael, she must face Jerusalem and direct her heart toward the Temple and the Kodesh Ha-kodashim. If she is in Jerusalem, she faces the site of the Temple and directs her heart toward the Kodesh Ha-kodashim (Berakhot 30a; SA 94:1).
  Therefore, those reciting the Amida in the women’s section of the plaza facing the Kotel must turn diagonally toward the left, toward the exact site of the Temple.
  In synagogues, it is customary to position the aron kodesh (the ark) against the wall that faces Jerusalem, so that those standing in prayer also pray towards the direction of the ark. However, the primary objective is to pray in the direction of Jerusalem. Therefore, if due to error, or because of circumstances beyond control, the ark does not exactly face Jerusalem, the people praying should turn to face the direction of Jerusalem (MB 94:9). Likewise, someone standing in the women’s section must face Jerusalem, even if this is not the direction of the ark (MB 94:10).
  One who does not know the direction of Jerusalem may pray in whichever direction she desires while directing her heart towards her Father in heaven (SA 94:3). Even if she subsequently discovers that she was mistaken, she need not repeat her prayer.1<i class="footnote">MB 94:10 rules that one who mistakenly starts praying in the wrong direction may not change direction, so as not to interrupt her prayer by moving in the middle of the Amida. Only if she is so embarrassed in front of the people around her that it is disturbing her kavana may she move to face Jerusalem (see Kaf Ha-ḥayim 94:7). </i>
  
  Section 3
  
  The Amida / Standing and Putting One’s Feet Together
  There is a unique law regarding the Amida: it must be recited while standing. When one stands, she summons her complete being, from head to toe, to prayer. In addition, standing expresses the reverence and awe felt toward the King of the world. Therefore, one must not lean against anything while reciting the Amida, for anyone who is even partially supported is not standing in awe. In extenuating circumstances, for instance, if one is weak and must lean against something, she should try to lean only slightly, such that if the support should be taken from her, she would remain standing on her own. In that way, although she is not standing in fear, she is at least considered to be praying in a standing position (SA 94:8; MB 22).
  One must put her legs together so that they look like one leg. The reason for this is that the separation of one’s legs exposes one’s material side and represents the pursuit of worldly matters. Thus, we keep our feet together in prayer just like the kohanim who, in their ascent of the altar, would walk heel-to-toe to avoid spreading their legs. Furthermore, putting one’s legs together symbolizes the annulling of the powers in one’s legs, demonstrating that we have but one desire, to stand before Him in prayer. The Sages learn this from the angels, of whom it is said: “Their legs are a straight leg” (Yeḥezekel 1:7), meaning that their legs were placed so close together that they appeared as one leg (Berakhot 10b; y. Berakhot 1:1; see Maharal, Netiv Ha-avoda §6).
  One must put the entire length of her foot next to the other so that they will seem like one leg to the extent possible, and not merely put her heels together (SA 95:1; Talmidei Rabbeinu Yona). However, be-di’avad, if one prayed with her feet apart, she still fulfilled her obligation (MB ad loc. 1; Kaf Ha-ḥayim 2). Someone who has trouble putting her feet together fully should place them together to the degree possible.
  One who is ill and cannot stand may recite the Amida while sitting. If she is unable to sit, she may pray while lying down (MB 94:27; Kaf Ha-ḥayim 34).
  Even one who must recite the Amida while sitting or lying down should try to put her feet together and bow her head at the appropriate places. When one sitting in a wheelchair finishes her prayer, she should wheel herself slightly backwards, approximately the distance of the three steps with which a healthy person would take leave of her prayer (based on Rema 94:5).
  
  Section 4
  
  The Amida / Placement of the Body and Hands
  One reciting the Amida must bow her head slightly, so that her eyes point humbly downwards; she must imagine herself standing in the Temple and direct her heart toward heaven (Yevamot 105b; SA 95:2).
  The kabbalists praise one who prays with her eyes closed. However, even one who looks into her siddur follows the law le-khatḥila. Many Aḥaronim recommend praying from a siddur, so that one can have more kavana in her prayer (MB 95:5; Kaf Ha-ḥayim 9-10; and see BHL, quoting Ma’amar Mordechai).
  Regarding one’s hands, Rambam writes (MT, Laws of Prayer 5:4) that one should place her hands on her heart while interlocked, right over left, so that she stands as a slave before her master, in awe and fear. This is also the opinion of SA 95:3 and Kavanot Ha-Ari (Kaf Ha-ḥayim 95:12). Many maintain that the placement of the hands depends on local custom; where Rambam lived, it was indeed customary to stand before kings and ministers in the manner he described. However, people in other areas practiced differently. For instance, in Christian lands people customarily stood with their arms folded, while in Islamic land they would stand with their hands behind their backs, symbolically indicating that they do not even have their hands without the consent of the One Who they face in prayer (Mahari Aboab, cited by Beit Yosef; MB 95:6). Nowadays, according to this, in addition to what Rambam wrote, it is also permissible to stand with one’s hands adjacent to her body or holding a siddur, or resting on a table next to her siddur, for that, too, is considered standing respectfully. However, one should not stand with her hands in her pockets or on her hips, for it is inappropriate to stand that way in front of respected people.
  Many people are accustomed to “shuckling” (swaying) while reciting the Amida. Rema writes (§48; MB 95:7) that this is the proper way to practice le-khatḥila, as it expresses the excitement and trepidation of the prayer experience, and in order to involve one’s whole body in the service of prayer, as the verse states: “All my bones will say: ‘God, who is like You?’” (Tehilim 35:10). In contrast, Shlah states that one should not sway during prayer. On the contrary, standing motionless strengthens one’s kavana. Furthermore, it says it is not respectful to sway. If one were to come before a human king and begin to shake his whole body, the king would dismiss him immediately. If so, one should certainly not act that way in prayer. Shlah explains that the recommendation to sway applies specifically to Torah study or to singing songs and praise. However, during the intense and inward-focused Amida, in which we stand before the King, it is not proper to move at all; only one’s lips may move (Shlah, Masekhet Tamid, Ner Mitzva). Since each custom has opinions on which to rely, every person may practice in the manner that allows her to concentrate the best (MA, MB 48:5; and see Kaf Ha-ḥayim 48:7-9).
  
  Section 5
  
  The Amida / Bowing During the Amida
  The Sages instituted bowing in five places in the Amida: at the beginning and end of Avot, at the beginning and end of Modim, and at the end of the Amida, when one takes three steps backwards. They specifically chose those two berakhot because they are the most important, and while reciting them one must try harder to concentrate properly (see SA 101:1; MB 3). If one wants to bow at the beginning or end of another berakha, she is taught not to, so as not to undermine what the Sages instituted and so that she does not appear as an arrogant person who considers herself more righteous than others. However, one may bow in the middle of one of the berakhot (SA 113:1; MB 2, see Peninei Halakha: Prayer, ch. 17 n. 3).
  One bows when saying “Barukh Ata” and straightens when saying “Hashem.” For Modim, she bows when saying “Modim anaḥnu lakh” and straightens when saying “Hashem” (SA 113:7; MB 12; for the laws on bowing down at the end of the Amida, see below, section 11).
  One must bow so low that the vertebrae in one’s spine protrude from her back. One bends her head low so that it is below the level of her heart and above waist-level, but no lower, as it would appear arrogant. One should bow quickly, demonstrating her desire to bow before God, and straighten herself slowly, like one who wants to keep bowing before God (SA 113:6). An elderly or ill person who has difficulty bending down should nod her head as much as she can (SA 113:5).
  Regarding how one bows, there are two customs. According to the Ashkenazic custom, when one says “barukh” she bends her knees and when she says “Ata” she bows until her vertebrae protrude. At Modim, the word “Barukh” is not recited, so one bows without first bending her knees (MB 113:12; and see Kitzur SA 18:1). The Sephardim practice according to Arizal’s custom and bow down in two stages. First, one bends her body (without bending her knees) and then her head. Similarly, when she straightens herself, she first straightens her body and then her head (Kaf Ha-ḥayim 113:21).
  
  Section 6
  
  The Amida / Praying Silently
  We learn many essential halakhot from the prayer of Ḥana, who stood and begged God to remember her and grant her a son. Her prayer was accepted and she merited giving birth to Shmuel the prophet, who was the greatest prophet of Israel behind Moshe. The verse states: “Ḥana spoke to her heart, only her lips moved, and her voice was not heard” (1 Shmuel 1:13). The Sages teach: “‘Spoke to her heart’ – from here [we learn] that the person praying must focus his heart. ‘Only her lips moved’ – from here [we learn] that the person praying must articulate the words. ‘Her voice was not heard’ – from here [we learn] that it is prohibited to raise one’s voice while praying” (Berakhot 31a).
  The idea behind the Amida prayer is to express the soul’s deepest aspirations before God, and therefore it is not proper to recite the words aloud and to disclose them outwardly. On the other hand, one does not fulfill her obligation with thought alone, since every idea must possess some tangible expression in this world. Very often, our inner desires are praiseworthy, but their outer expression is flawed. Therefore, our task is to express our inner good will outwardly, thereby repairing the world. Hence, even the subtlest mitzva like prayer, requires some sort of expression – the silent articulation of the words with one’s lips.
  There are different practices regarding the proper way to pray silently. According to most poskim and a few kabbalists, one reciting the Amida must utter the words in such a way that only she hears her voice but those praying next to her do not (SA 101:2; MB 5-6). According to most kabbalists, the Amida is so intense and internal that one should not even hear her own words; she should only mouth the letters with her lips (Kaf Ha-ḥayim 101:8). The woman praying may choose the way which enables her to have the most kavana in her prayer.
  Be-di’avad, even if one recites the Amida out loud, she fulfills her obligation. Therefore, if one who has difficulty concentrating silently is praying alone, in a place where she will not disturb the prayer of others, she may pray aloud. However, even in that situation, she should not raise her voice, for one who does so behaves like the false prophets who think that their gods are hard of hearing and that one must yell in order to be heard (Berakhot 24b).
  On the Days of Awe, there are parts of the Amida where it is customary to raise one’s voice slightly, and one need not be concerned that she is disturbing others around her because on those days everyone has maḥzorim (SA 101:3). Nevertheless, even in those places, one who wishes to enhance the mitzva prays silently.
  Regarding the other sections of the prayer service, such as Birkhot Keri’at Shema and Pesukei De-zimra, which are not as inward-focused and intense as the Amida, all agree that the person praying must hear the words she is reciting. Be-di’avad, if she only mouthed the words without hearing them, she fulfilled her obligation, but if she thought the words in her mind, without even mouthing them, she did not fulfill her obligation.
  
  Section 7
  
  The Amida / In Any Language
  One may recite the Amida in any language (Sota 32a). However, it is best to pray in Hebrew, for that is the language in which the Men of the Great Assembly composed the prayers. Furthermore, Hebrew is the holy tongue and is the language with which the world was created.
  An additional advantage to praying in Hebrew, untrue of any other language, is that one may pray in Hebrew even if she does not understand it. As long as she understands the first verse of Shema and the first berakha of the Amida, she fulfills her obligation. In any other language, only one who understands what she is saying fulfills her obligation (MB 101:14 and 124:2).
  In practice, one who does not understand Hebrew may choose the language in which to pray. On one hand, there is an advantage to praying in a language that she understands, for it enables her to have more kavana. On the other hand, if she prays in Hebrew, she prays in the holy tongue (see BHL 101:4; Kaf Ha-ḥayim 16).1<i class="footnote">Indeed, according to Rif, only one who is reciting the Amida with a minyan may pray in another language. The reason for this is that the divine Presence dwells within a minyan; therefore her prayer will be accepted even if it is not in the holy tongue. However, the prayer of one who prays alone in a different language is not accepted. Nevertheless, most poskim agree with Rosh, who maintains that even one praying alone may pray in another language, as long as it is not Aramaic. This is the halakhic ruling (SA 101:4, based on the rule that the halakha follows the last “yesh omrim,” MB 18). </i>
  Permission to pray in other languages is granted only as a temporary measure (hora’at sha’ah), specifically for people who do not understand Hebrew. However, it is prohibited to organize a minyan of people who pray regularly in a different language. That was one of the sins of the Reform movement, which translated the prayers to German and caused their children to forget the holy tongue, leading the way to assimilation and the abandonment of Judaism (Ḥatam Sofer, OḤ 84 and 86; MB 101:13).
  
  Section 8
  
  The Amida / Kavana
  One reciting the Amida must have kavana, that is, she must pay attention to what she is saying and must try not to let her mind be distracted by anything else during the prayer. If other thoughts enter her mind, she must expel them and return to her prayer. Even if she does not succeed in concentrating on all of the words, she must at least try to have kavana for the conclusion of each berakha. If she cannot concentrate during all of the berakhot, she must make an effort to concentrate on Avot and Modim, for those are the berakhot in which we bow down at their beginning and at their end. At the very least, she must have kavana in Birkat Avot, the first berakha of the Amida (SA 101:1 and MB 1-3).
  If one recited the Amida but did not have kavana during Birkat Avot, technically she must repeat the Amida, because kavana during that berakha is requisite for fulfilling her obligation. However, due to the decline of generations and other preoccupations, our ability to concentrate has weakened. Therefore, the Aḥaronim rule that we do not repeat the Amida, since there is concern that even in reciting the Amida a second time, she will forget to have kavana during Birkat Avot, and her repetition will be for naught (Rema 101:1; Kaf Ha-ḥayim 4). Hence, one who knows that she will not be able to have kavana even for Birkat Avot should preferably not even begin the Amida. She should instead fulfill her obligation by reciting Birkhot Ha-shaḥar.1<i class="footnote">Even men who are sure that they will not be able to have kavana in Avot may not begin to pray, as explained in Peninei Halakha: Prayer, ch. 17 n. 5. All the more so women, who be-di’avad are allowed to fulfill their obligation by reciting Birkhot Ha-shaḥar, as explained above, 2:4-5. See also Peninei Halakha: Prayer, ch. 17 n. 6. The Aḥaronim explain that be-di’avad, even if one did not have kavana at all while reciting the Amida, since he did intend to fulfill the mitzva of prayer, he fulfills his obligation. So states Shibolei Ha-leket §17 in the name of the Rishonim. Similarly, Kaf Ha-ḥayim 101:4 states in the name of Ḥesed La-Avraham that the berakhot of one who prays without kavana are not berakhot le-vatala. This means that what he recited is considered prayer; however, because he lacked kavana, the Sages maintain that it is necessary for him to repeat the Amida. The proof for this is that one who realizes in the middle of the Amida that he did not have kavana for the first berakha does not immediately go back, which means that there is value to what he prayed without kavana. This is not true of one who realizes that he mistakenly mentioned rain in the summer, for in that case he is required to go back immediately. A woman who almost always has kavana but this time did not, and who is certain that when she repeats her prayer she will have kavana from the beginning of the Amida until the end, may repeat her prayer with the utmost kavana. It is best that she makes a stipulation that if the prevailing custom exempts her from repeating her prayer, it should be considered a voluntary prayer (tefilat nedava). </i>
  If one is about to finish Avot and notices that she did not have kavana in its recitation, as long as she has not yet said God’s name at the conclusion of the berakha, she goes back to “Elokei Avraham” and continues from there with kavana (MB 101:4, in the name of Ḥayei Adam). If she has already said God’s name, she concludes the berakha with kavana. It is preferable that she go back and think the words of Birkat Avot in her heart, for, in Rambam’s opinion, thought is considered speech (hirhur ke-dibur). However, if she already began the second beraka with the words “Ata gibor,” she continues to pray and must try to have kavana while reciting the remaining berakhot, especially Birkat Modim, for some poskim maintain that having kavana in Modim rectifies the lack of kavana in Avot.
  
  Section 9
  
  The Amida / The Order of the Berakhot of Shemoneh Esrei
  Shemoneh Esrei, the weekday Amida, is divided into three parts: praise, petition, and thanksgiving. While reciting the first three berakhot, we resemble slaves who offer words of praise before their master. While reciting the middle blessings we are like slaves who make requests of their master. When we recite the last three blessings, we are like slaves who gracefully accept reward from their master, then are dismissed and go on their way (Berakhot 34a).
  We learn this from the prayer of Moshe, which begins with praise before continuing to plead and petition (Berakhot 32a; also see below, 15:3). Without the introductory praise, there is concern that our prayer will resemble pagan worship, whose entire aim is to magically manipulate higher powers to work for one’s benefit. In contrast, we wish to serve God and devote ourselves to Him, and all we ask is that He bestows goodness and blessing upon us in abundance so that we can study Torah, perform mitzvot, and reveal His name in the world. Therefore, we must first recognize before Whom we stand in prayer. We stand before God, the great, the mighty, and the awesome, the One Who sustains life and resurrects the dead, the holy God. With that understanding, we can approach Him and pray with a pure heart for all of Israel and for ourselves (see Olat Re’iyah vol. 1, p. 14).
  The petitionary section, in which there are thirteen berakhot, contains and expresses the general aspirations of the Jewish people. They do not focus on the individual advancement of the person praying, but on the revelation of God’s glory in the world. Even our personal requests for health and livelihood are to enable us to participate in tikun olam. We ask for the following thirteen things: wisdom, repentance, forgiveness, redemption, health, livelihood, the ingathering of the Jews from exile (Kibbutz Galuyot), the restoration of justice, the destruction of those who hate us, the blessing for the righteous, the rebuilding of Jerusalem, the re-establishment of the Davidic dynasty, and finally, that our prayers be heard.
  After these requests, we end the Amida with three general berakhot, the centerpiece of which is Modim, a blessing of thanks for our our lives and for all the goodness that God constantly bestows upon us. It is accompanied by two other berakhot. In the first we pray for the restoration of the Temple service, and in the last we pray for peace, since peace is the vessel that contains all berakhot. It is important to note that the Men of the Great Assembly were precise about the order of the berakhot, and one who switches their order does not fulfill her obligation (see below, 13:1).
  In truth, Shemoneh Esrei (which means “eighteen”) is comprised of nineteen berakhot. When the Men of the Great Assembly first instituted the Amida, it was made up of eighteen berakhot. After the proliferation of slanderers and informers after the rise of Christianity and its preaching of hatred against the Jews, the Sages instituted an additional berakha, a prayer to save the nation from apostates and slanderers.1<i class="footnote">The Amida continued to be called “Shemoneh Esrei,” since this was its name originally. My teacher and master, R. Zvi Yehuda Kook, further explains that the essence of the Amida is, indeed, the eighteen berakhot that have inherent value as praise and petition. Only Birkat Ha-minim is about the uprooting of evil and therefore temporary, since the eradication of evil will render it unnecessary. Therefore the name of the Amida remains “Shemoneh Esrei” (quoted in Netiv Bina, vol. 1, p. 261). </i>
  
  Section 10
  
  The Amida / Personal Requests in the Amida
  The Men of the Great Assembly, in their wisdom and divine inspiration, incorporated all the ideal aspirations of the Jewish people in their formulation of the Amida. They meticulously chose every word until arriving at the perfect wording, with which the Jewish soul can pour itself out before the Creator in the most exalted manner possible (above, 1:6).
  Even so, if one wishes to add personal requests in the middle berakhot, she may. However, in the first three berakhot, which are intended to praise God, and in the last three, which are intended for thanksgiving, one may not add personal requests, so as not to detract from their general purpose (SA 112:1; 119:1).
  The personal requests permitted in the middle berakhot must be related to the theme of the berakha. For example, one may pray for the sick in Refa’enu, for livelihood in Birkat Ha-shanim, or for relatives to make aliya in the Kibbutz Galuyot. In this respect, Shomei’a Tefila is unique in that one may make all types of requests in it. Since it is the culmination of the petitionary berakhot, it encompasses them all. When one adds personal requests, she begins by reciting the fixed formulation and adds her request just before the last line of the berakha.
  Personal requests are not only permissible but even encouraged, according to many, since the personal prayers come from the depths of the heart and inspire kavana. Nevertheless, it is preferable that one not prolong her personal prayers excessively, not even in Shome’a Tefila, because the Amida is primarily focused on collective needs, and when one adds numerous personal requests, it negates the universal character of the Amida. It is better that one who wishes to add more personal prayers does so after finishing all the berakhot and saying (the first instance of) “Yihyu le-ratzon…” since everything recited after that is not fully part of the Amida. Nevertheless, since she has not yet taken three steps backwards, she is still standing before the Almighty in prayer, and her personal requests are joined together with the main part of the Amida (SA 119:2; MB 119:12).
  One must express her requests in the Amida properly. Therefore, when praying for the sick, the patient’s name should be mentioned. Le-khatḥila, it is good to mention the patient’s name along with his mother or father’s name. However, in the presence of the patient, it is unnecessary to mention his name, for her intention is clear (MB 119:2).
  
  Section 11
  
  The Amida / The Conclusion of the Amida and Three Steps Back
  In reciting the verse, “Yihyu le-ratzon…” (“May the expressions of my mouth and the thoughts of my heart find favor before You, God, my Rock, and my Redeemer”; Tehilim 19:15) right after completing the berakha for peace, we end the main part of the Amida. At this point, Elokai Netzor, a paragraph of personal pray, is customarily added. As we have learned, this is where one may add as much personal petition and supplication as she wants. It is said that R. Akiva would prolong his prayers extensively with supplications when praying alone (see Berakhot 31a).
  Upon the conclusion of the prayers of supplication, one recites Yihyu le-ratzon again and takes three steps backward, thereby departing the King’s presence. The Sages say that if one prays and does not depart from the Amida properly by taking three steps back and saying “Oseh shalom…,” it would have been better not to have prayed at all (Yoma 53b). One who does not take leave properly demonstrates that she does not understand that she was standing before the Almighty King, and she thus demeans prayer.
  After finishing the Amida, before beginning the three steps, one bows as she does during Modim (as explained in section 5 above), and while bowing she takes three steps backward. Still bowing, she then turns to her left and says, “Oseh shalom bi-mromav” (“May He Who makes peace in His high places…”), then to her right side and says, “Hu ya’aseh shalom aleinu” (make peace for us …”), and finally bows forward and says, “ve-al kol Yisrael, ve-imru Amen” (“and all of Israel; and say: ‘amen’”). She then straightens up slowly. Many people then recite the “Yehi ratzon” paragraph praying for the restoration of the Temple, since prayer corresponds to the Tamid sacrifice and we ask that the Temple be rebuilt so that we may bring this offering (SA, Rema 123:1).
  When stepping back, one takes the first step with the left leg – the weaker leg – thereby demonstrating her reluctance to take leave of her prayer. Each step should be the length of her foot, that is, she steps back toe-to-heel. The order of the steps is as follows: she first takes a small step with her left foot, so that the toes of her left foot abut her right heel. Then she takes a bigger step with her right foot, so that the toes of her right foot abut her left heel. Finally, she takes a small step with her left foot, so that her feet are even with each other. Her feet remain together while she recites Oseh shalom.
  One must be careful not to take a step shorter than the length of her foot (heel-to-toe), for some poskim maintain that less than that is not considered a step (MA). When there is not enough room behind her to take three steps, she steps to the side, making sure that each step is long enough (AHS 123:5). In extenuating circumstances, when there is no room to step backwards or sideways, she may rely on the opinions that three smaller steps are sufficient. However, one may not take less than the three steps with which one takes leave from the King’s presence (Baḥ, and see MB 123:14); nor may one take more than three steps, so as not to display arrogance (SA 123:4; Peninei Halakha: Prayer, ch. 17 n. 9). Likewise, it is not proper to take large steps, so as not to appear as though she wants to distance herself from the King (Rema 123:3; and see MB 16).
  
  Section 12
  
  The Amida / How Long Must One Stand at a Distance
  After taking three steps backwards, one must remain standing in that place. She may not immediately return to where she prayed the Amida, for if she does, she resembles a dog that returns to its vomit (Yoma 53b), since if she returns to stand before the King without any good reason, having just taken leave from Him, she shows that she did not understand that she was standing before the King and departed His presence. Her behavior is thus considered disgraceful. Some people compound this error by returning to their initial stance and then lifting their heels slightly, as one does when reciting Kedusha. There is no reason at all to do so.
  The proper practice is as follows: If one wishes to return to the place where she stood in prayer, she should wait in place for about half a minute to a minute and then do so. When necessary for her to return to the original place immediately, such as when she is blocking passage, she should wait a few seconds – the amount of time it takes to walk four amot – and then return (MB 123:11; Kaf Ha-ḥayim 20).  If she does not wish to return to her original place, she may go on her way immediately after reciting “Yehi ratzon.”
  A woman who is praying in a minyan must wait in place after taking three steps back until the ḥazan begins his repetition of the Amida (SA 123:2). According to most poskim, there is no need to remain standing with one’s feet together after reciting “Oseh shalom” (MB 123:6, BHL, and SHT ad loc.).  However, there are those who recommend remaining with one’s legs together until she returns to her place (Kitzur SA 18:13).
  
  Section 13
  
  The Amida / One Who Is Traveling When the Time to Pray Arrives
  If one who regularly prays Shaḥarit or Minḥa is driving a car when the time to pray arrives, she may not recite the Amida because she will not have proper kavana and may even endanger lives. Rather, she should pull over and only then pray.
  However, if she is a passenger, and she or the driver is in a hurry to get to the destination, she may recite the Amida while sitting, since if they stop so that she can pray standing, she will be preoccupied with finishing her prayers quickly and will not have proper kavana. Therefore, it is better that she pray Shemoneh Esrei while sitting, since, as we have seen (section 3 above), one who recites the Amida while sitting fulfills her obligation be-di’avad.
  Even one who is sitting while reciting the Amida must put her feet together (MB 95:2) and try to face Jerusalem (MB 94:15). At the times she is supposed to bow, she should straighten herself slightly and bow as much as she can (SA 94:5; AHS 18).
  When traveling by bus or train, both of which are more spacious than a car, if one can stand and concentrate properly, it is better that she stand for Shemoneh Esrei. However, if standing will disturb her kavana, whether because of the vehicle’s motion or because of the embarrassment in front of the other passengers, she may sit with her feet together and pray. If she is able to stand for a brief time to bow down, she should stand up, bow in the appropriate places, and then sit again. If possible, at the end of her prayer, she should stand and takes three steps backwards.1<i class="footnote">See SA 94:5. If one has two options, to stand with her feet apart or to sit with her feet together, it is preferable to stand. Similarly, it seems that it is preferable to pray while standing, even if not toward Jerusalem, than to pray while sitting facing Jerusalem (Peninei Halakha: Prayer, ch. 17 n. 12).  </i>
  
  Section 14
  
  The Amida / May One Pray while Sitting on a Regular Basis?
  As we have learned, the Sages established that Shemoneh Esrei is prayed while standing; one may only pray seated on a temporary basis, in times of need. Therefore, even if it is difficult for a man who travels to work every day to find time to pray while standing, he may not be lenient and regularly pray sitting. Only when he is in circumstances beyond his control is he permitted to pray on a regular basis while sitting.
  Are women also permitted to pray while sitting on a regular basis while they are in circumstances beyond their control? There are women who almost never have an opportunity to pray standing. Immediately upon rising in the morning they must take care of their children, bathe them, dress them, feed them, and send them off to nursery and to school. Then they must go to work to help support the family financially. They may not pray at work, because they cannot take from their boss’s time. The only time she can pray Shemoneh Esrei is while traveling to work, in a sitting position. What should she do?
  On one hand, since there are poskim who maintain that a woman may fulfill her obligation of prayer by reciting a brief prayer, it is best that she fulfills her obligation with Birkhot Ha-shaḥar and Birkhot Ha-Torah and refrain from regularly praying Shemoneh Esrei in a sitting position. On the other hand, since she has no other option, she is therefore permitted to pray Shemoneh Esrei on a regular basis while sitting. Additionally, this scenario is not considered a completely regular basis since on Shabbatot, festivals, and vacation days she must pray while standing.
  In practice, since there are opinions both ways, every woman may choose how she wants to practice. If she wishes to pray Shemoneh Esrei consistently every day, she can pray on her way to work while sitting. If she wants to fulfill her obligation by reciting a short prayer, she may. One who is uncertain what to do regarding her specific situation should ask a rabbi. On certain trains and buses that have comfortable places to stand, she should pray while standing le-khatḥila (Peninei Halakha: Prayer, ch. 17 n. 14).1<i class="footnote">The opinions concerning the obligation of women are explained above, 2:1-5. I have spoken to many rabbis regarding this matter. R. Dov Lior says that it is best to rely on the opinion of MA and that a woman should fulfill her obligation by praying Birkhot Ha-shaḥar and Birkhot Ha-Torah, whereas R. Naḥum Rabinovitch says that it is preferable to pray the full prayer while sitting.  </i>
  
  
  
  
  
  Section 1
  
  Additions, Errors, and Omissions in the Amida / Omissions and Errors in the Amida
  The Men of the Great Assembly fixed the prayer formula as a single unit, incorporating all main requests, and meticulously established the order of the berakhot of the Amida, basing its structure on biblical verses (Megilla 17b). Therefore, one who skips one of the berakhot of the Amida does not fulfill the mitzva of prayer. Even if she recites the full Amida, but rearranges the order of the berakhot, she does not fulfill her obligation (SA 119:3).
  Additionally, one who errs in one of the berakhot in a way that ruins the essence of the berakha – for example, by not reciting the berakha’s conclusion or by introducing something irrelevant, like a prayer for rain during the summer – is considered not to have recited that berakha at all (BHL 119:3). Likewise, one who forgets Ya’aleh Ve-yavo on Rosh Ḥodesh or on a festival must repeat that Amida with Ya’aleh Ve-yavo.
  These laws are the same for men and women; any situation in which a man must repeat his prayer, a woman must as well. Likewise, a circumstance in which a man must return to the berakha in which he erred, a woman must too (as explained in the next section). Even when a woman errs in an Amida she was not obligated to pray, she must repeat the Amida correctly. For example, if one who usually only prays Shaḥarit decides on a certain day to pray Minḥa too, but makes a mistake, she must repeat the Minḥa Amida correctly. Similarly, if one who normally prays Shaḥarit and Minḥa decides one day to pray Ma’ariv as well, but errs, she must repeat the Ma’ariv Amida correctly. Since she already began to pray, she must pray in the manner that the Sages prescribed and if she changes their formulations, she must repeat her prayer correctly.1<i class="footnote">There are poskim who maintain that she is not required to repeat and correct an Amida that she was not obligated to pray. However, the vast majority of poskim maintain that she must repeat the prayer, just as a man who erred in Ma’ariv must repeat the Amida even though it is voluntary (reshut). Yabi’a Omer 6:18 adds that le-khatḥila it is best that she stipulate in her heart that if she need not repeat the prayer, the second Amida is a voluntary prayer (tefilat nedava). (Still, Halikhot Shlomo 15 n. 5, maintains that if she does not normally praye and she forgets Ya’aleh Ve-yavo in Shaḥarit or Minḥa of Rosh Ḥodesh, she may choose whether to repeat and correct her prayer.) </i>
  
  Section 2
  
  Additions, Errors, and Omissions in the Amida / Error and Interruption in the Middle of the Amida
  A woman who realizes in the middle of the Amida that she skipped or made a mistake in one of the thirteen middle berakhot must return to that berakha and continue praying from that point on, in the correct order. Even though she repeats the berakhot that she already recited, since everything after that berakha was not recited in order, it is as if she did not say them at all, and she must recite them again in their correct sequence (Berakhot 34a according to Rashbam’s interpretation; SA 119:3).
  If she skips or errs in one of the first three berakhot or one of the last three berakhot, either by reciting the wrong words in one of these berakhot or by skipping one of them and incorrectly starting the next one, she must go back to the beginning of the three berakhot. Since the first three berakhot possess one theme, as do the last three berakhot (see above, 12:9), each section is considered one unit. Therefore, anyone who makes a mistake in one berakha is considered to have erred in all of them and must repeat all three from the beginning (Berakhot 34a; Rema 114:6; an example of this law appears below in section 8).
  One who completes the Amida and then remembers that she omitted or erred in one of the berakhot must repeat the entire Amida. Even if she has not yet taken three steps back, if she finished the prayers of supplication and is about to take steps backwards, she must return to the beginning of the Amida (SA 117:5).
  If one interrupts Shemoneh Esrei in the middle, whether verbally or silently, and the interruption is brief, she continues praying from the point where she stopped. However, if the interruption is long enough that she could have finished praying the entire Amida from beginning to end, she returns to the beginning of the Amida. Some say that there is no difference between an intentional interruption and one due to circumstances beyond one’s control. In either case, since there was enough time for her to finish the entire Amida, she starts from the beginning (SA 104:5, and this is the Sephardic custom). Others maintain that she only returns to the beginning of the Amida if the interruption was due to circumstances beyond her control; however, if she freely interrupted, even for a long time, she returns to the place where she stopped (Rema 65:1; MB 104:16; this is the Ashkenazic custom). 
  We will explain when one may interrupt when necessary below (14:1-2).
  
  Section 3
  
  Additions, Errors, and Omissions in the Amida / Additions Pertaining to Particular Days
  On special days, we add sections to the Amida pertaining to the themes of the day. Some additions, if forgotten, prevent one’s fulfillment of the duty to pray, and other additions must be recited le-khatḥila, but be-di’avad, if omitted, do not preclude one from fulfilling her obligation.
  On Ḥol Ha-mo’ed of Pesaḥ and Sukkot, the Ya’aleh Ve-yavo paragraph is added in Birkat Ha’avoda. If one already concluded the Amida but forgot to recite it, she must repeat the Amida. If she did not yet finish the Amida, she goes back to the beginning of Birkat Ha’avoda, adds Ya’aleh Ve-yavo, and then continues on until the end of the Amida. We also recite Ya’aleh Ve-yavo on Rosh Ḥodesh. If it was omitted in Shaḥarit or Minḥa, the Amida must be repeated. However, if forgotten in Ma’ariv of Rosh Ḥodesh, it is not repeated, because when the new month was sanctified in Jerusalem based on the testimony of eyewitnesses, there was no sanctification at night, and so the sanctity of Rosh Ḥodesh does not yet apply at Ma’ariv (SA 422:1).
  On Motza’ei Shabbat, we add Havdala (Ata Ḥonantanu) to the berakha of Ata Ḥonen. If forgotten, it is not repeated, since she will fulfill her obligation later with Havdala over wine (SA 294:1).
  On Ḥanuka and Purim, Al Ha-nisim is added in Modim. If one forgets to recite it, she does not go back, since these holidays are rabbinic, and forgetting to mention them does not prevent one from fulfilling her obligation (SA 682:1).
  On fast days, individuals add Aneinu in Shome’a Tefila. Ashkenazim only recite it at Minḥa (Rema 565:3), whereas Sephardim recite it throughout the fast: on Tisha Be-Av at in Ma’ariv, Shaḥarit, and Minḥa, and on the other fast days at Shaḥarit and Minḥa (Kaf Ha-ḥayim 565:17). Some have the custom to recite it at Ma’ariv on all fast days (R. Masoud Ḥai Rakaḥ, Maharitz). According to all customs, one who forgets to say Aneinu does not repeat the Amida.
  During the Ten Days of Repentance from Rosh Hashana through Yom Kippur – days of judgment during which God’s dominion is manifest – we conclude the third berakha of the Amida with “Ha-Melekh ha-kadosh” and Hashiva Shofteinu with “Ha-Melekh ha-mishpat.” If one mistakenly says “Ha-Kel ha-kadosh” in the third berakha, she must return to the beginning of the Amida since, as we have learned, the first three berakhot are considered one unit, and anyone who makes a mistake in one of them must go back to the beginning. If she corrects herself immediately (tokh kedei dibur), that is, within the amount of time it takes to say three words at a normal pace, she continues praying.
  If one accidentally concludes Hashiva Shofteinu as usual (with “Melekh ohev tzedaka u-mishpat”) and does not correct herself tokh ke-dei dibur, according to the custom of Ashkenazim and some Sephardim, she fulfills her obligation be-di’avad, because even in the regular formulation the word “Melekh” (“King”) is used (Rema 118:1; Ben Ish Ḥai, Nitzavim 19; Kaf Ha-ḥayim 1). Other Sephardim maintain that she does not fulfill her obligation because she did not recite the correct wording for the Days of Awe. Therefore, if she has not yet finished her Amida, she must return to Hashiva Shofteinu, conclude it appropriately, and continue until the end of the Amida. If she already finished the Amida, she must pray again while stipulating that if she was not obligated to repeat the prayer, the second prayer is considered voluntary (SA 118:1; Yeḥaveh Da’at 1:57).
  There are four other additions made during the Ten Days of Repentance: “Zokhreinu,” “Mi Kamokha,” “U-khetov,” and “Be-sefer Ḥayim.” If any of them are forgotten, the Amida is not repeated (SA 582:5).1<i class="footnote">If one accidentally recites Ya’aleh Ve-yavo, Zokhreinu, or Al Ha-nisim on a regular weekday, she must go back to the beginning of the berakha. If she already went on to the next berakha, she continues despite her mistake (Peninei Halakha: Prayer, ch. 18 n. 2). </i>
  
  Section 4
  
  Additions, Errors, and Omissions in the Amida / Voluntary Prayer (Tefilat Nedava)
  As mentioned (above, 1:7), the Sages instituted three daily prayers: Shaḥarit corresponding to the morning Tamid offering; Minḥa corresponding to the Tamid of the afternoon; and Ma’ariv corresponding to the burning of the organs and fats upon the altar (above, 2:2-5 we learned which prayers are obligatory for women). Just as when the Temple existed  every woman was permitted to bring voluntary offerings, so too, a woman may recite an additional voluntary Shemoneh Esrei. As R. Yoḥanan states: “Would that a person pray all day long” (Berakhot 21a). In order for her prayer to be recognized as voluntary, she must add some sort of special personal request in that prayer. Moreover, just as a musaf sacrifice may not be offered voluntarily, so too one may not pray Musaf voluntarily. And just as voluntary offerings are not sacrificed on Shabbatot and festivals, so too there are no voluntary prayers on those days (SA 107:1-2).
  One who wishes to recite a voluntary prayer must be certain that she is careful and capable enough of having kavana in her prayer from beginning to end. If she cannot concentrate well, she is not to recite a voluntary prayer at all (SA 107:4).
  Nowadays, the accepted teaching is that we do not recite voluntary prayers because we do not have the proper kavana. Nevertheless, a woman who wishes to pray Ma’ariv even though she is exempt may do so, and her prayer is not considered a tefilat nedava. Therefore, even if she is not completely sure that she can have kavana for the whole prayer, she may pray Ma’ariv and it is a credit to her.
  
  Section 5
  
  Additions, Errors, and Omissions in the Amida / Situations of Uncertainty
  A woman who prays Shaḥarit, Minḥa, or both on a regular basis and is not sure on a particular day whether or not she recited one of these prayers, as long as the time for its recitation has not yet passed, she recites the prayer and makes mental stipulation: “If I already prayed, this prayer is considered a voluntary prayer, and if not, this is an obligatory prayer.” It is unnecessary to introduce any personal requests into that Amida, since the fact that she is avoiding safek is itself something novel. Even though we do not recite voluntary prayers nowadays, we are permitted to do so in order to avoid uncertainty. If, in the middle of that Amida, she remembers that she already prayed, she continues to recite the Amida until the end and adds a personal request to demonstrate that it is, indeed, a voluntary prayer.
  If one starts to pray on the basis that her prayer is obligatory, thinking that she did not yet pray, but suddenly remembers in the middle of her Amida that she already did, she must stop immediately. Her prayer cannot become voluntary, for just like there is no offering that is partly obligatory and partly voluntary, so too, there is no prayer that begins as obligatory and ends as voluntary (SA 107:1).
  One who is daydreaming in the middle of her prayer to the point where she is unsure what part of the Amida she is reciting, for instance, one who is pondering whether she is reciting the sixth berakha or the tenth, must return to the sixth berakha and start to pray from that point on (according to most poskim, as cited in Peninei Halakha: Prayer, ch. 18 n. 3).
  
  Section 6
  
  Additions, Errors, and Omissions in the Amida / Making Up a Missed Prayer (Tashlumin)
  A woman who regularly prays once daily and did not manage to pray Shaḥarit before ḥatzot (as explained above, 8:1) must wait until half an hour after ḥatzot and then pray Minḥa. If she does not manage to pray Minḥa before sunset, she prays Ma’ariv.
  One who regularly prays Shaḥarit and Minḥa every day is subject to tashlumin – the enactment of make-up prayers. If she forgets Shaḥarit, she prays Minḥa twice, the first time as Minḥa and the second to make up for the missed Shaḥarit.
  If she forgets Minḥa but regularly prays Ma’ariv, she makes up the missed Minḥa after Ma’ariv. If she does not usually pray Ma’ariv, she may pray Ma’ariv if she wishes and then pray another Amida after that to make up for the missed Minḥa. However, she is not obligated to do this since she would not normally pray Ma’ariv and thus would not normally have the opportunity to make up for the missed Minḥa. Nevertheless, one may certainly not make up the missed Minḥa after Shaḥarit, for the Sages enacted tashlumin to make up for an immediately preceding prayer that was missed. Once the time for that subsequent prayer has lapsed, tashlumin is no longer an option (Peninei Halakha: Prayer 18:5).
  If one forgets to pray Minḥa on Erev Shabbat and wants to make it up after Ma’ariv of Shabbat, the make-up prayer follows the text of the Shabbat Amida (ibid.).1<i class="footnote">Tashlumin for women, including the issue of making up Friday Minḥa at Shabbat Ma’ariv,  is addressed in MB 263:43 and Kaf Ha-ḥayim 263:65. Halikhot Shlomo: Prayer, ch. 13 n. 10 infers from MB that a woman who regularly prays Minḥa, even if she does not usually pray Ma’ariv, must pray Ma’ariv so that afterward she may make up the missed Minḥa. Nevertheless, it seems more plausible that MB suggests the best course of action but does not regard it as an obligation. Moreover, perhaps many women were accustomed to praying Ma’ariv on Shabbat night, and therefore MB recommended making up the Minḥa prayer after Ma’ariv without intending to obligate women to do so. (See Halikhot Bat Yisrael 2:20 and Ishei Yisrael 30 n. 6, which cite R. Shlomo Zalman Auerbach as stating that this is not an obligation, thus contradicting what is stated in his name in Halikhot Shlomo.)  </i>
  The make-up prayer must be recited after the obligatory one. If one intended to recite her first prayer as the make-up and the second one as the obligation, she has not fulfilled her obligation of tashlumin, and she must pray a third Amida as tashlumin (ibid.).
  One should pause between the two recitations of the Amida for the amount of time it takes to walk four amot. Be-di’avad, if one was supposed to make up a missed Shaḥarit but forgot to pray tashlumin right after Minḥa, she may make it up as long as the time for Minḥa did not yet lapse, meaning as long as the sun did not yet set (ibid.).
  There is no tashlumin for Musaf, since musaf offerings are only brought on specific days. Similarly, one who forgot to pray Shaḥarit on a day that Musaf is recited cannot make up Shaḥarit with an extra Musaf and instead must make it up after Minḥa (ibid.).
  Tashlumin was only instituted for one who was unable to pray due to circumstances beyond her control or for one who accidentally forgot to pray; however, one who intentionally missed one of the prayers may not make it up (ibid.).
  
  Section 7
  
  Additions, Errors, and Omissions in the Amida / Invoking and Requesting for Rain
  During the winter season, we mention rain twice in the Amida. At the beginning, we invoke rain to praise God, Who causes rain to fall; afterwards, we ask God to bless us with dew and rain.
  In the second berakha of the Amida, Meḥayei Ha-meitim, we praise the One “Who makes the wind blow and the rain fall” (“Mashiv ha-ru’aḥ u-morid ha-gashem”). The Sages instituted this praise in this particular berakha because rain gives life to the world.
  In the ninth berakha, Birkat Ha-shanim, we request rain. According to Sephardic custom, the entire wording of Birkat Ha-shanim changes from winter to summer. According to Ashkenazic custom, the wording of Birkat Ha-shanim in the summer and in the winter is identical, with the exception of the words “ve-ten tal u-matar livrakha” (“give dew and rain as a blessing”) in the winter and “ve-ten berakha” (“give blessing”) in the summer. (Yemenite Jews have an altogether different text, though the halakhic rule is the same.)
  Although both the invocation and request of rain are recited in the winter, there is a difference between them. We invoke rain throughout the rainy season, whereas we request it only when we actually wish for it to begin falling.
  We begin invoking rain on Shemini Atzeret. Technically, it could be invoked from the beginning of Sukkot, which coincides with the beginning of the rainy season. However, rain on Sukkot is considered an inauspicious omen since it prevents us from fulfilling the mitzva of sitting in the sukka. Therefore, we do not invoke rain then. The Sages therefore chose Musaf of Shemini Atzeret, when the entire community is in the synagogue, as the moment that it is announced to everyone that we begin invoking rain. Ma’ariv was not chosen because not everyone comes to the synagogue for Ma’ariv, and Shaḥarit was not chosen because the announcement may not be made right before the Amida, as we may not interrupt between redemption and prayer (Beit Yosef and SA 114:1-2).
  The time to begin requesting was postponed for fifteen days to allow those who made the pilgrimage from the area of the Euphrates River to the Temple in Jerusalem for Sukkot to return home without being rained upon. Thus, we begin requesting rain at Ma’ariv on the seventh night of the month of Marḥeshvan (SA 117:1). Even after the destruction of the Temple, this custom was not abolished, since any practice that reminds us of the glory days of the Temple is cherished. Only after the Temple is rebuilt will the Sanhedrin be able to determine whether or not to change the time that we start requesting rain, taking into consideration contemporary means of transportation.
  We continue to invoke rain until the first day of Pesaḥ, when we still invoke rain in Shaḥarit but begin invoking dew in Musaf. Regarding the request for rain, since the request is only made on weekdays, the last time we request rain is Minḥa of Erev Pesaḥ.
  
  Section 8
  
  Additions, Errors, and Omissions in the Amida / Errors when Invoking and Requesting Rain
  One who mistakenly invokes rain in the summer must go back and correct her mistake, since there is no praise in mentioning rain at that time. If she did not yet finish the berakha, she goes back to the beginning of it and says “Morid ha-tal,” as should be recited in the summer. If she already finished the berakha, she must start the Amida over from the beginning in order to recite it properly (SA 114:4).
  One who mistakenly did not invoke rain in the winter but instead invoked dew as though it was summer need not repeat it since she invoked praise that relates to water. However, if she did not mention dew either, she must repeat the Amida, since she omitted such important words of praise (ibid. 5).
  One who mistakenly requests rain in the summer: since she made an inappropriate request in Birkat Ha-shanim, she must go back and correct it. Therefore, if she did not finish her Amida yet, she returns to Birkat Ha-shanim, recites it properly, and continues in order from there until the end of the Amida. If she already finished the Amida, she repeats the Amida properly from the beginning (ibid. 117:3).
  If, by mistake, one did not request rain in the winter, it depends how much of the Amida she already recited. If she did not yet reach Shome’a Tefila, she continues her prayer and when she arrives at Shome’a Tefila, in which one may make any request, she requests rain, thereby correcting her mistake. However, if she already passed Shome’a Tefila, she must return to Birkat Ha-shanim, recite it in accordance with the halakha, and then continue in the proper order, repeating all of the berakhot that come after Birkat Ha-shanim. If she already finished the Amida and was about to take three steps back, her prayer is considered lacking since she did not request rain, and it must be repeated properly in its entirety (ibid. 4-5).
  
  Section 9
  
  Additions, Errors, and Omissions in the Amida / A Suggestion for Avoiding Mistakes
  The most frequent mistakes made when reciting the Amida concern the invocation and request of rain because we grow accustomed to a particular text over the course of six months and then abruptly shift to a different wording. As we learned, three of the four possible errors require one to repeat the Amida. (One must repeat her prayer in the following situations: 1. if she requested rain in the summer; 2. if she did not request rain in the winter; and 3. if she invoked rain in the summer. One does not repeat her prayer if she forgot to mention rain in the winter and instead mentioned dew.)
  If one is not sure whether she recited the correct words, as long as thirty days have not passed since the change in formulation at the beginning of the summer or winter, we assume that she most likely erred, since she is still in the habit of using the earlier formula. If the presumed mistake is one that necessitates a repetition of the Amida, she must do so. However, if thirty days have passed, people have become accustomed to the change in wording and we may assume that she most likely recited the correct wording. She therefore need not repeat the Amida.
  In order to avoid uncertainty, due to which it is often necessary to repeat the Amida, it is a good idea for one to habituate herself to the new wording by repeating it ninety times on the day of the change. In that way, even if she is not sure whether she recited the proper wording, she may presume that she recited it correctly, and she need not repeat the Amida (SA 114:8-9; Peninei Halakha: Prayer, ch. 18 n. 4). 
  Therefore, on the night of 7 Ḥeshvan, Sephardim should habituate themselves to beginning the paragraph properly (since they replace the entire paragraph of Birkat Ha-shanim) by reciting the last words of the preceding berakha and the first words of Birkat Ha-shanim (“Rofei ḥolei amo Yisrael, Barekh aleinu”) ninety times. Ashkenazim should habituate themselves to insert the proper phrase by repeating “Ve-et kol minei tevu’ata le-tova, ve-ten tal u-matar li-vrakha” ninety times. At Musaf on the first day of Pesaḥ, she says “Meḥayei meitim Ata rav lehoshi’a, morid ha-tal” ninety times. Then, before Ma’ariv on the first night of Ḥol Ha-mo’ed, Sephardim would say “Rofei ḥolei amo Yisrael, barkheinu” ninety times, and Ashkenazim would say “ve-et kol minei tevu’ata le-tova, ve-ten berakha” ninety times (MB 114:40; Kaf Ha-ḥayim 60). She thereby accustoms herself to the new formula, and if a doubt subsequently arises as to whether or not she recited the right words, she need not repeat her prayer.1<i class="footnote">If one makes a mistake concerning the invocation of rain as summer transitions to winter on Shemini Atzeret, she does not need to repeat the Amida, since, as we learned, even if she did not say “Mashiv ha-ru’aḥ u-morid ha-gashem,” she fulfilled her obligation as long as she recited “Morid ha-tal.” Although Rema 114:3 writes that “Morid ha-tal” is not said in the summer, Israeli Ashkenazim customarily say it.  </i>
  
  Section 10
  
  Additions, Errors, and Omissions in the Amida / The Status of Ĥutz La-aretz
  The Sages determined Babylonian Jews begin asking for rain on the sixtieth day of the season (calculated to be December 4 or 5). Since there is an abundance of water from the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, it is unnecessary to request rain in Babylonia from the very beginning of winter. All Jews living outside of Eretz Yisrael follow the Babylonian custom and begin requesting rain on the sixtieth day of the season (SA 117:1).1<i class="footnote">In the areas closest to Eretz Yisrael, where climates are dry and more water is needed, it is customary to begin requesting rain when the people in Eretz Yisrael do, on the seventh of Ḥeshvan (Rambam, Commentary on the Mishna to Ta’anit 1; Radbaz; Ru’aḥ Ḥayim (Palachi) 117a).  </i>
  A resident of Eretz Yisrael who travels to Ḥutz La-aretz for a few months is the subject of disagreement. Some say that she should request rain as they do in Eretz Yisrael, for that is her home (Pri Ḥadash). Others say that she should request rain according to local custom (Birkei Yosef). In any situation of uncertainty, one should request rain in Shome’a Tefila and not in Birkat Ha-shanim, thereby fulfilling her obligation according to all opinions (Peninei Halakha: Prayer, ch. 18 n. 6).2<i class="footnote">More specifically, a resident of Eretz Yisrael who goes abroad: 1) If she leaves before the seventh of Ḥeshvan, she requests rain in Shome’a Tefila starting from the seventh of Ḥeshvan; 2) If she leaves after the seventh of Ḥeshvan, since she already began requesting rain, she continues to do so in Birkat Ha-shanim (Kaf Ha-ḥayim 13, in the name of Kesher Shel Gudal); 3) If she leaves with her family for more than a year, she is considered at that time to be a resident of a different country and follows its custom.A resident of Ḥutz La-aretz who visits Israel: it is most appropriate that she adopt the custom of residents of Eretz Yisrael. Therefore, if she intends to return to her country after the season begins, she requests rain as those in Eretz Yisrael do. If she intends to return before the beginning of the season, some say she makes her request in Shome’a Tefila (see Ishei Yisrael 23:37), while others say that she requests as they do in Eretz Yisrael. When she returns to her country, she does not need to continue requesting rain, but it is good to do so in Shome’a Tefila (Yalkut Yosef 117:17).With regard to all these rulings, if one erred and practiced according to one of the outlined opinions (and did not make her request in Shome’a Tefila) she need not repeat her prayer. </i>
  In places that require rain in the spring, the request for rain in Birkat Ha-shanim should not be continued after Pesaḥ. Instead, the status of those places resembles the status of individuals: in those places, one requests rain in Shome’a Tefila (SA 117:2; concerning one who errs, see Peninei Halakha: Prayer, ch. 18 n. 7).
  People living south of the equator, in South America, South Africa, or Australia, also request rain when it is winter in Eretz Yisrael, even though it is then summer in those countries. Since Eretz Yisrael is the center of the Jewish world, Jews everywhere follow it and request rain when it is winter there. When they must request rain for themselves, they do so in Shome’a Tefila. 
  However, people in southern locales where summer rain causes damage do not follow the practice Eretz Yisrael so as not to request something that is harmful for them. Instead, all year round they recite the summer formula of Birkat Ha-shanim and request rain in Shome’a Tefila. During their winter they keep their place of residence in mind, and during the northern winter they should think of Eretz Yisrael.
  One traveling from Eretz Yisrael or elsewhere in the northern hemisphere to the southern hemisphere should continue requesting rain according to the northern winter, even if summer rain causes damage there (She’arim Metzuyanim Ba-halakha 19:3).
  
  
  
  
  
  Section 1
  
  Respect for Prayer / When Is It Permissible to Interrupt the Amida?
  One who stands in prayer before her Creator must be extremely careful not to interrupt by talking about other matters in the middle of praying. It is even forbidden to interrupt by walking or hinting. The status of the Amida differs from that of Pesukei De-zimra and Birkhot Keri’at Shema, during which one may walk, hint, and in cases of great need, like greeting a person who will otherwise be insulted, even speak (below, 16:14 and Peninei Halakha: Prayer 14:4 and 16:5-6). However, in the middle of the Amida, it is forbidden. The Sages only allow interruption in life-threatening situations or for the sake of prayer itself. If we stand before a human king in dread and are careful not to interrupt with other matters, then we certainly must be careful not to interrupt while standing before the supreme King of kings.
  Even if a Jewish king greets someone while she is reciting the Amida, she may not respond. However, if a non-Jewish king, who is liable to kill her, addresses her in the middle of her prayer, she must interrupt to respond, for saving a life takes precedence over prayer (Berakhot 30b).
  If a non-venomous snake is wrapped around the leg of the person praying, she should not interrupt her prayer to request assistance. However, if it is a snake or scorpion that may be venomous, she must call for help, for saving a life takes precedence over prayer (Berakhot 33a; SA 104:1-4).
  Walking is not considered a significant interruption. Therefore, when began praying in a place where it is hard for her to concentrate, she may move elsewhere. For instance, if a non-venomous snake approaches her, disrupting her kavana, she may move elsewhere to continue praying kavana, even though the situation was never life-threatening (MB 104:10).
  One who is praying the Amida and hears Kaddish or Kedusha may not respond. However, she may silently concentrate on the ḥazan’s words, and it is considered as if she recited those words. This is indeed the custom. Nevertheless, if such an interruption will disturb her kavana, she may continue praying (Peninei Halakha: Prayer, ch. 17 n. 11).
  If, in the middle of praying, one becomes uncertain regarding a law that may prevent her from continuing, such as a case in which she forgets to recite a particular passage and does not know what to do, she may walk to find a book to determine the correct practice. If she does not know how to search for the answer in a book, some say that she may even interrupt verbally to ask for a ruling (MB 104:2).1<i class="footnote">As explained above, 13:2, if the interruption lasts the amount of time it would take for her to recite the entire Amida, then according to Sephardic custom she must return to the beginning of the Amida. According to Ashkenazic custom, if the interruption was due to elements out of her control, such as the presence of excrement or danger, then she must repeat the Amida. However, if she interrupts of her own volition – including to ask a halakhic question – she returns to the place where she stopped. </i>
  
  Section 2
  
  Respect for Prayer / Interruption for the Sake of Kavana
  If a woman is praying and adults or children are talking nearby, disturbing her kavana, she should hint for them to be quiet, for nonverbal suggestion is considered less disruptive than walking. However, if they will not comply, she may walk to a different place and continue praying (MB 104:1).
  Similarly, if a woman comes to synagogue to pray and her child disrupts the Amida to the extent that she or others cannot have proper kavana, she must hint to him to leave. If the child does not understand, she must take him out of the synagogue silently and then continue praying outside.
  If a domestic problem that will cause monetary loss if not handled immediately arises, she may not interrupt her prayer (MB 104:2; Kaf Ha-ḥayim 6). However, if she becomes so preoccupied that she cannot concentrate, she may go home to resolve the issue.
  If a siddur falls to the floor and one cannot concentrate until it is picked up, she finishes the berakha that she is saying and then goes to pick it up. If one starts praying by heart, becomes confused, and cannot continue, she may go get a siddur and continue praying (MB 96:7).
  If the telephone rings while one is reciting the Amida, she must continue praying. However, if she cannot maintain her kavana, she may turn off the phone and continue praying.
  Likewise, if there is a knock at the door and the woman praying can control herself and continue her prayer, she must do so. However, if the distraction preoccupies her to the extent that she worries that perhaps the matter is urgent and if she does not open the door the person knocking will leave, she may open the door and hint to the person that she cannot respond at the moment. But she must be extremely careful not to interrupt by talking (Tefila Ke-hilkheta 12:86).
  
  Section 3
  
  Respect for Prayer / One May Not Sit Within Four Amot of one Praying
  Due to the significance and sanctity of the Amida, the Sages prohibit sitting within four amot of one who is praying. One reciting the Amida is standing before the Shekhina, and anyone sitting there idly appears as one who does not accept the yoke of heaven and shows contempt for a place of worship.
  Four amot are approximately two meters. To be more precise, an ama is the approximate length of an average man’s arm. According to most poskim, it is approximately 45cm, which means that 4 amot are c. 180cm. However, there obviously is no need to measure one’s distance from the person reciting the Amida down to the centimeter; instead, everyone must go according to her visual estimation, and if it seems that one is not within 2 of a person praying, she may be seated.
  One who is engaged in prayer or engrossed in Torah study may sit next to one reciting the Amida. Since she is engaged in prayer or Torah, there is no affront to God’s honor (based on Peninei Halakha: Prayer 17:17).
  If she sat down and then the person sitting next to her began to recite the Amida, although she is neither praying nor learning, she may continue sitting there; she did not show contempt for prayer, rather, the person praying did not act lawfully by beginning to pray within someone else’s four amot. Even so, it is indeed a righteous act to show respect for the prayer by standing up (SA, Rema 102:3).
  A weak or frail person, even when not engaged in prayer, may sit within another person’s four amot, since everyone knows that it is because of her weakness that she needs to sit, and therefore there is no affront to God’s honor (SA 102:2). On Yom Kippur, almost everyone is considered to be weak because of the fast, and therefore one may sit within four amot of a person praying (Beit Barukh 26:9).
  There is a stringent opinion that it is forbidden to sit directly in front of a person praying, even at a distance greater than four amot, since it causes the person who is praying to appear as though she is bowing down to her. Therefore, even if she is reciting Shema, and she sat there before the other person began to recite the Amida, she must stand. Le-khatḥila, it is good to follow this opinion (SA 102:1; MB 9; Kaf Ha-ḥayim 10).
  
  Section 4
  
  Respect for Prayer / It is Forbidden to Pass in Front of People Praying
  It is forbidden to pass within four amot in front of a person reciting the Amida, since doing so is likely to disturb her kavana. Others say that the reason for the prohibition is that the person reciting the Amida is standing before the Shekhina, and one who passes before her offends God’s honor (Peninei Halakha: Prayer, ch. 17 n. 16).
  The poskim disagree about where exactly it is forbidden to pass. According to Eliya Rabba, the prohibition only applies to passing directly in front of the one reciting the Amida, since only this will be disruptive. In other words, if a person’s width is approximately half a meter, one may not pass through that half meter up to a distance of four amot. According to Magen Avraham, it is forbidden to pass anywhere that the person praying can see within his four amot, since passing there is likely to slightly disrupt his kavana.
  
  They disagree further. According to Eliya Rabba, one may come and stand within the four amot of a person praying and remain standing there; only when one crosses through the four amot directly in front of his face does it disturb his prayer. However, if she approaches from the side and remains standing in front of him, she does not disrupt him as much. According to Magen Avraham, it is forbidden to enter into the four amot in front of a person praying at all.
  
  Le-khatḥila, one should follow Magen Avraham’s strict opinion and not walk anywhere within four amot in front of a person reciting the Amida. In times of need, however, one may adopt Eliya Rabba’s lenient practice and pass alongside a person praying or come to a standing stop directly in front of him. Therefore, one who arrives late to the prayer service may pass alongside a person reciting the Amida in order to pray in her regular seat. Yet, if in order to do so she must pass alongside a number of people praying, she may not pass, since it is almost certain that she will disturb at least one person’s concentration (Peninei Halakha: Prayer, ch. 17 n. 17).
  In a case of great need, when there is no other option, it is even permissible to pass directly in front of a person reciting the Amida. Hence, one who must leave to conduct a Torah class may pass in front of a person praying. Likewise, one who is in a great hurry, such as one who fears she will miss her bus or ride, may pass as well.
  If one is reciting the Amida while standing in an aisle, since she did not act in accordance with the law and instead stood in a place that blocks the passage of those coming and going, there is no obligation to take her into consideration, and it is permissible to pass directly in front of her when necessary (ibid. note 18).
  
  Section 5
  
  Respect for Prayer / One Who Finishes Reciting the Amida
  Regarding someone who finishes the Shemoneh Esrei while another remains standing in prayer directly behind her, the law is as follows: If she is more than four amot plus the distance of three steps away from her, she may take three steps backwards without entering the other’s four amot. If she is closer, she may not take steps back until the person behind her finishes the Amida. Even if the person behind her began praying late and prays for a long while, she may not step into the other’s four amot. As we have learned, the Aḥaronim disagree concerning the parameters of the prohibition:
  
  According to Magen Avraham, even if the person reciting the Amida is not standing directly behind her, as long as by taking three steps she will step into the radius of the four amot in front of her, she must wait until the person behind her finishes her prayer. According to Eliya Rabba, it is forbidden only to step backwards in front of the person praying if she is standing directly in front of her. But if the person praying is not directly in front of her, she may take three steps back. Le-khatḥila, it is commendable to follow Magen Avraham, though in times of need one may be lenient like the opinion of Eliya Rabba (MB 102:18-19). Even in a situation in which the person praying is directly behind her, in extenuating circumstances she may step backwards diagonally, for there are those who explain that according to Eliya Rabba, as long as her steps do not bring her in proximity of the person praying, she may step back (cited in the name of Ḥazon Ish).1<i class="footnote">The statement of Ḥazon Ish is cited in Dalet Amot shel Tefila, pp. 50 and 363. One who cannot step back because someone behind her is still praying, although she has not yet stepped away from prayer, she may respond “Barukh Hu u-varukh shemo” and recite all the prayers. If the congregation reaches Taḥanun, she may sit in order to say it, on the condition that she not sit directly in front of the person praying. When she is finished, she then stands in her place, and when the person praying behind her concludes her prayer, she takes three steps back and says Oseh Shalom (MB 124:4; see 104:9). </i>
  If someone who already completed her prayer is standing between her and the person reciting the Amida, she may take three steps backwards, since the one who already concluded her prayer constitutes a divider between them, even if the one dividing did not take three steps back yet.
  In times of need it is also permitted to be lenient when there is a partition that is at least ten tefaḥim (c. 80 cm) high and at least four tefaḥim (c. 30 cm) wide between her and the person reciting the Amida. Those who wish to be lenient may treat large permanent benches in the synagogues as a partition, since their height is at least ten tefaḥim (Peninei Halakha: Prayer, ch. 17 n. 19).2<i class="footnote">According to the latest calculations, a tefaḥ is 7.6cm; the calculations above are rounded off. MB 102:2 states that a partition ten tefaḥim high does not effectively permit one to pass in front of a person praying, since the person praying will be able to see her and the passing by will disturb her kavana. In extenuating circumstances, one may rely on the opinion of Ḥayei Adam and Eshel Avraham (Buczacz) who maintain that when there is a divider one may even pass directly in front of the person praying. Concerning the matter of sitting within four amot of the person praying, MB states that a partition ten tefaḥim high can be used. However, in my humble opinion, it seems best to act stringently and refrain from sitting directly in front of one who is praying so that she will not appear to be bowing down to her. For further study, see Peninei Halakha: Prayer, chapter 17 n. 15.   </i>
  
  Section 6
  
  Respect for Prayer / Additional Details of Certain Laws
  As we have learned, le-khatḥila it is proper to follow the stringent opinion of Magen Avraham and refrain from taking three steps within the four amot in front of the person reciting the Amida, even if the one praying is not directly behind her.
  However, there are times when one prolonging her prayer becomes distracted by the thought that she is preventing the person in front of her from taking three steps back. When the person who is waiting senses that, it is best that she follow the opinion of Eliya Rabba and take three steps back if the person praying is not directly behind her.
  Similarly, one who usually prays for a long time may ask the people praying in front of her not to wait for her until she finishes. Then they will be permitted to step backwards immediately upon the conclusion of their prayer. One who prays directly in front of her should walk back diagonally, so as not to step directly in front of her (Peninei Halakha: Prayer, ch. 17 n. 20). 
  In general, when one knows that she tends to prolong her prayer, it is proper for her not to stand in prayer behind another so as not to make her wait and cause her anguish.
  The Aḥaronim disagree as to whether the law regarding an adult, namely, that it is forbidden to step before her and sit within her four amot, also applies to a minor (see Dalet Amot shel Tefila pp. 254-257). Since this is a rabbinic ruling, the halakha follows the lenient opinions, yet those who are stringent enhance the mitzva.
  
  
  
  
  
  Section 1
  
  Korbanot and Pesukei De-zimra / A Pious Custom
  Thus far, we have studied laws that pertain to men and women alike, such as netilat yadayim, Birkhot Ha-shaḥar, Birkhot Ha-Torah, and the Amida. In the next chapters we will learn about prayers that were instituted for men as an obligation, and from which women are exempt, although women who wish to enhance the mitzva recite them. Some poskim maintain that women, too, must recite the Tamid passage, because the prayers were established to correspond to the Tamid offerings, and just as women must pray Shaḥarit (according to the majority of poskim, as explained above, 2:2), it is also proper that they recite the Tamid passage. Others say that in addition to the Tamid passage, it is best that they recite all the Korbanot.
  However, the widespread practice is that women do not recite the Tamid passage, and that is the opinion of most poskim. The reason is that the essence of the women’s obligation to pray is the request for mercy and not the association with korbanot. Furthermore, men are not obligated to recite the Korbanot passages either, and in principle they are not even obligated to recite the Tamid passage – it is a custom that became obligatory – so certainly there is no obligation for women to recite the Tamid passage and the Korbanot, although a woman who wishes to enhance the mitzva and recite the Tamid passage and the verses of the incense is praiseworthy.1<i class="footnote">Agur states in Maharil’s name, as cited Beit Yosef §47 that women must recite Birkhot Ha-Torah because they must recite the Tamid passage. Maharil reasons that women are obligated to offer korbanot just as men are, so they must also recite the Korbanot passages. So states Tevu’ot Shor. However, SAH 47:10 states that women are only required to recite the Tamid passage (and even men are not required to recite all the Korbanot passages). Pri Megadim, Eshel Avraham 47:14 states that only men have the obligation of  korbanot, and Mor U-ketzi’a §47 and Tehilla Le-David 47:9 state similarly that women did not have to give maḥatzit ha-shekel to fund the korbanot and that their obligation to pray is only to request mercy. However, Ḥida (Yosef Ometz §67) writes that women are certainly obligated in all the korbanot, which atone for men and women alike. However, with the exception of a few individual pious women who recite the whole prayer including Korbanot, women do not recite the Korbanot passages in practice. See Maḥazeh Eliyahu §14, which offers several reasons for the exemption of women from the recitation of Korbanot.Nevertheless, we can suggest that after Birkhot Ha-Torah, instead of reciting the verses of Birkat Kohanim and the beraita of “Elu devarim…,” women should recite the Tamid passage and the verse mentioning the Exodus from Egypt. There is no obligation to recite those specific verses and that exact beraita; rather, the entire goal is to learn some Torah after reciting Birkhot Ha-Torah, and if so, it is best to study verses that some say it is an obligation to recite. It is best to print this in women’s siddurim, thereby enabling everyone to fulfill their obligation to recite the Tamid passage and mention the Exodus from Egypt.It is noteworthy that although the crux of the debate is the Tamid passage, the verses about the incense is a close second in importance. Both the Tamid and the incense were offered twice a day, in the morning and the afternoon. The Tamid was a material offering that was brought on the outside altar, whereas the incense was a spiritual offering that was burned on the inner altar. Peninei Halakha: Prayer 13:5-6 on the reason for the Tamid and incense.   </i>
  
  Section 2
  
  Korbanot and Pesukei De-zimra / The Custom of Reciting Korbanot and its Reason
  The Sages teach (Ta’anit 27b and Megilla 31b) that when God entered a covenant with Avraham and promised him that he and his children would inherit Eretz Yisrael, Avraham asked God, “Master of the universe, perhaps, God forbid, Israel will sin before You and You will do to them as You did to the generation of the flood and the generation of the Tower of Bavel?” God answered, “I will not do that to them.” Avraham said, “How will I know that You will not destroy their memory?” God responded, “Bring me three calves…,” thereby alluding that the korbanot bear witnesses to the eternal bond between Israel and God. Therefore, even if they are sinful, it is only because of external influences; at their core they are righteous and connected to God. Therefore, by offering korbanot and expressing Israel’s absolute connection to God, their sins will be atoned. 
  Avraham said before Him, “Master of the universe, what if the Temple is destroyed? How will their sins be atoned?” God answered, “I have already instituted the Korbanot passages for them. Whenever they recite them, I consider it as though they are bringing an offering to Me and I will forgive them for all their sins.”
  The Sages further say that one who delves into the laws of the ḥatat (sin) offering is like one who offered a ḥatat, and one who delves into the laws of the asham (guilt) offering is like one who offered an asham, and so forth for all korbanot (Menaḥot 110a; see Peninei Halakha: Prayer 13:5-6 on the reason for the Tamid offering and the incense). 
  The idea is that every deed performed in the world possesses an inner spirit, and the soul of the mitzvot is the words of Torah that discuss those mitzvot. This is especially true of the korbanot, whose central idea is to express a bond with God. Therefore, when one cannot actually bring the offerings, their study is considered a substitute (see Maharal, Gevurot Hashem ch. 8).
  For this reason, many men customarily recite the Tamid passage every morning before prayer. Although there is no rabbinic enactment to do so and hence its recitation is not considered a true obligation, the practice is nevertheless based on the words of the talmudic Sages, who even instituted Shaḥarit to correspond to the morning Tamid. Thus, over time, the recitation became virtually obligatory.
  Secondary in importance to the Tamid passage is the passage of the incense (ketoret), for it too was offered every day. Zohar (Vayakhel 218:2) greatly praises one who recites it daily. It is commendable for men to recite the other passages and prayers included in the Korbanot service as well, but it is not an obligation to recite them (as explained in Peninei Halakha: Prayer, 13:1 n. 1).
  
  Section 3
  
  Korbanot and Pesukei De-zimra / The Reason for the Recitation of Pesukei De-zimra
  The proper order of prayer is to begin by praising God and only then to petition Him. We learn this from Moshe, who opened his prayer with words of praise, saying (Devarim 3:24), “Lord, God, You have begun to show Your servant Your greatness and Your mighty hand. What force is there in heaven or earth that can perform deeds and mighty acts as You do?” Only afterwards did Moshe plead, “Please let me cross [the Jordan] so that I may see the good land…” Based on this, Rav Simlai interprets, “One should always praise God first and afterwards pray” (Berakhot 32a). The primary application of putting praise before request is found in the berakhot of the Amida, for as previously mentioned (12:9), the first three berakhot open with words of praise and only later continue to the petitionary berakhot. However, even in the rest of one’s prayer, it is proper to open with words of praise, and that is the purpose of Pesukei De-zimra.
  By reciting Pesukei De-zimra, the person praying reflects upon God’s greatness, and thus when he subsequently stands in prayer, he knows before Whom he stands. Were he not to pray this way, there would be concern that he might come to request his needs like idol worshipers, whose whole aim is their personal success in their lowly matters and who are not interested at all in devoting themselves to God, the Source of life. However, one who purifies his heart through meditation on God’s greatness knows how to pray; even his requests for health and sustenance are so that he may devote himself to God and to rectify the world under the Almighty’s sovereignty. His prayers are thus more genuine and worthy of being accepted (see Olat Rei’yah vol. 1, p.14).
  The name “Pesukei De-zimra” (“Verses of Song”) alludes to exactly that, as the word “zemer” can mean song or poem and also pruning or cutting. Just like one who prunes his vineyard cuts off the extra branches in order to strengthen the growth of the branches that will produce good fruit in the future, by saying Pesukei De-zimra the person praying destroys his flawed thoughts and bad feelings, and diminishes the laziness that accumulated as a result of sleep, so that he can pray with kavana. This cleansing in advance of prayer is pleasing and enjoyable for within it there is song and praise; therefore, it is called “Pesukei De-zimra” (see Peninei Halakha: Prayer, ch. 14 n. 2).
  
  Section 4
  
  Korbanot and Pesukei De-zimra / Is the Recitation of Pesukei De-zimra Obligatory?
  Originally, during the time of the Tanna’im, the recitation of Pesukei De-zimra was considered to be a pious act, praised by the Sages. The Sages instituted opening Pesukei De-zimra with Barukh She-amar and ending it with Yishtabaḥ. As time went on, the practice spread until it became an obligatory custom, and now all Jewish men open their prayers with Pesukei De-zimra (Peninei Halakha: Prayer, ch. 14 n. 1).
  Women, though, are exempt from the recitation of Pesukei De-zimra because the passages are dependent on time (the time for their recitation is before Shaḥarit), and women are exempt from positive time-bound mitzvot. Still, some poskim say that since women must pray the Amida, they also must recite Pesukei De-zimra in preparation. Nevertheless, according to most poskim, even though women must pray the Amida, they are exempt from the preparations and introductions that are not requisite for prayer and concerning which the rule exempting women from time-bound commandments applies. Halakha follows this position, and women are not obligated to recite Pesukei De-zimra, though those who wish to enhance the mitzva may to say it, along with its berakhot, so as to prepare for prayer more completely (as explained above, ch. 2 n. 10).1<i class="footnote">MB 70:2 states that according to R. Akiva Eger women must recite Pesukei De-zimra, for those verses are recited as preparation for prayer. However, SHT notes that according to SAH 70:1 women are exempt. The truth is, many wonder how MB infers from R. Akiva Eger that women must recite Pesukei De-zimra. Some teach (Halikhot Bat Yisrael 2:7 and Ishei Yisrael 7:10) that in practice women must pray Pesukei De-zimra since MB tends to rule that way. Beirur Halakha (Zilber) vol. II, OḤ 70 states this as well and proves it from the words of Maharil. However, according to the overwhelming majority of poskim, women are exempt from the recitation of Pesukei De-zimra, and so state SAH 70:1, AHS 70:1, Yeḥaveh Da’at 3:3, and Maḥazeh Eliyahu §15. Moreover, there are those who say that women must pray one prayer a day and are permitted to fulfill their obligation with Minḥa. Still others say that they are only obligated to recite Birkhot Ha-shaḥar and Birkhot Ha-Torah, as explained above, 2:3-4, and many practice this way (see Halikhot Shlomo 2 n. 5). It is thus clear that women are exempt from Pesukei De-zimra.  </i>
  
  Section 5
  
  Korbanot and Pesukei De-zimra / What Are Pesukei De-zimra?
  The main part of Pesukei De-zimra is the last six psalms in Tehilim (145-150), the most important being the first (145, “Tehilla Le-David”). Customarily, this psalm is introduced with the verses beginning with the word “ashrei,” and that psalm is therefore generally referred to as Ashrei. The other five psalms each starts and ends with the word “Halleluyah,” about which R. Yossi says, “May my portion be among those who complete the Hallel every day” (Shabbat 118b).
  During the post-talmudic era of the Savora’im, the recitation of Hodu (1 Divrei Ha-yamim 16:8-36), the song and praise that King David recited as he returned the Ark of God to the Mishkan from its Philistine captivity, was instituted. Later, in the Temple, they would recite half this praise while offering the morning Tamid and the other half when offering the afternoon Tamid (Beit Yosef §50). In the Ashkenazic rite, Hodu is said after Barukh She-amar so that all the songs of praise and exaltation are included within the berakhot of Pesukei De-zimra (Tur §51). In the Sephardic rite, Hodu is said before Barukh She-amar because it is a continuation of the recitation of the Tamid offering (Ha-eshkol; Kol Bo).
  The Savora’im also ordained a collection of verses, called Yehi Khevod after its first verse, to be recited before Ashrei (Sofrim 17:11). These verses reinforce faith in God and in the redemption of Israel. Arizal explained the hidden meanings of these verses at length (Kaf Ha-ḥayim 51:13).
  Later, during the Geonic era, it became customary to add more psalms and verses to Pesukei De-zimra. They ordained reciting Mizmor Le-toda (Tehilim 100), for the Sages say that in the future, all songs will be nullified except for this one (Vayikra Rabba 9:7). Therefore, it is proper to recite it with a melody. It is not said on Shabbatot and festivals; instead, Mizmor Shir Le-yom Ha-Shabbat (Psalm 92) is recited.1<i class="footnote">According to Ashkenazic custom, Mizmor Le-toda corresponds to the toda (thanksgiving) offering, which contained ḥametz. For that reason, it is not recited on Erev Pesaḥ, Ḥol Ha-mo’ed Pesaḥ, or Erev Yom Kippur, since on those days no toda offering was brought, since it could not be eaten the next day. However, in Sephardic custom,  Mizmor Le-toda is recited as praise and thanksgiving, not to commemorate the toda offering, and therefore it is also recited on those specific days (Beit Yosef and Rema 51:8).  </i>
  During the Geonic era, some had the custom to add verses from the Torah and from Neḥemia, such as Va-yevarekh David (1 Divrei Ha-Yamim 29:10-13 and Neḥemia 9:6-11) and Shirat Ha-yam, the song that Moshe and the people of Israel sang to God after the splitting of the sea (Shemot 15:1-18). Although the main parts of Pesukei De-zimra are taken from Tehilim (as stated in the words of Barukh She-amar) there is no problem with adding Va-yevarekh David, which is not from Psalms, or Shirat Ha-yam, which is Moshe’s song (Peninei Halakha: Prayer, ch. 14 n. 3).
  
  Section 6
  
  Korbanot and Pesukei De-zimra / Customs and Kavana Regarding Its Recitation
  Barukh She-amar possesses a special quality and alludes to sublime matters, and it is therefore customary to recite it while standing (MB 51:1, Kaf Ha-ḥayim 1). According to Ashkenazic custom, one also stands while reciting Yishtabaḥ, which ends Pesukei De-zimra. However, according to Sephardic custom, one need not stand (Rema 51:7; Kaf Ha-ḥayim 42). 
  Likewise, it is customary to stand from the beginning of Va-yevarekh David until the words “asher baḥarta be-Avram,” out of respect for the Davidic kingdom.1<i class="footnote">According to Sephardic rite, today it is also customary to stand when reciting “Hashem Melekh, Hashem Malakh…” before Barukh She-amar. See Peninei Halakha: Prayer, ch. 14 n. 4. </i>
  Pesukei De-zimra is recited in a relaxed manner and not hastily (SA 51:8). One must especially have kavana when reciting Tehilla Le-David (Ashrei, Tehilim 145). The Sages teach that one who recites this psalm every day earns life in the next world (see Peninei Halakha: Prayer, ch. 14 n. 5) because its praises are arranged according to the order of the Alef Bet and it contains the important verse, “Pote’aḥ et yadekha…” (“You open Your hand and satisfy the desire of every living thing”) (Berakhot 4b). One who realizes that she did not pay attention while reciting that verse must repeat it with kavana, even if she already started reciting other passages (SA 52:7; Peninei Halakha: Prayer, 14:3 n. 5).
  Pesukei De-zimra is surrounded by berakhot – Barukh She-amar before and Yishtabaḥ after; therefore, it is considered a single unit during which interruptions are forbidden. 
  However, for a great need, such as to prevent loss, it is permissible to interrupt verbally. Similarly, one may greet another to avoid insulting him (MB 51:7 states that one should say the verses “Barukh Hashem” that appear before Va-yevarekh David, before and after the interruption).
  Some poskim say that when one must relieve herself in the middle of Pesukei De-zimra she should delay the recitation of Asher Yatzar until after the Amida so as not to interrupt in the middle of Pesukei De-zimra. However, it is best to recite Asher Yatzar immediately after relieving oneself, for if she delays its recitation until after praying, she might forget to say it altogether (Peninei Halakha: Prayer, ch. 14 n. 6).
  
  Section 7
  
  Korbanot and Pesukei De-zimra / The Order of Preference for Omissions
  A woman who wants to recite Pesukei De-zimra and its berakhot but does not have time to recite the whole thing may recite the main parts. She begins with Barukh She-amar, recites the six psalms from Ashrei until the end of the Halleluyot (which are the main parts of Pesukei De-zimra) and ends with Yishtabaḥ. If she does not even have time for that, she may recite just Barukh She-amar, Ashrei, the two psalms which begin with the words “Halleluya hallelu” (Tehilim 148 and 150), and Yishtabaḥ. If she does not even have time for that, she may recite just Barukh She-amar, Ashrei, and Yishtabaḥ. However, if she does not have time to recite Ashrei, she may not say Barukh She-amar and Yishtabaḥ, because these berakhot were instituted to be recited along with the psalms of David, so one must at least recite the main psalm, Ashrei, between them.
  These guidelines apply to an ad hoc situation. However, a woman who only wants to recite Ashrei before the Amida on a regular basis should not recite Barukh She-amar and Yishtabaḥ, for those berakhot were instituted on the main part Pesukei De-zimra – the last six chapters of Tehilim – and since a woman is not obligated to recite Pesukei De-zimra, it is not proper for her to recite them in a be-di’avad situation of reciting only one psalm.
  In a women’s educational framework, teachers may decide that the girls will regularly recite the berakhot of Pesukei De-zimra along with the six Halleluyot, so that on the one hand they will say Pesukei De-zimra and on the other they will not be overburdened. However, if it seems that the six Halleluyot are also too difficult for the girls to recite with kavana, it is best that they do not recite Pesukei De-zimra at all (as explained above, 8:3).1<i class="footnote">As a rule, the order of precedence for women to recite the main parts of prayer is as follows: Birkhot Ha-shaḥar and Birkhot Ha-Torah, the first verse of Keri’at Shema, and the Amida prayer. If there is more time, it is best to recite Birkat Emet Ve-yatziv, for it mentions the Exodus from Egypt, which is a biblical commandment for men, and some say even women must recite it. By reciting it one adjoins berakha of redemption to the Amida, as explained above, 8:3 n. 4. Following them in importance are Pesukei De-zimra, meaning Barukh She-amar, the six Halleluyot, and Yishtabaḥ. However, Beirur Halakha (Zilber) vol. 1, §70 and Ishei Yisrael 7:18 state concerning the order of precedence, that once she has time to recite Barukh She-amar, Ashrei, and Yishtabaḥ, she then recites the rest of the Shema and its berakhot. If she has more time, only then she recites the remaining Pesukei De-zimra psalms. However, this is problematic: There are poskim who maintain that women must recite Pesukei De-zimra, and all agree that it is preparation for prayer and that women must pray. Moreover, according to Rif and Rosh the essence of Pesukei De-zimra is the last six psalms of Tehilim (see Peninei Halakha: Prayer, ch. 14 nn. 1, 3, and 10). If so, why should a woman give priority to Birkhot Keri’at Shema, from which she is certainly exempt and which are not preparation for the Amida? Therefore, it seems that all six Halleluyot take precedence over Birkhot Keri’at Shema, as mentioned above, 8:3 n. 4. I have further found that Halikhot Bat Yisrael 2 n. 21 states in the name of R. Scheinberg that women must recite Pesukei De-zimra but perhaps can skip passages and recite just Barukh She-amar, Ashrei, and Yishtabaḥ. This is again problematic, for how can we instruct women to omit the main parts of Pesukei De-zimra on a regular basis? Perhaps this opinion follows R. Akiva Eger’s position, cited in MB, that women are obligated in Pesukei De-zimra, and should therefore recite it even in the most abbreviated way, that is, in keeping with the position of Talmidei Rabbeinu Yona (Berakhot 23a) that the main purpose of Pesukei De-zimra is for Ashrei. However, most poskim maintain that women are exempt from Pesukei De-zimra, as explained in n. 2 above; if so, why should they recite it in an abbreviated manner? The fact that the woman already wants to enhance the mitzva means that in principle she should recite them properly, meaning the six Halleluyot, for they constitute Pesukei De-zimra, as Rif and Rosh teach (and Talmidei Rabbeinu Yona presumably agree), and not just say one psalm. R. Rabinovitch concurs with my ruling. Additionally, Yeḥaveh Da’at 3:3 rules that it is forbidden for women to recite the berakhot of Pesukei De-zimra, for they are dependent on time. Although it is not customary to practice in accordance with its ruling, as explained above, chapter 2 n. 10, still, it is proper to err on the side of caution and not say them when reciting only one psalm. Perhaps it is best to instruct even men not to recite the berakhot on Pesukei De-zimra for the recitation of Ashrei alone on a regular basis. However, if a woman recites the six psalms which are the essence of Pesukei De-zimra, she must give preference to Keri’at Shema and its berakhot over the Tamid and incense passages, which take precedence over the rest of Pesukei De-zimra due to their importance, as explained in Peninei Halakha: Prayer, 13:1 n. 2. The overall order of preference is explained above, 8:3 n. 4.  </i>
  
  
  
  
  
  Section 1
  
  Keri’at Shema and Its Berakhot / Women with Regard to the Mitzva of Keri’at Shema and Its Berakhot
  It is a positive biblical commandment to recite Shema at night and in the morning, as it is written: “And you shall speak them…when you lie down and when you rise” (Devarim 6:7). “When you lie down” means at night, and “when you rise” refers to morning. Since it is a positive time-bound commandment, men are obligated and women are exempt.
  The Sages ordained that three berakhot are recited together with the morning recitation of Shema, two berakhot before Shema and one after. They also ordained that four berakhot are recited along with the evening Shema – two before and two after (m. Berakhot 1:4). These berakhot complement and supplement the themes of the Shema, and they praise and thank God for creating and governing the world. Women are also exempt from reciting these berakhot, since they too are time-dependent: Birkhot Keri’at Shema of Shaḥarit can only be recited until the end of the first four hours of the day, and of Ma’ariv can be recited all night.
  Some poskim maintain that women must mention the Exodus daily and nightly because the mitzva is continuous and not time-bound. However, as explained below (section 3), most poskim maintain that since the daytime and nighttime commemoration of the Exodus are distinct, the mitzva is considered time-bound, and women are exempt from it (Sha’agat Aryeh §13; MB 70:2).
  Although women are exempt from reciting Shema, they are still obligated in the mitzva of emuna (faith in God), and therefore it is proper that they accept the yoke of heaven daily by reciting the two verses “Shema Yisrael” and “Barukh Shem” (SA 70:1; MB 5; Kaf Ha-ḥayim 5). One who wishes to enhance the mitzva recites all three paragraphs of Shema as well as Emet Ve-yatziv, which mentions the Exodus and adjoins redemption to prayer (see above, ch. 8 n. 4, where it states that Emet Ve-yatziv takes priority over the three paragraphs of the Shema).
  Another two time-bound mitzvot are mentioned in Shema – tzitzit and tefillin. We already learned (in chapter 3) that women absorb the light of time-bound mitzvot even without performing them; however a woman who wishes to fulfill a time-bound mitzva receives credit for doing so. For various reasons, women customarily do not fulfill the mitzvot of tzitzit and tefillin (Rema 17:2 and 38:3; below 21:5-6). However, every woman recites Shema and its berakhot sometimes, and some even do so daily. This is the practice in many schools as well (see above, 2:8 n. 10; 8:3 n. 4). Therefore, in the ensuing sections we will study the meaning and halakhot of this mitzva.
  
  Section 2
  
  Keri’at Shema and Its Berakhot / The Mitzva of Reciting the Shema
  The recitation of Shema includes three paragraphs. The first is “Shema” (“Listen”; Devarim 6:4-9), in which we accept the yoke of heaven and which discusses God’s unity and our love for Him. The second is “Ve-haya im Shamo’a” (“And if you follow”; Devarim 11:13-21), which contains the acceptance of the yoke of the mitzvot. The third is “Va-yomer” (“And He said”; Bamidbar 15:37-41), within which there is a command to remember the mitzvot via the mitzva of tzitzit, and at the end of which the Exodus from Egypt is mentioned.
  The Sages arranged the Shema paragraph to precede Ve-haya im Shamo’a so that one will first accept the yoke of heaven and only then accept the yoke of the mitzvot. They also placed Ve-haya im Shamo’a, which presents a general command to keep all the mitzvot, including those performed during the day and those at night, before Va-yomer, which discusses the mitzva of tzitzit, performed only during the day (Berakhot 13a).
  According to most Rishonim, the biblical commandment can be fulfilled by reciting just the “Shema Yisrael” verse, for about that verse Torah says (Devarim 6:6-7), “These words I am commanding you today must be in your heart…when you lie down and when you get up.” However, the Sages ordained the recitation of all three paragraphs. It can therefore be explained that the essence of the mitzva of Shema is indeed the acceptance of the yoke of heaven, which is why most Rishonim maintain that even one who only recites the first verse fulfills the biblical commandment. Yet, the more one enhances his acceptance of the yoke of heaven, the more completely he fulfills the biblical mitzva. Therefore, the Sages ordained the recitation of all three paragraphs, for within them are the fundamentals of faith, the acceptance of the yoke of the mitzvot, and the remembrance of all the mitzvot through the mitzva of tzitzit. Hence, in truth, we fulfill the biblical mitzva by reciting all three paragraphs (Peninei Halakha: Prayer, ch. 15 n. 1).
  
  Section 3
  
  Keri’at Shema and Its Berakhot / Remembering the Exodus
  It is a biblical commandment to remember the Exodus every day, as the Torah says: “So that you remember the day you left Egypt every day of your life” (Devarim 16:3). The Torah seems to add a superfluous word (“kol yemei ḥayekha” instead of just “yemei ḥayekha”), from which the Sages derive that the mitzva to remember the Exodus is performed both during the day and at night (Berakhot 12b). This mitzva can be fulfilled by reciting any verse that discusses leaving Egypt or by mentioning the Exodus in one’s own words.
  There are two reasons why the Va-yomer paragraph was incorporated into the recitation of the Shema. First, it mentions the mitzva of tzitzit that reminds us of all the mitzvot. Second, it discusses the Exodus from Egypt. It is therefore customary to say Va-yomer even at night, for although there is no need to mention the mitzva of tzitzit then, there is still reason to say it for the sake of remembering the Exodus (see Berakhot 14b, and Kessef Mishneh, Laws of Keri’at Shema 1:2-3).
  There is a difference between the mitzva of Keri’at Shema and the mitzva of remembering the Exodus from Egypt. The mitzva of Keri’at Shema can only be fulfilled in the first three hours of the day because that is the time we wake up, whereas the daytime mitzva of remembering the Exodus can be performed throughout the entire day. However, following the enactment of the Sages, we fulfill the mitzva of remembering the Exodus by saying Shema. The Exodus is also mentioned in the berakhot of Emet Ve-yatziv in Shaḥarit and Emet Ve-emuna in Ma’ariv, and one who recites them fulfills his obligation of remembering the Exodus even if he did not recite the Shema.
  Regarding women, some poskim say that since the mitzva to remember the Exodus from Egypt lasts continuously throughout the day and night, it is not a time-bound mitzva, and women are therefore obligated to fulfill it. Hence, women are required to recite Emet Ve-yatziv in Shaḥarit and Emet Ve-emuna in Ma’ariv (MA). Still, according to the majority of poskim, because there is a specific mitzva to remember during the day and a specific mitzva to remember at night, it is considered a time-bound mitzva from which women are exempt (Sha’agat Aryeh §13; MB 70:2).
  Nonetheless, a woman who wishes to perform this mitzva is praiseworthy. It is preferable for her to fulfill this mitzva by reciting Emet Ve-yatziv, because Va-yomer mentions the mitzva of tzitzit, from which women are exempt, whereas Emet Ve-yatziv, which discusses the redemption of Israel, pertains to both men and women. Moreover, if she recites this berakha followed immediately by the Amida, she will have fulfilled the enhancement of juxtaposing redemption and prayer (see below, section 13).
  
  Section 4
  
  Keri’at Shema and Its Berakhot / The Content of the Shema Paragraph
  The Shema paragraph (Devarim 6:4-9) consists of three sections: 1) the principle of faith; 2) the meaning of this principle in our lives; 3) guidance on imbuing our lives with faith.
  1) The first verse, “Hear O Israel, the Lord our God, the Lord is One,” teaches the core principle of Jewish monotheistic faith: that God is Master of all and there is no power in the world other than Him. Even though it may seem to us that there are other distinct powers, in truth God is the One and Only, Who sustains all. There is none but Him.
  2) This belief bears great significance on our lives. It implies that there is no value in this world outside adherence to God, and we are thus enjoined to love Him “with all your heart, with all your soul, and with all your might.” The Sages (Berakhot 54a) interpret these words: “‘With all your heart’ – with both of your inclinations: your good inclination and your evil inclination,” because one’s evil inclination must be controlled to serve God, whether by force or by transforming it into good; “‘And with all your soul’ – even if it takes your life,” for one must be ready to give his life for his belief in God; “‘And with all your might’ (‘me’odekha’) – with all your money (‘mamonekha’)” – even one’s money should serve as a basis and a means to serve God, so that if it were demanded of a Jew to violate his religion or lose all his wealth, he would forfeit his money rather than defy his belief. Alternatively, they interpret, “‘With all your might’ – no matter what He metes out to you (‘be-khol mida u-mida she-Hu moded lekha’), be very grateful to him.”
  3) In the third part of this paragraph, the Torah offers guidance for incorporating these principles of faith. First, “These words that I command you today shall be upon your heart,” and then, “teach them to your children.” Even after one learns the basics of faith very well, if he does not repeat them to himself every day, the worries of his life and his dealings can cause him to forget them. Therefore we are commanded, “And you shall speak them when you sit at home, when you walk on your way, when you lie down, and when you rise.” From here we derive the obligation to recite Shema both in the morning and at night. Nevertheless, the Torah is not content with recitation alone; it adds the mitzva to place these paragraphs on faith into our tefillin and to bind them to our arms and heads: “You shall bind them as a sign on your arm and they should be a symbol between your eyes.” We are moreover commanded to fix them firmly in the mezuzot on our doorposts, as it is written, “write them on the doorposts (mezuzot) of your homes and your gates.” This is so that every time we enter and exit our homes, we notice the mezuza and recall the fundamentals of Jewish faith.
  
  Section 5
  
  Keri’at Shema and Its Berakhot / The Second and Third Paragraphs
  In the second paragraph, “Ve-haya im Shamo’a” (Devarim 11:13-21), we learn the value of the mitzvot, the reward for those who fulfill them, and the punishment for those who transgress them. If we love God, serve Him with all our hearts, and fulfill His mitzvot, we will be worthy of His blessing. The land will bring forth its crops, and we and our children will live long lives on the soil that God promised to give to our ancestors and to us. However, if we, God forbid, stray from the path, God will be angry with us, the ground will not yield its produce, and we will perish from upon the good land. The Torah goes on to reiterate the commandment to contemplate the fundamentals, to place this paragraph in the tefillin on our arms and our heads, and to post mezuzot on the entrances to our homes. Thus, whereas the first paragraph emphasizes our turn toward God, the second paragraph emphasizes the manifestation of God’s actions in the world, as the fulfillment of the mitzvot is an expression of God’s word in this world while reward and punishment confirm His supervision of the world.
  In the third paragraph, “Va-yomer” (Bamidbar 15:37-41), the mitzva of tzitzit is elucidated. This mitzva has the unique ability to remind us of all the mitzvot and inspire their fulfillment, as it is stated: “Remember all of God’s mitzvot – do them.” Indeed, the mitzva of tzitzit is only performed during the day and not at night because the day symbolizes the clear revelation of God’s word in the world. By revealing the light of the mitzvot and remembering them, we have the strength to overcome our inclination, as the Torah states: “You will not stray after your heart and after your eyes that you chase after.” The conclusion of the paragraph mentions the Exodus. Just as tzitzit reveal the light of all the mitzvot, so too, the Exodus demonstrates that this world has a Sovereign and that the Jewish people were chosen to reveal His word.
  Thus, each of the three paragraphs is a continuation of and an expansion of the basis of faith contained in the verse “Shema Yisrael.” In the first paragraph, we learn the essential significance of faith as the one and only foundation of our lives. This is an extension of the words “Hashem Eḥad” (“God is One”). From that, we accept upon ourselves the yoke of all the mitzvot in the second paragraph, which is an extension of the words “Hashem Elokeinu” (“the Lord is our God”). In the third paragraph, the mitzva of tzitzit reminds us of all the mitzvot. At the end, it talks about the Exodus, which showed the world that God chose Israel and that He oversees and rules the world. This is an expansion of the words, “Shema Yisrael” (“Hear O Israel”). Later in this chapter (section 12) we will learn that the berakhot instituted by the Sages also continue and supplement the Shema.
  
  Section 6
  
  Keri’at Shema and Its Berakhot / The Significance of the Exodus
  The Egyptian kingdom, which enslaved Israel, was essentially a material one. Historical research corroborates this. Among all the ancient nations, no culture was more materialistic than the Egyptian culture. The Egyptians denied the existence of a soul and did not believe in the afterlife. Only the human body and material objects were of importance to them. They therefore invested enormous effort into embalming and mummifying their dead. Even the great pyramids are nothing but tombs for their bodies. Their moral culture correspondingly was concerned primarily with satisfying bodily appetites. As the Sages tell us, no nation was as awash in lust as the Egyptians (Torat Kohanim, Aḥarei Mot 9). The Jewish people represent the exact opposite; their aspirations are primarily spiritual.
  During that difficult period, the materialistic Egyptian people ruled over the people of Israel, enslaved them, and subjected them to excruciating physical labor. It seemed that the great spirit that our patriarchs began to display would never rise again. The material had prevailed over the spiritual. Until the King of kings appeared in all His glory and brought us forth from Egypt.
  By taking us out of Egypt, God showed the world, for the first time, the full power of the spirit. It was then made known that the world is not merely physical urges, but also spirit; spirit and soul exist, as do moral values. The Exodus expresses the victory of spirit over matter. It demonstrates that even if matter tries its best to enslave the spirit, the spirit ultimately breaks free from its chains. Just as God smote Egypt and brought Israel out with great wealth, so every battle between spirit and matter will end with spirit victorious.
  Just as the Jewish people, who gave the world Torah and ethics, were liberated from the  bonds of Egyptian materialism, so too each individual Jew must free herself from the bonds of materialism, discover the spirit, and connect with the Almighty through mitzvot. By fulfilling the mitzva of remembering the Exodus, we recall the uniqueness and destiny of Israel, thereby freeing ourselves from the bonds of the material and disclosing the eternal divine truth (see Peninei Halakha: Pesaḥ, 1:2-4).
  
  Section 7
  
  Keri’at Shema and Its Berakhot / Kavana While Reciting the First Verse
  One’s primary kavana must be for the first verse, because in saying it we accept the yoke of heaven, as the Torah says: “These words… must be in your heart” (Devarim 6:6). Therefore, one must concentrate in her heart on the words she recites in the first verse. If she did not focus on the words she recited, she did not perform the mitzva (Berakhot 13b; SA 60:5, 63:4). 
  Even one who concentrates on the full meaning of every word must try not to think about other things while reciting the verse. However, be-di’avad, it seems that as long as she also pondered the meaning of the verse, she fulfilled the mitzva (Peninei Halakha: Prayer, ch. 15 n. 2).
  This is the meaning on which one should focus: “Shema Yisrael” – “Hear O Israel”; the mitzva to accept God’s yoke is intended for the Jewish people, the nation whose purpose is to express faith in God’s singularity in the world. “Hashem” – “the Lord”; this word is not pronounced as written. It is written as the Tetragrammaton, God’s four-letter proper name, but it is pronounced “Adonai.” While reciting it, one should focus on the meaning of the word as pronounced – that He is Master of all – as well as the word as written – that He is eternal. “Elokeinu” – “our God”; He is powerful, omnipotent, the master of all forces, Who rules over us. “Eḥad” – “one”; a person should prolong the recitation of this word long enough to have kavana that God is the sole ruler of the whole world, heaven and earth and the four directions of the world. This meaning is hinted at in the numerical values of the letters of the word: alef – one: God is One; “ḥet” – eight: God rules over the seven heavens and the earth; “dalet” – four: God rules over the four directions (SA 61:6; and see MB 18).
  Be-di’avad, even if one does not focus on the exact meaning of each word and name but understands their meaning generally – that they are about the acceptance of the yoke of heaven – she fulfills this mitzva (Peninei Halakha: Prayer, ch. 15 n. 3). 
  However, if her mind wanders and she does not concentrate on even the general meaning of the words of the first verse, she does not fulfill the mitzva and must repeat the first verse with kavana in order to do so (MB 63:14; Kaf Ha-ḥayim 17-18; see Peninei Halakha: Prayer 15:6).
  It is customary to recite the first verse aloud in order to inspire kavana, it is customary to read the first verse out loud. It is also customary to cover the eyes with the right hand so as to avoid looking at anything else that might disrupt concentration (SA 61:4-5; MB 17).
  
  Section 8
  
  Keri’at Shema and Its Berakhot / The Second Verse and its Meaning
  Immediately following the first verse, we say quietly, “Barukh Shem kevod malkhuto le-olam va-ed” (“Blessed is the name of His glorious kingdom for all eternity”). Although this passage does not appear in the Shema paragraph and is not a verse from Tanakh, the Sages ordained its recitation as part of Shema based on an ancient tradition.
  The Talmud (Pesaḥim 56a) recounts that before the patriarch Yaakov died, all of his sons gathered around him. He wished to disclose the end of days, but at that moment the Shekhina left him and he could not tell them. He asked his sons, “Perhaps one of you is not righteous, like Yishmael who came from Avraham and Esav who came from my father Yitzḥak, and that is preventing me from disclosing the end of days to you?” They all replied as one: “‘Hear O Israel, the Lord our God, the Lord is One.’ Just like there is only One in your heart, there is only One in our hearts.” At that moment, Yaakov said, “Barukh Shem kevod malkhuto le-olam va-ed.” The Sages ask, “What should we do? Should we recite this sentence even though it is not written in the Torah? Should we omit it even though Yaakov said it?” Therefore they ordained that it is recited quietly.
  This sentence is considered a continuation of the acceptance of the yoke of heaven found in the first verse, and therefore also requires that one concentrate on the meaning of the words (MB 63:12). As we learned, it is proper for women to recite the first two verses of Shema daily.
  One should pause briefly between “le-olam va’ed” and “Ve-ahavta” (“You shall love”) in order to distinguish between the acceptance of the yoke of heaven and the rest of the paragraph. Also, it is proper to pause between the first verse and “Barukh shem” to differentiate between the acceptance of the yoke of heaven as commanded by the Torah and the enactment of the Sages (SA and Rema 61:14).
  Although God’s unity is extremely profound concept, we will nonetheless briefly discuss its meaning. The first verse, Shema Yisrael, expresses the greatest, most absolute, most unified form of belief and is called “yiḥud elyon” (the higher unification). In this conception, nothing other than God has any real existence; rather He is alone, and we are all non-existent in relation to Him. Since God’s omnipotence is not revealed in this world, it is difficult to grasp the higher unification on a permanent basis. But twice daily, when we recite Shema Yisrael, we are commanded to rise to this level. The second verse is called “yiḥud taḥton” (the lower unification). By reciting it, we accept upon ourselves the yoke of heaven according to the level of belief that remains paramount in this world: the belief that the world really, tangibly exists and God gives it life and rules over it. By His will He adds life to it, or heaven forbid, takes life away from it. This is the meaning of the statement that His name and sovereignty are revealed in this world, as we say, “Blessed is the name of His glorious kingdom for all eternity” (Tanya, Sha’ar Ha-yiḥud Ve-ha-emuna; Nefesh Ha-ḥayim, part 3).
  
  Section 9
  
  Keri’at Shema and Its Berakhot / The Laws of Reciting Shema
  One must recite Shema with great kavana, with fear, awe, trembling, and sweat; she should contemplate in her heart that she is now reciting God’s word and focus on its meaning, as if they were new to her (SA 61:1-2).
  In addition to kavana, one must pronounce the words of Shema precisely, taking care not to slur any letter, harden soft sounds, or soften hard ones. Therefore, le-khatḥila, one should distinguish between an alef and an ayin, a khaf and a ḥet, a kamatz and a pataḥ, and a tzeirei and a segol (SA  61:14-23). The Sages say, “If one recites Shema and is careful to pronounce its letters exactly, Hell is cooled for him” (Berakhot 15b). Be-di’avad, if she did not recite Shema meticulously, she nevertheless fulfilled her obligation as long as she did not miss a word or a full syllable (SA 62:1; MB 1).
  One must hear what she is saying. Be-di’avad, if she read the words only with her lips but did not hear herself, since she mouthed the words, she fulfilled her obligation. However, one who only recited Shema in her mind, without mouthing the words, did not fulfill her obligation (SA 62:3).
  Technically, one fulfills the mitzva by reciting Shema or the Amida in any language she understands, though it is proper to recite them in Hebrew (see above, 1:10). However, several major Aḥaronim write that nowadays one cannot fulfill the obligation by reciting Shema in a different language, because there are words that cannot be translated accurately. For example, the Hebrew word “ve-shinantam” (“teach them”) connotes both repetition (shinun) and sharpening (ḥidud). No foreign word captures exactly these meanings. Since the Shema cannot be translated precisely, there is no option to recite it in a different language (MB 62:3; see also Peninei Halakha: Prayer, ch. 15 n. 7).
  
  Section 10
  
  Keri’at Shema and Its Berakhot / The Way to Recite Shema
  One may recite Shema while standing, sitting, or lying down on one’s side (Berakhot 10a; SA 63:1). We learn from this rule that faith is not something detached from this world, something that can only be achieved under specific circumstances. Rather, the faith expressed in the recitation of Shema is a part of every life situation in this world, and so one may recite Shema in any situation.
  Technically, one may recite Shema even while walking, as the Torah says, “when you walk on your way.” However, the Sages maintain that it is not proper for one to accept the yoke of heaven casually. Therefore, one who is walking should stand still while reciting first verse of Shema (SA 63:3; MB 9).
  Because of the importance of the first paragraph, in which we accept the yoke of heaven, one must be careful not to occupy herself with anything else while saying it, nor gesture with her eyes, fingers, or lips (SA 63:6).
  It is worth noting that mitzvot require kavana (SA 60:4). That is, in addition to the actual performance of the mitzva, one must also intend this action or speech-act to be a mitzva; just as one has a body and a soul and one cannot live without the other, so too, the mitzvot have both body and soul. The act is the body and the accompanying intent is the soul.
  
  Section 11
  
  Keri’at Shema and Its Berakhot /  248 Words
  The Torah gives life and health to the world and to humanity. This is especially true of Shema, which contains the principles of faith and the fulfillment of the mitzvot. The Sages teach that Shema is comprised of 248 words, just as there are 248 limbs in the human body; when one recites Shema properly, each and every limb corresponds to one word and is healed by it. However, in the three paragraphs of Shema there are actually 245 words. In order to reach 248, the ḥazan repeats the last three words, “Hashem Elokeikhem emet” (“the Lord, your God, is true”), thereby completing the count to 248 (Zohar Ḥadash Ruth 95:1; see also Peninei Halakha: Prayer 15:12).
  Women, who do not pray in the synagogue, do not hear the ḥazan, and therefore must practice one would when praying individually. That is, according to Ashkenazic custom, before beginning Shema she says, “Kel Melekh ne’eman” (“God, faithful King”). Even though women have 252 limbs, as the womb has two doors and two hinges (Bekhorot 45a), since all people have 248 limbs, perhaps it is most important to direct the blessings toward them, and the blessing will then continue to the limbs unique to women (Minḥat Elazar 2:28; Ha-elef Lekha Shlomo OḤ 120).
  According to Sephardic custom, one praying individually should also complete the three missing words on her own and repeat “Hashem Elokeikhem emet” (Kaf Ha-ḥayim 61:15-16).  Some say that according to Sephardic custom a woman should say “Kel Melekh Ne’eman” before and also repeat “Hashem Elokeikhem emet” after Shema, thereby reaching 252 words, matching the number of her limbs (She’eirit Yosef vol. 2, p. 186).
  
  Section 12
  
  Keri’at Shema and Its Berakhot / The Berakhot Are an Extension of Keri’at Shema
  Birkhot Keri’at Shema are unlike other birkhot ha-mitzvot instituted as preparation mitzvot, which contain the formula “asher kideshanu be-mitzvotav ve-tzivanu…” (Who has sanctified us with His mitzvot and commanded us…”). Rather, they are formulated as praise, thanksgiving, and some petition, and their purpose is to express more expansively the themes of Shema, whose essence is the first verse.
  In the Shema we say “Hashem Eḥad” (“God is One”), denoting that He is the single entity that brings the world into being and sustains it and that there is none other than Him. In the first berakha of Keri’at Shema, we expand on this principle, and by praising Him for the light that is renewed daily, we continue to extol God, “Who constantly renews the work of Creation every day.” To emphasize His oneness, we praise Him as Creator of both light and darkness. At night, in the corresponding berakha, we praise him as “Ma’ariv aravim” (“the One Who brings on evening”) and add that He is “Borei yom va-laila” (“the Creator of day and night”). Hence, the principle of belief in God’s unity that appears in Shema is amplified in the first berakha.
  The significance of the opening words, “Shema Yisrael,” is that the belief in God’s unity is revealed to the world through the Jewish people, who were put in the world for that purpose. This idea is amplified in the second berakha, in which we thank God for loving us and for giving us the Torah out of love. We pray for the opportunity to understand the Torah and fulfilling it with love, thereby revealing God’s name in the world.
  “Hashem Elokeinu” (“Lord our God”) means that God is omnipotent and rules the world according to His will. His control of the world, with all its forces and components, was revealed most clearly in the Exodus, which is mentioned at the end of the third paragraph of Shema. In the third berakha we expand on this further and praise God, “You are the first and You are the last, and aside from You we have no king, redeemer, or savior. You redeemed us from Egypt…” We also mention the slaying of the Egyptian firstborns and the splitting of the sea. We conclude, “Blessed are You, Lord, Who redeemed Israel” (“Ga’al Yisrael”).
  We thus see that all three berakhot are a continuation and expansion of the principles of faith that are found in Shema.
  Because these berakhot are unlike others which we recite before the performance of mitzvot, confusing their sequence does not prevent fulfillment of the mitzva. Although certainly le-khatḥila they must be recited in the order that the Sages ordained, be-di’avad, if one changed the order, she still fulfills the mitzva. Likewise, if she recited the berakhot without reciting Shema, or if she only recited one of the berakhot, she is credited for what she recited (Peninei Halakha: Prayer, ch. 16 n. 1).
  
  Section 13
  
  Keri’at Shema and Its Berakhot / The Laws of Reciting the Berakhot
  A woman who recites Pesukei De-zimra and Birkhot Keri’at Shema must be careful not to interrupt by speaking between them. Since Pesukei De-zimra serves as a preparation for prayer, she must take care not to interrupt from the beginning of Barukh She-amar until the end of the Amida (SA 54:3).
  In Yotzer Or, we recite verses of Kedusha, and although it is forbidden to say Kedusha without a minyan, according to the majority of poskim, the Kedusha in Yotzer Or does not require a minyan for it is not our intention to sanctify God as individuals at that time; rather, the verses are a description of how angels sanctify God’s Name (Talmidei Rabbeinu Yona, Rosh). However, le-khatḥila, in order to fulfill her obligation according to all poskim, it is best that a woman who recites Yotzer Or without a minyan says them in the ritual chant for verses of Tanakh, for then she is considered to be speaking them in the manner of one studying, which all agree is permissible (Terumat Ha-deshen, SA 59:3). It is not necessary for her to know the precise cantillation melodies; rather, the main idea is that she tries to recite the words somewhat like a traditional chant so that it appears as if she is studying a book of the Prophets.
  Although the recitation of Shema and its berakhot and the recitation of the Amida are two separate mitzvot, a woman who recites them both must adjoin them; immediately upon finishing Ga’al Yisrael she must begin the Amida. The Sages state that anyone who adjoins redemption to prayer indeed merits life in the next world (Berakhot 4b). If one adjoins them while praying ke-vatikin (at hanetz ha-ḥama), he is promised that he will not be harmed that whole day (Berakhot 9b and Tosafot ad loc.). One who interrupts between redemption and prayer is like a king’s confidant who comes and knocks on the king’s door, and when the king emerges to find out what he wants, the confidant leaves to take care of another matter, which then results in the king’s withdrawal from him.
  The mention of Israel’s redemption from Egypt is like the knock on the king’s door, because the redemption demonstrates the great love God has for Israel. The Exodus is considered God’s betrothal of Israel, as it were. It therefore forbidden to waste the opportunity. At this moment of closeness, we must achieve devotion through prayer and ask that God bless and redeem us like He redeemed us from Egypt (see y. Berakhot 1:1).
  
  Section 14
  
  Keri’at Shema and Its Berakhot / Interruption between Keri’at Shema and Its Berakhot
  In order to prevent hatred and insult, the Sages permitted offering greetings in the middle of reciting Shema and its berakhot to one to whom courtesy demands doing so. The poskim write that since it is accepted nowadays not to interrupt in the middle of prayer, honorable people are not insulted when they are not greeted and asked how they are. Therefore, no permission is granted to interrupt in the middle of Shema and its berakhot in order to address an honorable or revered person (MB 66:2, based on Sefer Ha-ḥinukh). However, if someone who does not understand the value of prayer approaches the woman praying, and if not answering will likely cause insult, it is permitted to initiate a greeting. Similarly, a newly religious person whose parents do not understand the value of prayer may greet them succinctly. In the middle of the verses “Shema Yisrael” and “Barukh Shem” one must not interrupt, unless a life is at stake.
  One may interrupt by talking in the middle of Shema and its berakhot in order to save herself from bodily harm or monetary loss, although it is preferable, if possible, to finish the paragraph or berakha she is reciting before doing so (see BHL 66:1).
  One who sees her friend committing a sin should hint to her in order to prevent her from sinning. However, if her friend does not take the hint, she must interrupt Keri’at Shema and its berakhot to tell her to separate from the prohibition, for if the Sages permitted the interruption of Keri’at Shema and its berakhot for the honor of a human being, one may certainly interrupt for God’s honor (Ritva, Kaf Ha-Ḥayim 66:7).
  One may interrupt in the middle of Birkhot Keri’at Shema to respond to Kaddish, Kedusha, and other sacred words. These laws will be addressed outlined below (20:9-10).
  
  
  
  
  
  Section 1
  
  The Prayers after the Amida / Women are Exempt from All Prayers That Follow the Amida
  Women are exempt from all the passages that men customarily recite after the Amida: Taḥanun, Ashrei, La-menatze’aḥ, Kedusha De-sidra (U-va Le-Tziyon), Shir shel Yom (The Psalm of the Day), Pitum Ha-ketoret (the mixture of the incense), and Aleinu. This is because not even men have an absolute obligation to recite them; rather, customarily recited them for several important reasons, and the custom eventually became obligatory. But women never took on this custom, and hence they are certainly not obligated. Women are only obligated to recite the Amida, not the subsequent customary prayers; however, women who wish to enhance the mitzva may recite those passages.1<i class="footnote">Halikhot Beitah §7 and Halikhot Bat Yisrael 2:12-13 rule that women must recite Aleinu and that there is uncertainty about whether they must recite Pitum Ha-ketoret. However, since not even men have an absolute obligation to recite Aleinu, rather their obligation originates in custom, women, who were not accustomed to recite this prayer, cannot be required to do so. So states Maḥazeh Eliyahu §20. Women who wish to enhance their prayer may recite all the prayers like men do, as written in Kaf Ha-ḥayim 70:1.    </i>
  Nevertheless, it is worth studying the laws of these passages in order to complete our study of the laws of prayer and so that one who wishes to enhance the mitzva will know how to do so properly.
  
  Section 2
  
  The Prayers after the Amida / Nefilat Apayim
  After the conclusion of the Shaḥarit Amida, it is customary for men to “fall on their faces” and plead before God. By doing so, they fulfill the mitzva of prayer in all three of its positions – Birkhot Keri’at Shema while sitting, Shemoneh Esrei while standing, and Taḥanun (“Supplication”) while bending forward (“Nefilat Apayim”). We learn this from our teacher Moshe, who pleaded to God to forgive Israel following the sin of the Golden Calf.
  Nefilat Apayim possesses a special power and is most effective in times of distress. Indeed, we see that when God commanded Moshe and Aharon, during their dispute with Koraḥ and his followers, “Separate yourselves from this group and I will destroy them in an instant,” they immediately understood that they must pray intensely. Therefore, they prayed in prostration: “They fell on their faces and said: ‘Lord, God of all living souls, if one man sins, shall You become angry at the entire community?’” (Bamidbar 16:21-22). By virtue of their prayer recited in prostration, the decree was cancelled.
  Nefilat Apayim is so powerful because it expresses the complete surrender of the self to his Creator and total self-sacrifice. It is as if the person is saying to the Almighty: “All my senses and limbs are void before You. Do to me as You will, for I am all Yours.” Thus, the prayer of Nefilat Apayim can repair flaws that cannot be repaired through regular prayer (see Zohar Bamidbar 120:2).
  Nefilat Apayim also expresses man’s shame before God. After the Amida, in which we addressed God’s greatness and set all our requests before Him, we are ashamed to show our faces. How did we dare stand before Him in prayer? So we fall down on our faces. Nefilat Apayim also conveys our sorrow as we repent of our sins; we are so anguished that we cannot lift our faces (see Rabbeinu Baḥya on Bamidbar 16:22).
  Despite its great virtue, the Sages did not ordain Nefilat Apayim as an obligatory prayer or fix its wording. Anyone who wished would add prayers of supplication while lying prostrate after reciting the Amida. Perhaps specifically because of its superior value – its expression of total submission to the Creator – it is fitting that it comes from the heart, from one’s unguarded resolve.
  
  Section 3
  
  The Prayers after the Amida / Reciting Taĥanun Today
  At first, it was customary to perform Nefilat Apayim by prostrating or by bowing down. Prostration (“hishtaḥavaya”) is when the person praying lies face down, completely horizontal to the ground, with his arms and legs extended. Bowing (“kida”) is when he goes down on his knees and bends his head forward until it touches the ground (Berakhot 34b; MT, Laws of Prayer 5:13-14).
  However, due to a number of concerns, the practice of Nefilat Apayim while bowing or lying prostrate was annulled. Some of the reasons are halakhic and are connected to the prohibition on prostrating oneself on a stone floor and the prohibition on an important person falling on his face before the congregation without a promise to be answered like Yehoshua bin Nun. Still, the main concern appears in Zohar (Bamidbar 121:1), which greatly reinforces the virtue of Nefilat Apayim, during which the person praying must devote his soul to God and view himself as if he has left the world, thereby atoning for all his sins. However, if one does not surrender his soul in sincerity, he endangers his life, and therefore the custom is not to fall onto the ground. (see Peninei Halakha: Prayer 21:3).
  In practice, it is the custom of all Ashkenazim and some Sephardim to bend forward and lean their head on their arm. By doing so, one maintains a certain aspect of Nefilat Apayim, for that is a type of bow, yet it is not a complete bow, and there is no fear of prostration on a stone floor (BHL 131:1). Those who follow Ben Ish Ḥai are careful not to fall on their face at all, and that is the practice of many Mizraḥi Jews.
  During the period of the Ge’onim, a fixed text for Nefilat Apayim and the supplications after the Amida began to crystallize, a process that continued through the time of the Rishonim until all Israel accepted the recitation of certain specific supplications as an obligation. It seems that as a result of the ever-intensifying suffering of the Exile, hearts were dulled to the point at which it was necessary to introduce a fixed text for Taḥanun.  But since Taḥanun became widespread only after the scattering of Diaspora communities, the differences between the Sephardic and Ashkenazic rites are more pronounced.
  Since the Nefilat Apayim prayer is one of heartbreak, negation of the body, and self-sacrifice, it is not recited on happy days (as listed in the siddur). Taḥanun is also omitted when someone celebrating a joyous occasion – for example, a bridegroom or a participant in a brit mila – is present in the synagogue (see Peninei Halakha: Prayer 21:7-8). It is also omitted in a house of mourning, since the divine attribute of judgment (midat ha-din) prevails there and should not be aggravated (MB 131:20).
  
  Section 4
  
  The Prayers after the Amida / How to Perform Nefilat Apayim (for those who practice it)
  As mentioned, according to Ashkenazic custom and that of some Sephardim, Nefilat Apayim is performed while sitting by lowering one’s head and leaning it on his forearm while slightly inclining the face to the right, so that one does not directly face the floor. She must cover her face with clothing or a sleeve. It is not sufficient for her to bury her head in her arm, since the arm and the face part of the same body, and the body cannot cover itself (SA 131:1; MB ad loc.). The main reason that the face must be covered is tzni’ut, like that of one who hides her face from God out of trepidation and shame. Be-di’avad, one who is wearing short sleeves and does not have a handkerchief may lean on her bare arm. If there is a table there, she rests her head and arm on it, and the table is considered the main cover for her face (Peninei Halakha: Prayer 21:4).
  Nefilat Apayim is customarily performed only where a Torah scroll or even other printed sacred texts are present. Where there are no sacred texts, the Taḥanun prayer is recited while sitting, without falling on one’s arm. In Jerusalem, it is customary to perform Nefilat Apayim even in a place without sacred books, since the sanctity of the city serves as a substitute for books (Peninei Halakha: Prayer 21:4).
  Where it is impossible for someone to perform Nefilat Apayim while sitting – for example, if there is no chair available or if someone is praying the Amida directly behind her and she cannot go elsewhere – she may perform it while standing (MB 131:10). If she is next to a wall, it is best that she leans her arm and head against the wall, in the manner of Nefilat Apayim, so that without the wall she would fall. In this way, she is considered to be partially sitting and bowing (Kaf Ha-ḥayim 38).
  
  Section 5
  
  The Prayers after the Amida / The Taĥanun Passages
  A woman who wishes to recite Taḥanun should not make an interruption by talking between Shemoneh Esrei and Taḥanun, because these prayers are more favorably accepted when connected to Shemoneh Esrei (SA 131:1; MB 1).
  The Sephardic custom is to say Vidui (confession) and recite the Thirteen Attributes of Mercy before Nefilat Apayim, so that the atonement that they bring will lead to a climax with Nefilat Apayim (Kaf Ha-ḥayim 131:5). According to Ashkenazic and Yemenite (Baladi) custom, we only begin with Vidui and the Thirteen Attributes on Mondays and Thursdays.
  It is said that the Thirteen Attributes of Mercy have great power of atonement for sins. By accepting the highest level of faith represented by the Thirteen Attributes, we connect to God in such a profound and exalted manner that our sins become marginal and external to us in comparison to inner devotion to God and His actions. This is the source of the atonement, and this is why we constantly repeat the Thirteen Attributes in Seliḥot and on Yom Kippur.
  The Thirteen Attributes are considered a sacred matter (davar she-bikdusha) and therefore requires a minyan (Peninei Halakha: Prayer 21:5). Therefore, a woman praying without a minyan who wishes to recite Taḥanun omits the Thirteen Attributes.
  In Sephardic custom, Tehilim 25 is recited during Nefilat Apayim, whereas Tehilim 6 is recited according to Ashkenazic rite.
  On Mondays and Thursdays, additional Taḥanun prayers are recited, since those days are days of Divine grace when prayer is more accepted. The extra passages are recited while standing (SA and Rema 134:1). The text of Ve-hu Raḥum was compiled by three elders who were exiled from Jerusalem, as stated in the works of Rishonim (Abudraham, Raavan, Manhig, Kol Bo §18). Therefore, the distinctions in its wording between the various customs are slight, except that Sephardim add more Taḥanun prayers before it and Ashkenazim add more Taḥanun prayers after it.
  Another difference is that in the Sephardic and Ḥasidic rites, the additional Taḥanun prayers of Mondays and Thursdays are recited after Nefilat Apayim, whereas in the Ashkenazic rite they are recited before Nefilat Apayim.
  
  Section 6
  
  The Prayers after the Amida / Ashrei, La-menatze’ach, and U-va Le-Tziyon
  After Taḥanun, and on Mondays and Thursdays following the Torah reading, men regularly recite three prayers. The first is Ashrei (Tehilla Le-David). Although this prayer was already recited in Pesukei De-zimra, it is repeated because of its considerable significance (Peninei Halakha: Prayer, 23:1-2 and ch. 14 n. 5 state that men recite Ashrei thrice daily).
  Afterwards, we recite the psalm “La-menatze’aḥ mizmor le-David, ya’ankha Hashem be-yom tzara” (“For the One Who grants victory, a psalm of David. May God answer you on the day of distress”; Tehilim 20), which serves as a continuation of Taḥanun. Since La-menatze’aḥ invokes the day of distress, it is not recited on days of joy (as listed in siddurim; the differences in customs are clarified in Peninei Halakha: Prayer 23:1).
  After that, U-va Le-Tziyon, also called Kedusha De-sidra, is recited. It contains the verses “Kadosh, kadosh, kadosh…” (Yeshayahu 6:3), “Barukh kevod Hashem mi-mkomo” (Yeḥezkel 3:12), and “Hashem yimlokh le-olam va’ed” (Shemot 15:18). The uniqueness of this Kedusha is that the verses are recited along with their Aramaic translations. The Sages ordained their recitation (even though they were already recited in Yotzer Or and in Kedusah of Ḥazarat Ha-shatz) so that every person praying would learn some verses of the Prophets every day. The verses are translated into Aramaic, so that the whole nation, which was fluent in Aramaic at that time the prayer was ordained, would understand their meaning.
  The reason for instituting the recitation of verses from the Prophets is so that men, who are commanded to study Torah, to learn verses of Torah, the Prophets, and the Sages every day. By reciting Shema they study Torah, by reciting these verses of Kedusha they study the Prophets, and rabbinic teachings are added at the end of the prayer service.
  The Sages offer great praise for the recitation of Kedusha De-sidra, stating that after the destruction of the Temple, it became one of the things in whose merit the world stands (Sota 49a). Rashi explains that its recitation possesses two virtues: it is a form of Torah study, and its verses deal with God’s holiness, so when they are recited in a minyan, God’s name is publicly sanctified. There is no need to say Kedusha De-sidra in Shaḥarit of Shabbat since one’s obligation to study words of the Prophets has already been fulfilled by reading the haftara. Nevertheless, to avoid canceling its recitation altogether, it became customary to recite it before Minḥa, thus adding extra Torah study on Shabbat, particularly study that pertains to God’s holiness (see Peninei Halakha: Prayer 23:2).
  
  Section 7
  
  The Prayers after the Amida / Shir shel Yom, Pitum Ha-ketoret, and Aleinu Le-shabe’aĥ
  Shaḥarit was instituted to correspond to the morning Tamid offering, and after the offering of the Tamid sacrifice in the Temple, the Levites would recite the Shir shel Yom (Psalm of the Day). It therefore became customary to recite the Shir shel Yom after Shaḥarit (Sofrim 18:1). Although it was not instituted originally as an obligation and some did not recite it, by the end of the era of the Rishonim, all had already adopted it.
  Before reciting the psalm, there day is invoked according to the format: “Today is the first day from Shabbat,” in order to fulfill the mitzva of remembering Shabbat every day of the week (based on Ramban on Shemot 20:8; Arizal as cited in Kaf Ha-ḥayim 132:26).
  After the Shir shel Yom, it is customary to recite Pitum Ha-ketoret, introduced by the liturgical poem Ein K-Elokeinu. There are two reasons for the recitation of Pitum Ha-ketoret: The first is that it corresponds to the incense which was offered every morning and evening in the Temple. The second is so that all men, who are commanded to study Torah, may study the words of the Sages each day, and additional aggadic (non-legal) materials were appended to ensure that men study aggada each day as well (see Peninei Halakha: Prayer, 23:5 n. 5).
  Aleinu is regularly recited at the conclusion of Shaḥarit in order to imbue faith in God and hope of redemption in our hearts, and so that later, when the Jew who prayed meets non-Jews at work and through business, he will not be enticed by their gods and beliefs (Baḥ §133). Based on Arizal, it became customary to recite Aleinu after Minḥa and Ma’ariv as well. Due to the significance of this prayer, it is customarily recited standing, and one bows slightly when saying the words “Va-anaḥnu kor’im” (“We bow”) in the Ashkenazic rite and “Va-anaḥnu mishtaḥavim” (“We prostrate ourselves”) in the Sephardic rite (MB 132:9).
  Since these passages are all relatively late additions to the prayer service, there are differences between various versions of them. For instance, in the Sephardic rite, more songs and verses are added before the Shir shel Yom and the wording of Pitum Ha-ketoret is longer. There is also a difference in the order of the prayers: in the Ashkenazic rite, Aleinu is recited before the Shir shel Yom, whereas in the Sephardic and Ḥasidic rites, Shir shel Yom is recited first, then Pitum Ha-ketoret, and finally, Aleinu (see Peninei Halakha: Prayer 23:4-5).
  
  
  
  
  
  Section 1
  
  Minĥa and Ma’ariv / The Time for Minĥa
  As we learned, some poskim maintain that women must pray Shaḥarit and Minḥa every day (above, 2:2). Other poskim say that women are only obligated to pray one daily prayer, be it Shaḥarit or Minḥa, and although it is preferable to pray Shaḥarit, one who has difficulty praying in the morning may pray Minḥa (above, 2:3). In practice, it is best to pray both Shaḥarit and Minḥa in accordance with the opinion of most poskim, but a woman who prays one prayer fulfills her obligation (above, 2:5).
  Minḥa consists of Shemoneh Esrei. Although men recite Ashrei before it and Taḥanun and Aleinu after it, women are not obligated to recite those passages. Still, a woman who does not recite Ashrei beforehand must wait a few seconds, the amount of time it takes to walk a distance of four amot (as explained above, 10:11), before starting the Amida.
  The time for Minḥa was established based on the time that the afternoon Tamid was offered – from half an hour after midday (six and a half seasonal hours into the day). Although, in principle, the time for offering the afternoon Tamid begins at midday, the Sages were concerned that people would err in estimating the position of the sun and cause the offering to be brought before midday; therefore, they fixed the earliest time for the afternoon Tamid at half an hour after midday.
  The time for Minḥa lasts until evening; however, the poskim disagree about Minḥa’s precise final time. The disagreement hinges on the deadline for bringing the afternoon Tamid. Some say only until sunset (Talmidei Rabbeinu Yona, Gra, MB 233:14), but most poskim say until nightfall (SA Rema 233:1).
  In practice, one must try to finish reciting Minḥa before sunset. However, be-di’avad, one may rely on the opinion of most poskim and pray within another 13.5 minutes after sunset, for all agree that in every season night does not begin before then (Peninei Halakha: Prayer 24:4).1<i class="footnote">To ensure that no one will forget to pray Minḥa, the Sages instituted that from the time of ḥatzot onward, one must be careful not to begin actions that will likely cause him to be so distracted that he will forget to pray, as explained in SA 232:2 and Peninei Halakha: Prayer 24:5-6. The poskim do not say that these prohibitions pertain to women, and it seems that even women who regularly pray Minḥa need not take these precautions. Possibly because women may fulfill their obligation of prayer by reciting only Shaḥarit and possibly because women were at home and were not preoccupied work or preparations for long meals, the Sages did not institute these safeguard because they Sages did not make enactments about uncommon occurrences. Based on this, even according to the poskim who maintain that women must pray Minḥa, the precautionary prohibitions do not apply. As with other mitzvot, one must simply plan her time properly. </i>
  
  Section 2
  
  Minĥa and Ma’ariv / Keri’at Shema of Ma’ariv and its Berakhot
  It is a biblical commandment to recite Shema at night and in the morning, as the Torah states in the paragraphs of Shema and Ve-haya im Shamo’a: “When you lie down and when you rise.” It is also a mitzva to mention the Exodus during the day and at night, as the Torah states: “So that you remember the day you left Egypt every day of your life” (Devarim 16:3). The Torah seems to add a superfluous word (“kol yemei ḥayekha” instead of just “yemei ḥayekha”), from which the Sages derive that the mitzva to remember the Exodus is performed both during the day and at night (Berakhot 12b). For that reason, Va-yomer is also recited at night, since it mentions the Exodus at the end. Va-yomer, which discusses the mitzva of tzitzit, primarily applies to the day, and although one can fulfill the nighttime mitzva of mentioning the Exodus with other verses, common practice is to recall it by reciting Va-yomer, since it is familiar to all (Tosafot Yom Tov ad loc.). Combined with the first two paragraphs, it contains 248 words (above, 16:11), and by reciting all three paragraphs, one fully accepts the yoke of heaven (above, 16:4-5).
  The Men of the Great Assembly added two berakhot before and two after the recitation of Shema. The first, Ha-ma’ariv Aravim, praises God for the changing times. The second, Ahavat Olam, praises God for loving Israel and giving us the Torah. The third, Emet Ve-emuna, praises God as our Redeemer. In the fourth berakha, Hashkiveinu, we ask God to protect us at night and watch over us when we sleep. Hence, Birkhot Keri’at Shema are comprised of seven blessings, three in Shaḥarit and four in Ma’ariv. Y. Berakhot 1:5 states that they were instituted based on the verse “Sheva ba-yom hilaltikha” (“I praise You seven times daily”) (Tehilim 119:164; see above, 16:12).
  Since the mitzvot of Keri’at Shema, the recitation of its berakhot, and mentioning the Exodus are all time-bound commandments, women are exempt from them (see above, 16:3). The time for Shema begins at tzeit ha-kokhavim and lasts until ḥatzot (halakhic midnight). Be-di’avad, Shema may be recited with its berakhot until dawn.1<i class="footnote">Tzeit ha-kokhavim is the time when three medium-sized stars are visible. An uncertainty arises: Does this mean the time when people with good eyesight, who are experts on the positions of the stars, can see them or the time when people with normal vision can see them? In practice, according to the widespread custom, one may begin Ma’ariv twenty minutes after sunset. The time to recite the nighttime Shema, according to the Torah, is all night, but the Sages created a safeguard and required people to recite it by ḥatzot. Be-di’avad, one who did not pray in time has until dawn to recite. Peninei Halakha: Prayer 25:5 and 8 discusses this issue at length.  </i>
  Although women are exempt from positive time-bound commandments, one who wishes to voluntarily fulfill them is credited for it. Since women regularly recite the first paragraph of Shema before going to sleep as part of a prayer for protection, it is best that while saying it she has in mind to fulfill the mitzva of Keri’at Shema as well, thus performing the nighttime mitzva of Shema.
  
  Section 3
  
  Minĥa and Ma’ariv / The Ma’ariv Amida
  As we learned (above, 1:7), the Yaakov ordained Ma’ariv, and on this basis, the Men of the Great Assembly established praying Shemoneh Esrei at night. They fixed the time for Ma’ariv to correspond to the burning of the limbs and suet of the sacrifices, for whatever was not offered during the day was burned throughout the night (Berakhot 26b). In essence, however, Ma’ariv is voluntary (reshut), that is, a mitzva but not an obligation. Shaḥarit and Minḥa are different from Ma’ariv because they were instituted to correspond to the Tamid offerings, that is, corresponding to the sprinkling of their blood. Just as one who does not sprinkle the blood does not fulfill his obligation of bringing the offering, so too, one is obligated to pray Shaḥarit and Minḥa. However, Ma’ariv was instituted to correspond to the offering of the limbs and suet upon the altar. Although it is a mitzva to bring them, if they were not brought, the offering still remained valid. Therefore, Ma’ariv is voluntary. That is, one who was interested in engaging in a different mitzva, had already gone to sleep in bed, or found it difficult to pray Ma’ariv for any other reason, was not required to do so.
  Nevertheless, throughout the generations, all Jewish men regularly prayed Ma’ariv, and by the time of the Rishonim it was already established as an obligation. Even so, because of Ma’ariv’s voluntary character, as the Sages did not institute Ḥazarat Ha-shatz for it, as it is designed to help the uneducated fulfill their obligations (SA 237:1).
  Women are exempt from Ma’ariv even according to those who maintain that women must pray all the prayers instituted by the Sages. A woman’s obligation pertains to Shaḥarit and Minḥa, which were established as obligatory. She is exempt from Ma’ariv, which is voluntary, and the men’s acceptance of the practice as an obligation does not extend to her. A woman who wants to pray Ma’ariv is praiseworthy, and this is the practice of some righteous women.1<i class="footnote">There are several opinions about the status of men vis-à-vis Ma’ariv. According to most Rishonim, including Tosafot, Talmidei Rabbeinu Yona, and Rosh, the mitzva to pray Ma’ariv should not be skipped for no reason but may be skipped for a slight reason. This is my ruling above. However, Behag maintains that it is truly voluntary and may be skipped for no reason. See Peninei Halakha: Prayer 25:2.Based on this, it seems that according to the majority of poskim who maintain that women must pray all the prayers, as cited above, chapter 2 n. 1, women may not skip Ma’ariv without cause. This is implied in Kaf Ha-ḥayim 299:62, which states that women who know how to pray regularly pray Ma’ariv. Halikhot Beitah 6:3 nn. 1 and 4 state that this is also implicit in the words of Rabbeinu Yona and Shlah. Indeed, there are righteous women who pray three times a day. However, it seems that even Rabbeinu Yona and Shlah would concede that women did not accept Ma’ariv as an obligation; the most one can say is that according to their opinion Ma’ariv is voluntary for women and may not be skipped without cause. However, in practice, the accepted ruling and practice is that women are exempt from Ma’ariv because: a) according to many poskim women are only obligated to pray once daily, as explained above, 2:3; b) the prevailing interpretation of the majority view, that women must pray all the prayers, is that it only refers to obligatory prayers; c) even if this view extends to voluntary prayers, according to Behag, men, too, may skip Ma’ariv for no reason; d) even according to Tosafot, who maintain that Ma’ariv should not be skipped without reason, women may be completely exempt from Ma’ariv since they are often preoccupied with childcare.The time for Ma’ariv, according to the Sages, begins at tzeit ha-kokhavim, and that is the prevailing practice. R. Yehuda maintains that the time for Ma’ariv begins at plag ha-minḥa (one and one-quarter seasonal hour before the end of the day). Those who wish to follow R. Yehuda may do so, on condition that they pray Minḥa before plag ha-minḥa. The prevalent custom today is to follow the Sages. This is explained at length in Peninei Halakha: Prayer 25:6-7. Regarding the latest time to pray, Derekh Ha-ḥayim states that le-khatḥila it is until ḥatzot, whereas according to Pri Megadim, even le-khatḥila it is all night. </i>
  
  
  
  
  
  Section 1
  
  The Bedtime Shema / The Passages of the Bedtime Shema
  The Sages teach (Berakhot 60b), “When going to bed one recites Shema until Ve-haya im Shamo’a (i.e., the first paragraph of Shema) and says the blessing ‘Barukh Ha-mapil Ḥevlei Sheina…’ (‘Who brings the bonds of slumber down upon my eyes…’)” Likewise, R. Yehoshua b. Levi said, “Even if one recited Shema in the synagogue, it is a mitzva to recite it on his bed.” The Sages support their words with the verse (Tehilim 4:5), “Meditate in your hearts [while] on your beds, and be silent sela” (Berakhot 4b). There is no difference between men and women concerning these laws.1<i class="footnote">Although MA (239:2) states that women do not customarily recite Ha-mapil because it is a time-bound commandment, still, the remaining poskim (SHT 239:16; Kaf Ha-ḥayim 239:3; Halikhot Shlomo 13:22) maintain that since the recitation of Shema and the Ha-mapil serve as protection, and women need protection just as much as men, women, too, must recite Shema and say Ha-mapil. </i>
  Yehoshua b. Levi would recite two additional psalms before his sleep: “Yoshev Be-seter Elyon” (Tehilim 91) and “Hashem Ma Rabu Tzarai” (Tehilim 3), which are effective against harmful entities (Shevuot 15b); many have adopted this practice. Over the years, additional psalms and verses have been added as customary recitations. Since these are late additions, the versions differ according to community. Some recommend reciting Ve-haya im Shamo’a as well, and recommend reciting all three paragraphs.2<i class="footnote">The Sages only instituted the recitation of the first paragraph of Shema before going to sleep, as Rif (Berakhot 3a in the Rif pages), Rambam, and Rosh (Berakhot 1:6) write. However, in 9:23, Rosh cites Rabbeinu Ĥananel, who maintains that Ve-haya im Shamo’a is recited as well. Perhaps Rabbeinu Ĥananel understood the Gemara’s words “until Ve-haya im Shamo’a” to be inclusive of the second paragraph. Divrei Ĥamudot (ad loc. 7) interprets Rosh’s opinion to refer to a locale where Ma’ariv was recited before tzeit ha-kokhavim , making it necessary to recite the first two paragraphs of Shema before going to sleep. Rabbeinu Yeruĥam (3:2) and Rabbeinu Yona in Sefer Ha-yir’a state that all three paragraphs are recited, for together they contain 248 words, and saying them provides a special protection against harmful entities.</i>
  In sum, according to the enactment of the Sages, one must recite the first paragraph of Shema and Ha-mapil before going to sleep, but the remaining psalms are not required. Nevertheless, many follow the custom of R. Yehoshua b. Levi and recite these psalms to ward off harmful entities (see MA 239:2).3<i class="footnote">Berakhot 5a states: “R. Naḥman says: A Torah scholar recite Shema on his bed (for his learning protects him). Abaye says: Even a Torah scholar must recite one verse invoking God’s mercy, such as, ‘Into Your hand I entrust my spirit. You redeem me, Lord, God of truth’ (Tehilim 31:6).” Rif and Rosh mention that a Torah scholar is not obligated to repeat Shema, but Rambam and SA do not mention this, implying that according to them, a Torah scholar must also repeat it. Perhaps the source for their opinion is y. Berakhot 1:1, which discusses Torah scholars who recited Shema several times in order to fall asleep while saying Shema. Nevertheless, regarding the other verses, the recitation of which is not obligatory, it seems that a Torah scholar may opt to fall asleep while learning from a book or while deep in thought. However, Kaf Ha-ḥayim 239:1 states that by reciting Arizal’s formula for the bedtime Shema, one effects a tikun, and therefore even a Torah scholar must recite it. </i>
  Some are careful to recite Ha-mapil right before going to sleep, after reciting Shema and all the other verses. However, according to kabbalistic custom, Ha-mapil precedes Shema and the other verses. One who is concerned that she will fall asleep before concluding the prayers should start with Shema and Ha-mapil, thereby ensuring that she will have recited passages that the Sages instituted before falling asleep (ibid.).
  
  Section 2
  
  The Bedtime Shema / Ha-mapil
  Some are concerned that after reciting Ha-mapil they will not fall asleep, rendering it a berakha le-vatala. However, the fact that the Sages instituted Ha-mapil means that they were not concerned about this. Ha-mapil is a berakha thanking God for sleep, and even if one does not manage to fall asleep, the expression of thanks is not made in vain (Ḥayei Adam 35:4). Still, the Sages instituted this recitation for those who intend to sleep, and therefore one who does not plan sleeping on a given night does not recite Ha-mapil.1<i class="footnote">According to Ben Ish Ḥai, Pekudei (Year 1) 12, Ha-mapil is not recited with God’s Name (Shem U-malkhut), lest the one saying it interrupt by talking or does not fall asleep. Nonetheless, according to most poskim, it is recited with God’s name because talking does not render the berakha invalid, and there is no need to be concerned that the person reciting it will not fall asleep. </i>
  Ha-mapil is not recited on daytime sleep, although some recommend reciting Vi-yhi No’am before taking a daytime nap (MB 239:8 and BHL s.v. “Samukh”). Ha-mapil is also not recited on temporary sleep at night. However, sleeping in one’s bed for at least half an hour is considered regular sleep (Eshel Avraham §239; Beit Barukh 35:10).
  One who went to sleep at night after reciting Ha-mapil, later rose to handle certain matters, and then went back to sleep does not repeat Ha-mapil, since it is only recited once a night (Beit Barukh 35:9.
  One who fell asleep without reciting Ha-mapil and woke up in the middle of the night with the intention of falling back asleep recites the berakha before going back to sleep. She must rub her hands on her blanket before reciting it in case her hands touched the normally covered parts of her body (SA 4:23; MB 61; unlike Piskei Teshuvot 239:1 which states that netilat yadayim is required).
  Some infer, based on Arizal’s mystical teachings, that only one who goes to sleep before ḥatzot recites Ha-mapil. Hence, many Sephardim recite Ha-mapil without God’s name when going to sleep after midnight (Kaf Ha-ḥayim 239:8; see Yeḥaveh Da’at vol. 4:70). However, according to practice of Ashkenazim and some Sephardim, one recites Ha-mapil as long as she goes to sleep before dawn.
  
  Section 3
  
  The Bedtime Shema / Additional Laws
  One who recited Shema and Ha-mapil and then must talk, eat, drink, or tend to an urgent matter may do so since Ha-mapil is not like a Birkat Ha-nehenin concerning which one may not interrupt between the berakha and the benefit derived. Rather, it is a berakha of praise for the night’s sleep. However, le-khatḥila, it is best to recite the bedtime Shema immediately before sleep (see Rema 239:1; Tzitz Eliezer 7:27; Yeḥaveh Da’at 4:70; Piskei Teshuvot 239:3; however MB 239:4 is stringent after Ha-mapil).
  One may recite the bedtime Shema while lying down, but the Sages teach that a man must take care to lean on his side (Peninei Halakha: Prayer 26:3).
  The Ba’alei Mussar (Jewish moralists, especially of nineteenth and twentieth-century Europe) recommend a nightly detailed introspection. If one remembers sinning, she should confess her sin and resolve not to perpetrate that sin again. It is also proper that before one goes to sleep one forgives anyone who sinned against her or caused her harm so that no one is punished because of her. By doing so, she merits long life (MB 239:9).
  
  
  
  
  
  Section 1
  
  Praying with a Minyan / Men’s Obligation to Pray with a Minyan and in a Synagogue
  The Sages ordained that men pray with a minyan (a quorum of ten adult men) in a synagogue. The Sages teach that the divine Presence dwells wherever ten Jews engage in sacred matters (devarim she-bikdusha), as Scripture states: “Elokim nitzav ba-adat Kel” (“God stands in a godly congregation”; Tehilim 82:1), and ten Jews constitute an “edah” (congregation). Although even when one Jew prays or studies Torah the Shekhina is present, there are nevertheless different gradations, the highest level of which is when ten Jews are engaged in a davar she-bikdusha, for then holiness is revealed in the world (see Berakhot 6a). Based on this, the Sages ordained that all devarim she-bikdusha, that is, enactments that express God’s sanctity publicly, shall be recited in a minyan of ten men. Devarim she-bikdusha encompasses Ḥazarat Ha-shatz, Birkat Kohanim, Barkhu, Kaddish, and Torah reading (Megilla 23b).1<i class="footnote">Megilla 23b and Sofrim 10:7 mention the things that must be recited with a minyan. The Sages (Megilla op. cit. and Berakhot 21b) derive from the verse “I shall be sanctified among the Israelites” (Vayikra 22:32) that a davar she-bikidusha shall not be recited among less than ten. Ran (ad loc.) and other Rishonim and Aḥaronim explain that this is a rabbinic law, since the very recitation of these words is of rabbinic origin. Nevertheless, the basic idea of minyan comes from Torah law that governs the sanctification of God’s name (Kiddush Hashem). That is, one is obligated to surrender his life rather than desecrating God’s name by performing a transgression under coercion in the presence of ten Jews (Sanhedrin 74b). It seems that for this purpose, women count toward the ten (though Devar Shmuel (Aboab) §63 and Pitḥei Teshuva YD 157:7 raise doubts about this).  </i>
  The Sages further taught that when one prays with a minyan, her prayers are accepted. Even if she lacks full kavana, her prayers are accepted because she prays with the congregation (be-tzibur) (see Berakhot 8a). 
  Praying with a minyan is thus superior in two ways: the Shekhina is with the minyan, which makes prayer more acceptable, and in a minyan one recites all the devarim she-bikdusha that the Sages ordained for recitation specifically with a minyan of men (Peninei Halakha: Prayer 2:1-3). 
  Since the Shekhina dwells in the midst of a minyan, it is proper for every person to try to be one of the first ten people to pray together, for it is because of them that the Shekhina appears.
  When the minyan prays in a synagogue its advantages are twofold, for the prayer is conducted in a place specifically designated for devarim she-bikdusha (Berakhot 6a; 8a). A synagogue is called a “small sanctuary” (“mikdash me’at,” from Yeḥezkel 11:16, which R. Yitzḥak interpreted to refer to “synagogues and study halls” [Megilla 29a]), for its holiness is a reflection of the Temple’s sanctity.
  It is thus apparent that prayer with a congregation (tefila be-tzibur) is on some level a substitute for the Temple service: The Shekhina dwells in a place of ten Jews, the sanctity of the synagogue resembles the holiness of the Temple, and the communal prayers were ordained to correspond to the public sacrificial offerings.
  Reish Lakish says: One who has a synagogue in his city but does not enter it to pray is called a bad neighbor. Not only that, he brings exile upon himself and his descendants. Those who come early to the synagogue for Shaḥarit and leave late after Ma’ariv merit long life (Berakhot 8a; SA 90:11).
  
  Section 2
  
  Praying with a Minyan / Women are Exempt from Praying in a Synagogue and with a Minyan
  As we learned (above, 11:1), a woman need not pray with a minyan or in a synagogue, because the prayer in a synagogue is time-dependent, and women are exempt from positive time-bound mitzvot. Although we learned that communal prayer (tefila be-tzibur) is of great quality, women have other roles, no less important (as explained above, in chapter 3), and therefore they need not pray in a synagogue and with a minyan.
  Still, it is clear that a woman who prays with a minyan and in a synagogue earns merit, because she prays in a holy place where the Shekhina dwells and because she has the privilege of answering “amen” to Kaddish and Ĥazarat Ha-shatz, reciting Kedusha and Modim, and hearing Birkat Kohanim.
  The Midrash (Yalkut Shimoni, Ekev 871) relates a story about a woman who became so aged that she no longer wished to live. She came before R. Yossi b. Ĥalafta and said to him, “My master, I have grown too old. My life has become dismal; I can taste neither food nor drink, and I want to be done with this world.” He replied, “What mitzva are you careful to perform every day?” She answered, “Even if there is something dear to me, I always put it aside and go early to the synagogue every day.” He said to her, “Stay away from the synagogue for three consecutive days.” So she did, and on the third day she became ill and died. We infer from here that one’s diligence in going to the synagogue daily causes long life, and that this advantage applies to women as well.
  The Sages also tell of a woman who had a synagogue in her neighborhood but who would walk every day to R. Yoĥanan’s more distant synagogue. He asked her: “My daughter, isn’t there a synagogue in your neighborhood? Why do you come all the way here?” She replied, “Master, do I not receive more reward for each stride?” (Sota 22a). We learn a law from here: when a more distant synagogue is superior, one who walks there is rewarded for each pace (MA 90:22; Peninei Halakha: Prayer, ch. 3 n. 3).1<i class="footnote">See Halikhot Beitah 6:13 and Petaĥ Ha-bayit 24-25 ad loc. Clearly, a woman praying in the women’s section accrues the merit of praying in a synagogue. Even those who maintain that the sanctity of the women’s section is not the same as the sanctity of the synagogue (Ĥokhmat Adam 86:15) would presumably agree that during prayer services the sanctity of the minyan extends to the women’s section, which is subordinate to the synagogue. AHS 154:7 rules that the women’s section is just as holy as the synagogue itself, and this is the opinion of most poskim, as cited in Tzedaka U-mishpat 12:21.</i>
  Nevertheless, it is clear that the mitzva for a woman to pray with a minyan is of secondary importance to caring for her family. Whenever there is a conflict between prayer in a synagogue and care for the children and family, family comes first. However, unmarried women, girls, and women with adult children and no grandchildren at home should make an effort to attend the synagogue on Shabbat and Yom Tov. It is therefore appropriate that we study some rules and laws concerning prayer with a minyan.
  
  Section 3
  
  Praying with a Minyan / Kaddish
  Kaddish is unique in that it deals primarily with God’s honor (kevod Shamayim), and therefore, one’s response must be with intense kavana, and one certainly should not chatter during its recitation (SA 56:1; MB 1). The Sages say that anyone who answers “Amen, Yehei Shemei Rabba Mevorakh…” (“May His great name be blessed…”) with their full powers of concentration will cause a judgment of even seventy years against him to be torn up (Shabbat 119b; Talmidei Rabbeinu Yona). They further say that when Jews enter the synagogues and recite “Yehei shemei rabba mevorakh..” aloud, harsh decrees against them are nullified (Tosafot ad loc., citing Pesikta). Additionally, they say that the answer to Kaddish arouses mercy for Jews in exile. When Jews enter synagogues and batei midrashot and respond, “Yehei shemei rabba mevorakh…,” the memory of those in exile ascends before God, and He shakes His head in pain, so to speak, and says: “Fortunate is the king who was glorified this way in his house,” and the desire to redeem Israel awakens before Him (see Berakhot 3a).
  Since we sanctify God in Kaddish, it must be recited with a minyan, for God is only sanctified by an “edah” (a group) of Jewish people.
  Kaddish was composed in Aramaic because that was the language spoken by all Israel during the Second Temple era, and therefore even the uneducated could understand it and have kavana in their response. The following is a translation of the prayer:
  Magnified and sanctified may His great name be,
  in the world which He created by His will.
  May He establish His kingdom,
  cultivate His salvation, and bring His messiah near,
  in your lifetime and in your days,
  and in the lifetime of the entire House of Israel,
  swiftly and soon –
  and say: Amen.
  The congregation then responds: “Yehei shemei rabba mevorakh le-alam u-le’almei almaya,” (“May His great bame be blessed forever and all time.”) The ḥazan continues:
  Blessed and praised, glorified and exalted,
  raised and honored, uplifted and lauded
  be the Name of the Holy One, blessed be He,
  beyond any blessings,
  song, praise, and consolation
  uttered in the world –
  and say: Amen.
  That it is the main part of the Kaddish, also called Half-Kaddish, and responding to it is of utmost importance, more important than answering Kedusha (MB 56:6).1<i class="footnote">There are differing customs regarding the response of “Yehei shemei rabba…” According to Ashkenazic and Yemenite (Baladi) customs, we conclude with “Le-alam u-le’almei almaya.” According to Ḥasidic and Yemenite (Shami) custom, we say one additional word, “yitbarakh” (“blessed”). According to Sephardic custom, we continue until “de-amiran be-alma” (“uttered in the world”). Another difference is that after “berikh Hu” (“blessed is He”), Ashkenazim respond “berikh Hu” while Sephardim, if one has finished reciting until “de-amiran be-alma,” responds “amen” and otherwise does not respond. One should pause between “Amen” and “Yehei shemei rabba,” for the “Amen” is a response to what the ḥazan said previously, and “Yehei shemei rabba” is a praise in itself (MB 56:2). </i>
  
  Section 4
  
  Praying with a Minyan / The Various Kinds of Kaddish
  There are four versions of Kaddish, which we will identify by name. 1) Half-Kaddish corresponds to the main section of Kaddish. It is called Half-Kaddish to distinguish it from the other Kaddishim which contain further additions. In any part of prayer in which Kaddish must be said, but there should not be prolonged interruption, Half-Kaddish is recited; 2) Kaddish Shalem (Full-Kaddish or Kaddish Yehei Shelama) is recited after saying verses from Tanakh and contains an added request for peace and good life for us and all Israel. It concludes: “Oseh shalom bi-mromav, Hu (be-raḥamav) ya’aseh shalom aleinu ve-al kol (amo) Yisrael ve-imru: Amen” (“May He Who makes peace in His high places make peace (in His mercy) for us and all of (His nation) Israel – and say: Amen”). Since this Kaddish is usually recited by mourners, it is also called Kaddish Yatom (Mourner’s Kaddish); 3) Kaddish Titkabel is recited by the ḥazan after the conclusion of the Amida. It is identical to Kaddish Shalem but for a single additional line that asks for our prayers be accepted; 4) Kaddish De-rabanan is recited after the study of rabbinic teachings. It too is identical to Kaddish Shalem but with the addition of a prayer that those who study Torah be granted long, good lives.
  The Sages ordained the recitation of Kaddish at the conclusion of each section of communal prayer. Kaddish De-rabanan is recited after Korbanot,; Half-Kaddish after Pesukei De-zimra; Half-Kaddish after Taḥanun; On Mondays and Thursdays, an additional Half-Kaddish is recited after Torah reading; Kaddish Titkabal is recited after Kedusha De-sidra; Kaddish Shalem is recited after Shir shel Yom; and Kaddish De-rabanan  is recited after Pitum Ha-ketoret (Shibolei Ha-leket §8). The recitation of Kaddish concludes and elevates each section of the prayer service toward the ultimate objective – God’s honor – so that we may begin the next section.
  The general practice is that mourners recite Kaddish Shalem after the recitation of verses from Tanakh and Kaddish De-rabanan after studying rabbinic works, since the departed souls benefits from Kaddish recited for the purpose of its elevation (see below, sections 18-19). When no mourner is present, one who lost a parent recites the Kaddish. If nobody present has lost a parent, the common custom is to refrain from reciting those Kaddishim (Peninei Halakha: Prayer, 23:8 n. 9).
  
  Section 5
  
  Praying with a Minyan / Barkhu
  Before Birkhot Keri’at Shema, the ḥazan says, “Barkhu et Hashem ha-mevorakh” (“Bless God, the blessed One”), and the congregation responds, “Barukh Hashem ha-mevorakh le-olam va’ed” (“Blessed is God, the blessed one, forever and all time”), and the ḥazan repeats, “Barukh Hashem ha-mevorakh le-olam va’ed” (SA 57:1).
  When the ḥazan says “Barkhu,” he bows a bit, and when saying “Hashem” he straightens up. Regarding the congregation, there are different customs. Some customarily bow down completely, others bow slightly, and still others do not bow at all. Everyone should follow family custom. When people with different customs pray together, it is proper for everyone to bow slightly (see Peninei Halakha: Prayer, ch. 17 n. 3).
  The primary purpose of Barkhu is to introduce Birkhot Keri’at Shema, for by declaring “Barkhu,” the ḥazan invites the congregation to recite Birkhot Keri’at Shema. Likewise, those called up to the Torah recite Barkhu as an introduction to Birkhot Ha-Torah.
  It is customary to repeat Barkhu at the end of the prayer service so that latecomers who missed the first Barkhu have the opportunity to respond to it (see Peninei Halakha: Prayer, 16:3 n. 2; 23:9).
  There are different customs of standing when responding to Kaddish and Barkhu. According to the custom of most Sephardim, there is no need to stand while responding to devarim she-bikdusha, though but one who is already standing must remain standing for Kaddish and Barkhu (Maharil, Kaf Ha-ḥayim 56:20; 146:20-21; Yeḥaveh Da’at 3:4). 
  Most Ashkenazim customarily stand while responding to Kaddish and Barkhu (MB 56:7-8; 146:18). However, concerning Barkhu, which requires a short answer, many Ashkenazim have a practice that if they are already sitting, such as during Torah reading or before Ma’ariv, they do not completely stand up. Rather, they rise slightly from their seats while bending their heads forward chairs, this rising and bowing a bit while answering. Many have a similar custom when answering a zimun of ten men, for although it is a davar she-bikdusha for which it is proper to stand according to Ashkenazic custom, since its recitation is short, it is sufficient to slightly rise instead of completely stand.
  
  Section 6
  
  Praying with a Minyan / Ĥazarat Ha-shatz
  The Men of the Great Assembly ordained that after individuals finish reciting the silent Shemoneh Esrei, the shali’aḥ tzibur (abbreviated to “shatz” an meaning “envoy of the community”; it refers to the ḥazan) repeats the Amida out loud in order to fulfill the obligation on behalf of those who do not know how to pray on their own (RH 34b). This repetition is known as Ḥazarat Ha-shatz. However, for Ma’ariv, they did not institute an Amida repetition since, technically, Ma’ariv is voluntary and consequently there is no need to fulfill the mitzva on behalf of those who are not well-versed in the prayer service.
  The Sages ordained that the ḥazan also prays the silent Amida in order to prepare for his repetition. They also instructed that even those who know how to pray on their own listen to Ḥazarat Ha-shatz and answer “amen” after every berakha.
  Because Ḥazarat Ha-shatz was ordained by the Sages, it must be recited even where the congregants know how to pray on their own. Even now that it is permissible to put the Oral Torah, including the prayers, in writing, and even now that siddurim are so ubiquitous that it is rare to find a minyan where someone needs Ḥazarat Ha-shatz to fulfill his obligation, the Sages’ enactment remains in force. The principle in play is that once the Sages enact a law, they do not distinguish between individual cases (SA 124:3, based on Responsa Rambam). Moreover, the Sages instituted Kedusha and Birkat Kohanim in Ḥazarat Ha-shatz, and if the Amida is not repeated, they will be abolished altogether (Tur).
  Kabbalistic literature explains that in addition to the simple explanation – that it allows the uneducated to fulfill their obligation – there is another, esoteric reason. It is necessary for there to be a silent Amida as well as Ḥazarat Ha-shatz because through both of them together, prayer is most effective. Therefore, even where there is no need to fulfill the obligation on behalf of one who is not well-versed though Ḥazarat Ha-shatz, we must recite it, for the esoteric reason remains. Ḥazarat Ha-shatz is of even greater value than the silent Amida as it is collective and the congregation answers Amen to its berakhot. Hence, although the Amida is intense and sublime, and in order to preserve its exaltedness one recites it silently, the ḥazan recites Ḥazarat Ha-shatz aloud, for due to its even greater value no concern that the kelipot (“husks”; a kabbalistic term for the forces of evil) will take hold of it (see SA 124:7; Kaf Ha-ḥayim 124:2 and 16).
  
  Section 7
  
  Praying with a Minyan / Some Laws of Ĥazarat Ha-shatz and Responding “Amen”
  Three conditions must be present for an individual to fulfill his obligation by hearing Ḥazarat Ha-shatz: 1) the individual must not be proficient in prayer; one who knows how to pray must pray and beg for mercy on his own. She is unable to fulfill his obligation by hearing the ḥazan; 2) there must be a minyan, because the Sages instituted that individuals may only fulfill their obligation by hearing the ḥazan in the presence of a minyan; 3) the listener must understand the ḥazan’s words; one who does not understand Hebrew is unable to fulfill his obligation with Ḥazarat Ha-shatz.
  The audience, even those who prayed individually, must take care to answer “amen” after every berakha of Ḥazarat Ha-shatz, as the Sages teach (Berakhot 53b): ‘One who responds “amen” is greater than the one who recites the blessing.’
  One must respond “amen” with the utmost solemnity and have kavana that the content of the berakha is true. For instance, if one hears Ha-Kel Ha-Kadosh, she must have in mind: “It is true that the Lord is the holy God.” When the berakha includes a request, she should also think, “if only the request would be accepted.” For example, one who hears Ḥonen Ha-da’at should have two things in mind: 1) it is true that God grants knowledge; 2) “if only God would grant us knowledge” (SA 124:6; MB 25).
  Here is the place to expand a bit on the laws of answering “amen” to the berakhot of Ḥazarat Ha-shatz and to all berakhot in general. “Amen” should be recited in a pleasant tone, and one’s voice should not be raised above that of the person reciting the berakha (SA 124:12). One must not shorten the “amen,” but extend it for the amount of time it takes to say “Kel Melekh Ne’eman,” although it should not be overly extended.
  One may not recite “amen” too early, that is, before the berakha is completed; this is called an Amen Ḥatufa. Nor may one shorten the “amen” by slurring its syllables or tailing off before fully articulating it; this is called an Amen Ketufa. Nor may one delay saying “amen” for too long once the berakha has been concluded; this is called an Amen Yetoma (an orphaned Amen) (see Berakhot 47a; SA 124:8).
  The way one responds “amen” corresponds to one’s faith in God. Because our lives depend on God, a defect in one’s faith produces a defect in his life. This is the meaning of Ben Azai’s statement: “Whoever responds with an Amen Yetoma – his children will be orphans; an Amen Ḥatufa – his days will be snatched from him; an Amen Ketufa  – his days will be abbreviated. However, if one prolongs the recitation of “amen” – his days and years are lengthened” (Berakhot 47a).
  The greatest Rishonim customarily said “barukh Hu u-varukh shemo” (“blessed is He, and blessed is His name”) when God’s name was mentioned in a berakha. This practice became widespread throughout Jewry, but it applies only berakhot that do not constitute the fulfillment of one’s personal obligation, such as Ḥazarat Ha-shatz for one who has already prayed silently. However, berakhot through which one fulfills a personal obligation, such as the berakhot on kiddush and blowing the shofar, the common practice is not to recite “barukh Hu u-varukh shemo,” so as not to interrupt the berakha with words not ordained by the Sages. Nevertheless, be-di’avad, if one responded “barukh Hu u-varukh shemo” in a berakha that she was obligated to recite, she has still fulfilled her obligation, since her response did not distract her from the berakha (MB 124: 21; Kaf Ha-ḥayim 26; some North African communities customarily respond even during berakhot through which one fulfills an obligation, whereas Yemenite custom is never to recite it at all).
  
  Section 8
  
  Praying with a Minyan / Kedusha and Modim
  Kedusha is recited in the third berakha of Ḥazarat Ha-shatz. The essence of the Kedusha is the congregation’s response with the verses: “Kadosh, kadosh, kadosh, Hashem Tzevakot, melo kol ha-aretz kevodo” (“Holy, holy, holy is the Lord of hosts; the whole world is filled with His glory”; Yeshayahu 6:3), “Barukh kevod Hashem mi-mkomo” (“Blessed be the Lord’s glory from His place”), and “Yimlokh Hashem Le-olam…” (“The Lord shall reign forever…; Tehilim 146:10). The custom today, based on Arizal, is for the congregation to recite the connecting passages as well. The ḥazan then repeats them aloud, and the congregation responds with the verses of the Kedusha (MB 125:2; Kaf Ha-ḥayim 2).
  It is best to stand with one’s feet together for Kedusha, since we recite this Kedusha like the angels whose legs are so close together that they resemble one leg (SA 125:2). There are those who beautify the practice by remaining with their legs together until the end of Ha-Kel Ha-Kadosh (Eliya Rabba 125:6); however, this is not an obligation.
  It is customary to raise one’s heels slightly and turn one’s closed eyes upward when reciting the words “Kadosh” (all three times), “Barukh,” and “Yimlokh,” thereby expressing the desire to transcend and soar upward (Beit Yosef and Rema 125:2; MB 6; and Kaf Ha-ḥayim 2 and 9, which state that some people keep their eyes open).
  When the ḥazan reaches Modim, the whole congregation bows with him and recites Modim De-rabanan, whose nusaḥ differs from that of the Modim in the Amida, as clarified in the Talmud (Sota 40a). This bow must be in accordance with the laws of Modim in the silent Amida (MB 127:2; Kaf Ha-ḥayim 1; see above, 12:5).
  
  Section 9
  
  Praying with a Minyan / When is it Permissible to Interrupt in Order to Respond to Matters of Sanctity?
  We already learned that it is forbidden to interrupt by speaking in the middle of Pesukei De-zimra and Shema and its berakhot. However, for an urgent matter, such as to prevent damage or insult, it is permissible to interrupt (see above, 16:14; 15:6). Thus, just as one may interrupt for an important matter, so too one may interrupt to respond to devarim she-bikdusha. Therefore, if one is reciting Pesukei De-zimra or Shema and its berakhot and hears Kaddish, Barkhu, Kedusha, or Modim may answer. However, she is not obligated to stop and respond, as one who is reciting Pesukei De-zimra is already occupied with devarim she-bikdusha, and there is no affront to God’s honor if she continues her prayer. However, if she is surrounded by women who are responding to Kedusha and Modim, it is proper that she stop and answer together with them, because those responses are accompanied by an act (standing with feet together and bowing), and if she would continue sitting, she would appear to be separating herself from the congregation. Once she must interrupt her prayer to stand or bow with them, it is preferable that she answer with them.
  The permissibility of interrupting one’s prayer to respond to Kaddish applies only to the central part of Kaddish (that which is recited in the Half-Kaddish). She does not respond to the later additions, for they are not the essence of Kaddish. Likewise, clearly one must not interrupt to respond “Barukh Hu u-varukh shemo,” as this response is mere custom.
  Regarding answering “amen” to berakhot, such as the berakhot of Ḥazarat Ha-shatz: While reciting Pesukei De-zimra one may answer, but not while reciting Shema and its berakhot (see Peninei Halakha: Prayer, 14:4 n. 7; 16:5 n. 4).1<i class="footnote">According to Ashkenazic custom, one may answer “amen” to Ha-Kel Ha-kadosh and Shome’a Tefila while reciting Birkhot Keri’at Shema, for they are on a higher level because they conclude the berakhot of praise and the berakhot of request. According to Sephardic custom, those particular berakhot have the same status as other berakhot, and one does not respond to them. Likewise, Sephardic custom is that one who finishes one of the Birkhot Keri’at Shema before the ḥazan does not answer “amen,” just as he does not respond “amen” to any berakha. Ashkenazic custom is to answer because since it is one of the Birkhot Keri’at Shema, responding to it is not considered an interruption (MB 59: 24-25; Kaf Ha-ḥayim 26, 28). </i>
  
  Section 10
  
  Praying with a Minyan / Places where it is Forbidden to Interrupt
  In cases where one may respond in the middle of Birkhot Keri’at Shema, she may only respond while reciting the main part of it, from the beginning until just before the conclusion. However, once one says “Barukh Atta Hashem” at the conclusion, she may not interrupt at all, for such an interruption truncates the berakha (BHL 66:3).
  Similarly, when reciting the verses “Shema Yisrael…” and “Barukh Shem kevod…,” in which one accepts the yoke of heaven, one may not interrupt for anything, for they have the same status as the Amida, in which we do not interrupt at all (SA 66:1).
  In any case of uncertainty in the middle of Birkhot Keri’at Shema or Pesukei De-zimra, it is best not to respond, for according to many poskim, even if it is permissible to respond, there is no obligation to do so (Peninei Halakha: Prayer, ch. 16 n. 4).
  In the middle of the Amida it is forbidden to respond to any davar she-bikdusha, including Kaddish and Kedusha. However, one may remain silent and be attentive to the ḥazan’s Kaddish and Kedusha, for listening with kavana is considered like actually responding. However if interrupting the Amida to listen to ḥazan disturbs her kavana, it is better that she continue her silent Amida (Peninei Halakha: Prayer 17:15).
  On weekdays, one must not interrupt between Ga’al Yisrael and the Amida for any davar she-bikdusha, for adjoining redemption to prayer helps save people from distress. However, on Shabbat, which is not considered a day of distress, there is less of a necessity to adjoin redemption to prayer, and according to most poskim one may interrupt to respond to devarim she-bikdusha. On festivals, which are days of judgment (on Sukkot, we are judged regarding water, on Pesaḥ regarding the harvest, and on Shavuot regarding tree fruits – see RH 16a), one may not interrupt between redemption and prayer (SA 66:9; Rema 111:1; Peninei Halakha: Prayer, ch. 16 n. 7).
  
  Section 11
  
  Praying with a Minyan / Birkat Kohanim
  There is a positive biblical commandment for kohanim to bless the nation of Israel, as it is written: “God spoke to Moshe, saying: Speak to Aharon and his sons, saying: This is how you shall bless the Israelites. Say to them: May the Lord bless you and guard you. May the Lord make His face shine on you and be gracious to you. May the Lord turn His face toward you and grant you peace” (Bamidbar 6:22-26).
  In this blessing, called Birkat Kohanim, we learn to notice the basic fact that God is the bestower of blessing upon us, and our daily receptivity to Birkat Kohanim implants this faith in our hearts (Moreh Nevukhim 3:44; Ha-akeida §74). The blessing bestowed on us by God is linked to our own efforts, or, in kabbalistic terminology, to the “awakening” of the nether worlds (“itaruta de-letata”), which in turn causes the awakening of the upper realms (“itaruta de-le’eila”). By fulfilling the mitzva of Birkat Kohanim, God’s desire to bestow blessing upon Israel is awakened.
  During Temple times, Birkat Kohanim would take place after the daily sacrificial offerings were completed. The Torah recounts that on the eighth day of the Mishkan’s dedication, the day that the kohanim were inaugurated in their service: “Aharon lifted his hands toward the people and blessed them. He then descended from [the altar where he] had prepared sin offering, burnt offering, and peace offering” (Vayikra 9:22). It is from here that we derive that Birkat Kohanim (also called “Nesi’at Kapayim” – “the lifting of the hands” – after this verse) took place at the conclusion of the sacrificial offerings. The reason for this is that after offering the sacrifices, which express our willingness to surrender and sacrifice ourselves for God, we are worthy of receiving His blessing.
  Outside of the Temple, the Sages ordained that Birkat Kohanim is recited at the time of prayer, since prayer corresponds to offerings and is designed for the same purpose: coming closer to God. Thus, just as Birkat Kohanim takes place after the korbanot, so too it was instituted toward the end of Ḥazarat Ha-shatz of  Shemoneh.
  
  Section 12
  
  Praying with a Minyan / Some Laws of Birkat Kohanim
  Birkat Kohanim must be recited aloud and in Hebrew. The kohanim must stand and lift their hands toward the congregation. A kohen who cannot meet these conditions may not perform Birkat Kohanim (SA 128:14; Peninei Halakha: Prayer 20:4).
  Before the kohanim lift their hands, they must wash them. There is an allusion to this in the verse: “Lift up your hands in holiness and bless God” (Tehilim 134:2). Any kohen who did not wash his hands may not bless the congregation (Sota 39a).
  Yoĥanan b. Zakai enacted that kohanim not perform Birkat Kohanim while wearing sandals or shoes (as explained in Peninei Halakha: Prayer 20:8).
  This is the protocol of Birkat Kohanim: The ḥazan or the gabbai declares “kohanim,” but if only one kohen goes up before the ark, “kohanim” is not declared. This is derived from the verse “Say to them” (Bamidbar 6:23), which is in the plural and indicates that the word “kohanim” is only declared when there are at least two kohanim present (SA 128:10). Birkat Kohanim is not recited by the kohanim on their own. Rather, the ḥazan recites each word and the kohanim repeat after him. At the completion of each verse, the congregation answers “amen.”
  
  Section 13
  
  Praying with a Minyan / The Audience of Birkat Kohanim
  Sefer Ḥaredim (12:18) states that not only the kohanim fulfill a mitzva by blessing the congregation, but the Jews who stand before them in intent silence and respond “amen” also participate in the fulfillment of this biblical commandment.
  When the kohanim perform Birkat Kohanim, the congregation must stand in front of them, as it is written: “This is how you shall bless the Israelites. Say to them” (Bamidbar 6:23). The Sages interpret this to mean that Birkat Kohanim must be performed in the same way that people talk to their friends – by standing face to face and speaking aloud so that all those receiving the blessing can hear them. 
  Although technically the audience may sit, it has become customary that all stand for Birkat Kohanim. Still, an ill or weak person who has difficulty standing may sit (MB 128:51; Tzitz Eliezer 14:18).
  One who cannot come to the synagogue due to matters out of his control – for instance, one who must go to work – is still included in the berakha. Similarly, women and children who are not required to come to the synagogue are included in the berakha. Only men who can go to the synagogue but neglect to do so are excluded from the berakha.
  One who comes to the synagogue but stands behind the kohanim during Birkat Kohanim is not included in the berakha. If he is standing directly alongside them, he must turn toward them to be included in the berakha. Those sitting in the first pews of the synagogue must measure where they are in relation to the kohanim. If they are in front of them or even directly to the side of them, they may remain in place and turn toward the kohanim. However, if they are slightly behind the kohanim, they must move elsewhere for Birkat Kohanim. The same ruling applies to women in the women’s section at the sides of the synagogue (SA 128:24).
  Anyone standing in the synagogue facing the kohanim is included in the berakha. Even if there are taller people or pillars in front blocking the kohanim from view, she is indeed included in the berakha since she is on the side that faces the kohanim. However, one who turns her back to the kohanim is not included.
  If one is in the middle of the Amida when the kohanim start to bless, she waits a bit and listens to Birkat Kohanim, which is a biblical commandment, and then she continues praying. However, she must take care not to answer “amen” to Birkat Kohanim, so as not to interrupt her Amida (Peninei Halakha: Prayer, ch. 20 n. 2).
  
  Section 14
  
  Praying with a Minyan / Those Eligible and Ineligible to Perform Birkat Kohanim
  The kohanim were commanded to perform Birkat Kohanim, but the blessing itself comes from God and does not depend on the righteousness of the kohanim. Therefore, even a kohen eats forbidden foods, has forbidden sexual relations, or commits other sins must perform Birkat Kohanim. If he does not perform it, he compounds his sin, as Rambam writes: “Do not tell an evil person, ‘Do more evil and refrain from performing mitzvot’” (MT, Laws of Prayer 15:6).
  However, a kohen who has committed sins that mar his priestly status, such as marrying a divorcee or becoming contaminated by a corpse, is penalized by the Sages and forbidden him to perform Birkat Kohanim. Likewise, a kohen who worshipped idols or publicly desecrated Shabbat out of spite is deemed ineligible to perform Birkat Kohanim. However, if the kohanim who committed these sins repent completely, they may resume their priestly duties and perform the berakha (SA 128:37, 40-41; Peninei Halakha: Prayer 20:10).
  A kohen who has killed may not perform Birkat Kohanim, as it is written: “When you spread your hands, I will turn My eyes away from you… your hands are full of blood” (Yeshayahu 1:15; Berakhot 32b). The kohen’s job is to increase kindness and life, like Aharon, who loved and pursued peace. A kohen who has killed has damaged the core of his priesthood. Thus, a kohen who unintentionally ran someone over with his car may not perform Birkat Kohanim. The poskim disagree about whether he may repent by fasting, tzedaka, and resolving not to sin again would enable him to once again perform Birkat Kohanim. In practice, a kohen who undergoes such a terrible experience must go to his rabbi to receive personal instruction about what to do (Peninei Halakha: Prayer 20:11).
  
  Section 15
  
  Praying with a Minyan / The Institution of Torah Reading
  There is an ancient enactment, from the time of Moshe, that the Torah is read in public on Shabbat day, Monday, and Thursdays from a scroll written with ink on parchment, so that three days never pass without the study of Torah. The Sages teach that this enactment was instituted based on the verse, “They traveled for three days in the desert without finding any water” (Shemot 15:22). Moshe and his disciples, the elders and the prophets, understood that the thirst for water was a result of three consecutive days in which Israel did not engage publicly in Torah (BK 82a). Torah is likened to water, for just as water sustains all animal and plant life, so too Torah sustains the soul. When the people disconnected themselves from the Torah even slightly, water sources also ceased to flow. Although the Torah scholars of that generation presumably studied Torah during those three days, the meaning here is that for three days the people of Israel did not engage in Torah publicly. Therefore, it was established that the Torah would be read every Monday, Thursday, and Shabbat, so that never again will more than three days pass without Israel publicly reading from the Torah.
  Ezra the Scribe further instituted that the Torah be read at Minḥa on Shabbat because of  “yoshvei keranot” (BK 82a). Some say that yoshvei keranot are merchants and craftsmen who are unable to hear the reading on Mondays and Thursdays, and so the Shabbat Minḥa reading was added as a make-up opportunity for them. Others maintain that yoshvei keranot are frivolous individuals. There was concern that after they finish Shaḥarit on Shabbat they would turn to drink and idleness, and so Torah reading was instituted at Minḥa (see Peninei Halakha: Shabbat 5:8). The Sages further enacted that relevant Torah portions are read on all festivals and Rosh Ḥodesh.
  On Mondays and Thursdays three people are called up (“olim”) to the Torah; four on Rosh Ḥodesh and Ḥol Ha-mo’ed; five on Yom Tov; six on Yom Kippur; and seven on Shabbat (Megilla 21a). Initially, it was customary that each person called up to the Torah would read that section, but as time went on, most congregations designated a Torah reader (ba’al koreh) who would read the Torah for everyone. This is so those who do not know how to read the Torah are not insulted and so the reading itself is especially accurate (Peninei Halakha: Collected Essays I 4:6; II p. 227)
  Technically, it is permissible to add aliyot on Shabbat and call up more than seven people to the Torah, as long as each person called up for an aliya reads at least three verses. However, for several reasons, it is preferable not to add aliyot. Only when there is a pressing need, such as for a joyous occasion with celebrants who will be insulted if they are not called up, may aliyot be added to the standard seven (SA 282:1-2; MB 4-5; see Peninei Halakha: Shabbat 5:6).
  The reading must be done from a kosher scroll, written with the proper intent, in ink, on parchment, just as the first Torah scroll was written by Moshe at God’s dictate. The reading must be in the presence of a minyan, as it is davar she-bikdusha (see above, 2:10, which states that women are exempt from Torah reading, and below, 22:4-6, regarding Torah reading on Shabbat. See also Peninei Halakha: Collected Essays I ch. 4 and Prayer ch. 22).
  
  Section 16
  
  Praying with a Minyan / The Ĥazan
  The ḥazan leads the prayer service. At times, the whole congregation says the prayers together with him while he sets the pace, and at other times (such as Ḥazarat Ha-shatz and Kaddish), he alone recites the prayers, with the congregation responding “amen.” The ḥazan must be honest, well-regarded, modest, and amiable, have a nice voice, and regularly read from the Torah, Prophets, and Holy Scripture (Ta’anit 16a; SA 53:4). We are especially strict about this on the Days of Awe and on fast days, when we pray to God and beg Him to forgive us for our sins, save us from our troubles, and bring our redemption closer. If there is flaw in the ḥazan, the congregation’s prayer will not ascend properly (Rema 581:1).
  During the time of the Sages, it was forbidden to write siddurim because only the written Torah, meaning Tanakh, was permitted to be written. Anything that was transmitted orally, including the prayers and blessings instituted by the Sages, was forbidden to be put into writing (Temura 14b). At that time, the ḥazan’s task was very important, because he had to know all the prayers by heart and recite them aloud, for the audience fulfilled their obligations through him. Therefore, the congregation chose a permanent ḥazan for this honorable task, and all the particular laws that apply to appointing the ḥazan on fast days also pertained to the regular ḥazan. Originally, each and every member of the congregation would have to agree to the appointment of the ḥazan, since the ḥazan was the one who fulfilled the obligation on everyone’s behalf. However, after the destruction of the Second Temple, the Sages recognized the necessity of permitting the writing of the Oral Torah so that it would not be forgotten by the Jewish people. Included in that was the permission to write down the prayers. With time, siddurim became increasingly common, and today there is no need for the ḥazan to fulfill the obligation on the congregation’s behalf because all congregants pray with siddurim. Hence, there is less of a need to be meticulous in choosing a ḥazan, and it is not customary to select a permanent ḥazan for the whole year. Instead, each day a different person leads the prayer service (SA 53:19; MB 53:53).
  Even so, the gabba’im, must try to choose as ḥazanim decent people who abide by the Torah and observe the mitzvot. They should be people who the congregation agrees to appoint as its emissaries, for the ḥazanim are the ones who repeat the Amida and recite  Kaddish on its behalf (see Kaf Ha-ḥayim 53:86). Additionally, on Shabbat and festivals, when it is customary for ḥazanim to sing and chant part of the service, the appointed ḥazanim should be musically gifted with pleasant voices.
  
  Section 17
  
  Praying with a Minyan / Ĥazanut for the Sake of Heaven
  Ḥazanim must have kavana that their singing is the sake of heaven. If they prolong their ḥazanut (cantorial virtuosity) with the sole purpose of showing off their beautiful voices, the Torah states about them, “They have raised their voice against Me, so I hated them” (Yirmiyahu 12:8). They are using the holy prayer service to self-aggrandize. Even one whose sole intent is for the sake of heaven should not prolong his singing, so as not to burden the congregation (Rashba; SA 53:11).
  Ḥazanim may not repeat the words of berakhot and Kaddish because doing so changes the formula that the Sages established. If repeating the words alters the meaning of the berakha, those words are considered a hefsek, and the ḥazan must recite the berakha again from the beginning. However, if there is no change in the meaning, be-di’avad he does not need to recite the berakha again, because he did not interrupt its recitation with an extraneous matter (see Igrot Moshe OḤ 2:22; Yabi’a Omer 6:7).
  The poskim disagree about whether one may use melodies of profane songs for prayers and liturgy. In practice, when the congregation is not familiar with the crude lyrics of the song, it is customary to be lenient and fit the melody to the prayer. However, if the congregation recognizes the song, one may not use that tune for prayer, because when the people sing it, they remember the crude theme of the song and their kavana is likely to be disrupted (Peninei Halakha: Prayer, ch. 4 n. 1). It is forbidden to appoint a singer who normally sings songs with vulgar content to be ḥazan (Rema 53:25).
  It is not fitting for one to desire to be ḥazan. Therefore, when the gabbai asks someone in the congregation to lead the service, proper protocol is do refuse at first, though he should not decline excessively (see SA 53:16; Peninei Halakha: Prayer 4:3). If one is capable of leading the prayers but refuses, he indeed insults the honor of the prayer service as well as God’s honor. In particular, one who God endowed with a talent for singing and a pleasant voice should not decline on Shabbat and festivals, since the prayers on those days are rich with song and melody. If he refuses to pray out of stubbornness or laziness, and does not praise God with his voice, it would have been better had he not come into this world (Sefer Ḥasidim 768). The Sages say about Navot of Jezreel that he had an exceptionally pleasant voice and would ascend to the Temple in Jerusalem for the three pilgrimage festivals, where all Israel would gather to hear him. The one time he stayed home to guard his vineyard, he was punished; lawless people testified that he rebelled against the king and he was put to death (Pesikta Rabbati §25).
  
  Section 18
  
  Praying with a Minyan / The Mourner’s Prayer and the Recitation of the Mourner’s Kaddish
  One who is mourning a parent recites Kaddish during that first year after the death, and it helps save the deceased from harsh judgment; since the deceased left progeny who sanctify God’s name in the world, clearly the deceased’s life was of enduring value. If a son knows how to lead the services and the congregation agrees to his appointment, it is best for him to be the ḥazan on weekdays, since this benefits the deceased even more. It is also customary for mourners to say Kaddish and lead the prayers on the day of yahrtzeit. When there are several mourners in the synagogue, it is customary that everyone recites Kaddish together. Concerning leading the prayer service, there is an order of precedence; for example, someone who is in his first thirty days of mourning takes priority over one who is in his year of mourning (as explained in Peninei Halakha: Prayer 4:5-7).
  A minor whose mother or father died says Kaddish even though he is not yet a bar mitzva. It is for this purpose that Kaddish Yatom was instituted. It is preferable for an adult to lead the prayers and thereby benefit the deceased’s soul, but for a minor who cannot be ḥazan, the Sages instituted Kaddish (Rema YD 376:4). Even if the minor has not yet reached the age of education, the Kaddish is dictated to him, the young orphan repeats the Kaddish word for word, and the congregation answers “amen.”
  It is proper to recite Kaddish on behalf of adoptive parents, especially if they do not have another son (Yalkut Yosef 7:23:13). A convert should recite Kaddish on behalf of his gentile parents (Responsa Zekan Aharon YD 87).
  
  Section 19
  
  Praying with a Minyan / When there is No Adult Son to Recite Kaddish
  If one was not privileged to leave behind a son or whose son is not God-fearing and does not come to the synagogue to recite Kaddish for them, a God-fearing grandson may say Kaddish for the whole year. A grandson from a son takes precedence over a grandson from a daughter. If the deceased does not have a grandson yet, but has a son-in-law, the son-in-law should say Kaddish. The grandson and son-in-law may recite Kaddish for their grandparent or parent in-law only after receiving permission from their own parents if they are still living. If the deceased does not have a son-in-law, the father recites Kaddish for his child. If his father is also dead, a brother or nephew says Kaddish.
  When there is no relative to recite Kaddish for the deceased, part of the inheritance money should be used to hire a God-fearing person to recite Kaddish. It is good to hire someone who is engrossed in Torah. If someone in the family who is engrossed in Torah, he takes precedence over a stranger. Monetary compensation for reciting Kaddish is important to ensure its recitation. Furthermore, if they employ someone who is involved in Torah or a poor person who has children to support, the deceased will thereby accrue more merit.
  The common ruling nowadays is that a man should be hired to recite Kaddish even if the deceased left a daughter.1<i class="footnote">Although there have been places through the years where, if the deceased left only daughters, a daughter would recite Kaddish in her home or in a room adjacent to the synagogue, and some ruled that a daughter not yet bat mitzva should recite Kaddish in the synagogue. However, Ḥavot Ya’ir §222 states that it is proper to object to the recitation of Kaddish by women, so that the power of custom is not undermined, and the accepted custom is that daughters do not recite Kaddish (Yalkut Yosef 7:23:11; Pnei Barukh 34:20; Piskei Teshuvot 132:33).However, where there is demand for this practice, and there is no concern that it will undermine customary practice – whether because they have already been eroded or because the congregation is God-fearing and meticulous about mitzva observance – and there is no concern that it will cause dissent, the local rabbi may rule that they should recite Kaddish from the women’s section and under the conditions he specified. After all, as noted, there were places that had this custom in the past.This and similar halakhot demonstrate the importance of a local or congregational rabbi who is responsible for imbuing it with Torah, mitzvot, and their values. It is therefore important that every congregation has a designated rabbi who understands the congregants intimately. It is also important that the congregation rally around him and not instigate disputes when he decides in favor of one side or the other. </i>
  
  
  
  
  
  Section 1
  
  Some Laws Concerning the Synagogue, Tzitzit, and Tefilin / The Mitzva to Build a Synagogue
  Wherever ten Jews live, they have a mitzva to designate a place for their prayers. It becomes a small sanctuary (mikdash me’at) and is called a beit knesset (synagogue) (MT, Laws of Prayer 11:1).
  It is important to note that a synagogue is not just a place that facilitates prayer with a minyan; rather, it has independent value as a place designated for devarim she-bikdusha, a place where the Shekhina dwells. It is a great mitzva to build a synagogue, as the Torah states: “They shall make Me a sanctuary and I will live among them” (Shemot 25:8). Although this verse primarily comes to teach us about the building of the Temple, an offshoot of that mitzva is the mitzva to build a synagogue (see Peninei Halakha: Collected Essays I, ch. 1 n. 1). This is what the prophet Yeḥezkel meant by “I have been for them a small sanctuary” (Yeḥezkel 11:16), as R. Yitzḥak interpreted, “These are the synagogues and batei midrash (study halls)” (Megilla 29a).
  Especially after the destruction of our Temple and our exile from our land – and the exile of the Shekhina along with us – as a result of which we are unable to ascend and appear before the Lord, our God, the synagogues and study halls serve as places in which we can preserve the memory of the Shekhina’s manifestation at the Temple. Likewise, the prayers recited in the synagogue were instituted to correspond to the sacrificial offerings brought at the Temple. Hence, synagogues are constructed for two purposes: to facilitate organized prayer, and to serve as a miniature Temple, a commemoration and extension of the Temple’s sanctity (see Peninei Halakha: Collected Essays I, ch. 6 concerning the laws of the synagogue; here we outline the laws that pertain to women).
  Since the idea of the synagogue is so important, all members of the community must participate in the funding of its construction. If there are Jews who are not interested in participating in payments for building the synagogue, the leaders of the community may compel them to contribute its funding (SA 150:1, which states that it was customary to divide the payment according to wealth, though some divided the burden on a per capita basis).
  It seems to me that the mitzva to build a synagogue applies to women as well, and it is good that she share in the payments for its construction. Even though women need not pray in the synagogue, they are nevertheless considered members of the community, and thus the mitzva to build a “small sanctuary” for the community applies to them as well. Additionally, it is worth noting that the Israelite women donated their jewelry to the Mishkan. Furthermore, women do come to pray in the synagogue sometimes; as we learned (above, 20:2), there is merit and value in a woman praying in a synagogue. Nonetheless, if a woman does not want to help financially support the building of the synagogue, it seems that she cannot be compelled to do so, since she is not obligated to pray in it.
  
  Section 2
  
  Some Laws Concerning the Synagogue, Tzitzit, and Tefilin / Choosing a Synagogue
  It is a mitzva to designate a fixed place for prayer. It is even a mitzva for a woman who only comes to the synagogue on Shabbat and festivals to choose a regular synagogue. If possible, she should have a fixed place in the synagogue (see Peninei Halakha: Prayer 3:2).
  When one has several synagogues to choose from, she should choose one in accordance with the guidelines provided by the Sages. A beit midrash (study hall) is holier than a synagogue (SA 90:18). Similarly, a synagogue that offers more Torah classes is considered preferable to one with fewer classes. In addition, it is better to join the congregation that places greater emphasis on Torah study.
  If there are two synagogues which offer an equal number of Torah classes, the one with a greater number of congregants is preferable, for “Be-rov am hadrat Melekh” (“In a multitude of people is a King’s glory”; MB 90:55). However, if it is difficult to hear the ḥazan clearly in the larger synagogue, it is better to choose a synagogue in which one can properly hear the ḥazan (MB 90:20). Therefore, as a general rule, it is best that synagogues be as big as possible, for this increases God’s glory. Still, there is a limit; more than a few hundred congregants makes it impossible to hear the ḥazan clearly.
  If in one synagogue people regularly chatter during prayer and in another they do not, one should opt for the synagogue that shows more respect for prayer, for he will be able to concentrate better there (Sefer Ḥasidim §770).
  Most importantly, the essence of prayer is kavana. Therefore, above all other rules established by the Sages, the place in which one personally concentrates better is the appropriate place to choose (see Radbaz 3:472).
  Similarly, one should preferably pick a synagogue that uses the liturgical rite of her ancestors. However, if she knows for certain that she will have more kavana in a different synagogue, she should prefer that synagogue (see below, 24:5).
  If a man prefers one synagogue and his wife prefers another, and each synagogue prays at a different time, the wife should follow her husband, for he is more regularly in the synagogue, since he is commanded to pray there. Moreover, in all matters concerning customs and halakhot, the wife follows her husband, as explained below (24:4).
  With every step a woman takes in her walk to the synagogue, she is rewarded. Therefore, even if the preferred synagogue is farther away from her house, she should not be deterred by the effort of walking, for she is credited for each step. This matter was in fact taught to us by a woman, as we have learned (above, 20:2; Sota 22a).
  
  Section 3
  
  Some Laws Concerning the Synagogue, Tzitzit, and Tefilin / The Sanctity of the Synagogue
  It is a mitzva to act with reverence in a synagogue, for the Torah says: “Revere My  temple” (Vayikra 19:30), and the sanctity of the synagogue is a reflection of the sanctity of the Temple.
  Whoever uses the synagogue for non-holy everyday purposes dishonors its holiness, since the synagogue was designated solely for sacred matters: Torah, prayer, and strengthening other mitzvot. Therefore, one should not discuss business and finances there, and certainly one should not joke or gossip there. However, it is permitted to hold assemblies for the sake of a mitzva, such as to collect charity for the poor or to raise funds for yeshivot.
  It is a mitzva to honor the synagogue and maintain its cleanliness at all times. One who has mud on his shoes must remove it before entering the synagogue (SA 151:6-9).
  One must not enter a synagogue unless it is for Torah or prayer. Even when it is raining outside, one may not take shelter in a synagogue. Likewise, one may not enter a synagogue in the summer to take refuge from the heat. However, if one intends to learn or pray in the synagogue while taking shelter, she may enter.
  One who must enter the synagogue to get his friend’s attention regarding an urgent matter may do so; however, before doing so, he should sit a bit and recite a verse, so as not to enter solely for personal needs (Megilla 28a; SA 151:1).
  In a synagogue that does not normally accommodate se’udot mitzva (festive meals celebrating the fulfillment of a mitzva), it is preferable le-khatḥila to follow the stringent opinion of Magen Avraham and not hold large se’udot mitzva at which wine is served, like those of a brit mila, pidyon ha-ben, bar-mitzva, or sheva berakhot. However, serving light refreshments there at the celebration of a joyous occasion, such as a siyum (celebration of the completion of a talmudic tractate) and the like, is permissible. If it was customary to hold se’udot mitzva in the synagogue from its inception, then all agree that it is permissible to do so. This, of course, is all on condition that the congregants are extremely careful to preserve the sanctity of the synagogue, that they refrain from all idle talk and frivolity, and that they make certain not to become intoxicated. They must also ensure that women and men do not mingle in the synagogue. Those who wish to follow the lenient position may conduct se’udot mitzva even in a synagogue that did not initially host such events, for that is the opinion of many poskim (see Peninei Halakha: Collected Essays I, 6:8; for further study, read that entire chapter).
  
  Section 4
  
  Some Laws Concerning the Synagogue, Tzitzit, and Tefilin / One May Not Bring to Synagogue Children Who Are Likely to Disrupt
  It is forbidden for one praying to seat a baby in front of her, as there is concern that the baby will disturb her kavana (MB 96:4). Certainly during prayer times one may not bring babies and small children who do not know how to pray, since they are likely to distract the people praying.
  If one brings a child to prayer services and the child begins to disrupt the congregation’s prayers, he must take the child out of the synagogue, even if it means he must interrupt his Amida, and continue praying outside. This applies to women in the women’s section as well (see above, 14:2).
  Although there is a pious custom to bring babies to the synagogue so that they can absorb its holy atmosphere, the custom applies specifically to times when prayer services are not being held. In order to emphasize the importance of this matter, I will cite Shlah, which states in the name of Orḥot Ḥayim:
  Children’s chatter in synagogue is a severe prohibition. Nowadays young children come to the synagogue to bring punishment upon those who bring them there, for they come to desecrate the sanctity of our God’s house and to laugh in it as they do in city streets. They get up to play with one another; this one plays with that one and that one hits the other. One rejoices, another cries. One talks, another shouts. One runs here, the other, there. One relieves himself in the synagogue and everyone screams, ‘Water, water!’ Another one is given a book by his father, which he throws on the floor or tears it into twelve pieces. Ultimately, the noise of their shenanigans destroys the kavana of the worshippers and causes the desecration of God’s name. One who brings children to synagogue in this way should not expect reward, but punishment. The worst thing is that these children will be raised on this bad custom and foreign habit. As they grow older, they will increase their contempt for the synagogue and its sanctity and they will show no respect for the Torah, since once one becomes habituated to a sin, it becomes permitted to him, and even as he ages, he will not abandon it. In conclusion, it is proper for one not to bring very small children to synagogue, because he will [only] lose from it and not gain. However, when the child reaches the age of education, on the contrary; the father should bring the child to synagogue, teach him to sit in awe and reverence, not let him move from his seat, and encourage him to answer “amen” and respond to Kaddish and Kedusha (Shlah, Masekhet Tamid Ner Mitzva, brought by MB 98:3).
  
  Section 5
  
  Some Laws Concerning the Synagogue, Tzitzit, and Tefilin / Women and Tzitzit
  Women are exempt from the mitzva of tzitzit, a time-bound positive mitzva that applies only during the day, not at night (Menaḥot 43a; SA 17:2; above, 2:7). 
  Women who want to wrap themselves in a talit may do so privately. According to Ashkenazic practice, they would recite a berakha, and according to Sephardic practice, they would not.1<i class="footnote">The law follows R. Shimon, who maintains that the mitzva of tzitzit is time-bound and that women are therefore exempt (Menaḥot 43a; Rif and Rosh ad loc.). Simply understood, however, if women wish to fulfill this mitzva they may, as is the case with other time-bound mitzvot. The only question is whether or not they would recite a berakha. Rambam (MT, Laws of Tzitzit 3:9) states: “Women and slaves who wish to wrap themselves in tzitzit do so without a berakha.” So states Sefer Ha-ḥinukh §386. In contrast, Rabbeinu Tam and Ran maintain that women who wish to wrap themselves in tzitzit may recite the berakha. They similarly disagree about whether women may recite a berakha on blowing the shofar or taking the lulav. The practice of most Sephardic women is not to recite the berakha, while the practice of Ashkenazic women is to recite the berakha, as clarified in SA 589:6 (see above, 2:8).However, Maharil (New Responsa §7) says that women should not wrap themselves in a talit, mentioning several reasons, such as that we are concerned about forbidden fabric mixtures (sha’atnez), carrying on Shabbat, presumptuous customs, and arrogance. He also mentions an esoteric reason. In Minhagei Maharil (Tzitzit 4), he writes that there were women who wrapped themselves in tzitzit, including the wife of Mahari Brin. Even though he was not pleased with this practice, he did not object. See also Agur, Laws of Tzitzit 27, which mentions this practice. Targum Yonatan of Devarim 22:5 implies that it is forbidden for women to wear tzitzit because it is forbidden for women to wear men’s clothes. However, none of the Rishonim who dealt with the issue mentioned this concern, even though some Aḥaronim (including Ben Ish Ḥai, Year 1, Lekh Lekha 13) did mention it.SA 17:1 rules:Women and slaves are exempt, because it is a time-bound positive mitzva. Rema: Nevertheless, if they wish to wrap themselves in it and recite the berakha, they may do so, just like other time-bound positive mitzvot (Tosafot, Rosh, and Ran on the second chapter of Rosh Hashana and the first chapter of Kiddushin). Yet it appears arrogant, and therefore they should not wear tzitzit since it is not an obligation that devolves upon the individual (Agur §27), that is, one is not required to purchase a garment in order to become obligated in tzitzit.Thus, there is no concern for any halakhic violation, whether out of concern for sha’atnez or wearing men’s clothing. Rema wrote that women should not wrap themselves in tzitzit only because it appears arrogant.R. Moshe Feinstein addresses this issue thoroughly and writes that if a woman’s purpose in wrapping herself in tzitzit is for God’s sake, she may do so and it is a credit to her. She should use a garment that looks different from a man’s talit (such as by using other colors). According to Ashkenazic custom, she may recite the berakha. However, if she wishes to wrap herself in tzitzit because of external influence, and her purpose is to fight for the cause of feminism, and she wishes to join the fray out of resentment and in order to change the laws of the Torah, it constitutes a denial of the Torah, and she forfeits her share in the next world (Igrot Moshe OḤ 4:49).Therefore, in my opinion, a woman who wants to wrap herself in tzitzit for God’s sake may do so in private. There is no concern for arrogance, and it is not an expression of resentment against halakha and the tradition. If many women do so for God’s sake and in private, then over time even if they wear tzitzit in non-private setting it will not be considered arrogance or an offense against the traditions of the Torah. Nevertheless, in my opinion, even today one should not object to a woman whose intentions are for God’s sake and who wraps herself publicly in tzitzit, for she has authorities upon whom to rely. However, one should object to women who are not meticulous about many mitzvot but who specifically wear a talit publicly in order to express their opposition to halakhic tradition.  </i>
  
  Section 6
  
  Some Laws Concerning the Synagogue, Tzitzit, and Tefilin / Women and Tefilin
  Women are exempt from the mitzva of tefilin, as it is a time-bound positive mitzva that applies only on weekdays, not on Shabbat or festivals, when it is forbidden (above, 2:7).
  When it comes to other time-bound positive mitzvot, like lulav and shofar, many women indeed fulfill them, since the law is that women are credited with the mitzva if they voluntarily fulfill them despite their exemption. Nevertheless, when it comes to tefilin, the common practice is that they do not wear them. The reason for this is that Jewish custom is very concerned for the honor of the tefilin. Even though technically men should wear tefilin all day, they only wear them in the morning, and only to fulfill their obligation, because there is concern that they will have lapses in concentration while wearing tefilin (which is forbidden) and thereby disrespect the tefilin. Similarly, women, who are not obligated to wear tefilin at all, should not put themselves in a situation that would raise concerns for disrespecting the tefilin. For this reason, the custom is that women do not put on tefilin (MA, AHS).
  Therefore, a woman who wants to elevate herself through mitzvot and asks whether she should wear tefilin should be instructed not to do so. If she nevertheless yearns to wear them in private, even though numerous authorities wrote that this is objectionable, one should not object, because there are opinions upon which she may rely. In general, whenever a practice has an authority on which to rely, one should not object to it.
  There are women who are not meticulous about the laws of tzni’ut and many other mitzvot, but they wish to boast by wearing talit and tefilin. One should object to their agenda of turning the Torah and mitzvot into a site of social conflicts, as mitzvot should be performed for God’s sake, not as a tool to advance interests of one sort or another.1<i class="footnote">The mishna on Berakhot 20a states that women are exempt from tefilin but does not clarify whether women who want to wear tefilin may do so just as they may perform other positive time-bound mitzvot like lulav and shofar. Eruvin 96a cites a beraita that states that Michal, the daughter of King Shaul, wore tefilin and that the Sages did not object. Tosafot (ad loc.) state in the name of Pesikta that the Sages indeed objected. Similarly, y. Berakhot 2:3 first cites an anonymous opinion that the Sages did not object and then cites R. Ḥizkiya to the effect that the Sages did, in fact, object. Tosafot state that according to the opinion that the Sages objected even though they did not object to women performing other time-bound positive mitzvot, it is because “tefilin require a clean body, and women are not zealously careful.” (It seems that the concern is that they may not wear tefilin while menstruating – see Rema 88:1 – and since they do not normally study laws that do not pertain to their obligations, they will not be careful about this. Perhaps there is also concern that they will handle a soiled diaper or another filthy household item.) Kol Bo also states in the name of Maharam that one should object to women who wish to wear tefilin because “they do not know how to keep themselves clean.” Beit Yosef cites this, and SA 38:3 rules: “Women and slaves are exempt from tefilin as it is a time-bound positive mitzva. Rema: If women wish to be stringent upon themselves, we object (Kol Bo).”MA explains that if women had been obligated by the Torah to wear tefilin, the rationale that they are not careful about cleanliness would not exempt them from the mitzva. However, since they are exempt and there is a concern about cleanliness, their wearing tefilin is objectionable. Along these lines, AHS states that really men have the same problem; tefilin require a clean body. However, since men are obligated, they wear tefilin for Shema and prayers while being as careful as possible. Women, though, are exempt, and should not subject themselves to this serious concern. For them, the time of prayer and reciting Shema are the equivalent of the rest of the day for men. We therefore do not allow them to wear tefilin. Even though Michal wore tefilin and the Sages did not object, this case is not instructive. Presumably, they knew that she was completely righteous and knew how to take the proper precautions. Similarly, Kaf Ha-ḥayim 38:9 states in the name of Birkei Yosef and other Aḥaronim that one should object to women wearing tefilin and cites esoteric reasons for this as well.Yet there are Rishonim who say that one should not object. Indeed, Orḥot Ḥayim challenges Maharam’s strict ruling (cited in Kol Bo) based on the opinion that the Sages did not object to Michal wearing tefilin. This is cited in Beit Yosef, which answers that Kol Bo relied on the view that the Sages indeed object to Michal. Olat Tamid (an early commentary on Shulḥan Arukh) 38:3 rejects Maharam’s view: if the prohibition on women wearing tefilin is based on cleanliness, why does Berakhot 20a state that they are exempt because it is a time-bound positive mitzva? Moreover, Michal wore tefilin and the Sages did not object. Therefore, Olat Tamid concludes: “We do not object to an old woman who we know is capable of guarding herself, and it is sort of case that they are discussing there [ in reference to Michal.” It is also said of several righteous women from early and later generations – including the wife of R. Ḥayim ibn Atar – that they wore tefilin.The practical ruling is that a woman should not wear tefilin, and many authorities – including Rema, Kaf Ha-ḥayim, MB, and many others – state that objections should be raised against women who wish to wear tefilin. Nevertheless, a woman who wishes to wear tefilin has authorities to rely upon – Orḥot Ḥayim and Olat Tamid – and AHS also concludes that one should not object to one who is renowned as a righteous woman. Therefore, in practice, one should not object to this practice. However, a woman who wear tefilin should take care not to wear them while menstruating (though she may wear tefilin while counting her clean days) and should make sure to wear them in private, so that it is clear that she is wearing them for God’s sake and so that she does not advertise when she is menstruating.</i>
  
  
  
  
  
  Section 1
  
  Shabbat Prayer and Kiddush / The Shabbat Amida
  The laws of prayer and kiddush on Shabbat are numerous, so we will cover only those that pertain specifically to women. The Shabbat Amida is comprised of seven berakhot. The first three and last three berakhot are identical to the corresponding berakhot in weekday Amida; however, instead of the thirteen middle berakhot, on Shabbat a special berakha about the sanctity of the Shabbat is recited.
  Although it would have been possible to recite all the weekday berakhot of the Amida on Shabbat in addition to a special berakha in honor of the day, the Sages did not want to trouble people with lengthy prayer, so they shortened the Amida by replacing the middle thirteen berakhot with just one berakha. However, if one mistakenly began to recite the weekday berakhot and realizes in the middle of one of the blessings that it is Shabbat, she concludes that berakha and only then returns to the Shabbat liturgy; since in principal it would be acceptable to recite the weekday berakhot, once she already began reciting the berakha, it is proper that she finishes it (SA 268:2).1<i class="footnote">While praying Musaf, if one mistakenly begins reciting the weekday berakhot and then realizes that she should be reciting Musaf instead, she immediately stops, even if she is in the middle of a berakha, since there is absolutely no need to recite weekday berakhot in Musaf (MB 268:5; Peninei Halakha: Shabbat, ch. 4 n. 1. </i>
  The Sages instituted a special berakha for each Amida of Shabbat: Atta Kidashta for Ma’ariv, Yismaḥ Moshe for Shaḥarit, and Atta Eḥad for Minḥa. One who accidentally mixes up one berakha with another, for example by reciting the Minḥa liturgy at Ma’ariv, still fulfills her obligation, because they all address the sanctity of Shabbat. However, if he mistakenly prays a weekday Amida instead of the Shabbat Amida, since she does not mention Shabbat, she does not fulfill her obligation and must pray again. If she realizes her error before finishing the Amida, she returns to the Shabbat berakha and continues from there to the end of the Amida (SA 268:5-6).
  
  Section 2
  
  Shabbat Prayer and Kiddush / Kabbalat Shabbat
  Over 400 years ago, the kabbalists of Tzefat began accepting Shabbat by reciting psalms and liturgical poems. Because the Jewish people wished to give expression to the neshama yeteira (the extra soul that one receives when observing Shabbat), this custom was accepted by all Israel and became Kabbalat Shabbat. At that time lived R. Shlomo Alkabetz, who composed the wonderful poem Lekha Dodi that is used to welcome the Shabbat in all synagogues.
  It was Arizal’s custom to welcome the Shabbat in a field, facing west toward the setting sun (the Sages say [BB 25a] that the Shekhina is manifest primarily in the west). This custom was accepted in most synagogues; when reciting the last stanza of Lekha Dodi, in which Shabbat is welcomed like a bride, the congregation faces west. Accordingly, even when the entrance to the synagogue faced a different direction, the congregation faces west. Some have the custom to face the entrance to the synagogue, even if it is not to the west, as an expression of the idea that Shabbat is a guest that enters through the door (some Sephardic communities face west throughout the recitation of Mizmor Le-David and Lekha Dodi).
  In many synagogues, Friday night services begin relatively late, and the congregation reaches Lekha Dodi after sunset. In order to fulfill the mitzva of tosefet Shabbat (adding on to Shabbat), they must accept Shabbat before sunset by saying “Bo’i kalla Shabbat ha-malka” (“Come, o bride, o Shabbat queen”). Thus, it is best if after Minḥa, before sunset, the gabbai makes this declaration.
  Women generally accept Shabbat at candle lighting, thereby fulfilling tosefet Shabbat in an outstanding manner. A woman who regularly prays Minḥa should make every effort to pray Minḥa on Friday before candle lighting, for in the opinion of many poskim, after she accepts Shabbat by lighting the candles, she is unable to pray a weekday Minḥa (MB 263:43). Be-di’avad, if she did pray Minḥa before she lit the candles, she may rely on the lenient opinion. The lenient poskim maintain that even though she accepted Shabbat and is forbidden from doing melakha (labors forbidden on Shabbat), still, she may still pray a weekday Amida (Tzitz Eliezer 13:42; also see Peninei Halakha: Shabbat, ch. 2 n. 6).
  
  Section 3
  
  Shabbat Prayer and Kiddush / Va-yekhulu and Magen Avot
  In the Amida on Shabbat night we recite Va-yekhulu, the three verses at the end of account of creation (Bereishit 2:1-3) that introduce the idea of Shabbat.
  The Sages teach (Shabbat 119b) that one who recites Va-yekhulu in the Shabbat evening prayers becomes like a partner with God in creation. God purposely created the world incomplete so that we could become His partners in its repair. Our partnership begins with belief in the Creator, and from there we work to rectify the world and express His glory.
  The Sages further teach that one who recites Va-yekhulu in the Shabbat evening prayers is escorted home by two angels, who place their hands on his head and say: “Your iniquity will be removed and your sin will be atoned.” The idea of Shabbat is linked to repentance (teshuva), as attested by their phonetic similarity. Indeed, on Shabbat we are reminded of our faith in the Creator, and from that conviction we return (“shavim”) to all the good aspirations in our souls. One who recites Va-yekhulu on Shabbat eve expresses the profound significance of Shabbat and earns the opportunity for true repentance and atonement for his transgressions.
  In the synagogue, the congregation recites Va-yekhulu again after the Amida. Some say that the public recitation of Va-yekhulu serves as testimony to the creation of the world (see Peninei Halakha: Shabbat 4:3). We say Va-yekhulu a third time in kiddush; often, important prayers are recited three times (as in Ashrei and Kedusha).
  The Sages instituted that the ḥazan recites Magen Avot or the Berakha Me’ein Sheva (a summary of the seven berakhot of the Friday night Amida) after Ma’ariv, to serve as a sort of Ḥazarat Ha-shatz (see Peninei Halakha: Shabbat 4:2 for further study). 
  This berakha is recited by the ḥazan, so after the congregation sings its opening passage Magen Avot, the ḥazan must repeat it by himself (MB 268:22).
  
  Section 4
  
  Shabbat Prayer and Kiddush / Pesukei De-zimra, Torah Reading, and Musaf
  Since the time of the Rishonim it has been customary to add psalms to Pesukei De-zimra on Shabbat morning. The added psalms have either creation or the giving of the Torah as their theme, for Shabbat commemorates the creation of the world and the Torah was given on Shabbat. Before Yishtabaḥ, we add Nishmat Kol Ḥai – a prayer of wondrous praise that mentions the Exodus and thus links to Shabbat, which commemorates the Exodus (Tur §281; Levush; see Peninei Halakha: Shabbat 4:4).
  After Shaḥarit we read from the Torah and recite a haftara from the works of the Prophets. We already learned about Torah reading (20:15), and, as noted, on Shabbat there are seven aliyot. Here we will add that the purpose of the reading on Shabbat is to complete the entire Torah. During the time of the Talmud, it was customary in Eretz Yisrael to complete the Torah every three years while in Babylonia it was customary to complete the Torah annually, as is the custom today. If on one Shabbat the Torah portion was not read, two portions are read on the following Shabbat so as to make up for the missed portion (SA 135:2).
  Following the reading of the Torah and the haftara, Musaf is recited. It corresponds to the additional offerings that we were commanded to bring to sanctify Shabbat. We similarly recite Musaf on every holiday that we are commanded to sanctify through additional offerings (see below, section 6).
  
  Section 5
  
  Shabbat Prayer and Kiddush / Haftara
  The Sages ordained that in addition to the Torah reading, we read passages from the Prophets (the Nevi’im; the second part of Tanakh) that are related to the weekly Torah portion; one berakha is recited before the haftara and four blessings after.
  This reading was instituted as a result of a decree. Once, during Second Temple era, there was a decree forbidding Jews from occupying themselves with Torah. Since they could not read from the Torah on Shabbat, the Sages ordained that a passage from the Prophets be read in the same way the Torah is read; they called up seven olim and recited Birkhot Ha-Torah. After the decree was abolished and they went back to reading the Torah every Shabbat, the Sages ordained that we continue reading passages from the Prophets. This reading is called the “haftara,” as it concludes (“maftir”) the Torah reading. They even ordained special berakhot for reading from the Prophets. Since at the time of the decree seven people were called to read from the Prophets, and each one read at least three verses, the haftara must contain at least 21 verses. However, if a section comes to a close before 21 verses are read, it is permissible to read fewer verses (SA 284:1, MB 2).
  So that the haftara does not seem equal to the Torah in importance, the Sages ordained that the person reading the haftara (“the maftir”) is first called up to the Torah. This aliya is therefore called “maftir,” and its purpose is to make it clear that reading from the Prophets alone is not as important as reading from the Torah. Rather, only after reading from the Torah can one continue an read from the Prophets.
  Some say that the haftara must be read from a parchment scroll of the Prophets,just like the Torah (Levush). However, many Aḥaronim write that it is permissible to read it from a printed book. Le-khatḥila, it is best to read the haftara from a book that contains that entire work of the Prophets, though be-di’avad it is also permissible to read it from a printed book in which only the verses of the haftara are printed, like they appear in the Ḥumashim nowadays (MB 284:1).
  The person called up for maftir must be the sole person reading from the Prophets, and the congregation shall hear his reading. One who wishes to read along quietly may do so, as long as he does not distract neighbors from hearing the reader (MB 284:11; BHL).
  
  Section 6
  
  Shabbat Prayer and Kiddush / Must Women Recite the Shabbat Prayers?
  As we learned (above, 2:2-5), le-khatḥila women should pray the Amida of Shaḥarit and Minḥa every day (including Shabbat, when they recite the Shabbat Amida). Even if they pray one Amida daily, they still fulfill their obligation, and it is best if the one prayer is Shaḥarit. In extenuating circumstances, they may rely on those who maintain that women fulfill their obligation with Birkhot Ha-shaḥar and Birkhot Ha-Torah. Women who are busy raising children may rely on this opinion le-khatḥila. 
  However, it is proper that even those women who act leniently on weekdays by only saying Birkhot Ha-shaḥar and Birkhot Ha-Torah recite the Amida of Shaḥarit on Shabbat, because on Shabbat there is usually more free time. Many women even enhance the mitzva by walking to the synagogue to pray with the congregation on Friday night and Shabbat morning.
  Regarding Torah reading, we learned above (2:10) that according to Magen Avraham (283:6) women must hear Torah reading on Shabbat morning because women too  must hear the whole Torah over the course of the year. However, according to the vast majority of poskim, women are exempt from hearing Torah reading on Shabbat because it is a time-bound mitzva. Halakha follows this opinion. Still, it is preferable for women who wish to enhance the mitzva to hear Torah reading on Shabbat since all agree that although women are exempt, if one does hear it she indeed fulfills a mitzva for which she receives credit (see above, ch. 2 n. 13; whether or not women must hear Parashat Zakhor is addressed below, 23:5).
  Concerning Musaf, we learned (2:9) that some poskim maintain that women must pray Musaf (Magen Giborim) and some say they need not (Tzelaḥ). In practice, since it is a rabbinic mitzva, halakha follows the lenient opinion, and there is no obligation for women to pray Musaf, although those who do are credited for it.
  
  Section 7
  
  Shabbat Prayer and Kiddush / Should a Woman Skip Passages in Order to Recite the Amida with a Minyan?
  It is commonly asked: What should a woman do when she arrives at the synagogue on Shabbat morning and the congregation is about to start the Amida? For men there are detailed halakhot that govern this situation. On one hand, the primary purpose of praying with a minyan is to recite the Amida with the congregation, and one skips Pesukei De-zimra to do so. On the other hand, men may not skip Birkhot Keri’at Shema so that they adjoin redemption to prayer (see Peninei Halakha: Prayer, 14:5 n. 8; 25:4). In contrast, women are not obligated to recite Birkhot Keri’at Shema and hence need not adjoin redemption to prayer. On the other hand, they are not obligated to pray with a minyan.
  The answer is that technically every woman may decide for herself how to practice. If she wishes, she may pray the entire service, from Pesukei De-zimra to Keri’at Shema and its berakhot to the Amida. And if she wishes, she may pray the Amida right away with the congregation. This is because women are exempt from Pesukei De-zimra and Birkhot Keri’at Shema as well as from praying with a minyan with the congregation. As a result, there are two values in play, and each woman may choose which value she prefers. Most important is kavana; whatever she thinks will allow her to have more kavana is what she should do.
  However, if a woman asks, it is best to recommend that she skip Pesukei De-zimra and Birkhot Keri’at Shema in order to pray the Amida with the minyan. Since a woman’s primary obligation is to pray the Amida only, it is preferable that she prays the Amida in the best possible way, with a minyan. She will also then have the opportunity to answer “amen” and respond to the Kedusha in Ḥazarat Ha-shatz and to hear the Torah reading. She should still make sure to recite Birkhot Ha-shaḥar and Birkhot Ha-Torah before the Amida, and if she has more time she should also say Shema and Emet Ve-yatziv so that she fulfills the mitzva to remember the Exodus and adjoins redemption to prayer.1<i class="footnote">Women are exempt from Pesukei De-zimra according to most poskim, as we learned above, 15:4, and that is the common practice. Women are obligated to recite the Amida according to the vast majority of poskim, as we learned above, 2:2-5. The reason for the enactment to recite Pesukei De-zimra is to prepare for the Amida, for after introductory praises, the Amida is recited more properly, as explained in Peninei Halakha: Prayer 14:1, and is therefore more likely to be accepted. However, the Sages say that the prayer of one who worships with the congregation is certainly accepted (Berakhot 8a); thus, minyan is of greater value of Pesukei De-zimra. When it comes to men, since the Sages instituted berakhot for Pesukei De-zimra, the ruling is that they may not skip them, as explained in Peninei Halakha: Prayer 14:5. However, since women are fully exempt from Pesukei De-zimra, it seems that they should pray the Amida with the minyan. The very fact that a woman comes to the synagogue implies that her foremost desire is to benefit from praying with a minyan, so it is preferable that she prays with the congregation. If she wants, she may recite Shema and its berakhot afterwards, but it is not necessary to make up Pesukei De-zimra (ibid. n. 9). However, I saw that Halikhot Shlomo ch. 5 n. 4 states that since women do not have a mitzva to pray with a minyan, she should pray in the correct order. Nevertheless, it seems that even though there is no mitzva, there is still value in praying with a minyan, for the Shekhina dwells within a minyan, and when a minyan prays it is an auspicious time. Therefore, in my humble opinion, it is preferable that she fulfill her obligation in the optimal way. R. Naḥum Rabinovitch concurs and adds that even concerning men we regret that a prolonged prayer becomes routine and is no longer supplication, so it is not proper to instruct women to add prayers in which they are not obligated, for there is reason to be concerned that doing so will impair their kavana; it is better to have less prayer with kavana than more prayer without. Still, it seems to me that if she can say Emet Ve-yatziv before the Amida, all the better, for we have already learned (above, 16:3) that even though women are technically exempt from remembering the Exodus, some poskim maintain that they must remember it, so Emet Ve-yatziv has an advantage over the other Birkhot   Keri’at Shema.   </i>
  
  Section 8
  
  Shabbat Prayer and Kiddush / Kiddush and the Shabbat Meal
  Two mitzvot from the Torah constitute Shabbat: the positive mitzva of Zakhor (“commemorate”) and the negative mitzva of Shamor (“observe”). Shamor entails refraining from all melakha (creative labor), whereas Zakhor means remembering the fundamentals of faith. The first principle we remember on Shabbat is the creation of the world, and the second is the Exodus.
  Although Zakhor is a positive time-bound mitzva, women are obligated in its fulfillment just as men are since Zakhor and Shamor were uttered together in the Ten Commandments and have equal status. Therefore, just as women are obligated in the negative mitzva of Shamor, so too they are obligated in Zakhor. Since men and women have an equal obligation, a woman can make kiddush (a fulfillment of Zakhor) on a man’s behalf. Yet a minor cannot make kiddush on an adult’s behalf, since minors capable of grasping the idea of Shabbat are only rabbinically obligated in kiddush, whereas adults have a Torah obligation (SA 271:2).
  The Sages ordained fulfilling the mitzva of Zakhor by saying the Friday night kiddush over a cup of wine. There are two berakhot in the nighttime kiddush: Ha-gafen on the wine and Mekadesh Ha-Shabbat on the sanctity of Shabbat. The recitation of kiddush over wine immediately before the meal teaches that the sanctity of Shabbat is expressed on all levels – not just the spiritual aspects of life, but even the material aspects. It is therefore recited over wine, which brings joy, and before a festive meal.
  The Sages further ordained that kiddush be recited over wine during the day, just before the morning meal. By beginning the meal with kiddush, it is apparent that this meal is significant and special, and it reminds us of the holiness of Shabbat. Since the basis of the obligation of the daytime kiddush is rabbinic, no special berakha was instituted in honor of Shabbat; only Ha-gafen is recited, though verses relating to Shabbat are customarily recited beforehand. The Shabbat-day kiddush is called “Kidusha Rabba” (the “great kiddush”) euphemistically, as the nighttime kiddush is more important (see Peninei Halakha: Shabbat 5:1-3 for more on these laws).
  Like men, women are obligated to eat three meals on Shabbat and to have leḥem mishneh (SA 291:6l; MB and BHL ad loc.).
  
  Section 9
  
  Shabbat Prayer and Kiddush / Eating and Drinking Prior to the Nighttime Kiddush
  When the time for Zakhor – fulfilled through kiddush – arrives, it is a mitzva to fulfill it with alacrity. So that this mitzva is not neglected, the Sages prohibited eating or drinking, even just water, before kiddush. However, one may wash out one’s mouth or swallow medication with water (SA 271:4; MB 13; SSK 52:3).
  On Friday night, this prohibition applies the moment Shabbat begins. Therefore, a woman who accepted Shabbat when lighting the candles may not drink until she fulfills the mitzva of kiddush. A daughter who does not light candles must accept tosefet Shabbat by saying “Bo’i kalla Shabbat Ha-malka,” and from that point on she may not eat or drink until kiddush. Likewise, a man who accepted tosefet Shabbat may not eat or drink until he fulfills the mitzva of kiddush (MB 271:11; See Peninei Halakha: Shabbat 5:9).
  
  Section 10
  
  Shabbat Prayer and Kiddush / Eating and Drinking Before Kiddush on Shabbat Morning
  On Shabbat day, the prohibition to eat and drink begins at the time when it would be proper to recite kiddush. A woman who does not generally pray Shaḥarit on Shabbat (see above, 2:2-5) may not eat or drink from when she wakes up until she recites Birkhot Ha-shaḥar and Birkhot Ha-Torah and fulfills the obligation to recite kiddush.
  For a woman who normally prays Shaḥarit on Shabbat, the time to recite kiddush begins after she prays Shaḥarit; from the time finishes Shaḥarit, she may not eat or drink until she fulfills the obligation of kiddush. Before praying, too, she may not eat or drink; although the prohibition on eating or drinking before the daytime kiddush does not yet apply, the prohibition on eating or drinking before prayer applies, as one must not put her needs before God’s honor. Nevertheless, she may drink water or take medicine, since drinking them is need-based and not an expression of arrogance.
  A woman who knows that her mind will remain unsettled unless she drinks coffee or tea may drink them before praying, because there is no arrogance in drinking them; rather, she drinks out of need, to settle her mind and have kavana in her prayer. If possible, it is preferable that she drink the coffee or tea without sugar and milk. One who is concerned that if she does not eat anything she will be so hungry that she will be incapable of having proper kavana may eat a bit of cake or fruit before praying.1<i class="footnote">As we learned above in 2:2-5, in principle women must pray one or two Amidot every day; therefore it is proper that every woman pray Shaḥarit on weekdays and Shabbat. However, many women rely on the minority of poskim who maintain that according to Rambam a woman fulfills her obligation to pray by reciting Birkhot Ha-shaḥar and Birkhot Ha-Torah, and women who are busy taking care of their children adopt this practice le-khatḥila because they are exempt from prayer. Therefore, there is a distinction between a woman who normally prays Shaḥarit on Shabbat and one who usually does not, as explained in SSK 52:13. Even if she only prays Shaḥarit regularly on Shabbat, she can have in mind not to fulfill the obligation of prayer through Birkhot Ha-shaḥar and Birkhot Ha-Torah, thereby allowing her drink before prayer (SSK ad loc. n. 44; see also Halikhot Beitah 15:25). According to Igrot Moshe OḤ 4:101:2, a married woman has a special status: since she dines with her husband, her obligation of kiddush follows his. If he did not yet finish praying, she may eat and drink, because she did not yet become obligated in kiddush. R. Shlomo Zalman Auerbach concludes that this matter requires further study (SSK ad loc. n. 46), but in times of need, one may rely on Igrot Moshe.A woman who normally prays Shaḥarit may drink coffee or tea before prayer, and if she is so ravenous that she cannot have proper kavana in her prayer, she may eat a bit of cake as well. However, according to MB as cited in BHL §289, one who eats before Shaḥarit must recite kiddush. Igrot Moshe OḤ 2:28 and Yalkut Yosef 289:5 concur. However, Responsa Keren Le-David §84, Ḥelkat Yaakov 4:32, and other Aḥaronim state that the obligation of kiddush only applies after prayer, and that is implicit in the words of SA too. Thus, one who may eat before prayer should eat without kiddush. This is the prevailing practice, as I wrote elsewhere (Peninei Halakha: Shabbat 5:9). Regarding men and eating before prayer, in Peninei Halakha: Prayer 12:7 I was more stringent because men have a more strict status, as explained above, ch. 8 nn. 5 and 6.   </i>
  In extenuating circumstances, a woman who does not know how to make kiddush but is thirsty and finds it difficult to wait to hear her husband say kiddush may recite Birkhot Ha-shaḥar and Birkhot Ha-Torah and drink before kiddush. If she becomes hungry, she may eat as well in extenuating circumstances. This is because there is an opinion that nowadays women are exempt from kiddush (Maharam Ḥalawa), and in extenuating circumstances one may rely on this opinion.2<i class="footnote">According to Maharam Ḥalawa, women are exempt from the daytime kiddush. Additionally, Raavad and those who follow his approach maintain that there is no prohibition to eat before the daytime kiddush. Moreover, there are those who explain the opinion of Rambam to mean that although it is forbidden to eat and drink before kiddush, water is permitted. Therefore, in times of need, a woman may drink before kiddush, and in extenuating circumstances, she is even permitted to eat, as stated in Responsa Minḥat Yitzḥak 4:28:3; SSL 52:13, and Yalkut Yosef 289:6. </i>
  A married woman whose husband prayed early in the morning and returned from prayer wanting to recite kiddush and eat with his wife may partake in his kiddush and eat together with him, even if she intends to pray Shaḥarit afterward, because a healthy and halakhic family framework dictates that a woman eats with her husband. Nonetheless, she should take care to recite Birkhot Ha-shaḥar and Birkhot Ha-Torah beforehand (see above, n. 3, regarding the opinion of Igrot Moshe as well as 8:10).
  A minor who has reached the age of education should le-khatḥila be habituated not to eat before kiddush; however if she is hungry or thirsty, she may eat and drink before kiddush (SSK 52:18; Yalkut Yosef 271:17).
  
  Section 11
  
  Shabbat Prayer and Kiddush / Havdala
  Women are obligated in the mitzva of Havdala just as men. Even though it is a positive time-bound mitzva, according to most poskim, Havdala is part of the mitzva of Zakhor, which commands us to mark Shabbat at its arrival with kiddush and at its departure with Havdala. Even according to those who maintain that Havdala is a rabbinic mitzva, the Sages instituted it for women as well, like kiddush.
  There is an opinion that Havdala is a separate mitzva instituted by the Sages and that it is not a part of Zakhor and therefore, since it is time-bound, women are exempt from it (Orḥot Ḥayim). Out of consideration for that opinion, it is preferable le-khatḥila for a woman to hear Havdala recited by a man, for he certainly has the obligation to fulfill the mitzva of Havdala. However, if there is no man present who must recite Havdala, she recites it for herself, in accordance with the opinion of the vast majority of poskim. When she recites Havdala, she recites all of its berakhot.1<i class="footnote">According to Rambam, She’iltot, Smag, Sefer Ha-ḥinukh, and most of poskim, the mitzva of Havdala is from the Torah, as Zakhor requires marking Shabbat at its beginning (through kiddush) and end (through Havdala). Several Rishonim (Meiri and Nimukei Yosef in the name of Ritva and Magid Mishneh) understand that even Rosh and the Rishonim who hold that Havdala is a rabbinic enactment maintain that it was instituted on the model of kiddush, and that women are obligated in Havdala just as they are obligated in kiddush. Only Orḥot Ḥayim maintains that Havdala is a rabbinic mitzva and is completely disconnected from Zakhor, and that since it is time-bound, women are exempt from it. Rema 296:8 shows concern for this opinion and writes that consequently women should not say Havdala themselves but should hear a man recite it. However, Baḥ, MA, and other Aḥaronim state that a woman who wants to recite Havdala for herself may and it is a mitzva for her to do so since, according to Rema and many Rishonim, women may recite berakhot on time-bound mitzvot (above, 2:8). Therefore, according to Rema, women who wish to say Havdala may, and even though according to SA women do not recite berakhot on time-bound mitzvot, in this case, because the vast majority of poskim maintain that women are obligated in the mitzva of Havdala and some even say that their obligation is from the Torah, they may make Havdala without concern of reciting a berakha le-vatala.Still, MB as cited in BHL implies that if a woman makes Havdala she does not recite the blessing over fire (“borei me’orei ha-esh”) because this berakha is not part of Havdala. SSK 58:16 states this as well. However, many Aḥaronim (Igrot Moshe ḤM 2:47:2; Yeḥaveh Da’at 4:27; Tzitz Eliezer 14:43) challenge this notion and maintain that the berakha on the candle is part of Havdala and therefore that women who recite Havdala recite all four blessings. </i>
  
  
  
  
  
  Section 1
  
  Some Laws Concerning the Holidays and Festivals / Rosh Ĥodesh and Birkat Ha-levana
  These laws are numerous; hence, we shall mention but a few that pertain to women. It is a mitzva to have an expansive Rosh Ḥodesh meal (SA 419:1). One may perform any type of labor on Rosh Ḥodesh; however, women customarily reduce their workload a bit on Rosh Ḥodesh. This is a noble custom, because Rosh Ḥodesh is considered a minor holiday for women, a reward for not having participated in the sin of the Golden Calf (SA 417:1; MB 3; this is explained at length in Peninei Halakha: Zemanim 1:6-7).
  Women are exempt from Birkat Ha-levana (a monthly blessing on the moon), since it is a time-bound mitzva. Although according to Ashkenazic custom women may recite such berakhot, the widespread custom is that women do not recite this berakha (MB 426:1).1<i class="footnote">This berakha is reciting on the waxing moon. For Ashkenazim, this is from the third day of the month until the full moon, and for Sephardim it is from the seventh of the month until the full moon. Women are therefore exempt; so state MA and MB 426:1. Ḥokhmat Shlomo challenges this by noting that the berakha does not depend on time but on the phase of the moon, for we may only give thanks for it when it is waxing, just as we may only recite She-heḥeyanu on fruit when it is newly appeared on the trees. However, a distinction can be made between the two cases: She-heḥeyanu is recited over new fruits and depends not on a specific time but on the condition of the fruits, whereas Birkat Ha-levana completely depends on time, for time is established based on the moon. See Halikhot Beitah 16:10 and in the notes. The prevailing custom is that women do not recite it, and MB mentions the explanation of Shlah (Sha’ar Ha-otiyot 100) that women refrain from reciting this blessing because the deficiency of the moon was caused by the sin of the first woman which in turn precipitated Adam’s sin. Out of shame, women refrain from reciting the berakha on the renewal of the moon. Even though this sin was rectified when they did not participate in the sin of the Golden Calf (even while the flaw persisted among men), and for this reason Rosh Ḥodesh was given to women to observe to a greater degree than men, a woman nevertheless was the direct cause of the moon’s deficiency, and therefore, out of shame, they refrain from reciting a berakha over its renewal. However, Me’iri states based on the Gemara in Sanhedrin 42a that women must recite this berakha but that since they are not familiar with the wording, they may recite a shorter version of it. See AHS 426:14. Kaf Ha-ḥayim 426:1 states that it is best for a woman to hear the berakha recited by a man. </i>
  
  Section 2
  
  Some Laws Concerning the Holidays and Festivals / Shofar and Musaf on the Days of Awe
  Women are exempt from the mitzva of shofar since it is a positive time-bound mitzva, though women who wish to fulfill it earn reward. It is customary for Jewish women to fulfill the mitzva of shofar. If a man who already heard the shofar blows for women, he does not recite a berakha on their behalf. If a woman who follows Ashkenazic custom is present, she recites the berakha before the blowing, and if there are other women in attendance, they listen to her and respond “amen.” However, if all the women present follow Sephardic custom, they fulfill the mitzva without a berakha (SA 589:6; above, 2:8).
  As we have learned (above, 2:9), the poskim disagree about whether women must pray Musaf. Some say that since Musaf contains a request for mercy, it is like other obligatory prayers, which, according to Ramban and most poskim, women must recite. Furthermore, since Musaf was instituted to honor the sanctity of the day, women must recite it just as they must recite kiddush (Magen Giborim). Others maintain that since Musaf is time-dependent, women are exempt from its recitation (Tzelaḥ). In practice, since it is a rabbinic commandment, halakhic practice follows the lenient opinion and women are not obligated to pray Musaf, although they may do so and are rewarded for it. On Rosh Hashana and Yom Kippur, it is proper that all women pray Musaf because the primary request for mercy on the Days of Awe is in Musaf.
  Women fulfill Hatarat Nedarim (the annulment of vows) with the recitation of Kol Nidrei on the eve of Yom Kippur. Therefore, women should make sure to arrive at the synagogue in time for Kol Nidrei. A married woman may appoint her husband as an agent and ask him to annul her vows when he annuls his own. However, an unmarried woman may not appoint another man or woman to annul vows on her behalf (SA 239:56; Taz 46; Rav Pe’alim OḤ 4:34:5),
  
  Section 3
  
  Some Laws Concerning the Holidays and Festivals / Sukkot
  There are two time-bound positive mitzvot performed on Sukkot, the mitzva to sit in the sukka and the mitzva to take the lulav, and women are exempt from both. If they wish to perform them, they earn reward. According to Ashkenazic custom, they recite a berakha on the performance of these mitzvot, and according to Sephardic custom no blessing is recited on sitting in the sukka, though with regard to lulav, some recite a berakha and some do not. Every woman should continue following her custom.1<i class="footnote">According to Ḥida and Zekhor Le-Avraham (as cited in Kaf Ha-ḥayim 17:4 and 589:23), women recite a berakha when taking the lulav. This is also the position of Rav Pe’alim (vol. 1, Sod Yesharim 12) and R. Messas (Shemesh U-magen 2:72:3) regarding lulav, and this was the practice in the family of R. Ovadia Hadaya. In contrast, according to SA, they do not recite a blessing. Yeḥaveh Da’at 1:68 and Yabi’a Omer 1:38-42 and 5:43 strongly support the custom of SA not to recite a berakha and mention that some Ashkenazic poskim, including Ḥakham Tzvi and Divrei Ḥayim, ruled against reciting this berakha. See above, 2:8, and n. 9 and Peninei Halakha: Sukkot 5:6.  </i>
  It is a mitzva to rejoice on this festival through nice clothing and nice jewelry as well as through meat, wine, and other delicacies that bring joy (SA 529:2; Peninei Halakha: Mo’adim 1:10). It is a mitzva on Ḥol Ha-mo’ed as well to be happy, dress nicely, and eat good food (MT, Laws of Yom Tov 6:17 and 22; MB 530:1; Peninei Halakha: Mo’adim 10:3).
  
  Section 4
  
  Some Laws Concerning the Holidays and Festivals / Pesaĥ, Purim, and Ĥanuka
  Yehoshua b. Levi said: Women must drink four cups of wine on the night of the Seder (Pesaĥim 108b), read the megilla (Megilla 4a), and light Ĥanuka candles (Shabbat 23a) “for they too participated in that miracle.”
  There are two interpretations of this dictum: According to Rashi and Rashbam (Pesaḥim 108b; Shabbat 23a) women’s obligation stems from the fact that they participated significantly in those miracles. Regarding the Exodus the Sages said: “In the merit of the women who lived in that generation the Israelites were redeemed from Egypt” (Sota 11b). Despite the terrible slavery, the women did not lose hope of redemption; they reassured their husbands and gave birth to the next generation. The miracle of Purim, of course, transpired through Esther. The miracle of Ḥanuka began with a woman named Yehudit, who heroically beheaded the enemy governor and led to the abolition of the Greek decree of jus primae noctis (see Peninei Halakha: Zemanim, ch. 11 nn. 12-14). Thus, from a certain standpoint, women’s connection to these mitzvot supersedes that of men.
  However, most commentaries understand that the words “they too” (“af hen”) indicate the primary obligation applies to men (who are obligated in time-bound positive mitzvot) and that women are obligated in the mitzva secondarily because “they too participated in that miracle” (Tosafot Pesaḥim 108b and Megilla 4a, Rashba, Ritva, Ran, Me’iri, and others).
  
  Section 5
  
  Some Laws Concerning the Holidays and Festivals / Ĥanuka
  As we have learned, women are obligated to light Ḥanuka candles, for they too participated in that miracle. A married woman fulfills her obligation through her husband’s lighting, and a daughter by her father’s. However, if the husbands or fathers do not light, either because they are not home or for another reason, the wife or daughter must light. A woman who lives alone must light her own candles.
  A daughter who lives in her father’s house may light with a berakha according to Ashkenazic custom, even though her father already lit. According to Sephardic custom, only the head of household lights in the home (see Peninei Halakha: Zemanim 12:3-4 and n. 2).
  Women customarily do not work while the Ḥanuka candles are burning, to demonstrate that these lights are for the sake of a mitzva and not for any utility and because the Ḥanuka miracle began with Yehudit, giving this holiday a higher status for women – akin to that of Ḥol Ha-mo’ed. According to the first reason, cooking and frying are forbidden at this time, because perhaps the light of the candles will assist the performance of these actions. According to the second reason, only actions forbidden on Ḥol Ha-mo’ed, such as laundry and sewing, are forbidden while the candles are burning; however cooking and frying foods are permitted, and that is the common custom. Families that customarily refrain from cooking and the like should continue to follow their custom.1<i class="footnote">See SA 670:1 and MB 4. The prevailing custom is to be lenient, and so I have learned from R. Mordechai Eliyahu. See Peninei Halakha: Zemanim 11:11. </i>
  Some poskim maintain that women must recite Hallel on Ḥanuka. Since they too participated in that miracle, they must express gratitude for it. However, according to most poskim, they are not obligated, and that is the prevailing custom. Those who wish to enhance the mitzva are commendable. According to Ashkenazic custom, they recite it with a berakha, and according to Sephardic custom, they recite it without a berakha.2<i class="footnote">Based on Tosafot (Sukka 38b), some Aḥaronim infer that women must recite Hallel on Ḥanuka, because “they too participated in that miracle” so they too must express gratitude for it, just as they must recite Hallel on Pesaḥ night. This is the opinion of Torat Refael OḤ 75, Hitorerut Teshuva and Binyan Shlomo 2:63. However, according to most poskim (as well as MT, Laws of Ḥanuka 3:6) women are exempt from Hallel on Ḥanuka, since it is a time-bound positive mitzva. One possible explanation for this is that women fulfill their obligation of thanksgiving by lighting the candles. This stands to reason because for many generations most women did not know how to say Hallel, and it is problematic to say that they were obligated but did not fulfill their obligation. Rather, everything that is connected to the synagogue prayer service, which is dependent on time, does not obligate women. Yet they must recite Hallel at the Seder because it takes place at home and because women are obligated in it from the Torah, and everything the Sages instituted for men what instituted for women as well. See Yeḥaveh Da’at 1:78, Halikhot Shlomo: Mo’adim 2:17:6, and Halikhot Beitah 8:5 and in the notes.Rambam writes (MT, Laws of Ḥanuka 3:6) that since women are exempt from Hallel, they cannot recite it on behalf of men, who are obligated. This would seem to apply to Hallel on Rosh Ḥodesh as well, as indicated by MA 422:5. However, BHL §422 s.v. “Hallel” states that since Hallel on Rosh Ḥodesh stems from custom and not obligation, and both women and men are technically exempt, presumably she may recite it on a his behalf. </i>
  
  Section 6
  
  Some Laws Concerning the Holidays and Festivals / Parashat Zakhor
  The poskim disagree about whether women must hear Parashat Zakhor. According to most poskim, women are exempt because the mitzva to remember what Amalek did is linked to the mitzva to eradicate Amalek, and since women are not commanded to fight in wars, they need not remember what Amalek did to the Israelites (Sefer Ha-Ḥinukh §603). Others maintain that women have a connection to the mitzva of war since they must assist the fighters, and therefore the mitzva to remember Amalek applies to them too. Although the Sages ordained a specific time to read Parashat Zakhor – the Shabbat before Purim – according to the Torah it has no set time. Since hence it not a time-bound mitzva it applies to women as well (Minḥat Ḥinukh ad loc.).
  In practice, according to most poskim women are exempt from hearing Parashat Zakhor; however, le-khatḥila it is preferable that she hears it in order to satisfy all opinions. A woman who has difficulty getting to the synagogue but still wishes to fulfill the mitzva should recite the passage from a ḥumash, since according to many one thus fulfills the biblical obligation to remember. In a place where a Torah class is held for women in the synagogue, it is permissible to take out a Torah scroll to read them Parashat Zakhor. Even though there is no minyan present, it is still preferable that they hear the passage from a kosher Torah scroll.1<i class="footnote">The mitzva can be fulfilled on the Torah level by commemorating it once a year, and therefore the mitzva is not considered time-bound. However, according to many, since women do not wage war, they are not obligated to remember the eradication of Amalek. The poskim who disagree maintain that women are obligated to fight in mandatory wars (milḥemet mitzva), and Radbaz (on MT, Laws of Kings 7:4) explains that they are required to supply soldiers with food and water. Although women are exempt according to most poskim, they should preferably satisfy all opinions, as stated in Yeḥaveh Da’at 1:84. See Peninei Halakha: Zemanim 14:7 n. 9.The poskim disagree about the parameters of the biblical obligation. Rosh implies that the Torah commandment is to hear the Parashat Zakhor from a valid Torah scroll, whereas Ramban indicates that this is a rabbinic enactment. Likewise, there is disagreement about whether according to the Torah it must be read with a minyan (see Peninei Halakha: Zemanim, ch. 14 n. 7). It seems that if it was the Sages who ordained reading the passage with a minyan and from a Torah scroll, it would constitute fixing a specific time – the Shabbat before Purim. Since the rabbinic enactment is thus time-bound, women are exempt from it. Even according to the opinion that women must remember Amalek, they would not need a Torah scroll. So states Kaf Ha-ḥayim 685:30 in the name of Limudei Hashem and Erekh Ha-shulḥan §2.Thus, le-khatḥila, women should hear it with a minyan. If they cannot, it is best that it is read to them from a Torah scroll without a minyan. If that too is not possible, then it is best that it is read from a ḥumash. Still, some  Aḥaronim state that a Torah scroll is not removed from the ark for women (see Responsa Kinyan Torah 7:53 and Halikhot Beitah 9:8). However, it is unclear what the problem with removing a Torah scroll for them is since in principle it is permissible to remove one for the sake of Torah study. The custom in Ashkenazic communities was to take out a Torah scroll for the women’s reading, as cited by Minḥat Yitzḥak 9:68 and Torat Ha-mo’adim 2:13.Women are exempt from the other three special parshiyot read in Adar (Shekalim, Para, and Ha-ḥodesh), for they are time-bound. According to those who maintain that Para is a biblical mitzva (as cited in SA 685:7), perhaps women are obligated since the Torah does not specify a particular time. However, MB 685:15 states that according to many Aḥaronim it is a rabbinic obligation whose time is fixed in Adar, so women are exempt.  </i>
  
  Section 7
  
  Some Laws Concerning the Holidays and Festivals / Purim
  Women are obligated in all four mitzvot of Purim – reading the megilla, mishlo’aḥ manot (sending gifts of food to a friend), matanot le-evyonim (gifts to the poor), and a festive meal.
  Mishlo’aḥ manot is fulfilled by giving two portions to one person. Matanot le-evyonim is fulfilled by giving two poor people two gifts each. Married women are obligated in these two mitzvot, so a married couple bust give mishlo’aḥ manot to two different people, one from the husband and one from the wife. Likewise, together they must give matanot le-evyonim to four poor people, two from the husband and two from the wife (MB 795:25). Nevertheless, some poskim say that a couple fulfills the mitzva jointly, by giving one mishlo’aḥ manot and two matanot le-evyonim. Even according to this opinion, however, adult sons and daughters do not fulfill their obligation through their parents (AHS 794:2). Halakhic practice follows the majority opinion, and even married women must give mishlo’aḥ manot and matanot le-evyonim of her own (see Peninei Halakha: Zemanim 16:6).
  Women are obligated to rejoice on Purim by drinking wine. However, they should take care not to get drunk, since drunkenness is more shameful for women than for men and constitutes a breach of tzni’ut, a trait for which women are praised (Ketubot 65a; Peninei Halakha: Zemanim 16:11).
  Concerning the custom of giving tzedaka before Purim to commemorate the half-shekel that was contributed to the Temple while it stood, some poskim exempt women whereas others obligate them. The common custom today is to give at least a half-shekel for each member of a household, even a fetus (Peninei Halakha: Zemanim 14:10).
  
  Section 8
  
  Some Laws Concerning the Holidays and Festivals / Women and Megilla Reading
  According to Rashi and Rambam, women and men are equally obligated in the mitzva to read the megilla, and a woman may read the megilla for her husband. In contrast, Behag and Rabbeinu Ḥananel maintain that women’s obligation differs from that of men: men must read the megilla, whereas women must hear it. Therefore, a man who reads the megilla recites the berakha “al mikra megilla” (“concerning the reading of the megilla”) and a woman who reads for herself recites “lishmo’a megilla” (“to hear the megilla”). According to this opinion, a man does not fulfill his obligation with his wife’s reading. Responsa Avnei Nezer (OḤ 511) explains that this difference stems from the fact that women must hear the megilla only in order to publicize the miracle, and therefore their obligation is only in hearing the megilla and not reading it. In contrast, men are commanded to publicize the miracle and also to remember Amalek to wipe him out ultimately. Therefore, men are commanded to read the megilla.1<i class="footnote">Turei Even on Megilla 4a states that the mitzva of reading the megilla is derived, first and foremost, from the text of the megilla itself, which was composed with Divine inspiration. This is a time-bound positive mitzva and thus applies only to men. The obligation of women is derived from the rationale that “they too participated in that miracle,” a rationale that is solely rabbinic. Therefore, according to Behag and Rabbeinu Ḥananel, a woman cannot read on a man’s behalf..  </i>
  Since the Rishonim are evenly split on this issue, most Aḥaronim rule that a woman may not read the megilla on a man’s behalf except in extenuating circumstances, when it is not possible for the man to read for himself or hear it from another man. In that case, at least he will fulfill the mitzva according to the opinion that a woman may read on a man’s behalf.2<i class="footnote">There are Aḥaronim who interpret SA 689:1-2 to mean that a woman can read on a man’s behalf, and that this is indeed the halakha (Birkei Yosef 271:1; Ma’amar Mordechai 689:2). The view of most Aḥaronim is that a woman should not read on a man’s behalf. So state Levush, Eliya Rabba 689:2, Pri Ḥadash 1, Erekh Ha-shulḥan 3, Ḥikrei Lev, and Derekh Ha-ḥayim. Some interpret SA as taking a stringent approach (Pri Megadim Eshel Avraham 4; and see Kaf Ha-ḥayim 689:14). See Peninei Halakha: Zemanim 15:7 nn. 6 and 7.  </i>
  According to the vast majority of poskim, a woman may read on behalf of other women. Some say that a woman cannot fulfill the obligation on behalf of many women, since megilla reading has a status similar to Torah reading, and just as a woman does not read from the Torah, so too she does not read the megilla for many women. Some poskim say that when the megilla is read for women no berakha is recited (Ben Ish Ḥai, year 1, Teztaveh 1; Kaf Ha-ḥayim 689:19). However, halakhic practice follows the overwhelming majority of poskim who maintain that a woman may read on behalf of other women and that if the group is comprised of ten women, the reader recites the berakha of “Ha-rav et riveinu” (“Who fights our battles”) after the megilla. However, le-khatḥila, it is preferable that women hear the Megilla read by a man,  to satisfy all opinions. Ideally, women would hear the megilla in the synagogue with men, since “In a multitude of people is a King’s glory.”3<i class="footnote">Korban Netanel (on Rosh, Megilla 1:4:m) innovatively suggests that a woman may not read on behalf of many women. This is cited in SHT 689:15. However, it seems that the intent is to be stringent le-khatḥila, because SHT 16 states that the dominant opinion is that women and men have an equal obligation. Halikhot Beitah (Petaḥ Ha-bayit 25; also cited in Halikhot Shlomo 19 n. 4) states that R. Shlomo Zalman Auerbach questions Korban Netanel’s explanation and concludes that halakhic practice follows R. Tikochinsky, who rules in Lu’aḥ Eretz Yisrael that a woman may read on behalf of many women. The reason for the opinion that no berakha is recited on a reading for women is concern for the position that no berakha is recited when reading for an individual, and women collectively are considered to be like an individual (Kaf Ha-ḥayim 689:19). The opinion of most poskim is that there is no need to be concerned for this at all. See Peninei Halakha: Zemanim 15:7 and n. 8.  </i>
  
  Section 9
  
  Some Laws Concerning the Holidays and Festivals / Seder Night
  Women are obligated to perform all the mitzvot of the Seder night – retelling the Exodus from Egypt, eating matza and maror, drinking four cups of wine, and reciting Hallel – for they too participated in that miracle (Pesaḥim 108b; SA 472:14; MB 479:9; see earlier in this chapter, section 4). This is only yearly occasion when women are required to recite Hallel (Tosafot, Sukka 38a).1<i class="footnote">According to Yeḥaveh Da’at 5:34, even women at home must recite Hallel with a berakha on Pesaḥ night before the start of the Seder, just like men customarily recite it in the synagogue, because it is recited in praise of the miracle. This is based on Sephardic custom, as mentioned in SA 487:4. However, according to Rema’s custom, it is not recited in the synagogue. Some say that even in Sephardic custom it should not be recited by an individual (Beit Yehuda). Accordingly, women who are at home should not say it either. Since this is a matter of uncertainty pertaining to a rabbinic enactment, halakhic practice follows the lenient opinion and women are exempt from the recitation of Hallel before the Seder night. See Mikra’ei Kodesh ch. 3 nn. 18-19, which states that many women did not know how to recite it so it is inconceivable that they would have been required to recite it while home alone.  </i>
  Le-khatḥila, women must recline while eating matza and drinking the four cups of wine, but if they forget they need not repeat it. It is best that important women (“nashim ḥashuvot”) who forgot to recline while eating matza repeat the mitzva while reclining.2<i class="footnote">Pesaḥim 108a states that a woman need not recline if she is in her husband’s presence, with the exception of an important woman. SA 472:4 rules accordingly. (The rationale is that if reclining in the manner of free people does not reflect an inner sense of freedom, it has no purpose. This is similar to the logic behind a disciple not reclining in the presence of his rabbi without permission.) There are different opinions about what defines an “important woman” – that she is not subservient to her husband, that she is wealthy, that she is pedigreed, or that her husband does not mind if she reclines. Rema states that all women nowadays are considered ḥashuvot, but the custom is nevertheless that they do not recline, as per Raavya, who says that there is no longer a mitzva to recline at the Seder since we do not recline at formal banquets in general. In practice, all women from all communities should try to recline, because the prevailing custom goes against Raavya’s opinion on this matter, as Knesset Ha-gedola and Kaf Ha-ḥayim (28) state. Many Ashkenazic women in fact do so. But if a woman forgot to recline, she need not eat or drink again, since the mitzva of reclining is rabbinic, and there are several poskim who maintain that women are exempt, either because they are not ḥashuvot or because the view of Raavya is correct. See Ḥazon Ovadia § 14. Nonetheless, it seems that women who see themselves as important should recline while eating the Torah-mandated kezayit of matza and refrain from relying on the opinion of Raavya. (This note appears in Peninei Halakha: Pesaḥ, ch. n. 9.) </i>
  
  Section 10
  
  Some Laws Concerning the Holidays and Festivals / Counting the Omer
  Women are exempt from the mitzva of counting the omer, for it is a positive time-bound mitzva. If a woman wishes to fulfill this mitzva, it is a credit to her. As we have learned (above 2:8), according to Sephardic custom she does not recite the berakha, but according to Ashkenazic custom she may recite it.
  However, even within Ashkenazic custom, some poskim are worried that since women are not present in the synagogue at the time of the counting of the omer, there is a reasonable concern that she will forget to count one day without realizing it and then continue counting with a berakha. According to halakha, one who forgets to count one day may not continue counting with a berakha, and if she does, according to some, it is considered a berakha le-vatala. To avoid this problematic situation, some say that even according to Ashkenazic custom it is best that women do not recite a berakha on this mitzva (MB 489:5). Others say that women should not count the omer for kabbalistic reasons (Rav Pe’alim, vol 1, Sod Yesharim 12). In contrast, some say that Ashkenazic custom is that women count the omer (MA 489:1). 
  Therefore, according to Ashkenazic custom, whoever knows that she will be able to complete the entire count and that she may not recite a berakha anymore if she forgets, may recite a berakha. In particular, this pertains to women who regularly pray Ma’ariv or who are reminded to count the omer daily at home, as there is minimal concern that she will forget to count the omer. If there is a reasonable concern that she will forget to count one day, it is preferable that she not count with a berakha.
  
  Section 11
  
  Some Laws Concerning the Holidays and Festivals / The Blessing on the Trees
  One who goes outside during Nisan and sees fruit trees blossoming recites Birkat Ha-ilanot, a berakha that expresses gratitude to God “Who let nothing lack in His world and Who created in it good creatures and good trees to bring people pleasure” (SA 225:1). 
  Even though this berakha is connected to the month of Nisan, the poskim explain that this is not a time-bound obligation because according to most it is permissible to recite this berakha upon seeing blossoms even in a different month. Even according to those who maintain that this berakha may only be recited in Nisan, it is not because Nisan is defined as the time for making the berakha but because it is when blossoms appear. The berakha is dependent on the appearance of blossoms, not on a particular time. Therefore, it is proper for women to recite this berakha as well.
  
  
  
  
  
  Section 1
  
  Prayer Rites (Nusaĥ) and Customs of Different Communities / Differences in Nusaĥ
  Following their exile and dispersion, Jews of different communities developed varying prayer rites. The fundamentals of prayer – the elements instituted by the Men of the Great Assembly – such as Birkhot Keri’at Shema and the Amida, the differences are very slight. Even the primary elements of Korbanot and Pesukei De-zimra, which were established during the time of the Talmud and the Ge’onim, have only minor variations. The modifications are more noticeable, however, in the additions that accreted during the period of the Rishonim, such as in the full routine of Korbanot and in the concluding sections of the prayer service, differ greatly from one community to the next. What was added to the Sephardic liturgy was not necessarily accepted in Ashkenaz, and vice versa. This is especially apparent with regard to the liturgical poems composed during the time of the Ge’onim and Rishonim and which were incorporated into the prayer service of the Days of Awe and festivals. Hence, we find major differences between the different prayer rites when it comes to the liturgical poems recited on the Days of Awe.
  There are also differences between various ethnic communities when it comes to pronunciation of both Hebrew consonants like tzadi and kuf and vowels like kamatz and ḥolam. It is best that every Jew continue in her family’s custom, for every extant Jewish tradition for pronunciation is valid for prayer (Igrot Moshe OḤ 3:5; additionally, even the formula of the ḥalitza ceremony, in which, according to all opinions, every letter must be enunciated, any community’s pronunciation scheme is valid).
  Arizal explains the different prayer rites with a tradition that the heavens have twelve portals, corresponding to the twelve tribes of Israel. The prayers of each tribe ascended through its unique portal. This is the esoteric meaning of the twelve gates mentioned at the end of the book of Yeḥezkel (Sha’ar Ha-kavanot p. 50, 4). This is the practical halakha as well: every Jew must follow the custom of her forebears (MA 68:1; MB 68:4; below we will learn of the cases in which one may change one’s nusaḥ).
  
  Section 2
  
  Prayer Rites (Nusaĥ) and Customs of Different Communities / No Nusaĥ should be Considered Better than Another
  Ḥida writes in the name of Arizal that prayer recited the Sephardic nusaḥ ascends through any of the twelve gates. Therefore, in his opinion, Ashkenazim may switch to the Sephardic nusaḥ (see Yabi’a Omer 6:10; Yeḥaveh Da’at 3:6). In contrast, Ḥasidim claim that their nusaḥ (called “Nusaḥ Sepharad” even though it was developed as the liturgy of Eastern European Ḥasidic communities and was not practiced in Sephardic communities) is superior. They maintain that the greatest Ḥasidim investigated and examined numerous versions of the liturgy based on kabbalistic meanings and halakhic considerations and and selected the best among them. The Yemenites, too, claim that their nusaḥ is most precise, for the Jews of Yemen, in all their years of exile, did not wander. Rather, in response to Arab persecution of Yemenite Jews, these communities intensified their dogged and meticulous preservation of their customs. Indeed, Yemenite Torah have been found to be closest in their precision to the Aleppo Codex, the standard of precision for the Torah text. Of course, those who pray in the Ashkenazic nusaḥ also assert that their custom is the most meticulous, transmitted from person to person as far back as Shimon Ha-Pekuli. Furthermore, the basis for Sephardic custom lies with the Amora’im and Ge’onim of Babylonia, whereas Ashkenazic custom originates with the Amora’im and Ge’onim of Eretz Yisrael, who were more proficient in aggada, esoteric wisdom, and liturgy. Incidentally, the reason for certain similarities between the Ashkenazic and the original Yemenite nusaḥ (Baladi), is that both were influenced by the Ge’onim of Eretz Yisrael.
  In general, every rite has advantages, and it is not in our power to determine which one is superior. As states in Responsa Ḥatam Sofer (1:15), every nusaḥ is equal, and the fact that Arizal offered mystical interpretations of Nusaḥ Sephard is because he was accustomed to praying in that nusaḥ. Had he been accustomed to praying in the Ashkenazic Nusaḥ, he would have composed mystical kavanot for that rite.
  Even if we were to know that a particular custom is more precise, it would still be proper for everyone to continue practicing their received customs, for continuing ancestral traditions is a strong basis for faith. Moreover, even less accurate rites certainly have specific points in their favor that we must be careful to preserve. Only after the Sanhedrin is established will we be able to institute a uniform nusaḥ, which will incorporate the benefits of each nusaḥ. Yet even then, there will be room for different emphases in supplementary prayers and distinct melodies, corresponding to the twelve gates; each community according to its ways.
  
  Section 3
  
  Prayer Rites (Nusaĥ) and Customs of Different Communities / Immigrants and Communities That Migrated
  In the past, when the distance between communities was great, Ashkenazim lived in Ashkenaz (Germany), Sephardim in Sepharad (Iberia), and Yemenites in Yemen. Anyone who moved elsewhere would adopt the halakhic and liturgical customs of the new locale, since it is important that every individual community have a uniform custom and avoid the sort of factionalism that constitutes the prohibition of “lo titgodedu” (Devarim 14:1; the verse literally prohibits cutting oneself in mourning for the dead, but the Sages [Yevamot 13b] interpreted the prohibition to include becoming fragmented into different factions [“agudot agudot”]). As the Sages teach, this prohibition mandates that a single rabbinical court may not have some judges who follow the rulings of Beit Shammai and others who follow the rulings of Beit Hillel, so that the Torah is not made into two Torahs (ibid. 14a, according to Rif and Rosh).
  Thus, immigrants would adopt fixed local customs. This is why we find people with the name “Ashkenazi” – denoting German origins – following Sephardic custom and families with the name “Frank” – indicating Sephardic origins – following Ashkenazic practice.
  Even if, over time, immigrants become the majority of a given community, as long as they arrived as individuals, they assimilate into the existing community and must practice according to its customs (SA YD 214:2; OḤ 468:4; MB 14). In fact, it is possible that most Ashkenazim descend from Sephardic immigrants.
  When an entire community migrates, it remains an independent community and does not become subsumed into the local community. Its members need not change their customs (BHL 468:4). Even if the pre-existing community constitutes the majority, as long as the newcomers associate as an independent community, they should continue practicing their initial customs. This applies to Eretz Yisrael, where, by the grace of God, the Ingatherer of scattered Jews, entire communities, led by Torah scholars, have migrated in recent centuries. Because they arrived as full-fledged communities, they were not assimilated into pre-existing communities, so they established synagogues to preserve their customs.
  One who must pray regularly in a minyan conducted in a different nusaḥ – for example, one who moves to a place where the only minyan prays in a different nusaḥ – may decide how to act. One option is that she prays in the nusaḥ of that minyan whenever she prays with it. The second option is that she adheres to her ancestral nusaḥ while reciting those parts of the service that are said aloud in the custom of that congregation.
  When one who habitually prays in one nusaḥ attends a minyan that prays in another nusaḥ on an occasional basis, the accepted ruling is that all passages recited aloud are prayed in the local nusaḥ, and all silent passages are recited in one’s ancestral nusaḥ (Peninei Halakha: Prayer 6:5).
  
  Section 4
  
  Prayer Rites (Nusaĥ) and Customs of Different Communities / The Status of a Woman who Married a Man from a Different Community
  The status of a woman who married a man from a different ethnic community is similar to that of one who migrates to a place where local custom differs from what he is accustomed to: if he intends to live there forever, he must cease practicing his earlier customs and accept the local custom (based on SA YD 214:2; OḤ 468:4; MB 14). Likewise, a woman who marries a member of a different ethnic community is considered to be moving into his home permanently, and she must adopt his customs. For instance, if the custom of her husband’s community is to eat kitniyot on Pesaḥ, she eats them too, and if it is not to eat them, she may not. If they wait six hours between meat and milk, she waits six, and if they wait an hour, she waits an hour. As R. Shimon b. Tzemaḥ Duran (Tashbetz 3:179) writes, it is inconceivable that they regularly eat at the same table, and what is permitted to one is forbidden to the other. Therefore, a woman must follow her husband’s customs, for one’s wife is like himself.
  A widow who had a child from her husband continues to follow her late husband’s customs. However, if they did not have children, she returns to her ancestral customs.1<i class="footnote">We see a similar principle in the Torah: if a woman who is not from a family of Kohanim marries a Kohen, she may eat teruma like a Kohen. If her husband dies and she has a child from him, she continues eating teruma. If she subsequently marries a non-Kohen, she may no longer eat teruma. Igrot Moshe OḤ 1:158 further demonstrates that this principle derives from the Torah, as the Torah exempts a married woman from the mitzva of honoring her parents since this mitzva entails going to dress them and feed them if necessary. Since a woman’s obligation to the household she and her husband are establishing takes precedence, the Torah exempts her from this obligation (SA YD 240:17). Thus, the Torah views a woman’s place as her husband’s house. (When there is no clash, a married woman has a mitzva honor her parents.)Igrot Moshe further states that a married woman does need not perform hatarat nedarim (annulment of vows) in order to take on her husband’s customs. This is implicit in MB 468:14 as well, which states that since halakha mandates that one who moves from one location to another must adopt the practices of the new community, he does not require hatarat nedarim. So states Kaf Ha-ḥayim 468:43. Though some say that she requires hatarat nedarim (see Peninei Halakha: Pesaḥ, chapter 9 n. 1), in practice, we do not require it, because when she first started practicing her parents’ customs, it was clear that if she marries someone from a different ethnic community she would adopt his customs. Hence, it was clear that she did not intend to follow her parents’ customs all her life, as brought by Halikhot Shlomo: Prayer, ch. 1 n. 8. </i>
  Similarly, a woman must recite prayers and berakhot according to her husband’s nusaḥ, so that there will not be two different sets of customs in the same household. However, if it does not upset her husband, and it is difficult for her to change her nusaḥ, she may continue praying silently in her own nusaḥ, but she may not pray or recite a berakha aloud in a nusaḥ other than that of her husband. When her children reach the age of education, she must teach them to pray in her husband’s nusaḥ. Therefore, even if her husband agrees that she may praying and recite berakhot in the nusaḥ to which she is accustomed, when her children reach the age of education she should preferably switch to her husband’s nusaḥ so that it is easier for her to teach her children how to recite prayers and berakhot.2<i class="footnote">As we learned, the prohibition on multiple prayers rites being used in one place is intended to avoid disputes. Since the custom of the home is determined by the husband, this issue depends on him, and he may agree that his wife may continue praying according to her ancestral custom. Halikhot Shlomo: Prayer 1:7 states that a husband may allow his wife to follow her ancestral customs and that it is accepted in many households that the husband agrees that his wife continues praying according to her ancestral rite. It further states that if a wife follows her ancestral custom at the beginning of her marriage and later wishes to switch to her husband’s custom, she must perform hatarat nedarim. Nevertheless, in matters of kashrut it seems that there are no grounds to tolerate divergent customs within a single household, as the divergence would be obvious and constitutes a violation of “lo titgodedu.” Moreover, such practices can disturb domestic harmony. I therefore wrote that a woman must not pray or recite berakhot aloud in a nusaḥ that differs from her husband’s. See Tefila Ke-hilkhata, 4 n. 4, which states in the name of R. Elyashiv that technically she must switch to her husband’s nusaḥ, but she cannot be obligated to do so immediately, since she is already accustomed to her own nusaḥ. Nevertheless, she must try to switch to her husband’s nusaḥ before the children reach the age where they begin learning to pray.A ba’al teshuva who marries a religious woman who comes from a religious family may adopt her customs over his ancestral customs, since from the standpoint of religious practice he is joining her family. It is best to ask a rabbi about this matter.  </i>
  
  Section 5
  
  Prayer Rites (Nusaĥ) and Customs of Different Communities / In What Cases may one Change her Nusaĥ?
  As we have learned, one must maintain her ancestral custom. The Sages based this statement on the verse, “Al titosh torat imekha” (“Do not abandon your mother’s teachings”; Mishlei 1:8). However, custom is not more important than other laws, and therefore it is occasionally superseded. For example, if one knows for certain that she will have less kavana praying in a synagogue that conducts services in her ancestral nusaḥ than in a synagogue where services are conducted in a different nusaḥ, she should choose the place more conducive to kavana, for this is the essence of prayer (Peninei Halakha: Prayer, ch. 6 n. 2). However, in a case of uncertainty, she should preferably pray in her ancestral nusaḥ, because in the long term it seems that she will have more kavana praying in this way. Sometimes young people do not properly value their connections to ancestral nusaḥ but discover deep attachment to it over time and regret having changed it.
  If one has a choice of two synagogues, one where prayer is conducted in her ancestral nusaḥ but where there are no Torah classes, and another that provides Torah study but conducts prayers in a different nusaḥ, she should evaluate the situation as follows: If she estimates that praying in the synagogue with more Torah classes will lead her to greater Torah study, it is better that she pray there even though the service is not conducted in her ancestral nusaḥ; despite the importance of preserving customs, Torah study is of paramount importance. Likewise, when choosing a yeshiva or other learning environment, one should not base the decision on the nusaḥ of the prayers there. Rather, she should choose the institution that will best teach her Torah, character, and mitzvot.
  If one has a choice between two synagogues, one where the congregation prays in her ancestral nusaḥ but where she is concerned that she will not be able to connect with its congregants, whether because they are too old, too young, too few in number, or any other reason, and another where they do not pray in her family’s nusaḥ but there is a stronger community where she can better connect to the congregants, she must make a judgment. If she feels that praying in the latter synagogue will strengthen her connection to the Jewish religious community and raise or at least sustain her spiritual level, she should pray there, even though they do not pray in her ancestral nusaḥ.1<i class="footnote">Although these laws primarily pertain to men, who are commanded to pray in a synagogue, it is still important for women to know them too because often women help their husbands make these decisions. These laws also pertain to single women, divorcees, and widows who pray in the synagogue.Peninei Halakha: Prayer 6:3 explains that the reason that Ḥasidim switched from the Ashkenazic nusaḥ to the Ḥasidic nusaḥ known as Nusaḥ Sepharad was in order to use Arizal’s special intentions (kavanot) in their prayers. It also presents the view of those who opposed this change. Sections 6 and 7 of that chapter discuss one whose parents pray in Nusaḥ Sepharad but who has grown accustomed to the Ashkenazic nusaḥ. Must they pray in Nusaḥ Sepharad like their parents, or may they pray in the familiar Ashkenazic nusaḥ, which was indeed the ancestral nusaḥ until 200 years ago? In practice, one who is uncertain regarding this matter should ask his rabbi. Ibid. 8 also explains that Ashkenazim who have grown accustomed to praying with the Sephardic pronunciation need not return to the Ashkenazic pronunciation according to the accepted ruling.  </i>
  
  Section 6
  
  Prayer Rites (Nusaĥ) and Customs of Different Communities / Strengthening the Community
  In addition to maintaining the nusaḥ of prayer, preservation of customs entails upholding traditional pronunciation schemes. Each community – Yemenites, Sephardim, and Ashkenazim – pronounces the prayers according to its own particular scheme. Indeed, each ethnic community should ideally continue to pray with its traditional chants (see Rema 619:1). Of course, it is allowed to introduce new melodies, but the upshot of this ruling is that the main part of the prayer should preserve the traditional tune that was sanctified over the course of generations. For that reason, one must ideally pray in a synagogue that uses his ancestral nusaḥ (Peninei Halakha: Prayer, ch. 6 n. 5).
  Judaism contains a great variety of different customs. The Sephardic nusaḥ itself breaks down into numerous different sets of customs. Concerning matters of halakha, the key differences are between those who follow Shulḥan Arukh and those who follow Ben Ish Ḥai. Moreover, North Africans have their own distinct nusaḥ that is quite similar to the Syrian and Iraqi rites in terms of halakha and liturgical text but differs greatly in terms of the traditional chants and tunes. Even among North Africans there are differences in melody. To Moroccans, Algerians sound dissonant, and vice versa. To Libyans, both Algerians and Moroccans sound off. To perfectly preserve customs, there would need to be special synagogues for Libyans, Tunisians, Algerians, and Moroccans in addition to those for Iraqi, Syrian, Farsi, Turkish, and Caucasian Jews.
  Ashkenazim also have a variety of customs. The main difference is between Ḥasidim and other Ashkenazim, but there are other significant differences in pronunciation and melody between Western Europeans and Lithuanians. Regarding pronunciation, there are at least four variants from Eastern Europe: those of Greater Hungary, Greater Lithuania, Galicia, and Poland. Ḥasidic sects each has distinct customs and melodies. Among Yemenites, there are two main liturgical rites: Baladi and Shami.
  If meticulous preservation of customs will lead to the breakup of the community, it is preferable to forgo the preservation of customs. In general, when a community is unified, coordinates Torah study for men, women, and children, and engages in communal acts of kindness and care, it connects all its members to Torah and mitzvot. In contrast, when a community is weak, its members lose heart, and this adversely affects the children.
  Therefore, even though ideally it is best for everyone to follow ancestral custom, if doing so requires the establishment of dozens of small synagogues that can barely gather a minyan and cannot sustain Torah classes, then it is preferable for members of communities with similar customs unite to form a stronger community. For example, all people from North Africa should pray together, and if that is not sufficient, then all who pray in the Sephardic nusaḥ should pray together.1<i class="footnote">Additionally, even though ideally everyone should preserve her customs and melodies, there is, be-di’avad a positive element in the merging of the Diaspora communities. Since one does not choose a place to live based on ethnic community, similar liturgical rites tend to consolidate. Today most Ashkenazim practice that way; people with different traditions pray together.   </i>
  It is therefore necessary that each locale weigh all the values of preserving customs against the value of a strong, solid community. When enough families from one ethnic community live in one place and can establish a large synagogue while preserving their traditions, all the better. But when the numbers are insufficient, it is best that they join similar ethnic community to form a strong congregation. If the consolidation of similar ethnic communities will not suffice to form a strong community, it is best that the members of all communities – Sephardim, Ashkenazim, and Yemenites – form a single congregation. Sometimes it is necessary to instruct the ḥazan and lead the prayers according to his ancestral nusaḥ so that each ethnic community is given space. This must be considered with appropriate gravitas, and to the local rabbi must render such decisions together with the congregation’s leaders (see Peninei Halakha: Prayer 6:9).