meta: {"file": "/data/tomer/Sefaria-Export/txt/Halakhah/Peninei Halakhah/Peninei Halakhah, Zemanim/English/Peninei Halakhah, English ed. Yeshivat Har Bracha.txt"}
text: Peninei Halakhah, Zemanim
  פניני הלכה, זמנים
  Peninei Halakhah, English ed. Yeshivat Har Bracha
  
  
  Peninei Halakhah, Zemanim
  
  Introduction
  
  With gratitude to the Almighty for the opportunity to study and teach Torah, we are proud to present the sixth English volume of <i>Peninei Halakha</i>. This volume covers holidays and occasions that are primarily of rabbinic provenance. Some, like Ḥanuka and Purim, are days of joy. Others, like the <i>Omer</i> period, the Three Weeks, and the fast days, are occasions of grief and pain. Two topics addressed in this volume, <i>Sefirat Ha-omer </i>and Rosh Ḥodesh, are rooted in the Torah, even as most related observances today are of rabbinic origin.
  This is the sixth English volume that has appeared, and the fourth that addresses the observance of Jewish holidays and festivals. It joins two volumes of <i>Peninei Halakha: Laws of Shabbat</i> and one of <i>Peninei Halakha: Laws of Pesaḥ</i>. A volume on the festivals – Yom Tov and <i>Ḥol Ha-mo’ed</i>, is entering its final stages of editing. Rosh Hashana, Yom Kippur, and Sukkot will be treated separately in future volumes, with help from the Almighty.
  In this volume, as in the previous ones, my objective is to summarize the fundamentals of <i>halakha</i>, emphasize and explain its principles, and then move to the practical law. The goal is to be as concise as possible so that one can learn a great deal in a short amount of time. The notes expand on the reasons and sources for particular rulings, introduce additional halakhic complexities, and mention <i>halakhot</i> that rarely come up in practice but are still worth noting.
  So as not to weigh the text down with limitless detail, I mention mainly the most well-known sources – <i>Shulḥan Arukh</i>, <i>Mishna Berura</i>, and <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> – where interested readers can find references to most <i>poskim</i> and commentators. When a particular view is identified with a specific <i>posek</i>, I mention that <i>posek</i> without mentioning all the <i>poskim</i> who concur.
  I would like to express my heartfelt appreciation to my father and teacher – Rabbi Zalman Baruch Melamed, Rosh Yeshiva and rabbi of Beit-El – to my mother and teacher, and to my dear wife. May it be God’s will that we be privileged to see all our offspring – sons and daughters, grandsons and granddaughters – advance in Torah and <i>mitzvot</i>, establish wonderful families, and increase truth, <i>ḥesed</i>, and peace forever.
  I would also like to thank R. Yaakov Katz (Ketzaleh), R. Yaakov Weinberger, R. Dudu Sa’ada, and R. Yisrael Sa’adia, who administrate so many of the institutions that were instrumental in enabling this project. May God grant all who help and assist the necessary wisdom and strength to succeed in their work. May they be privileged to establish beautiful families, and may God fulfill all their hearts’ desires in the best possible way.
  I am thankful to the residents of Har Bracha and the students of its yeshiva. It is through the daily classes to them that the issues addressed in the book are clarified. They, too, are partners in this endeavor. In particular, I would like to single out Rav Shlomi Badash for his enlightening comments, Rav Yonadav Zar for his help with the glosses and notes, Rav Refael Deluya for his expertise in the customs of Moroccan and North African Jewish communities, and my old friend Rav Ze’ev Sultanovitch for his wise suggestions and comments. The team that rendered this volume in English also deserves special mention: Rav Moshe Lichtman, who translated this volume, and the editorial team of Rav Maor Cayam, Rav Elli Fischer, Rav Daniel Landman, and Nechama Unterman for the multiple layers of editing and proofreading that brought this book into its final form. May we all merit magnifying and glorifying the Torah, participating in the rebuilding of our holy land, and witnessing the arrival of the just redeemer and the building of the Temple, speedily in our day.
  Eliezer Melamed / Iyar, 5777
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  Section 1
  
  Rosh Ḥodesh / The Jewish Month
  God created the sun and the moon and placed them in the heavens, and time is marked by them. The sun shines during the day, the moon at night. Years are determined by the solar cycle, and months by the lunar cycle. Indeed, the Torah states: “God said, ‘Let there be luminaries in the heavenly firmament, to separate day from night; they shall serve as signs for the seasons, days, and years’” (Bereishit 1:14).
  Each month, the moon makes one revolution around the earth. One can perceive this cycle by following the appearance of the moon. At the beginning of each month, the moon looks very small to us, like a thin sliver. Its apparent size gradually increases until the middle of the month, when it appears as a complete circle. During the second half of the month, the moon wanes, until it completely disappears at the end of the month for approximately 24 hours. Afterward, it reappears as a thin sliver once more, indicating that a new month has begun.
  A full lunar cycle lasts approximately 29.5 days.1<i class="footnote">The precise duration of the lunar cycle is 29 days, 12 hours, and 793/1080ths of an hour (each portion or “<i>ḥelek</i>” of an hour is 3.3 seconds). The division of an hour into 1080 portions facilitates complex computations, as explained in MT, Laws of Sanctifying the Month 6:1-3.</i> Since this cycle does not coincide with the earth’s daily rotation around its axis, due to the extra half-day, a Jewish month lasts either 29 or thirty days. A 29-day month is called an “incomplete month,” while a thirty-day month is called a “full month.”
  Establishing the beginning of a month is extremely important, as all of our festivals depend on the Hebrew date: Pesaḥ commences on the fifteenth of Nisan, Yom Kippur falls out on the tenth of Tishrei, Sukkot begins on the fifteenth of Tishrei, etc. In fact, it is so important that the Torah permits witnesses who have seen the new moon to desecrate Shabbat in order to travel to Jerusalem and testify before the <i>beit din</i> (rabbinical court; MT, Laws of Sanctifying the Month 3:2). The court would sanctify the new month based on their testimony and then dispatch messengers to inform all of Israel when the new month began.
  
  Section 2
  
  Rosh Ḥodesh / The Authority to Set the Months Was Entrusted to Israel
  A new month does not automatically begin when the moon reappears. Rather, the <i>beit din</i> sanctifies the month, as it says, “This month shall mark <i>for you</i>” (Shemot 12:2). God showed Moshe the configuration of the moon in its renewed state and said, “This testimony shall be given over to you” (RH 22a). That is, witnesses must come before you and testify that they saw the new moon, and you shall sanctify the month based on their testimony.2<i class="footnote">If witnesses who saw the new moon on the night of the thirtieth day of the month come before the <i>beit din</i> the next day, the court sanctifies the month on that day, transforming the thirtieth day of the previous month into the first day of the new month: Rosh Ḥodesh. They then immediately offer the special Rosh Ḥodesh sacrifices. Consequently, the previous month is rendered an “incomplete month,” as it had only 29 days. If, however, no witnesses arrive on the thirtieth, Rosh Ḥodesh is the next day – the 31st – and the previous month is rendered a “full month,” consisting of a full thirty days. In such a case, the <i>beit din</i> does not need to hear witnesses’ testimony or declare the beginning of the new month, as in any case there are only two days on which Rosh Ḥodesh can possibly occur; if no witnesses come on the first day, Rosh Ḥodesh automatically falls out on the next day (MT, Laws of Sanctifying the Month 2:8).</i>
  After Moshe’s death, the authority to establish the Jewish calendar was conferred upon the <i>Beit Din Ha-gadol</i> of every generation (the high Jewish court that functioned in earlier times; the Sanhedrin), on condition that its judges received <i>semikha </i>(rabbinic ordination) from another who has received <i>semikha </i>in an unbroken chain that originates with Moshe himself. Such ordination can only be transmitted in the Land of Israel (MT, Laws of Courts 4). If a time comes when the Jews are unable to set the months by way of a <i>beit din</i>, the <i>halakha</i> states that they must do so using mathematical calculations.
  Thus, even though the lunar cycle is a natural phenomenon, the renewal of the moon does not, by itself, sanctify the month. Rather, the Jewish people sanctify the months, and by doing so enable the holiness of time to reveal itself. This explains why the Sages decided to end the middle <i>berakha</i> of the <i>Musaf</i> prayer on Rosh Ḥodesh with the words “Blessed are You, Lord, Who sanctifies Israel and the New Moons” (<i>Ber</i>. 49a). Perhaps this is also why the first mitzva the Torah commanded the Jewish people was the mitzva of sanctifying the new month (Shemot 12:2), as this mitzva showcases Israel’s unique sanctity – that the holiness of time reveals itself through them.
  
  Section 3
  
  Rosh Ḥodesh / The History of the Sanctification of the Moon
  As a result of Roman persecution, Jewish settlement in the Holy Land dwindled during the talmudic period, while the larger community of Jews in Babylonia advanced in all areas. Nonetheless, the Sages of Eretz Yisrael retained the authority to sanctify months and intercalate years, as it says, “For<i> </i>Torah shall come forth from Zion” (Yeshayahu 2:3). They would dispatch messengers every month to inform the Jews residing in the Diaspora when the new month began. Only on rare occasions, like during the Beitar revolt, when the situation in the Holy Land was unbearable and the Sages were unable to sanctify the months, did they deviate from this procedure. During such times, judges ordained in Eretz Yisrael would leave the Land and travel to places that were free of such persecution and establish the order of the months and the years there.
  Eventually, the Roman decrees intensified, and, as a result of Christian influence, targeted the Sages in an attempt to stop them from sanctifying the months. During this period, the rabbis sometimes would have to sanctify the month while in hiding and inform the Sages of Babylonia by sending them a secret letter (see <i>San</i>. 12a).
  Toward the end of the talmudic period, Hillel II came to the conclusion that the <i>batei din </i>of Eretz Yisrael would no longer be able to sanctify the months. In addition, there were fears that hardships and evil decrees would lead to the termination of the institution of <i>semikha</i>. Since Hillel II, as the <i>nasi </i>(president) of the <i>Beit Din Ha-gadol</i> – having inherited the position in a generational chain from R. Yehuda Ha-Nasi – had the authority to set the calendar, he and his fellow judges took the initiative and calculated the months and years until the end of time and consecrated them. Thus, in the year 4119 of the Hebrew calendar (359 CE), the Jewish people began to count the months according to the Jewish calendar that Hillel II established. We pray that we will soon be privileged to witness the final redemption, when the <i>beit din</i> in Jerusalem will once again sanctify the months.
  Rambam postulates the very novel idea that the sanctification of the months depends on the inhabitants of Eretz Yisrael, even after <i>semikha</i> was abolished. That is, when the Jews of the Holy Land calculate the order of the months based on the fixed formula used to establish the calendar, then the months are considered sanctified. If, however, no Jews lived in Eretz Yisrael, God forbid, the order of the months, along with all the festivals, would cease to exist. But far be it from God to act thus, for He has promised us in the Torah that the remnants of our nation will never be destroyed.3<i class="footnote">The main ideas presented here are taken from MT, Laws of Sanctifying the Month 5:1-3. In <i>Sefer Ha-mitzvot</i>, Positive Commandment 153, Rambam writes that the sanctification of the months is entrusted to the <i>Beit Din Ha-gadol</i>. Ramban, however, claims that a <i>beit din</i> of three will suffice. It may be that there is no argument here, as Rambam means to say that the months are sanctified merely by virtue of the foremost <i>beit din </i>of the generation, not that they actually must sanctify the months in practice.As stated above, the months were sanctified primarily in Eretz Yisrael, and only in dire circumstances did the greatest rabbis of the generation, who were ordained in Eretz Yisrael, leave the Land in order to sanctify the months without interference from the kingdom. This is derived from a passage in <i>Berakhot</i> 63a:When Ḥanina, R. Yehoshua’s nephew, went down to the Diaspora (after the Beitar revolt), he intercalated years and established months outside Eretz Yisrael. The rabbis of Eretz Yisrael sent two Torah scholars after him: R. Yossi b. Kipar and the grandson of Zekharia b. Kevutal. When he saw them, he said, “Why have you come?” They replied, “We have come to learn Torah.” He proclaimed, “These men are among the greatest rabbis of the generation, and their forefathers served in the Holy Temple.” He began declaring things impure while they declared them pure. He forbade certain acts and they permitted them. So he announced, “These men are worthless; they are empty.” They said to him, “You already built us up; you can no longer knock us down. You already built a fence; you can no longer breach it.” He responded, “Why is it that whenever I declare something impure you declare it pure; whenever I forbid something you permit it?” They answered, “Because you are intercalating years and establishing months outside Eretz Yisrael.” He said, “Didn’t Akiva b. Yosef intercalate years and establish months outside Eretz Yisrael?” They replied, “Leave aside the case of R. Akiva, for he did not leave behind anyone like him in Eretz Yisrael.” He said to them, “I, too, left no one behind like me in Eretz Yisrael.” They answered, “The kids you left behind have become goats with horns (i.e., the young students you left behind have become great Torah scholars in their own right), and they sent us to you, and this is what they told us: Go, tell him in our names to desist. If he listens – fine. But if he does not – excommunicate him. And tell our brethren in the Diaspora to desist as well. If they listen – fine. But if not – let them go up to the mountain, where Aḥiya will build an altar and Ḥanania will play the harp, and everyone will deny God, saying, ‘We have no portion in the God of Israel.’” Upon hearing this, the entire congregation immediately burst into tears and said, “God forbid! We do have a portion in the God of Israel.” And why all the fuss [not to establish the calendar outside Eretz Yisrael]? Because it says, “For Torah shall come forth from Zion, the word of the Lord from Jerusalem” (Yeshayahu 2:3).We stated above that when <i>semikha </i>does not exist, the months are sanctified by way of mathematical calculations. According to Rambam, this is a <i>halakha le-Moshe mi-Sinai</i> (a law that God taught Moshe at Mount Sinai). This is why he does not mention Hillel II in his discussion on the topic. Ramban, on the other hand, writes that there is no source indicating that this is a <i>halakha le-Moshe mi-Sinai</i>. Rather, the truth is that in our times as well, the months are considered sanctified by rabbis who have undergone <i>semikha </i>– that is, based on Hillel II’s calculations. Consequently, Ramban does not require the existence of Jews living in Eretz Yisrael for the calculations to apply to them, as he maintains that the months are not established based on the calculations of those currently living in Eretz Yisrael, but rather upon Hillel II’s ancient calculations (see AHS 417:7).</i>
  
  Section 4
  
  Rosh Ḥodesh / Rosh Ḥodesh – One Day or Two?
  When a month is incomplete (29 days), the following Rosh Ḥodesh is observed for one day. When it is full (thirty days), the following Rosh Ḥodesh lasts two days: the thirtieth day of the previous month and the first day of the next month. Even though the second day is the main part of Rosh Ḥodesh – as it is the first day of the month, from which we count the subsequent days of the month – nevertheless, all the laws of Rosh Ḥodesh apply to the first day as well. We recite the <i>Hallel </i>and <i>Musaf</i> prayers and we insert <i>Ya’aleh Ve-yavo</i> into the <i>Amida </i>(the silent standing prayer, i.e., <i>Shemoneh Esrei</i>)<i> </i>and <i>Birkat Ha-mazon </i>(Grace after Meals). One who forgot to recite <i>Ya’aleh Ve-yavo</i> in <i>Shaḥarit</i> or <i>Minḥa</i> must repeat the <i>Amida</i>. Several explanations have been given for the practice of observing two days of Rosh Ḥodesh; see the footnote.4<i class="footnote">Rosh Ḥodesh means the first day of month; why then is the thirtieth day of a full month also considered Rosh Ḥodesh? <i>Shibolei Ha-leket</i> 168, quoting Rabbeinu Shlomo and Rid, as well as <i>Birkei Yosef</i> 427, explain that on a full month, the new moon appears in the middle of the thirtieth day (after 29½ days). Therefore, even though the next day will be the first of the month (in order to balance out the months, as explained above, in section 1), nonetheless, it is fitting to treat the day on which the moon reappears as Rosh Ḥodesh as well. This is why we observe two days of Rosh Ḥodesh.<i>Tashbetz</i> 3:244 states that the Jews in ancient times would refrain from working and prepare festive meals in honor of Rosh Ḥodesh, already beginning to do so on the thirtieth day of the month, in case witnesses arrive and the <i>beit din</i> declares that day the first of the month. And if no one came to testify, they would treat the next day as Rosh Ḥodesh as well. Thus, whenever a month was full, they observed two days of Rosh Ḥodesh (similar to Rosh Ha-shana).Even though the <i>musaf</i> sacrifices were offered exclusively on the first of the month, these two explanations indicate that both days are holy, and we therefore recite <i>Hallel</i>, <i>Musaf</i>, and <i>Ya’aleh Ve-yavo</i> on both days.R. Shlomo Yosef Zevin writes in <i>Le-or Ha-halakha</i> (in an essay on Rosh Ḥodesh) that according to Rashi and <i>Shiltei Giborim</i> (<i>Rosh Ha-shana</i>, ch. 1), Jews used to observe only one day of Rosh Ḥodesh for a full month, while <i>Or Zaru’a</i> (vol. 2, <i>Hilkhot Rosh Ḥodesh</i>) and Maharsha (BM 59b) maintain that they observed two days.These authorities also disagree how to interpret the verse, “But on the day after the new moon, the second day” (1 Shmuel 20:27). <i>Tashbetz</i> and Rabbeinu Yeshaya understand it as a reference to the second day of Rosh Ḥodesh, while Rashi and Radak maintain that it refers to the day after Rosh Ḥodesh – a regular day.Some explain that we observe two days because we are uncertain which day is truly Rosh Ḥodesh. This opinion, however, has been rejected. Therefore, one who forgets to recite <i>Ya’aleh Ve-yavo</i> in <i>Shaḥarit</i> or <i>Minḥa</i> on either day must repeat the <i>Amida</i>.</i>
  
  Section 5
  
  Rosh Ḥodesh / The Status of Rosh Ḥodesh in the Torah
  The Torah lists Rosh Ḥodesh together with all the other festivals on which we bring <i>musafim</i> (additional offerings) in honor of the day’s sanctity. The Sages derive from Eikha 1:15 that Rosh Ḥodesh is also called a <i>mo’ed</i> (fixed time) like all the other festivals (<i>Pesaḥim</i> 77a). In Temple times, trumpets would be sounded on Rosh Ḥodesh, as it says, “And on your joyous occasions – your fixed times and new moon days, you shall sound the trumpets over your burnt offerings and your sacrifices of well-being” (Bamidbar 10:10).
  Because of the sanctity of Rosh Ḥodesh, a custom developed to go out and greet one’s rabbi, similar to the custom on Shabbat to say “<i>Shabbat shalom</i>” to the rabbi (2 Melakhim 4:23, RH 16b, BHL 301:4). There is also a custom to prepare festive meals on Rosh Ḥodesh (<i>cf</i>. 1 Shmuel 20).
  The Torah uses a marvelous expression when describing the goat that would be sacrificed on Rosh Ḥodesh, calling it “a sin offering for the Lord” (Bamidbar 28:15). The Talmud (<i>Ḥullin</i> 60b) explains the essence of this matter. In the beginning, God created two great luminaries in the sky, the sun and the moon. The moon, in hopes that God would diminish the sun so that it alone could reign supreme, appealed to the Master of the World: “How can two kings share the same crown?” God, however, said to the moon, “Go and reduce yourself.” The moon replied, asking, “Because I made a justified claim before You, I should reduce myself?” God consoled the moon, telling it that the Jews would reckon the months according to its cycle, and that righteous people would be called by its name (i.e., they would use the epithet “the Small” in reference to the moon following its diminution). But the moon was not consoled, so God said, “Bring atonement for Me for making the moon smaller.” This is why it says, “And there shall be one goat as a sin offering for the Lord.”5<i class="footnote">A goat was brought as a sin offering on all the holidays, but nowhere else does it say, “a sin offering for the Lord.” The other <i>musaf</i> (additional) sacrifices offered on Rosh Ḥodesh were: two bullocks, one ram, and seven sheep as a wholly-burnt offering (Bamidbar 28:11).</i>
  This is a very profound concept, but on a simple level, the moon’s reduction symbolizes the deficiencies that exist in creation – the descent of the soul when it arrives in this world and all the failures that man experiences during his lifetime. All these failures and deficiencies are prerequisites for subsequent growth, because coping with hardships helps one reach higher heights in the end, as R. Abahu says, “The wholly righteous cannot stand where penitents stand” (<i>Ber</i>. 34b). In the meantime, though, people commit sins that cause great pain in the world. In order to relieve this pain and repair the flaws, God commanded us to sacrifice a goat as a sin offering. This is the purpose of Rosh Ḥodesh: to show us how a new beginning sprouts from the moon’s reduction, which happened as a result of its sinful indictment of God. Therefore, Rosh Ḥodesh is a good time for new beginnings and repentance; indeed, it is a time of profound joy. However, until the world is redeemed from all its deficiencies, the joy of Rosh Ḥodesh is slightly hidden and is not completely revealed (see also below, sections 15-16).
  
  Section 6
  
  Rosh Ḥodesh / Festive Meals on Rosh Ḥodesh and the Prohibition to Fast or Grieve
  Rosh Ḥodesh is one of the holidays on which it is appropriate to rejoice. However, there is no explicit commandment to rejoice on Rosh Ḥodesh by conducting festive meals. Therefore, while it is meritorious to enjoy special meals on Rosh Ḥodesh, one is not obligated to do so (SA<i> </i>419:1).
  Nevertheless, one may not grieve on Rosh Ḥodesh, and therefore one may not fast on the day (<i>ibid</i>. 418:1). Anyone who refrains from eating on Rosh Ḥodesh, even for a short period of time, with the intention of fasting, transgresses this prohibition. But if, by chance, one neglected to eat for several hours, there is no reason for concern (BHL 418, s.v. “Rosh Ḥodesh assur”; <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 418:3). Technically, one who ate only fruits on Rosh Ḥodesh is not considered one who has fasted and thus transgressed; rather, he simply failed to fulfill the mitzva of enjoying festive meals on Rosh Ḥodesh.6<i class="footnote">Rashi states in <i>Ta’anit</i> 15b, “Even though it is called <i>mo’ed</i>, the Torah does not call it a day of feasting and joy.” Rosh (<i>Ber.</i> 7:23) concurs, stating that we do not insert the word <i>simḥa</i> (joy) into the corrective <i>berakha</i> for <i>Birkat Ha-mazon</i> on Rosh Ḥodesh (see below n. 14). In contrast, <i>Yerei’im</i> 227 states, “One is obligated to rejoice on Rosh Ḥodesh,” though there is no obligation to eat bread at the meal, because one can satisfy the requirement of joy by eating meat and drinking wine. The final <i>halakha</i> remains as stated above.Rambam maintains that fasting on Rosh Ḥodesh is prohibited by Torah law, while <i>Beit Yosef</i> 418 maintains that it is rabbinically prohibited. There was a custom among the <i>ḥasidim rishonim </i>(pious people of yore) to fast on two particular Rosh Ḥodesh days –<i> </i>the first of Nisan, because Aharon’s sons died on that date, and the first of<i> </i>Av, because Aharon himself died on that date (SA<i> </i>580:2). Rema 580:1 comments that one should not fast on Rosh Ḥodesh for the entire day; rather he should eat before nightfall. A regular person should not accept upon himself to fast on these days of Rosh Ḥodesh.</i>
  The main way to fulfill this mitzva is by adding a special dish to one’s regular menu in honor of Rosh Ḥodesh. This mitzva applies even when Rosh Ḥodesh coincides with Shabbat (MB 418:2, 419:1-2).
  Even though one is not obligated to eat bread at a Rosh Ḥodesh meal, it is a mitzva to do so (SHT 419:1).
  It is proper to set the table respectfully for a Rosh Ḥodesh meal. Some are meticulous about eating meat and drinking wine at a Rosh Ḥodesh meal.
  When Rosh Ḥodesh lasts two days, there is a mitzva to prepare festive meals on both days. The primary mitzva is to conduct these meals during the day, but some say that there is a mitzva to conduct festive meals at night as well, in honor of Rosh Ḥodesh.7<i class="footnote">The custom to beautify the mitzva by setting the table respectfully is cited in <i>Ben Ish Ḥai</i>, Year 2, Vayikra 10 and <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 419:5. Eating meat and drinking wine are also ways to beautify the mitzva in honor of Rosh Ḥodesh. According to <i>Yerei’im</i>, however, it is an actual mitzva, as mentioned in the previous note. This is why most Sephardic Jews only begin to refrain from eating meat and drinking wine from the second of Av, in order to uphold the honor of Rosh Ḥodesh. The Ashkenazic custom is to refrain from meat and wine on Rosh Ḥodesh Av as well (see below 8:13).MB 419:2 states that there is no need to conduct a festive meal on Rosh Ḥodesh night, but <i>Responsa Rema</i> <i>Mi-Fano</i> §79 and <i>Eshel Avraham</i> (Buczacz) maintain that there is a mitzva to do so.</i>
  One may not do things on Rosh Ḥodesh that evoke sorrow. Therefore, one may not deliver a eulogy on Rosh Ḥodesh. If, however, the deceased was a Torah scholar, one may deliver a eulogy, but only in the presence of the body (SA 420:1, MB <i>ad loc</i>.<i> </i>1; YD 401:5).
  Similarly, it is customary to refrain from visiting cemeteries on Rosh Ḥodesh. Therefore, if the <i>yahrzeit </i>(anniversary of death) or the end of <i>shloshim</i> (the first thirty days after death) coincides with Rosh Ḥodesh, the friends and relatives of the deceased should visit the grave on the day before Rosh Ḥodesh. If that is impossible, they should go after Rosh Ḥodesh. One may visit <i>kivrei tzadikim </i>(graves of righteous people) on Rosh Ḥodesh because this does not evoke sorrow.
  A bride and groom who follow the custom of fasting on their wedding day (an Ashkenazic custom that some Sephardim also follow) should not fast if their wedding takes place on Rosh Ḥodesh (SA 573:1).8<i class="footnote">According to Rema 573:1 and MB 573:9, they should fast on Rosh Ḥodesh<i> </i>Nisan, because there is a <i>minhag ḥasidim </i>(practice of the pious) to fast on that day anyway. <i>Pri Megadim</i> maintains that one who does not usually fast on Rosh Ḥodesh<i> </i>Nisan should not do so on his or her wedding day. See <i>Sefer Rosh Ḥodesh</i> 14:19 and n. 39, where the author discusses the case of a wedding that takes place on the first night of Rosh Ḥodesh when the bride and groom surely fast during the day prior to the wedding. He explains that according to AHS EH 61:21, who maintains that brides and grooms fast in order to ensure that they are not drunk at their wedding, they should continue fasting until after they exit the <i>ḥupa</i> (ritual wedding canopy), even though this will mean that they are entering Rosh Ḥodesh in an afflicted state. <i>Kitzur </i>SA 146:1, on the other hand, maintains that brides and grooms always fast only until nightfall even if this occurs before the <i>ḥupa</i>, because the purpose of the fast is atonement.</i>
  
  Section 7
  
  Rosh Ḥodesh / The Custom for Women to Refrain from Working on Rosh Ḥodesh
  One may work on Rosh Ḥodesh. Ideally, though, one should not do so, as is the law on <i>Ḥol Ha-mo’ed</i>. The rule is that the holier the day, the more it is designated for holy endeavors, and the more one should limit his involvement in work. Thus, all work is forbidden on Shabbat, because it is the holiest of all our special days. Work is also forbidden on Yom Tov (festival), which is a level below Shabbat in sanctity, but one may perform activities that are necessary for food preparation. A level below Yom Tov is <i>Ḥol Ha-mo’ed</i>, when only certain acts are forbidden. Rosh Ḥodesh should rightfully be on par with <i>Ḥol Ha-mo’ed</i>. However, since the twelve tribes of Israel sinned in the episode of the Golden Calf, they correspondingly lost the special quality of the twelve Rashei Ḥodashim of the year. Women, however, did not participate in the sin of the Golden Calf, refusing to give their jewelry in order to help create it. Therefore, God rewarded them in this world and in the World to Come. In this world, God instituted that “they observe Rosh Ḥodesh more than the men do.” God also promised that in the World to Come, they will regain their youthfulness, like the moon that renews itself every month, as it says, “He satisfies you with good things in the prime of life, so that your youth is renewed like the eagle’s” (Tehilim 103:5;<i>Pirkei De-Rabbi Eliezer</i> 45). As a result, women absorb more of the sanctity of Rosh Ḥodesh, and they have thus adopted the custom to refrain from working then. 9<i class="footnote">This follows the explanation of <i>Pirkei De-Rabbi Eliezer</i> 45, <i>Tur</i> 417, <i>Perisha</i> 417:1, and <i>Darkhei Moshe</i> 417:1 (quoting <i>Or Zaru’a</i>) explain the issue. R. Ḥayim Vital explains in <i>Sha’ar Ha-kavanot</i> 76b that women correspond to the <i>sefira</i> (kabbalistic “emanation”) of <i>malkhut</i> (kingship) and the moon, both of which renew themselves, while men correspond to <i>tiferet</i> (beauty), which does not renew itself. (Furthermore, <i>malkhut</i> involves a decline, from which it can reach even higher than <i>tiferet</i>. This is alluded to in the verse, “A capable wife is a crown for her husband” [Mishlei 12:4].)</i>
  In truth, in the time of the Temple, when the Kohanim (priests) brought <i>musaf</i> offerings, some men also would refrain from doing major work on Rosh Ḥodesh. But their practice is no longer binding, because they participated in the sin of the Golden Calf. Women, on the other hand, did not sin, and thus have more of a connection to the sanctity of Rosh Ḥodesh. As a result, their practice remains valid.
  Therefore, every woman should refrain from doing certain types of work on Rosh Ḥodesh – knitting, for example – in order to differentiate between Rosh Ḥodesh and ordinary days. It goes without saying that she should not plan to do any big jobs on Rosh Ḥodesh.
  Some women go above and beyond and refrain from doing any type of work that is forbidden on <i>Ḥol Ha-mo’ed</i>. This includes sewing, knitting, and fixing things in the house. Cooking, baking, and ironing, however, are permitted, as they are permitted on <i>Ḥol Ha-mo’ed</i> as well. Washing clothing in a washing machine is also permitted, because it entails almost no effort. If the clothes are needed for Rosh Ḥodesh itself, one may wash them even by hand. An employed woman may work on Rosh Ḥodesh, even if she generally follows the practice of those who go above and beyond, because if she misses work regularly on Rosh Ḥodesh, she might lose her job. And even if there is no concern that she will be fired, she may go to work if she needs the money or if her absence will cause her employer to lose money.10<i class="footnote"><i>Tur</i> and <i>Beit Yosef</i> OḤ 417 explain that the main source for this custom is <i>y. Ta’anit</i> 1:6: “Those women who are accustomed not to work on Rosh Ḥodesh – it is a custom.” According to Rabbeinu Yeruḥam, a woman who never followed such a custom need not take it on. However, BHL 417, s.v. “ve-hanashim,” states that according to most Rishonim, all women must keep this custom, but they can fulfill their obligation by refraining from any minimal type of work. If, however, they have a more stringent custom that forbids additional types of work, their custom is binding. Indeed, some act more stringently, and I wrote that this is considered going above and beyond. <i>Eshel Avraham</i> (Buczacz) states that even those who go above and beyond should not treat Rosh Ḥodesh<i> </i>more stringently than they do <i>Ḥol Ha-mo’ed</i>. Therefore, they may wash clothes for the sake of Rosh Ḥodesh, because the reason for the prohibition on <i>Ḥol Ha-mo’ed </i>is only to ensure that people wash their clothes in anticipation of the holiday. Regarding washing machines: <i>Sefer Rosh Ḥodesh</i> 11:7 states that some are stringent, but that R. Shlomo Zalman Auerbach permits it, because it involves no effort.AHS 417:10 states that a woman may work on Rosh Ḥodesh in order to make a living, and that this is the prevalent custom. <i>Hilkhot Ḥagim</i> 1:5 agrees. This can be derived from a <i>kal va-ḥomer</i> (<i>a fortiori</i> argument): If she is liable to lose her job, or if she needs that day’s wages desperately, she may work even on <i>Ḥol Ha-mo’ed</i>. Thus, it is all the more so on Rosh Ḥodesh, which is a lesser holiday. Some women go above and beyond and forgo working that day if they can do so easily. It seems to me that even women who go above and beyond are lenient when it comes to writing for purposes that are not related to work.According to <i>Shibolei Ha-leket</i>, when Rosh Ḥodesh is two days long, the custom for women to refrain from working applies only on the second day, the first of the new month. <i>Roke’aḥ</i> maintains that it applies on both days. <i>Mor U-ketzi’a</i> maintains that the custom applies only during the day on Rosh Ḥodesh, not at night. It seems to me that women follow this custom at night as well. See MB 417:4, BHL (end of 417).BHL 417, s.v. “minhag tov,” states in the name of <i>Baḥ</i> that a husband may not demand that his wife work on Rosh Ḥodesh, but she may work if she desires. As stated above, most <i>poskim</i> agree that a woman should refrain from doing some form of work. Since it is a mitzva for a woman to refrain from working, even though it is not obligatory, it is clear that her husband cannot demand that she work on Rosh Ḥodesh, except for housework, like cooking.Ḥida (<i>Responsa Yosef Ometz</i> §20) cites Rishonim who maintain that men had a custom as well to refrain from working on Rosh Ḥodesh. He explains that this custom developed because they would bow before God in the Holy Temple. <i>Turei Even</i> (on Tractate <i>Megilla</i>) claims that the custom was based on the <i>musaf</i> sacrifices that were offered in the Temple on Rosh Ḥodesh. Either way, most <i>poskim</i> believe that this custom is not binding (MB 417:2).</i>
  
  Section 8
  
  Rosh Ḥodesh / <i>Shabbat Mevarkhim</i>
  On the Shabbat preceding Rosh Ḥodesh (known as <i>Shabbat Mevarkhim</i>), it is customary to announce when Rosh Ḥodesh will take place and recite <i>Birkat Ha-ḥodesh </i>(“blessing the new month”),<i> </i>a prayer that God “renew this month for us and for all His people, the house of Israel, for good and blessing.” In a certain way, this prayer also commemorates the sanctification of the new moon by the <i>beit din</i> of old. Therefore, it is customary to announce the exact time at which the new moon will appear. This event is known as the <i>molad</i>, signifying the moon’s “rebirth.” This is also why we stand during the ceremony, as people used to stand before the <i>beit din</i> when it would perform the mitzva of sanctifying the new moon. The only month before which we do not recite <i>Birkat Ha-ḥodesh</i> is Tishrei. The reason for this is that everyone knows when Rosh Ḥodesh<i> </i>Tishrei is coming, as it is also the holiday of Rosh Ha-shana.11<i class="footnote">MB 417:1 and <i>Igrot Moshe, </i>OḤ 1:142. <i>Sefer Rosh Ḥodesh </i>ch. 1 nn. 4-8 quotes <i>Yerei’im</i>, <i>Shibolei Ha-leket</i>, and <i>Or Zaru’a</i>, which state that we recite <i>Birkat Ha-ḥodesh</i> to let people know when Rosh Ḥodesh is going to take place. Raavya writes that it is in commemoration of the sanctification of the new moon. For this reason, some communities give the rabbi the honor of blessing the new moon (<i>Sefer Rosh Ḥodesh</i> 1:7). What I wrote concerning our omission of <i>Birkat Ha-ḥodesh </i>before Tishrei is found in SHT 417:2.).</i>
  We announce the coming of the new month specifically on Shabbat because that is when the entire congregation is gathered in the synagogue, and everyone will hear when Rosh Ḥodesh is set to take place. Furthermore, all the days of the week receive blessing from Shabbat, and even the sanctity of Rosh Ḥodesh flows from the Shabbat that precedes it. Therefore, we bless the new month on that day. Because of this, on <i>Shabbat Mevarkhim </i>we already begin to feel the festiveness of the forthcoming Rosh Ḥodesh.12<i class="footnote">This is why Ashkenazim refrain from reciting memorial prayers for the dead on <i>Shabbat Mevarkhim</i> (Rema 284:7, MB 284:17). They even omit the <i>Av Ha-raḥamim</i> prayer, which is said in memory of those killed in sanctification of God’s name. The only exceptions are the <i>Shabbatot</i> prior to Rosh Ḥodesh Iyar and Rosh Ḥodesh Sivan, because the holy martyrs were killed mainly during these two months. My teacher and master, Rav Zvi Yehuda Kook, would recite <i>Av Ha-raḥamim</i> even on an ordinary <i>Shabbat Mevarkhim</i>. He maintained that after the Holocaust it should be said on every Shabbat, just like it is said on <i>Shabbat Mevarkhim </i>before Rosh Ḥodesh Iyar and Rosh Ḥodesh Sivan.</i>
  
  Section 9
  
  Rosh Ḥodesh / <i>Yom Kippur Katan</i>:<i> </i>A Time of Atonement
  Rosh Ḥodesh<i> </i>is a time of atonement, as we recite in the <i>Musaf</i> prayer, “a time of atonement for all their offspring.” In addition, in the time of the Temple, a male goat would be brought as a sin offering.
  In order to make this atonement complete, pious Jews customarily repent in for the time leading up to Rosh Ḥodesh. Some people fast on the day before Rosh Ḥodesh and recite special <i>Yom Kippur Katan</i> prayers prior to the <i>Minḥa</i> service. The day before Rosh Ḥodesh is called <i>Yom Kippur Katan</i> (“the minor Yom Kippur”) because it is a time to atone for the sins of the previous month, just as Yom Kippur is a time to atone for the sins of the previous year (see MB<i> </i>417:4, <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 417:10-21). Nowadays, few people follow the custom of fasting; instead of fasting, one can study more Torah and give extra charity.
  
  Section 10
  
  Rosh Ḥodesh / <i>Ya’aleh Ve-yavo</i> in the <i>Amida</i>
  The unique nature of Rosh Ḥodesh must find expression in our prayers. After all, the Sages instituted our prayers in place of the offerings, and the Torah commands us to bring a <i>musaf</i> offering on Rosh Ḥodesh. Therefore, the Sages prescribed that we recite the <i>Ya’aleh Ve-yavo</i> prayer, in which we beseech God to remember us for good on Rosh Ḥodesh. They inserted it in the <i>berakha</i> of <i>Retzei</i> because that is where we ask God to restore the divine service to the Holy Temple, making it an appropriate place to mention Rosh Ḥodesh; once the divine service is restored we will be able to offer the <i>musaf</i> of Rosh Ḥodesh. One who forgets to recite <i>Ya’aleh Ve-yavo</i> in <i>Shaḥarit</i> or <i>Minḥa</i> must repeat the <i>Amida</i> (<i>Shabbat</i> 24a).
  If one realizes that he forgot to recite <i>Ya’aleh Ve-yavo </i>immediately after completing the <i>berakha</i> of <i>Retzei</i>, he should insert <i>Ya’aleh Ve-yavo</i> there, and then continue with <i>Modim</i>. If one already began <i>Modim</i>, but remembered before starting to take three steps back at the end of the <i>Amida</i>, he should return to the beginning of <i>Retzei</i> and continue from there until the end, inserting <i>Ya’aleh Ve-yavo</i> in its proper place. This is true only regarding <i>Shaḥarit</i> and <i>Minḥa</i>; if one forgot to recite <i>Ya’aleh Ve-yavo</i> at <i>Ma’ariv</i>, he should not repeat any part of the <i>Amida</i>, unless he remembers before reciting God’s name at the conclusion of <i>Retzei</i>. <i>Ma’ariv</i> is different from the other prayers because the <i>beit din</i> did not sanctify the new month at night. Thus, even though one should recite <i>Ya’aleh Ve-yavo</i> in <i>Ma’ariv</i>, he should not repeat the <i>Amida</i>, or even one <i>berakha</i>, in order to recite it (<i>Ber</i>. 29b, 30b; SA 422:1).13<i class="footnote">If one is unsure whether he recited <i>Ya’aleh Ve-yavo</i> in <i>Shaḥarit</i> or <i>Minḥa</i>, he should assume that he did not, and thus he must repeat the <i>Amida</i> in order to do so. However, if, earlier in the course of his prayers, he intended to add <i>Ya’aleh Ve-yavo</i>, but he is later uncertain whether he actually did so, he should assume that he did recite it, and thus he need not repeat the <i>Amida</i> (MB 422:10). One who forgot to recite <i>Ya’aleh Ve-yavo</i> in the final <i>Minḥa</i> service of Rosh Ḥodesh should recite the <i>Amida</i> twice in <i>Ma’ariv</i>, stipulating beforehand that if he is not obligated to recite the <i>Amida</i> twice, his second <i>Amida </i>should be considered a voluntary prayer (SA 108:11; <i>Peninei Halakha</i>: <i>Prayer</i> 18:10).Customarily, the <i>gabbai</i> (sexton) calls out, “Rosh Ḥodesh” or “<i>Ya’aleh Ve-yavo</i>” prior to the <i>Amida</i> of <i>Ma’ariv</i> (SA 236:2). In <i>Shaḥarit</i>, however, one may not interrupt between the <i>berakha</i> of <i>Ga’al Yisrael</i> and the <i>Amida</i>. Therefore, it is customary to bang on the podium twice, wordlessly reminding the congregants to insert <i>Ya’aleh Ve-yavo</i>. In addition, some have a custom to raise their voices slightly upon reaching the words <i>Ya’aleh Ve-yavo</i> in the silent <i>Amida</i> to remind others to recite it (<i>Sheyarei Knesset Ha-gedola</i>). Another suggestion is for the <i>ḥazan</i> to end the <i>berakha</i> of <i>Ga’al Yisrael </i>using the unique Rosh Ḥodesh tune, in order to remind the people to recite <i>Ya’aleh Ve-yavo</i>.</i>
  
  Section 11
  
  Rosh Ḥodesh / <i>Ya’aleh Ve-yavo</i> in <i>Birkat Ha-mazon</i>
  One must recite <i>Ya’aleh Ve-yavo</i> in <i>Birkat Ha-mazon</i> as well. Even though one is not obligated to eat a festive meal on Rosh Ḥodesh, one must mention Rosh Ḥodesh when reciting <i>Birkat Ha-mazon</i> because of the importance of the day, on which the <i>musaf </i>offering was brought (<i>Shabbat</i> 24a; <i>Tosafot</i> <i>ad loc</i>.). <i>Ya’aleh Ve-yavo</i> is inserted in the <i>berakha</i> of <i>Raḥem</i>, because both are prayers of supplication.
  If one forgot to recite <i>Ya’aleh Ve-yavo</i> in <i>Birkat Ha-mazon</i>, he need not repeat the prayer. This is because one who forgets to mention the sanctity of a particular day must repeat <i>Birkat Ha-mazon</i> only on days when there is an obligation to eat a meal with bread, like Shabbat and Yom Tov. On Rosh Ḥodesh and <i>Ḥol Ha-mo’ed</i>, however, one is not obligated to eat such a meal. Therefore, from the perspective of the sanctity of the day, one need not recite <i>Birkat Ha-mazon</i> at all. Consequently, one need not repeat it if he accidentally omitted <i>Ya’aleh Ve-yavo</i> (SA 424:1).14<i class="footnote">If one realizes that he forgot <i>Ya’aleh Ve-yavo</i> before beginning the <i>berakha</i> of <i>Ha-tov Ve-hametiv</i>, the Sage<i>s</i> decreed that he should say, “Blessed are You, Lord our God, King of the Universe, Who gave New Moons to His people Israel as a remembrance” (SA 188:7). According to BHL, one should recite the full <i>berakha</i>, invoking God’s name and kingship (<i>shem u-malkhut</i>), just as one does on Shabbat and Yom Tov. <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 188:31, however, maintains that one should omit God’s name and kingship.</i>
  One who began a meal on Rosh Ḥodesh, and managed to eat a <i>kezayit</i> (olive’s bulk) of bread before sunset, must recite <i>Ya’aleh Ve-yavo</i> in <i>Birkat Ha-mazon</i>, even if he continued eating long after <i>tzeit ha-kokhavim</i> (also called “<i>tzeit</i>”; meaning,<i> </i>“the emergence of stars,” i.e., nightfall), because the meal began on Rosh Ḥodesh (SA 188:10; see <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 188:43 for the opposing view).
  If one began to eat on the eve of Rosh Ḥodesh, and finished his meal after <i>tzeit</i>, he must recite <i>Ya’aleh Ve-yavo</i>, provided that he ate a <i>kezayit</i> of bread after Rosh Ḥodesh began (SA 271:6, MB 271:29).15<i class="footnote">If one did not eat a <i>kezayit</i> of bread after <i>tzeit</i>, SA rules that he must, nonetheless, recite <i>Ya’aleh Ve-yavo</i>, as is the law on Shabbat, as explained there. According to Rema, however, he should not recite it. The Aḥaronim also dispute the case of one who began <i>se’uda shlishit</i> on Shabbat and finished his meal on <i>Motza’ei Shabbat</i> (Saturday night), which is also the beginning of Rosh Ḥodesh. See <i>Peninei Halakha</i>:<i> Laws of Shabbat</i>, ch. 7 n. 7.</i>
  
  Section 12
  
  Rosh Ḥodesh / <i>Hallel</i> on Rosh Ḥodesh
  There is a widespread custom to recite <i>Hallel</i> on Rosh Ḥodesh. Technically there is no obligation to do so, because <i>Hallel</i> is required only on days: a) that are called <i>mo’ed</i>; and b) on which work is prohibited. While Rosh Ḥodesh is indeed called a <i>mo’ed</i>, work is permitted on Rosh Ḥodesh. Still, the Jewish people have accepted the practice of reciting <i>Hallel</i> on Rosh Ḥodesh, in order to give expression to the sanctity of the day, which can elevate one to the level of singing God’s praises. To make it clear that reciting <i>Hallel</i> on Rosh Ḥodesh is merely a custom and not obligatory, we omit two paragraphs that are included when reciting the complete <i>Hallel</i>. (The complete <i>Hallel</i> consists of chapters 113-118 of Tehilim; on Rosh Ḥodesh we omit 115:1-11 and 116:1-11).
  The Rishonim disagree regarding the <i>berakha</i>. Rambam and Rashi maintain that one should not recite a <i>berakha</i> upon reciting <i>Hallel </i>on Rosh Ḥodesh, since it is only based on a custom, and we do not recite <i>berakhot</i> upon fulfilling customs. Rabbeinu Tam, Rosh, and Ran, however, maintain that we do recite <i>berakhot</i> over important customs such as reciting <i>Hallel</i>. In practice, the Ashkenazic custom is to recite a <i>berakha</i>, even if one recites <i>Hallel</i> without a <i>minyan</i>. The custom of Sephardim hailing from Eretz Yisrael and its surroundings is to recite <i>Hallel </i>on Rosh Ḥodesh without a <i>berakha</i>. The custom of most North African Sephardim is that the <i>ḥazan </i>(prayer leader) recites the <i>berakha</i> – both before and after <i>Hallel</i> – aloud, in order to fulfill the obligation on behalf of the congregation. However, one who prays without a <i>minyan</i> does not recite a <i>berakha</i>. Every person should continue to follow his or her custom.
  One should try to recite <i>Hallel</i> with a <i>minyan</i> (a quorum of ten adult men). According to many <i>poskim</i>, one who comes late to services and finds the congregation reciting <i>Hallel</i> should recite it with them and only afterward begin <i>Pesukei De-zimra</i> (MB 422:16 and <i>Yalkut Yosef</i> 422:8; <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 422:38, however, cites Arizal as saying that one should not pray out of order).16<i class="footnote">The issue of <i>Hallel</i> on Rosh Ḥodesh is elucidated in <i>Arakhin</i> 10b, <i>Ta’anit</i> 28b, <i>Tosafot ad loc</i>., and <i>Tosafot</i> <i>Berakhot</i> 14a. (There is another type of obligatory <i>Hallel</i> that is not recited due to the sanctity of a day, but rather in response to a salvation, like the <i>Hallel </i>that we recite on Ḥanuka. See below 4:6 and 11:8.)Most Rishonim – including <i>Behag</i>, Ritz Gi’at, Raavad, Rabbeinu Tam, Rosh, and Ran – maintain that one should recite a <i>berakha </i>on this <i>Hallel</i>. Rav Hai Gaon, Rabbeinu Ḥananel, and <i>Talmidei Rabbeinu Yona</i> maintain that one should recite a <i>berakha</i> when reciting it with the congregation, but not in private. See <i>Beit Yosef</i> and SA 422:2. Indeed, as SA states, those living around Eretz Yisrael were accustomed to reciting it without a <i>berakha</i>, while those living in Spain would recite the <i>berakha</i> (Ran<i>, Magid Mishneh</i>). Rema 422:2 writes that it is customary to recite a <i>berakha</i> even when reciting <i>Hallel</i> alone, but that it is preferable to recite it with a <i>minyan</i>, in order to account for the opinion that one should only recite the <i>berakha</i> with the congregation.Until recently, several Sephardic communities, including Moroccan, Tunisian, and Turkish Jews, followed the custom that the <i>ḥazan</i> recites the <i>berakhot</i> before and after <i>Hallel</i> aloud. The congregation answers, “Amen,” thus fulfilling their obligation, while those praying privately omit the <i>berakhot</i>. This is also the opinion of R. Moshe Khalfon Ha-Kohen, <i>av beit din</i> of Djerba, in <i>Brit Kehuna</i> OḤ 200:5 and <i>Sho’el Ve-nish’al</i> 2:60; R. Ḥayim Palachi in <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> §33; <i>Shalmei Ḥagiga</i>, p. 224, <i>Ḥesed La-alafim</i> 422:2, <i>Sha’ar Ha-mifkad</i>, and <i>Responsa Mikveh Ha-mayim</i> 3:24. In his <i>Tevu’ot Shemesh</i>, OḤ 68, R. Shalom Messas determined that this is the <i>halakha</i> in practice, although he himself would recite the <i>berakha</i> in an undertone, along with the <i>ḥazan</i>. Every community should continue following its own custom.When people from different ethnic groups pray together, even if the <i>ḥazan</i>’s custom is to omit the <i>berakha</i>, it is proper for one of the participants who usually recite the <i>berakha</i> to recite the <i>berakha</i> out loud on behalf of those who do not recite a <i>berakha</i>. This way, the congregants will satisfy the opinion of the many <i>poskim</i> who maintain that one must recite a <i>berakha</i>, and at the same time avoid the concern of reciting a <i>berakha</i> <i>le-vatala </i>(<i>berakha </i>in vain). (See <i>Yeḥaveh Da’at</i> 4:31, which expresses apprehension regarding answering “Amen” to this <i>berakha</i>, as it may be a <i>berakha le-vatala</i>. However, many authorities maintain that one need not worry about answering “Amen” to one who recites a <i>berakha</i> in accordance with his community’s custom, which is based on the opinion of prominent <i>poskim</i>. I also heard this from R. Mordechai Eliyahu.)According to all opinions, one should try to recite <i>Hallel</i> with the congregation. Hence, it is better to recite it with a <i>minyan</i> before prayers than to say it alone afterward. This is the opinion of Rabbeinu Peretz, as cited in <i>Beit Yosef</i> 422:2. Many Aḥaronim quote this as well, as we stated above. According to <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 422:38, one should not change the order of the prayers.</i>
  
  Section 13
  
  Rosh Ḥodesh / Customs Related to Reciting <i>Hallel</i>
  One must stand while reciting <i>Hallel</i>, because <i>Hallel</i> is a testimony to God’s glory, and witnesses must stand while testifying. <i>Be-di’avad</i>, if one recited <i>Hallel</i> sitting or lying down, he has nonetheless fulfilled his obligation. One who is ill and cannot stand may recite it sitting or lying down <i>le-khatḥila</i> (SA 422:7, MB <i>ad loc. </i>28).
  One should not interrupt one’s recitation of <i>Hallel</i>, even just by remaining silent. In the case of an important need, however, like preventing an insult, one may interrupt his recitation. One may also interrupt <i>Hallel</i> in order to recite <i>devarim she-bikdusha </i>(“sacred words”; e.g., <i>Kedusha</i>, <i>Kaddish</i>, <i>Barkhu</i>, or <i>Modim</i>). One should recite <i>Hallel</i> in order, from beginning to end. One who recited it out of order has not fulfilled his obligation and must return to the place where he deviated from the proper order and read it in order (SA 422:4-6). It is proper to read <i>Hallel</i> slowly and pleasantly, and many congregations have a custom to sing parts of it.
  The Sages ordained that it is proper that one recite <i>Hallel</i> immediately following the <i>Amida </i>of <i>Shaḥarit</i>. Since we mention the uniqueness of Rosh Ḥodesh in the <i>Amida</i>, in <i>Ya’aleh Ve-yavo</i>, it is appropriate to continue praising God immediately and continue thanking Him for sanctifying Israel and the New Moons. <i>Be-di’avad</i>, one may recite it later in the day, because the entire day is suitable for reciting <i>Hallel</i> (<i>Megilla</i> 20b).
  There are various customs regarding how to recite <i>Hallel</i>: which verses are repeated, which verses are recited responsively, etc. All the customs are legitimate and every community should continue following its custom (<i>Sukka</i> 38a-39a, SA 422:3).
  Customarily, the <i>ḥazan </i>reads four verses aloud:1. Thank the Lord, for He is good, His loving-kindness is forever.2. Let Israel say His loving-kindness is forever.3. Let the house of Aharon say His loving-kindness is forever.4. Let those who fear the Lord say His loving-kindness is forever. (Tehilim 118:1-4)According to Ashkenazic custom, the congregation responds, “Thank the Lord, for He is good, His loving-kindness is forever” to each of these verses. According to the Sephardic custom, however, the congregation repeats each verse after the <i>ḥazan</i>.17<i class="footnote">Rav Amram Gaon mentions both customs in his <i>siddur</i>, recording the Sephardic custom first and the Ashkenazic custom second. <i>Tosafot</i> and Ran (<i>Sukka</i> 38b) also cite the Ashkenazic custom as described above, as do <i>Tur</i> and <i>Beit Yosef</i> 422:3. The congregation fulfills their obligation to recite the other three verses by hearing the <i>ḥazan</i> chant them out loud. Therefore, they can simply answer, “Thank the Lord, for He is good, His loving-kindness is for ever.” Many Aḥaronim write that since there is reason for concern that some congregants may not hear the <i>ḥazan</i> properly, it is best for the congregation to recite the verses along with the <i>ḥazan</i>, finish shortly before him, and then answer, “Thank the Lord, for He is good, His loving-kindness is for ever.” This is the opinion of MA 422:8, <i>Eliya Rabba</i> 422:13, <i>Maḥatzit Ha-shekel</i> and MB 422:20.</i>
  Regarding the repetition of verses, it has become the accepted custom in the last few generations to repeat each verse from <i>Odekha </i>(“I will thank You”) until the end of <i>Hallel</i> (Tehilim 118:21-29). The reason we repeat these verses is to continue the pattern of the beginning of Tehilim 118, in which every idea is repeated. This pattern ends at “I will thank You,” but we continue the pattern in <i>Hallel </i>by repeating the rest of the verses of that chapter as well. Furthermore, according to the Talmud (<i>Pesaḥim </i>119a), these verses were composed by David, his father Yishai, and his brothers. Thus, because of the importance of these verses, the Sages instructed us to repeat them.
  We repeat the verse, “Lord, please, save us. Lord, please, grant us success” (Tehilim 118:25), in a unique manner, reciting the first part twice and then the second part twice.18<i class="footnote">The Sephardic custom is that the <i>ḥazan</i> recites the first part of the verse twice, and the congregation then does the same. The <i>ḥazan </i>and congregation then follow this pattern for the second part of the verse as well. The Ashkenazic custom is that the <i>ḥazan</i> recites the first part of the verse one time, and the congregation repeats after him. Then the <i>ḥazan </i>recites the first part again, and the congregation repeats after him again.<i> </i>They then follow this pattern for the second part of the verse as well. This raises a question. The Talmud states in <i>Megilla</i> 22a that one may not interrupt a verse in the middle, except for the purpose of teaching young children. <i>Tosafot</i> (<i>Sukka</i> 38b) answer that it is not a true interruption in this case, since this verse was composed by two distinct parties: David and his brothers. <i>Kol Bo</i> suggests that the prohibition of splitting a verse in two only applies to verses from the Torah (MA 422:8). Maharsham explains in <i>Da’at Torah</i> that one may divide a verse in two if it is in the context of prayer.Ashkenazim repeat the four verses beginning with “I will thank you”; “The stone the builders rejected”; “This is the Lord’s doing”; and “This is the day.” The custom of many North African Jews is that the <i>ḥazan</i> recites each verse once, after which the congregation responds likewise; because of the principle that “hearing is like answering,” it is considered as if they repeated each verse.</i>
  
  Section 14
  
  Rosh Ḥodesh / Torah Reading and <i>Musaf</i>
  In honor of Rosh Ḥodesh we call up four people to the Torah. The passage that we read first describes the daily burnt offering, followed by the special Rosh Ḥodesh offerings (Bamidbar 28:1-15). This alludes to the fact that one can extend the fixed and continuous sanctity of the twice-daily burnt offering into the special sanctity of Rosh Ḥodesh, which represents renewal, atonement, and repentance.
  After we read the Torah and recite <i>Ashrei</i> and <i>U-va Le-Tziyon</i> (and according to some Sephardim, <i>Beit Yaakov</i> and <i>Shir shel Yom </i>[The Psalm of the Day] as well), we recite the <i>Amida</i> of <i>Musaf</i>. This prayer is comprised of the usual three opening <i>berakhot </i>and three closing <i>berakhot</i>, with one middle <i>berakha</i> about Rosh Ḥodesh, which concludes, “Blessed are You, God, Who sanctifies Israel and the New Moons.”
  The Sages instituted the <i>Musaf</i> service in place of the <i>musaf</i> offerings that were brought in the Holy Temple on Rosh Ḥodesh. The time frame for this prayer also corresponds to that of the <i>musaf </i>offerings. Thus, one must pray <i>Musaf</i> by the end of the seventh seasonal hour of the day, where each seasonal hour is calculated as one-twelfth of the duration of daylight on a given day. One who procrastinates and fails to pray by this time is considered a sinner. Nevertheless, he should pray afterward, because, <i>be-di’avad</i>, one may bring the <i>musaf</i> offering all day long (SA 286:1).
  It is customary to remove one’s <i>tefilin</i> before <i>Musaf</i>. On Yom Tov we do not wear <i>tefilin</i> at all; since the day itself is a sign of the covenant between God and Israel, we do not need the additional sign of <i>tefilin</i> as we do on a regular day. Since the <i>Musaf</i> prayer on Rosh Ḥodesh is considered a sign as well, we likewise do not need the additional sign of <i>tefilin</i> (SA 423:4, MB <i>ad loc. </i>10). It is customary to remove the <i>tefilin</i> after the <i>Kaddish</i> that precedes <i>Musaf</i>. It is proper to begin the <i>Amida</i> only after the <i>tefilin</i> are completely wrapped in their straps and stored away in their containers, as it is disrespectful to leave one’s <i>tefilin </i>in a state of disarray throughout the <i>Musaf</i> service.19<i class="footnote"><i>Beit Yosef</i> 25:13 gives a different reason: It is inappropriate to be without the ‘crown’ of <i>tefilin</i> when reciting the stanza that describes the angels crowning God in the <i>Kedusha</i> of <i>Musaf</i>. However, even Ashkenazim, who omit this stanza, are accustomed to removing their <i>tefilin</i> before <i>Musaf</i>. Therefore, I cited <i>Levush</i>’s explanation that <i>Musaf</i> is considered a sign of the covenant, similar to Yom Tov, when we do not wear <i>tefilin</i> (SA<i> </i>31:1). The prevalent custom is to remove the <i>tefilin</i> after <i>Kaddish</i> (according to Ba’al Ha-Tanya’s <i>siddur</i>, they are removed before <i>Kaddish</i>).This raises a question regarding the common practice to don <i>tefilin</i> at the <i>brit mila</i> of one’s son, in order to be surrounded by two signs. Do we not learn from the fact that we do not wear <i>tefilin</i> on Shabbat and Yom Tov that one should not display two signs together, as each one implies that the other is insufficient, thus degrading both (SA 31:1)? <i>Eliya Rabba</i> 29:1 answers in the name of <i>Roke’aḥ</i> that the sign of <i>brit mila</i> does not commemorate the Exodus from Egypt; therefore, one may combine it with another sign. <i>Tefilin</i>, Shabbat, and Yom Tov, however, commemorate the Exodus and should not be combined.</i>
  Another prevalent custom is to recite <i>Barkhi Nafshi</i> (Tehilim 104) during <i>Shaḥarit</i>, because it contains the verse “He made the moon to mark the seasons (<i>le-mo’adim</i>),” alluding to the festivals. Some believe that the Levites recited this psalm in the Temple on Rosh Ḥodesh (AHS 423:5).20<i class="footnote">For the order of the Torah reading, see <i>Tur, Beit Yosef, </i>SA, and MB 423:2; <i>Yalkut Yosef</i> 423:4; <i>Sefer Rosh Ḥodesh</i> 7:9. If one prayed <i>Musaf</i> before <i>Shaḥarit</i>, he has discharged his obligation, but ideally one should pray <i>Shaḥarit</i> first, just as one should bring the daily burnt offering before all other offerings (Rema 286:1).According to both Ashkenazic and hasidic customs, one recites <i>Barkhi Nafshi</i> after the regular <i>Shir shel Yom</i>; those who follow <i>Nusaḥ Sepharad </i>(prayer rite developed by Ḥasidim) recite both songs after <i>Hallel</i>, while those who follow <i>Nusaḥ Ashkenaz </i>do so after <i>Musaf</i>. Some Sephardim have the custom of reciting the <i>Shir shel Yom</i> after <i>U-va Le-Tzyion</i>, before the <i>Kaddish</i> that precedes <i>Musaf</i>, and <i>Barkhi Nafshi</i> after <i>Musaf</i>. Others recite <i>Barkhi Nafshi</i> after <i>Musaf</i> and omit the <i>Shir shel Yom</i> altogether.The Ashkenazic custom is to return the Torah scroll to the ark immediately after reading from it (MB 423:5). SA 423:3 states that it should be returned after <i>U-va Le-Tziyon</i>, and the Sephardic and hasidic custom follows this practice. (However, <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 135:2 and 423:11 advocates following the Ashkenazic custom. In addition, for kabbalistic reasons, it is R. Ovadia Yosef’s practice to return the Torah scroll to the ark immediately after the Torah reading on Rosh Ḥodesh, as well as on Mondays and Thursdays [<i>Yalkut Yosef</i> 423:6 with notes].)</i>
  
  Section 15
  
  Rosh Ḥodesh / The Meaning of <i>Birkat Ha-levana</i>
  In <i>Birkat Ha-levana </i>(the <i>Berakha</i> of the Moon), we thank God for creating the moon, from whose light we benefit at night. Many Jews have attached special honor and affection to this <i>berakha</i>, as it alludes to deep concepts concerning the Jewish people. We will explain some of these concepts here.
  Of all the heavenly bodies, the moon is most similar to us. Just as a person’s life is filled with ups and downs, the moon waxes and wanes through the course of each month. In the middle of the month, the moon appears full, but as it nears the end of the month it dwindles and disappears. And just as Adam, the first man, gave in to his pride and desires and ate from the Tree of Knowledge and was punished, the moon was not satisfied being equally luminous as the sun, asking instead to rule over it (see above, section 5). In retribution for the moon’s arrogance, God reduced its light and even created the lunar cycle in which it wanes every month, eventually disappearing for an entire day. However, unlike man, who eventually fades away and dies, the moon remains part of the heavenly hosts and is fixed and everlasting, always regenerating itself. The Jewish people have the exact same qualities. On the one hand, they lead normal human lives, which include ups and downs, a good inclination as well as an evil inclination. On the other hand, their connection to faith and God is everlasting. Therefore, unlike other nations, the Jewish people will endure forever. We connect to this idea of Israel’s immortality through <i>Birkat Ha-levana</i>, which we recite upon seeing the moon reappear and begin to grow anew every month.
  Moreover, not only do we manage to survive despite all the hardships that we experience, we actually advance to a higher level as a result of each crisis and setback. King David taught us how to transform each setback into an impetus for greater growth. The Sages relate that David was the lowliest of his brothers, growing up in the fields among the animals, but he succeeded in maturing and improving from every experience. Even after his difficult fall in the sin of Bat-Sheva, he did not despair. Rather, he repented completely, to the point where the Sages say that “he established the yoke of repentance” (<i>Mo’ed Katan</i> 16b). David transformed his awful failure into tremendous self-improvement, and ever since then we learn from him the ways of repentance and the true extent of its power. By virtue of his repentance, David’s kingdom is everlasting, just as the moon always rejuvenates after its decline.
  This is why David’s kingdom is compared to the moon, and it is also why we recite in the <i>Kiddush Levana</i> ceremony, “David, King of Israel, lives and endures.” The Jewish people grow from every setback as well, rectifying all their sins and blemishes, until they will eventually be privileged to perfect the world under the sovereignty of God. At that time, the moon, which symbolizes our situation in the world, will also return to its perfected state, when its light will be as bright as the sun’s. Thus, we beseech God in <i>Birkat Ha-levana</i>, “It [the moon] should renew itself as a crown of glory for those He carried from the womb, for they [Israel] are destined to be renewed like it, and to praise their Creator for the sake of His glorious majesty.”
  Some have a custom to add the following request:May it be Your will, Lord my God and God of my ancestors, to make good the deficiency of the moon, so that it is no longer in its diminished state. May the light of the moon be like the light of the sun and like the light of the seven days of creation as it was before it was diminished, as it says, “The two great luminaries” (Bereishit 1:16). And may there be fulfilled for us the verse: “They shall seek the Lord their God, and David their king” (Hoshe’a 3:5). Amen.21<i class="footnote">Numerous <i>midrashim</i> indicate that the non-Jews at the time followed the solar calendar. The reason for this is tied to man’s desire to utilize the sun, which stems from a desire for absolute perfection. However, the truth is that this is beyond man’s reach. And since the non-Jews fail to attain absolute perfection, they forfeit what they could have achieved by revealing God’s name in the world. By contrast, the Jews know how to operate within this world while clinging to God, which manifests itself through constant self-perfection. Calculating the months according to the lunar cycle alludes to our efforts in this world, while calculating the years according to the solar calendar alludes to our constant aspiration for perfection. The Islamic calendar’s use of lunar months is based on the Hebrew calendar, but theirs is a purely lunar calendar that does not account for the solar year. This signifies a lack of aspiration for continuous self-perfection and an entrenchment in this world. It also explains why Islam perceives reward, even in the hereafter, in predominantly physical terms.It is important to add that even when the moon is invisible to us, it is not actually gone; it is merely hidden from view. When this occurs, none of the light it absorbs from the sun is reflected toward the earth, thus making it indiscernible to us. The same is true of the nation of Israel: Even when it is in a period of descent, its inner essence remains unblemished; “Every part of you is fair, my darling, there is no blemish in you” (Shir Ha-shirim 4:7).</i>
  
  Section 16
  
  Rosh Ḥodesh / The Laws of Reciting <i>Birkat Ha-levana </i>Joyously
  Because of the lofty idea that the moon’s renewal represents, <i>Birkat Ha-levana</i> has been hallowed to the point that one who recites it is viewed as if he is greeting the <i>Shekhina</i> (Divine Presence). Thus, in the academy of Rabbi Yishmael it was taught: “Were the people of Israel privileged to greet the presence of their heavenly Father only once a month (when reciting <i>Birkat Ha-levana</i>), it would have been sufficient for them” (<i>San</i>. 42a). Therefore, Abaye concluded that one must honor the <i>berakha</i> and recite it while standing (<i>San</i>. 42a.). One who finds it difficult to stand should lean on his cane or a friend and recite the <i>berakha</i>. And if leaning is too difficult, he may recite it while sitting.22<i class="footnote">SA 426:2; R. Akiva Eger, <i>ad loc</i>.; BHL, <i>ad loc.</i>,<i> </i>end of s.v. “u-mevarekh me’umad”; <i>Yalkut Yosef</i> 426:11. (<i>Ben Ish Ḥai</i>, Year 2, Vayikra 23 states that it is proper to recite the <i>berakha</i> with one’s feet together, but the prevalent custom is not to do so.)Reciting this <i>berakha</i> is like greeting the <i>Shekhina</i> because the <i>Shekhina</i> alludes to <i>Knesset Yisrael</i> (the Assembly of Israel), both of which are related to the attribute of God’s kingship. See also Maharal’s <i>Ḥidushei Aggadot</i> 3:158, which states that every initial renewal contains an aspect of greeting the <i>Shekhina</i>. BHL <i>loc. cit.</i> states that we recognize God’s greatness through the moon and stars; therefore, reciting this <i>berakha</i> is similar to greeting the <i>Shekhina</i>.</i>
  It is customary to honor the <i>berakha</i> by reciting it with a <i>minyan</i>. In the absence of a <i>minyan</i>, it is best to recite it in a group of three, but technically one may recite it alone. If one is concerned that if he puts off reciting the <i>berakha </i>until a <i>minyan</i> can be gathered he will forget to recite the <i>berakha</i> altogether, it is preferable not to wait, but to recite it alone (BHL 426:2, s.v. “ela”).
  It is customary to go outside and recite the <i>berakha</i> under the open sky. After all, we learned above that <i>Birkat Ha-levana</i> is compared to greeting the <i>Shekhina</i>. Therefore, one should approach reciting this <i>berakha </i>as if one is going out to greet a king. One who is sick or concerned that he might catch a cold if he ventures outside may view the moon through a window and recite the <i>berakha</i> indoors (MB 426:21).
  In order to honor the <i>berakha</i>, which entails an aspect of greeting the <i>Shekhina</i>, we are accustomed to reciting it immediately after Shabbat, when we are joyful and dressed nicely. However, if there is reason to be concerned that waiting until <i>Motza’ei Shabbat</i> will cause us to miss the opportunity to recite the <i>berakha</i> altogether, it is preferable to recite it on a weeknight (SA<i>, </i>Rema 426:2).
  It is customary not to recite <i>Birkat Ha-levana</i> on Friday night, in order to avoid mingling the joy of Shabbat with that of <i>Birkat Ha-levana</i>. However, if there is reason to be concerned that one might not recite the <i>berakha</i> on time, he should recite it on Friday night (Rema 426:2, MB 426:12).
  As we already learned, the moon alludes to <i>Knesset Yisrael</i> (the Assembly of Israel). Like a bride before God, <i>Knesset Yisrael</i> renews and purifies itself every month, just as a bride does for her husband. This strengthens the bond between <i>Knesset Yisrael</i> and God. And when all of the world’s flaws are remedied, everyone will recognize the special relationship that exists between Israel and God, as it says, “As a bridegroom rejoices over his bride, so will your God rejoice over you” (Yeshayahu 62:5). Therefore, a custom developed to dance and sing after <i>Birkat Ha-levana</i>. Along the same lines, there is a custom to rise on one’s toes slightly when saying, “Just as I leap toward You…” (Rema 426:2).
  Since we must recite the <i>berakha</i> joyously, we do not recite it before Tisha Be-Av, when we are mourning the Temple’s destruction, or before Yom Kippur, due to the anxiety of the upcoming Day of Judgment. We do recite it, however, immediately after Yom Kippur, even though we have not yet eaten, because we are overjoyed to have had the privilege to stand before God in penitence. It is proper to postpone <i>Kiddush Levana</i> until the night after Tisha Be-Av, or until people have had a chance to eat and drink and leave their state of mourning (Rema 426:2). However, if it will be difficult to gather a <i>minyan</i> later on, a congregation may recite <i>Birkat Ha-levana </i>immediately after the fast is over (MB 426:11, SHT 426:9; see also below 10:19).
  Similarly, one who is sitting <i>shiva</i> should postpone reciting <i>Birkat Ha-levana</i> until after the <i>shiva</i> period is over, if possible, even if he will have to recite it alone, because he is grieving. If, however, he cannot postpone it, because <i>shiva</i> will end after the permissible time to recite the <i>berakha</i>, he should recite it even during his mourning period (MB 426:11, <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 426:5; the latest time to recite the <i>berakha</i> will be elucidated below, section 18).
  
  Section 17
  
  Rosh Ḥodesh / Seeing the New Moon
  We recite <i>Birkat Ha-levana </i>over the new moon at night, because that is when it is clearly visible and one can benefit from its light. One may not recite the <i>berakha</i> if he sees the moon at twilight, because the sun’s light is still visible then and thus one does not benefit purely from the light of the moon at that time (Rema 426:1). Before reciting the <i>berakha</i>, one must look at the moon for a moment in order to derive pleasure from its light, but it is customary not to look at the moon when actually reciting the <i>berakha</i> (MB 426:13, <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 426:34). If one recites the <i>berakha</i> when the moon is covered by clouds he has not fulfilled his obligation, because he cannot benefit from its light. However, if it is covered only by a thin layer of clouds, and one can see things that are usually visible by the light of the moon, he may recite the <i>berakha</i>. Nevertheless, it is best to recite <i>Birkat Ha-levana </i>when the moon is clearly visible, with no obstruction. Some authorities write that it is preferable to postpone <i>Birkat Ha-levana</i> in such a situation, but technically one may recite the <i>berakha</i> even if a thin cloud passes underneath the moon, since one can still derive benefit from its light. It seems to me that as long as one can discern the outline of the moon through the cloud, one may recite the <i>berakha</i>.23<i class="footnote">Radbaz 1:341 writes that it primarily depends on one’s ability to derive benefit from the moon’s light, and many Aḥaronim cite this position, including MA and MB 426:3. However, Ḥida writes in <i>Moreh Be-etzba</i> §184 that one may not recite the <i>berakha</i> if the moon is covered by even a very thin cloud, and <i>Ben Ish Ḥai</i>, Year 2<i>, </i>Vayikra 23 concurs. Nevertheless, it seems that all agree that technically one may recite the <i>berakha</i> as long as one benefits from the moon’s light. This is the conclusion of <i>Yalkut Yosef</i> 426:5.<i>Eshel Avraham</i> (Buczacz) explains that one may recite the <i>berakha</i> if the light of the moon allows one to see most of the things that are usually visible when the moon is unobstructed. This is assessed based on the amount of moonlight on the seventh night of the month, or in pressing circumstances, on the fourth of the month. According to this opinion, one may recite the <i>berakha</i> toward the middle of the month (when there is more moonlight) even if the moon is covered by a thicker cloud, and one may recite it toward the beginning of the month (when there is less moonlight) only if the cloud is very thin. The <i>poskim</i>, however, seem to indicate that the distinction depends only on the thickness of the cloud, irrespective of the day on which the <i>berakha</i> is recited. So writes <i>Sefer Kiddush Levana</i> 2:3 (with notes). Therefore, in my humble opinion, it seems that if one can see the outline of the moon, it is considered “visible”, and one may recite the <i>berakha</i>.Technically, though, the <i>halakha</i> follows the opinion of Radbaz and <i>Eshel Avraham</i>. This is apparent from the words of <i>Terumat Ha-deshen</i> quoted in <i>Leket Yosher</i>: “Once, he saw only a small portion of the moon, because it was partially covered by a cloud, and he nevertheless sanctified it.”Some wrote that one should look at the moon only briefly. See MB 426:13 and <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 426:34.Many authorities write that one who recited the <i>berakha</i> without looking at the moon has fulfilled his obligation, as long as he could have seen it had he looked. They derive this, by logical inference, from the law of a blind person. Most <i>poskim</i> maintain that a blind person must recite <i>Birkat Ha-levana</i>, because the <i>berakha</i> was instituted in recognition of the moon’s renewal and thus applies whether or not one can see it. In addition, even blind people benefit from the moon, as others use its light to escort them. This is the viewpoint of Maharshal, MA, <i>Eliya Rabba</i>, and <i>Pri Ḥadash</i>. However, Maharikash maintains that a blind person should not recite the <i>berakha</i>, as he does not derive pleasure from the moon. In practice, a blind person should not recite the <i>berakha</i>, because of the uncertainty surrounding the matter. Nevertheless, it is preferable that he hear the <i>berakha</i> from someone else (see MB 426:1; BHL 426, s.v. “nehenin”; <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 426:2).</i>
  If, while reciting the <i>berakha</i>, the moon becomes completely obscured by clouds, one should continue reciting the <i>berakha</i>. However, if one estimates that while reciting the <i>berakha</i> a large cloud will obscure the moon completely, he should not begin reciting the <i>berakha</i>, because <i>le-khatḥila</i>, the entire <i>berakha</i> should be recited when the moon is in view (Radbaz 1:341; MB 426:2; BHL <i>ad loc.</i>,<i> </i>s.v. “nehenin”).
  
  Section 18
  
  Rosh Ḥodesh / The Proper Time for <i>Birkat Ha-levana</i>
  Many Rishonim maintain that the time for reciting <i>Birkat Ha-levana</i> begins on the first day the moon is visible, and that the earlier one recites the <i>berakha</i> the better (MT, Laws of <i>Berakhot</i> 10:17; Rosh; and others). Several <i>poskim</i>, however, posit that it is preferable to wait until the moon grows somewhat, when it is possible to benefit from its light. Some say that one should wait until three whole days pass, as that is when the moon’s light begins to be usable (R. Saadia Gaon, <i>Talmidei Rabbeinu Yona</i>), while others say that seven days must pass, because that is when one can begin to truly benefit from its light (<i>Responsa Rema</i> <i>Mi-Fano</i> §78). According to some of the greatest kabbalists – most notably, R. Yosef Gikatilla – one should wait seven days, for kabbalistic reasons. They explain that the renewal of the moon’s light alludes to man’s renewal, and whenever there is a new development there is concern that God’s attribute of justice might prosecute and hinder the new growth. Therefore, it is proper to wait seven days, like the seven days of creation, since by then the moon’s light will have stabilized and the attribute of justice can no longer prosecute against the new beginning.
  The Sephardic and Hasidic custom is to wait until the seventh of the month to recite the <i>berakha</i> (SA 426:4), while the Ashkenazic custom is to recite it after three days have passed (<i>Baḥ</i>, MB 426:20). In practice, though, it is customary to recite <i>Birkat Ha-levana </i>on <i>Motza’ei Shabbat</i>, so that the <i>berakha</i> can be recited joyously, while wearing nice clothing. Thus, practically speaking, Ashkenazim and Moroccan Jews recite <i>Birkat Ha-levana</i> on the <i>Motza’ei Shabbat </i>that follows three whole days after the <i>molad</i>, while Sephardim and Ḥasidim recite it on the first <i>Motza’ei Shabbat</i> after the seventh of the month.
  There is a dispute regarding how to act when the seventh of the month begins on a <i>Motza’ei Shabbat</i>, but seven complete days from the time of the <i>molad</i> (168 hours) have not yet passed. Some authorities maintain that we postpone the <i>berakha</i> until the next night or the next <i>Motza’ei Shabbat</i>, which will fall out on the fourteenth of the month (Rashash, R. Shneur Zalman of Liadi, <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 426:61). Others contend that even if a few hours remain until the end of the seventh day after the <i>molad</i>, one may recite <i>Birkat Ha-levana</i> (<i>Knesset Ha-gedola</i>, <i>Yeḥaveh Da’at</i> 2:24). If people from different ethnic backgrounds pray together and the seventh of the month falls out on a <i>Motza’ei Shabbat</i>, it is proper for everyone to recite <i>Birkat Ha-levana</i>, as that is the position of the majority of <i>poskim</i>.25<i class="footnote">See <i>Beit Yosef</i> and SA 426:4, <i>Baḥ</i> and MB <i>ad loc</i>., <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 426:61, <i>Sefer Kiddush Levana</i> 3:1-2. Many Rishonim maintain that the <i>berakha</i> should be recited immediately upon the moon’s reappearance at the beginning of the month. R. Yaakov Rakaḥ writes in <i>Shulḥan Leḥem Ha-panim</i> that this seems to be the opinion of R. Amram Gaon, <i>Behag</i>, Rif, Rambam, Rosh, and others. <i>Baḥ</i> points out that the Talmud implies that one should not recite <i>Kiddush Levana</i> after the seventh day. Rambam, as well, indicates that it is preferable to recite it as early as possible. On the other hand, some <i>poskim</i> infer from <i>Sofrim</i> 20:1 that one should not recite <i>Birkat Ha-levana</i> until it is possible to benefit from its light. <i>Talmidei Rabbeinu Yona</i>, R. David Abudraham, <i>Kol Bo</i>, and others espouse this viewpoint. This is also the practical implication of the discussion cited above in n. 22. According to Kabbala, one should recite the <i>berakha</i> after seven days. In practice, the Ashkenazic custom is to recite <i>Birkat Ha-levana </i>after three days have passed. This is also the custom of North African Jews (R. Shalom Messas and many others). Most Sephardim and Ḥasidim, based on Kabbala, are accustomed to reciting the <i>berakha</i> after seven days. Moreover, some Ashkenazim follow this custom <i>le-khatḥila</i>, as Ḥatam Sofer OḤ 102 and AHS 426:13 state. Nonetheless, when the seventh day falls out on a <i>Motza’ei Shabbat</i>, it seems preferable to recite <i>Birkat Ha-levana</i> then, even if seven complete days from the <i>molad</i> have not yet passed. After all, there is already abundant moonlight and part of a day is often regarded in <i>halakha</i> as an entire day. Moreover, <i>Motza’ei Shabbat</i> is a joyous time, which makes it particularly suited for <i>Birkat Ha-levana</i>. In addition, several <i>poskim</i> maintain that one should recite the <i>berakha</i> as early as possible (Ramban and his adherents), while others assert that one should not recite it after the seventh of the month (<i>Baḥ</i>). Therefore, it is proper to recite it on the night of the seventh day, even if seven complete days have not passed since the <i>molad</i>. This is how <i>Knesset Ha-gedola</i>, <i>Responsa Rema</i> <i>Mi-Fano</i> §78, <i>Nahar Mitzrayim</i>, <i>Eliya Rabba</i>, <i>Eshel Avraham</i> (Buczacz), Maharsham, and others conclude.Women and Birkat Ha-levana: Since this <i>berakha</i> is time-dependent, women are exempt from reciting it. And even though according to Ashkenazic custom, women may recite time-bound <i>berakhot</i>, the prevalent custom is that women do not to recite <i>Birkat Ha-levana </i>(MB 426:1). See <i>Peninei Halakha</i>:<i> Women’s Prayer</i> ch. 23 n. 1.</i>
  One who failed to recite <i>Birkat Ha-levana</i> by the seventh of the month may recite it until the end of the night of the fifteenth, because the moon is still waxing until then. Afterward, however, the moon begins to wane; therefore, the <i>berakha</i> cannot be said from the night of the sixteenth and onward (SA 426:3).
  Preferably, one should take into account the opinion of Maharil, who maintains that one may not recite <i>Birkat Ha-levana</i> after half of the lunar cycle has elapsed (fourteen days, eighteen hours, and approximately twenty minutes, from the time of the <i>molad</i>). This time rarely elapses by the beginning of the night of the fourteenth. By the night of the fifteenth, the lunar cycle sometimes reaches the halfway mark and sometimes does not (Rema 426:3, <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 426:53). Nevertheless, in practice, one who did not recite the <i>berakha</i> by the night of the fourteenth may recite it until the end of the night of the fifteenth (BHL 426:3, <i>Yabi’a Omer</i> 8:42).
  
  
  
  
  
  Section 1
  
  The Laws of Counting the <i>Omer</i> / The Mitzva and its Meaning
  Starting from the night of the <i>omer</i> harvest, there is a mitzva to count 49 days, which are seven weeks. This is known as<i> sefirat ha-omer</i>, counting the <i>omer</i>.<i> </i>The <i>omer</i> harvest took place on the sixteenth of Nisan, the night after the first day of Pesaḥ. That night, they would go out to the fields and harvest barley, bring them to the Temple courtyard, thresh them, winnow them, separate out the chaff, roast the grains, grind them well, produce a tenth of an <i>eifa</i> of flour, sift it through thirteen sieves, mix it with a <i>log</i> of oil, and place a <i>kometz </i>(handful) of frankincense on it. The next day, part of the mixture would be offered on the altar. First, a <i>kohen</i> would wave it; then he would separate a <i>kometz</i> from the mixture and burn it on the altar. After the <i>kometz</i> was burned up, everyone was permitted to eat from the newly harvested grain.
  Unlike other festivals, Shavu’ot does not have a calendar date. Whereas Pesaḥ begins on the fifteenth of Nisan and Sukkot on the fifteenth of Tishrei, Shavu’ot’s date is determined by the <i>omer</i> count: the festival begins after the seven-week count is completed, which is why it is called <i>Ḥag Ha-shavu’ot</i> – the Festival of Weeks. This is the meaning of the verse: “You shall count off seven weeks; start to count seven weeks from when the sickle is first put to the standing grain, and then you shall observe the Festival of Weeks for the Lord your God” (Devarim 16:9-10). It also says:And from the day on which you bring the sheaf (<i>omer</i>)<i> </i>of elevation offering – the day after the “Shabbat” – you shall count off seven weeks. They must be complete: You must count until the day after the seventh week – fifty days; then you shall bring an offering of new grain to the Lord. (Vayikra 23:15-16)
  This mitzva is not incumbent upon the <i>beit din</i> alone; rather, every Jew is commanded to count 49 days. The mitzva is to verbalize the count. There is a general principle that applies to <i>mitzvot</i> that require speech-acts: “<i>Shome’a ke-oneh</i>” (“One who hears is as one who responds”). Thus, for example, one can fulfill the mitzva of remembering Amalek by hearing a public reading of <i>Parashat Zakhor</i>, and one can fulfill his obligation to recite a <i>berakha</i> over the counting of the <i>omer</i> by hearing the <i>berakha </i>of the <i>ḥazan</i>. With regard to the actual counting, however, several <i>poskim</i> maintain that each person must verbalize the count, as it says, “<i>u-sefartem </i><i>lakhem</i>” – literally,<i> </i>“count for yourselves” (<i>Levush, Ḥok Yaakov</i>). Although others maintain that the status of <i>sefirat ha-omer </i>is identical to that of other <i>mitzvot </i>that require speech-acts, and consequently that one may discharge his obligation by hearing someone else count (<i>Pri Ḥadash, Birkei Yosef</i>), nevertheless, <i>le-khatḥila</i>, to satisfy all opinions, each person must verbalize the count (see MB 489:5 and BHL s.v. “u-mitzva”).
  This mitzva is rooted in the very beginning of our emergence as a nation. The Sages explain that Israel had sunk to the depths of the forty-ninth level of impurity during their bondage in Egypt and were therefore unworthy of receiving the Torah. God waited seven weeks for them to purge themselves of the defilement of Egypt and enter a pure state, in which they could receive the Torah (based on <i>Zohar</i>, <i>Emor</i> 97). Counting the <i>omer </i>also expresses our anticipation for the giving of the Torah. A <i>midrash</i> relates that when Moshe announced to Israel that after leaving Egypt they would worship God at Mount Sinai and receive the Torah, they asked him, “When will this take place?” Moshe answered, “After fifty days.” Then, due to their great love for God, they counted every day, saying, “One day has passed,” “two days have passed,” and so on, every day. Because of their love and anticipation for the Torah, it seemed like a long time to them (<i>Shibolei Ha-leket</i> §236).
  <i>Sefirat ha-omer</i> expresses our longing and anticipation of that great day when God gave us the Torah. By doing so, we undergo a process of purification with respect to all 49 levels of which man is constituted. The purer and cleaner one becomes, the more he will be able to absorb the Torah’s light. Thus, every year, we count the <i>omer</i> in preparation for receiving the Torah (see the end of section 3 below).
  
  Section 2
  
  The Laws of Counting the <i>Omer</i> / The Process of Ascension from Nationalism to Spirituality
  By counting the <i>omer</i>, we draw a line that ascends continuously from Pesaḥ to Shavu’ot. The festival of Pesaḥ represents Israel’s national aspect: the Exodus revealed Israel’s uniqueness, in that God chose us from among all the other nations despite the fact that we were mired in 49 levels of impurity. The festival of Shavu’ot, however, represents Israel’s spiritual aspect, because that is when we reached the spiritual pinnacle of receiving the Torah. On Pesaḥ, we began the process of liberation from the yoke of Egypt, while on Shavu’ot we became completely liberated from the yoke of human perceptions and impulses by receiving the divine Torah, which makes all who engage in it truly free (<i>m. Avot</i> 6:2).
  Let us present another dimension of this ascent. On Pesaḥ, the simple, natural faith that is hidden in the soul of every Jew, and which was preserved even during the years of Egyptian bondage, is revealed. On Shavu’ot, however, we rise to a more sophisticated form of faith, one that is clarified and expanded by the Torah. Natural faith is very powerful – indeed, it is the very foundation of life – but it cannot give direction to life or improve it. Through the Torah and the <i>mitzvot</i>, we are able to link all aspects of our lives – intellectual, emotional, and practical – to faith.
  Thus, by counting the <i>omer</i> we gradually elevate ourselves in two ways: from nationalism to spirituality and from natural faith to a sophisticated faith based on Torah and <i>mitzvot</i>.
  It is impossible to reach Shavu’ot without Pesaḥ. Only by recognizing Israel’s uniqueness can we rise to be worthy of the Torah. Only once we realize that Israel is the chosen nation, as the Exodus demonstrated, can we receive the Torah. As we say in the <i>berakha</i> over the Torah, “Blessed are You, Lord…Who chose us from among all the nations” and only then “gave us His Torah.” Similarly, it is impossible to grasp complex, developed, cognitive faith without first discovering simple, natural faith. Therefore, it is very important to connect the festival of Pesaḥ to the festival of Shavu’ot. Counting the <i>omer</i> is the link and the ladder that connects these two festivals.1<i class="footnote">There is an allusion to this idea in the fact that we are commanded to count “from the day on which you bring the <i>omer</i> of elevation offering” (Vayikra 23:15). The <i>omer</i> offering is unique in that it is made from barley, an animal food, which represents the material, national aspect of Israel. Before we received the Torah and attained knowledge of God, we were like mindless animals. When we finish counting fifty days, we receive the Torah and reach a lofty spiritual state, then, “You shall bring an offering of new grain to the Lord” (<i>ibid</i>. 23:16). Similarly, matza is called the “bread of affliction,” and the <i>Zohar</i> teaches that it is bread of faith, that is, natural faith. The offering of new grain brought on Shavu’ot is made of leavened wheat; it is rich and developed, alluding to the complete revelation of divinity in every aspect of this world. On Pesaḥ, the revelation of natural faith occurs through limitation: the restriction against leavened bread. On Shavu’ot, however, it occurs through expansion (see <i>Orot Yisrael</i> 8:1). <i></i>Perhaps we can say that this is the basis of the dispute about whether <i>sefirat ha-omer</i> nowadays is mandated by Torah law or rabbinically (below, section 4). If the purpose of counting is to rise from simple faith to sophisticated faith through Torah study, then it is mandated by Torah law even today. But if the purpose is to elevate us from a revelation of faith by way of limitation and abstinence, which expresses itself in the prohibition of <i>ḥametz </i>on Pesaḥ (see <i>Peninei Halakha</i>: <i>Pesaḥ</i> 1:5-6), to a level of faith that reveals itself in all areas of life – in the physical world with all its pleasures – then it requires the existence of the Temple, which connects heaven and earth. Therefore, as long as we are unable to bring the <i>omer</i> offering, which represents material forces and from which we can rise to the point where we may bring the “new” offering of two loaves, it is impossible for us to express faith in every aspect of life. Therefore, <i>sefirat ha-omer </i>is of rabbinic provenance only.</i>
  
  Section 3
  
  The Laws of Counting the <i>Omer</i> / The Formula for Counting the <i>Omer</i>
  Before counting the <i>omer</i>, one recites the following <i>berakha</i>: “<i>Barukh ata Hashem Elokeinu Melekh ha-olam, asher kideshanu be-mitzvotav ve-tzivanu al sefirat ha-omer</i> (“Blessed are you, Lord our God, King of the universe, Who has sanctified us with His <i>mitzvot </i>and commanded us concerning the counting of the <i>omer</i>”). Both the <i>berakha</i> and the count are optimally recited while standing, but if one recited them while seated, he has nonetheless fulfilled his obligation (SA 489:1).2<i class="footnote">The Rishonim find an indirect support for this law in the verse, “From when the sickle is first put to the standing grain (<i>ba-kama</i>)” (Devarim 16:9). The Rishonim explain: Do not read the word as <i>ba-kama</i> but as <i>ba-koma</i>, meaning “while standing.” <i>Sefer Ha-eshkol</i> (<i>Hilkhot Pesaḥ</i> 159:1) states that we do not recite the <i>berakha </i>of <i>She-heḥeyanu</i> on <i>sefirat ha-omer</i> because we count in anticipation of Shavu’ot, and the <i>berakha </i>of <i>She-heḥeyanu</i> recited on Shavu’ot covers <i>sefirat ha-omer</i> as well. Maharil suggests that it is because <i>sefirat ha-omer</i> is only a preliminary mitzva that culminates in Shavu’ot. Radbaz 4:256, Maharsham 1:213, and <i>Rav Pe’alim</i> OḤ 3:32 offer these reasons as well. Maharil adds that we are concerned that one may forget to count one day and forfeit the entire count, rendering his initial recitation of <i>She-heḥeyanu</i> a <i>berakha </i>in vain. <i>Kol Bo</i> §145 explains that we omit the <i>berakha</i> because the mitzva is only rabbinic nowadays. Rashba writes (<i>Responsa</i> <i>Rashba </i>1:126) that one only recites <i>She-heḥeyanu</i> if the mitzva gives one pleasure. We take the <i>lulav</i> to express joy; we blow the <i>shofar</i> as a remembrance; but <i>sefirat ha-omer</i> is merely a preparatory act, which provides no pleasure. Furthermore, <i>sefirat ha-omer </i>today has taken on an additional role as a mournful commemoration of the Temple’s destruction. Rabbeinu Yeruḥam provides the same reason, quoting <i>Ha-ma’or</i>.</i>
  There are two components to the count: the days and the weeks, as the Torah says:And from the day on which you bring the <i>omer </i>of elevation offering – the day after the “Shabbat” – you shall count off seven weeks. They must be complete: You must count until the day after the seventh week – fifty days. (Vayikra 23:15-16)
  Therefore, one must mention the tally of both days and weeks when counting the <i>omer</i> (<i>Menaḥot</i> 61a). For example, on the seventh day one says: “<i>Ha-yom shiva yamim, she-hem shavu’a eḥad</i>”<i> </i>(“Today is day seven, making one week”). On the fourteenth day, one says: “<i>Ha-yom arba’ah asar yom, she-hem shnei shavu’ot</i>” (“Today is day fourteen, making two weeks”). We mention the number of days and weeks even in the middle of a week. For example, on the tenth day one says: “<i>Ha-yom asara yamim, she-hem shavu’a eḥad ve-shlosha yamim</i>” (“Today is day ten, making one week and three days”).3<i class="footnote">At the completion of every week, one must mention the number of days and weeks, e.g., “Today is day seven, making one week.” There is a dispute, however, regarding the middle of each week, such as on the eighth day. According to <i>Ha-ma’or</i> and other Rishonim, one need count only the days and therefore say, “Today is day eight.” R. Ephraim maintains that one must count only the weeks and say, “Today is week one, day one.” According to Rif, Rambam, and Rosh, one tallies both days and weeks every day, and that is our practice, as SA 489:1 states.<i>Be-di’avad</i>, if one forgot to count the days on a day that completes a week, he has not fulfilled his obligation, and he must count again with a <i>berakha</i>. If he forgot to rectify his mistake that day, he counts each day from then on without a <i>berakha</i>. If one forgot to count the weeks on a day that completes a week, some maintain that he has fulfilled his obligation <i>be-di’avad</i>, while others maintain that he has not. In the middle of a week, however, such as on the eighth day, if one says merely, “Today is day eight,” he has fulfilled his obligation <i>be-di’avad</i>. If he says only, “Today is week one, day one,” some maintain that he has fulfilled his obligation. In all of these scenarios, one should count again properly without a <i>berakha</i>. However, if one failed to correct his error on that day, he may count the next day with a <i>berakha</i> (based on MB 489:7, SHT <i>ad loc. </i>9, 19, and section 8 below).</i>
  There are several versions of the formula for <i>sefirat ha-omer</i>. Some say <i>la-omer</i> (lit. “to the <i>omer</i>”) while others say <i>ba-omer</i> (lit. “of the <i>omer</i>”). Some say it in the middle of the formula (“Today is day fourteen of/to the <i>omer</i>, making two weeks”), while some say it at the end (“Today is day fourteen, making two weeks, of/to the <i>omer</i>.” One fulfills his obligation no matter which version he uses. It is customary to add the <i>Le-shem Yiḥud</i> (“For the sake of the unification”) paragraph before counting, as well as various other prayers afterward, but one is not obligated to do so. The primary observance is the actual counting and the preceding <i>berakha</i>.
  The number seven indicates the complete manifestation of something, as the world was created in seven days. Indeed, every physical entity has six sides – four lateral sides, a top, and a bottom – as well as a seventh aspect: its essence. Man has seven facets as well, which is why it takes seven days to go from a state of defilement to a state of purity. For seven days, one prepares every facet of selfhood to rise from the defilement to purity.
  The same is true of purification for sacred endeavors in this world, like eating <i>teruma</i> and sacrificial foods and a woman’s purification for her husband. However, receiving the divine Torah, whose lofty status belongs to the supernal worlds, requires a much deeper count: seven weeks instead of seven days. In this count, each of the seven numbers is manifested through all seven of its facets. Thus, our purification to receive the Torah is complete. Every aspect of our character undergoes refinement and expresses its yearning and anticipation for receiving the Torah.
  
  Section 4
  
  The Laws of Counting the <i>Omer</i> / The Mitzva’s Status after the Temple’s Destruction
  A fundamental question about <i>sefirat ha-omer</i> is whether the mitzva is mandated by Torah law or rabbinical enactment while the Temple no longer stands. The Torah says, “And from the day on which you bring the <i>omer </i>of elevation offering – the day after the “Shabbat” – you shall count off seven weeks. They must be complete”<i> </i>(Vayikra 23:15).
  According to Rosh, Ran, and many other Rishonim, the Torah commandment to count the <i>omer</i> applies only when the <i>omer</i> offering is brought on the sixteenth of Nisan in the Temple. Today, however, when we do not bring this offering, the mitzva is only mandated rabbinically. The Sages enacted that we continue performing this mitzva in commemoration of the <i>sefirat ha-omer </i>that was practiced in the time of the Temple. For this reason, right after counting, we customarily recite a short prayer for the rebuilding of the Temple. After all, when the Temple is rebuilt, we will once again be fulfilling a Torah commandment by performing this mitzva, not merely a rabbinic decree.
  However, Rambam and Raavya maintain that the <i>omer</i> offering is mentioned in the verse only to teach us the date on which we begin to count the <i>omer</i>. It is not a necessary condition for the fulfillment of the mitzva. Therefore, the Torah commandment of <i>sefirat ha-omer </i>applies even today, when the Temple is in ruins and we are unable to bring the <i>omer</i> offering.
  The practical ramifications of this dispute concerns situations of uncertainty. For example, if one counts during <i>bein ha-shmashot </i>(twilight, between <i>shki’a</i> and <i>tzeit</i>) it is questionable whether he fulfills the mitzva of <i>sefirat ha-omer</i>. If we consider <i>bein ha-shmashot</i> day, he does not fulfill his obligation, because the time for the next day’s count did not yet arrive. If we consider it night, however, he fulfills his obligation. <i>Shulḥan Arukh</i> (489:2) and the majority of <i>poskim</i> maintain that one who counts during <i>bein ha-shmashot</i> fulfills his obligation, because, in their opinion, <i>sefirat ha-omer</i> is a rabbinic mitzva nowadays, and we rule leniently in cases of uncertainty about a rabbinic law. However, many Aḥaronim write that it is proper to act strictly and count again, without a <i>berakha</i>, after <i>tzeit</i>, in order to fulfill the mitzva even according to those who maintain that <i>sefirat ha-omer</i> is a Torah commandment nowadays, and thus one must act strictly in cases of uncertainty (<i>Eliya Rabba</i>; MB 489:15; BHL 489:1, s.v. “lispor ha-omer”).
  
  Section 5
  
  The Laws of Counting the <i>Omer</i> / When to Count
  We begin to count the <i>omer</i> on the night of the sixteenth of Nisan, as it says, “You shall count off seven weeks; start to count seven weeks from when the sickle is first put to the standing grain” (Devarim 16:9-10). “From when the sickle is first put to the standing grain” refers to the <i>omer </i>harvest, so called because the first harvest of the yearly produce is designated for the <i>omer</i> offering. The <i>omer</i> harvest took place on the night after the first day of Pesaḥ, which is the sixteenth of Nisan. As a result, that is when we begin to count the <i>omer</i>.
  One must count at night, because the Torah says regarding <i>sefirat ha-omer</i>, “seven weeks; they must be complete” (Vayikra 23:15), meaning that the weeks must be whole. On the Hebrew calendar, a full day consists of night followed by day, so in order to include all the nights and days of seven complete weeks, we must start counting on the night of the sixteenth of Nisan (<i>Menaḥot</i> 66a). So that the count covers all the hours of the day, it is a mitzva to count early, at the beginning of the night. We are especially meticulous on the first night, so that the count will cover every hour of the seven weeks. Nonetheless, we enhance the mitzva by counting at the beginning of the night on every night, so that each day’s count will be whole, covering an entire 24-hour day.
  Even though it is a mitzva to count at the beginning of the night, one is not obligated to do so. Therefore, one who is about to pray <i>Ma’ariv</i> must do so before <i>sefirat ha-omer</i>, due to the principle that more frequent <i>mitzvot</i> take precedence over less frequent ones. The <i>mitzvot</i> of reciting the <i>Shema</i> and praying <i>Ma’ariv</i> apply all year round, making them more frequent than <i>sefirat ha-omer</i> (<i>Ḥok Ya’akov</i>; see BHL 489:1, s.v. “aḥar”).4<i class="footnote">It seems that according to Rambam and Ran, it makes no difference when in the night one counts. However, the Sages say regarding all <i>mitzvot</i>, “The zealous perform <i>mitzvot</i> promptly.” According to <i>Tosafot</i> and Rosh, it is better to count at the beginning of the night, because then the count is more complete. SA 489:1 rules that one should count at the beginning of the night. MB 489:2 and <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 489:12 agree. Nevertheless, we pray <i>Ma’ariv</i> first, because the <i>mitzvot</i> of reciting the <i>Shema</i> and the <i>Amida</i> are more frequent (<i>Ḥok Ya’akov</i>). However, <i>Mor U-ketzi’a</i> maintains that one should count first, because the proper time for counting is the very beginning of the night, whereas <i>Shema</i> and the <i>Amida</i> can be delayed, <i>le-khatḥila</i>, for a half-hour. In practice, we count after <i>Ma’ariv</i> (BHL 489:1), because counting at the beginning of the night is not obligatory, merely a way of going above and beyond; as long as one counts at night, he fulfills the obligation of “<i>temimot</i>” (they must be complete). Therefore, we give precedence to <i>Shema</i> and the <i>Amida</i>, which are more frequent.In order to avoid delaying the count, many <i>poskim</i> suggest that one count immediately after <i>Kaddish Titkabel</i> following the <i>Amida</i>, and before <i>Aleinu</i>, which is an additional prayer. This is found in MB 489:2 and <i>Nehar Mitzrayim</i>, and most follow this custom, including all Ashkenazim and those of North African descent. Nonetheless, many who follow Sephardi custom count after <i>Aleinu</i>, in order to first finish everything that is usually said in the <i>Ma’ariv</i> service.</i>
  
  Section 6
  
  The Laws of Counting the <i>Omer</i> / Until When May One Count?
  If one regularly prays <i>Ma’ariv</i> at a late hour all year round, it is best that he count after praying at his regular time. If he counts by himself at the beginning of the night, he is liable to make a mistake or forget altogether. Moreover, there is an advantage to performing the mitzva together with the congregation.
  However, if one is preoccupied and cannot pray <i>Ma’ariv</i> with a <i>minyan</i> after <i>tzeit</i>, and he intends instead to pray by himself later on, he should preferably count the <i>omer</i> right after <i>tzeit</i>, in order to fulfill the mitzva as soon as possible. Furthermore, there is reason to suspect that he might forget to count after he prays <i>Ma’ariv</i> by himself.5<i class="footnote">If one is accustomed to praying later with a <i>minyan</i>, there is reason to suspect that he might forget to count on his own at the beginning of the night. Then, when the congregation counts, he will think that he has already counted and will thus miss a day. There is also concern that he will forget that he already counted and will thus count again, reciting a <i>berakha</i> <i>le-vatala</i>. Furthermore, there is merit in counting with a <i>minyan</i>, as <i>Shlah</i> states.There is no reason to elaborate on the issue of eating before <i>sefirat ha-omer</i>, because one may not eat before <i>Ma’ariv </i>in any case. Therefore, if it is permissible to eat before prayers – when there is something to remind him to pray, as I explain in <i>Peninei Halakha</i>: <i>Prayer</i> 25:9 – it is also permissible to eat before <i>sefirat ha-omer</i>.</i>
  There is a dispute among the Rishonim whether one who forgets to count at night can rectify his error by counting during the day. The Torah teaches us that the time for <i>sefirat ha-omer</i> depends on the time of the <i>omer</i> harvest, as it says, “start to count seven weeks from when the sickle is first put to the standing grain” (Devarim 16:9-10). According to <i>Behag</i>, the <i>halakha</i> follows the opinion cited in <i>Menaḥot</i> 71a that if the harvester fails to reap the <i>omer</i> at night, he may, <i>be-di’avad</i>, reap the next day. Likewise, the same is true of <i>sefirat ha-omer</i>: if one forgets to count at night, he may, <i>be-di’avad</i>, count the next day. Rabbeinu Tam, however, maintains that the <i>halakha</i> follows the opinion stated in <i>Megilla</i> (20b, 21a) that the mitzva of harvesting the <i>omer</i> applies only at night. Therefore, one who forgets to count at night cannot fulfill his missed obligation by counting the next day. In practice, the accepted <i>halakha</i> is that one who forgets to count at night should count during the day without a <i>berakha</i>. On one hand, we give credence to the opinion that one may count during the day. However, we omit the <i>berakha</i> in order to avoid reciting a possible <i>berakha</i> <i>le-vatala</i> (SA 489:7). Each subsequent night, he may count with a <i>berakha</i> (<i>Terumat Ha-deshen</i>, MB 489:34).
  
  Section 7
  
  The Laws of Counting the <i>Omer</i> / One Who Forgets to Count an Entire Day
  The Rishonim debate the nature of the mitzva to count the <i>omer</i>. According to <i>Behag</i>, it is one long mitzva that extends from Pesaḥ to Shavu’ot, as it says, “Seven weeks; they must be complete” (Vayikra 23:15). Therefore, one who forgets to count one day forfeits the mitzva and may not continue counting thereafter. However, most <i>poskim</i> maintain that each night’s count is a separate mitzva. Hence, one who forgets to count one day forfeits only that day’s mitzva, and he must continue counting the next day, with a <i>berakha</i> (<i>Tosafot</i>, Rosh, Ritva, and others).
  In practice, the <i>poskim</i> determined that even if one forgets to count an entire day, he must continue counting thereafter, in accordance with the majority opinion that each day’s mitzva stands alone. However, he must count without a <i>berakha</i>, in deference to the opinion that the entire count is one mitzva, and by missing a day he forfeits the whole mitzva. Thus, in order to avoid reciting a possible <i>berakha</i> <i>le-vatala</i>, he counts each subsequent day without a <i>berakha</i> (SA 489:8).
  In order to avoid forfeiting the <i>berakha </i>entirely, one who misses a day must have in mind to fulfill his obligation by hearing the <i>ḥazan</i>’s <i>berakha</i>.6<i class="footnote">According to <i>Behag</i>, one who forgets to count one day forfeits the mitzva, because his count is not “complete.” R. Saadia Gaon maintains that only one who forgets to count the first day forfeits the mitzva, while one who skips any other day may continue counting with a <i>berakha</i>. <i>Tosafot</i> (<i>Menaḥot</i> 66a) state that <i>Behag</i>’s opinion is puzzling, claiming instead that every day is a separate mitzva. This is also the opinion of Ri, Rosh, Ritva, and others. According to <i>Tur</i>, R. Hai Gaon also agrees. In addition, Ritz Gi’at writes in the name of R. Hai Gaon that one who misses a day should count the appropriate number the next day and then make up for the missed count by adding, “And yesterday was such-and-such.” In practice, we take <i>Behag</i>’s opinion into account, and thus one who forgets to count one day continues counting without a <i>berakha</i> (SA 489:8). However, some Aḥaronim ruled like the majority of Ge’onim and Rishonim that one who forgets can continue counting with a <i>berakha</i>. This opinion is found in <i>She’arim Metzuyanim Ba-halakha</i> 120:7. Still, as mentioned above, most Aḥaronim maintain that one should continue counting without a <i>berakha</i>.One might ask: According to <i>Behag</i>, why do we recite a <i>berakha</i> every day? We are forced to answer that even <i>Behag </i>would admit that each day constitutes a separate mitzva. It is merely that skipping a day mars the “completeness” of what he counts, making it impossible to continue counting. Ḥida writes (<i>Avodat Ha-kodesh</i> 7:217) that if one knows in advance that he will miss a day – due to some uncontrollable circumstance – he should omit the <i>berakha</i> from the start, because, according to <i>Behag</i>, all of his <i>berakhot</i> will be in vain. Most <i>poskim</i>, however, rule that even in such a situation, one should count with a <i>berakha</i> until that day, because even <i>Behag</i> (with whom the vast majority of Rishonim disagree) maintains that the <i>berakhot</i> made prior to the omission were not recited in vain (<i>Kin’at Sofrim, Rav Pe’alim</i> OḤ 3:32). This cannot be compared to the seven-day count of a <i>zava</i> (a woman who is ritually impure due to bodily emissions) who, as <i>Tosafot</i> explain, does not recite a <i>berakha</i> because if she sees new blood then her count is nullified, thus invalidating the entire count. The difference is that even if one forgets to count one day, the count continues and Shavu’ot still arrives on the fiftieth day. Therefore, all the days that he counted without interruption were counted properly, and the <i>berakhot</i> that he recited were warranted. Only after missing a day, when the person himself will no longer be able to count successively, does <i>Behag</i> maintain that the <i>berakha</i> should be omitted because the count is no longer “complete.”One who forgot to count a day and needs to serve as <i>ḥazan</i> (because he is observing a <i>yahrtzeit</i>, for example) should ask someone else to recite the <i>berakha</i> and count out loud, even though this will cause him discomfort, as everyone will realize that he missed a day. Others claim that in order to avoid embarrassment, one may rely on the majority of <i>poskim</i> who maintain that even one who forgets a day must count and may even recite the <i>berakha</i> on behalf of others.</i>
  This <i>halakha</i> demonstrates the tension that accompanies <i>sefirat ha-omer</i>. After all, one who skips a day breaks, in some respects, the chain connecting Pesaḥ to Shavu’ot and forfeits the <i>berakha</i>. It is very important to connect Pesaḥ, which represents holy Jewish nationalism, with Shavu’ot, when we received the Torah, because Torah cannot exist without the Jewish people, and the Jewish people cannot exist without Torah.
  
  Section 8
  
  The Laws of Counting the <i>Omer</i> / Counting with a <i>Berakha</i> in Cases of Uncertainty
  One who is uncertain whether he neglected to count one day may continue counting with a <i>berakha</i>, because we only defer to the opinion that one cannot continue counting with a <i>berakha</i> when one is certain that he missed a day.
  Similarly, one who forgets to count at night but remembers and counts during the course of the day must count with a <i>berakha</i> on all subsequent nights. Even though some maintain that one does not discharge one’s obligation by counting during the day, we follow those who maintain that, <i>be-di’avad</i>, one who counts during the day fulfills the mitzva.7<i class="footnote"><i>Terumat Ha-deshen</i> 1:37 states that even though we customarily follow <i>Behag</i>’s opinion, that is true only when one is certain that he forgot to count. In a case of uncertainty, however, we follow the viewpoint of the majority of <i>poskim</i>. The reasoning is that some authorities maintain that <i>sefirat ha-omer</i> is a Torah obligation. Therefore, when an uncertainty arises, one must be stringent; he must continue to count, and do so with a <i>berakha</i>. (<i>Terumat Ha-deshen</i> adds another rationale: Reciting a <i>berakha</i> <i>le-vatala</i> is only a rabbinic prohibition. However, even SA, who in 215:4 leans toward the opinion that reciting a <i>berakha</i> <i>le-vatala</i> is forbidden by Torah law, rules here in 489:8 in accordance with <i>Terumat Ha-deshen</i>’s opinion.)According to most <i>poskim</i>, even if one remembers to count only during <i>bein ha-shmashot</i>, he may count the remaining nights with a <i>berakha</i>, even though it is doubly uncertain that he has fulfilled his obligation in such a case: First, some authorities maintain that counting during the day is invalid. Second, even if we maintain that one indeed discharges his obligation by counting during the day, it is uncertain whether <i>bein ha-shmashot</i> is part of the day or the beginning of the following night. Nevertheless, since it is not certain that one missed a day in such a case, he can rely on the majority of <i>poskim</i> who maintain that each day is a separate mitzva and continue counting with a <i>berakha</i>. Furthermore, according to Rabbeinu Tam, we define <i>bein ha-shmashot</i> unquestionably as daytime, and SA 261:2 rules this way as well. Though we do not follow this ruling in practice, we may invoke it in a case of uncertainty in order to rule leniently. Some rule stringently, such as <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 489:83, but as we stated above, most <i>poskim</i> maintain that one who counts during <i>bein ha-shmashot</i> may continue counting with a <i>berakha</i>. This is also the position of <i>Sho’el U-meishiv</i>, <i>Yabi’a Omer</i>, OḤ 4:43, and <i>Hilkhot Ḥag Be-ḥag</i> 6:7.</i>
  The status of a young boy who becomes a bar mitzva during the <i>omer</i> period is uncertain. Some <i>poskim</i> maintain that even if the boy takes care to count every day, he cannot continue counting with a <i>berakha</i>, because the days he counted before becoming a bar mitzva are not considered one continuum with the days he counts after reaching adulthood. According to most <i>poskim</i>, however, if the boy takes care to count every day before becoming a bar mitzva, his counting is considered complete, and he may continue counting with a <i>berakha</i>. This is the prevalent custom.8<i class="footnote"><i>Birkei Yosef</i>, <i>Ḥidushei Ha-Rim</i>, <i>Yabi’a Omer</i> 3:28, and others state that the boy may not continue counting with a <i>berakha</i> after he becomes a bar mitzva. However, most <i>poskim</i> – including <i>Ktav Sofer</i> §99, AHS 489:15, <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> §94, <i>Har Zvi</i> 2:76, and <i>Or Le-Tziyon</i> 1:95 – maintain that he may continue counting with a <i>berakha</i>, and this is the prevalent custom. They provide several reasons for this. Since even a young boy must count the <i>omer </i>due to the mitzva of <i>ḥinukh</i> (educating one’s children in Torah and <i>mitzvot</i>), his previous counting is significant and can be viewed on the same continuum as his post-bar mitzva counting. Moreover, even after he becomes a bar mitzva, he will still be obligated to count, at the very least, to fulfill the mitzva of <i>ḥinukh</i>. Furthermore, since he has passed the age of twelve, he is considered <i>mufla samukh le-ish</i> (a youth close to adulthood), whose oaths are binding by Torah law. Since he regularly counted the <i>omer</i>, it is as if he took an oath to count, and he is thereby obligated to do so by Torah law. Regarding the “completeness” of the count, since he actually counted, it should certainly be considered complete, even though he wasn’t originally obligated to the same degree that he is now. Even if it is uncertain whether his counting as a minor is significant enough, we already learned that whenever there is an uncertainty, one may continue counting with a <i>berakha</i>.</i>
  One who converts to Judaism during the <i>omer </i>period counts without a <i>berakha</i>, because he did not count at all before his conversion.
  
  Section 9
  
  The Laws of Counting the <i>Omer</i> / Women and <i>Sefirat ha-Omer</i>
  Based on the well-known rule that women are exempt from positive time-bound <i>mitzvot</i>, women are exempt from the mitzva of <i>sefirat ha-omer</i>, as it is dependent on time (see <i>Peninei Halakha</i>:<i> Women’s Prayer</i>, ch. 3, for the reason for this rule).
  However, a woman who wants to perform this mitzva may do so, and she is credited for doing the mitzva. We likewise find that women customarily hear the <i>shofar</i> on Rosh Ha-shana and shake a <i>lulav</i> and sit in the <i>sukka</i> on Sukkot.
  However, the <i>poskim</i> debate the issue of the <i>berakha</i>. According to <i>Shulḥan Arukh</i> (589:6), women do not recite <i>berakhot</i> over such <i>mitzvot</i>, and this is the prevalent custom among most Sephardic women. The Ashkenazic custom follows Rema, who maintains that women who perform time-bound <i>mitzvot</i> may recite the <i>berakha</i> (see <i>Peninei Halakha</i>:<i> Women’s Prayer </i>2:8). However, some Ashkenazic <i>poskim</i> rule that women should not recite a <i>berakha</i> when they count the <i>omer</i> because they do not pray <i>Ma’ariv</i> in the synagogue and are therefore more likely to miss a day. As we learned above, one who forgets to count a day may not continue counting with a <i>berakha</i>, and perhaps a particular woman will not realize that she forgot to count and will continue counting with a <i>berakha</i> (MB 489:3). Others say that women should not count the <i>omer</i> for kabbalistic reasons (<i>Rav Pe’alim</i> vol. 1, <i>Sod Yesharim </i>§12). On the other hand, still others claim that the Ashkenazic custom is for women to count (MA 489:1).
  Therefore, a woman who knows that she can successfully complete the entire count, and knows to continue counting without a <i>berakha </i>even if she misses a day, may count with a <i>berakha</i> according to Ashkenazic practice. This is especially true for a woman who prays <i>Ma’ariv</i> every evening or whose family members are in the habit of reminding her to count. According to Ashkenazic custom, she may count with a <i>berakha</i> if she desires, because the chances that she will forget to count are relatively slim.
  
  Section 10
  
  The Laws of Counting the <i>Omer</i> / Specific Laws Regarding the Mitzva of <i>Sefirat ha-Omer</i>
  If, at a time when it is permissible to count, one’s friend asks him, “What is today’s <i>omer</i> count?” one should not answer, “Today is day such-and-such of the <i>omer</i>,” unless he has already counted with a <i>berakha</i>. If he says this, he will fulfill his obligation to count and will no longer be permitted to recite a <i>berakha</i> over that day’s count. Instead, one should answer, “Yesterday was such-and-such of the <i>omer</i>” (SA 489:4).
  If one tells his friend which day of the <i>omer</i> it is while maintaining the specific intent not to fulfill his obligation, he may count later on with a <i>berakha</i>. If the day’s count is made up of both days and weeks (i.e., after the sixth day) and one tells his friend the number of days without mentioning the weeks, he may count later on, <i>be-di’avad</i>, with a <i>berakha</i>. Since he did not count in the normal fashion, mentioning both the days and the weeks, he has made it clear that he did not intend to discharge his obligation to fulfill the mitzva with this response (MB 489:22).
  Before reciting the <i>berakha</i>, one should remind himself mentally what day of the <i>omer</i> it is (see SA 489:6, SHT <i>ad loc. </i>37). If, for example, one in uncertain whether it is the ninth day or the tenth day, and there is no one available to ask, he should say both numbers, thus fulfilling his obligation either way. However, the <i>poskim</i> debate whether one should recite the <i>berakha</i> in such a case. Some say that one may recite a <i>berakha</i> only over a clear and definite count. Others maintain that one may recite a <i>berakha</i> over a questionable count, because it is certain that one of the numbers is correct (see <i>Piskei Teshuvot</i> 489:17). In practice, one should not recite the <i>berakha</i> in such a case, since there is an uncertainty regarding the matter.
  
  
  
  
  
  Section 1
  
  Customs of Mourning during the <i>Omer</i> Period / The Reason for These Customs
  The days between Pesaḥ and Shavu’ot are days of sorrow, because 24,000 of R. Akiva’s students died during that period. Therefore, we keep some customs of mourning during this<i> </i>period: we do not marry, get haircuts, or engage in elective dancing.
  Before we discuss the details of these customs, let us expand a bit upon the main point, namely, the reason R. Akiva’s students died. The Talmud states:R. Akiva had 12,000 pairs of students…and they all died during the same period, because they did not treat each other with respect…. It is taught in a <i>beraita</i>, “They all died between Pesaḥ and [Shavu’ot]…and they all died a terrible death.” The world was desolate until R. Akiva came to our rabbis in the south and taught them [and these are the new students]: R. Meir, R. Yehuda, R. Yose, R. Shimon, and R. Elazar b. Shamu’a; it was they who revived the Torah. (<i>Yevamot </i>62b)The Midrash (<i>Bereishit Rabba</i> 61:3) further recounts that R. Akiva said to his new students, “My sons, the first ones died only because they begrudged one another; make sure not to do as they did.”1<i class="footnote">The Gemara states that the terrible death they suffered was <i>askera </i>(diphtheria or croup), but R. Sherira Gaon writes in his <i>Igeret</i> that they died as a result of religious persecution. In this context, I have heard an interesting explanation: that they died during the Bar Kokhba rebellion. Some students went out to fight the Romans, while others continued studying Torah, and the members of the two groups denigrated one another, each saying: “I am greater than my colleague, for my contribution is important and beneficial, while my friend’s is useless.” Because of this baseless hatred between the fighters and the learners, they were defeated by their enemies, and they all died in a short period. Indeed, the date is not coincidental – they died between Pesaḥ, which represents Jewish nationalism, and Shavu’ot, which symbolizes the spiritual Torah. By showing disrespect for one another, these students created a rift between Pesaḥ and Shavu’ot, between nationalism and Torah, causing them all to die during this season. Some quote the passage from <i>Bereishit Rabba</i> as follows, “They begrudged one another’s <i>Torah</i>.” According to this, the primary rectification needs to be directed toward increasing respect between Torah scholars of different camps. (See below, end of n. 13, where we explain that these days have a festive side as well, serving as a <i>Ḥol Ha-mo’ed</i> of sorts – intermediate days between Pesaḥ and Shavu’ot.)</i>
  Since then, the <i>omer </i>period has become a time when some mourning customs are observed and when people, especially Torah students, try to improve their interpersonal relationships. Since this is based on custom, rather than an explicit rabbinic enactment, customs vary among the different Jewish communities, as we will explain below.
  Around a thousand years later, during the time of the Crusades, which began in the year 4856 (1096), Christians slaughtered thousands of Jews in Germany. These tragedies, too, occurred mainly during the days of the <i>omer</i>. Approximately 500 years later, in 5408-5409 (1648-1649), the Jews were massacred once again, this time in Eastern Europe. Tens of thousands of Jews were murdered. These pogroms also occurred, for the most part, during the <i>omer</i> period. Therefore, Ashkenazim are inclined to be more stringent regarding these customs of mourning.
  
  Section 2
  
  Customs of Mourning during the <i>Omer</i> Period / The Duration of the Mourning Period
  There are many customs regarding when the mourning period begins and ends. We will mention the four primary ones:
  1. The customs of mourning apply for the entire <i>omer</i> period. This custom is based on the version of the Gemara that appears in our texts (<i>Yevamot</i> 62b), which states that R. Akiva’s students died between Pesaḥ and Shavu’ot. Thus, one should follow the customs of mourning throughout that period.
  2. The mourning period continues until Lag Ba-omer (the 33rd day of the <i>omer</i>). This custom is based on the well-known tradition that R. Akiva’s students stopped dying on Lag Ba-omer.
  3. The customs of mourning apply until the 34th day of the <i>omer</i>. This is based on a Sephardic tradition, according to which the text of the Gemara reads: “R. Akiva’s students died until “<i>pros ha-Atzeret</i>.” Since <i>pros</i> means “half” (and <i>Atzeret</i> refers to Shavu’ot), this means that they died until half a month before Shavu’ot. When we subtract fifteen days from the 49 days of the <i>omer</i>, we are left with 34 days during which R. Akiva’s students died, during which we observe customs of mourning.
  4. We observe 33 continuous days of mourning. This custom is based on a tradition that R. Akiva’s students died on every non-festive day of the <i>omer</i> period, which adds up to 33 days. Consequently, we must observe customs of mourning for 33 straight days, whether this period coincides with the beginning or the end of the <i>omer </i>period.2<i class="footnote">Sources for the various traditions: 1. R. Natronai Gaon, R. Hai Gaon, and Ritz Gi’at write that ever since R. Akiva’s students died, we refrain from marrying between Pesaḥ and Shavu’ot. <i>Tur</i> §493 cites this opinion anonymously, indicating that it is the accepted opinion. <i>Orḥot Ḥayim</i> states this with regard to both weddings and haircuts (<i>Minhagei Yisrael</i>, vol. 1, pp. 101-102). <i>Shibolei Ha-leket</i> and Rabbeinu Yeruḥam provide two additional reasons why we mourn during the <i>omer</i> period: a) it is based on R. Yoḥanan b. Nuri’s opinion that the wicked are judged in Gehinom between Pesaḥ and Shavu’ot; b) these are days of judgment that determine the success of the grain harvest.2 and 3. These customs are based on a tradition that R. Akiva’s students stopped dying on Lag Ba-omer. Several Rishonim mention this, including Me’iri (<i>Yevamot</i> 62b): “The Ge’onim had a tradition that the dying ceased on the 33rd day of the <i>omer</i>. Therefore, we have a custom to refrain from fasting on that day. This is also why there is a custom not to get married between Pesaḥ and that day.” There is also a different version of the Gemara in <i>Yevamot</i>, as <i>Sefer Ha-manhig</i> states in the name of <i>Ha-ma’or</i>, that according to a Sephardic variant of the text, R. Akiva’s students died until <i>pros ha-Atzeret</i>. Since <i>pros</i> implies half a month, or fifteen days, it turns out that we must observe customs of mourning until the 34th day of the <i>omer</i>. There is a difficulty with this approach: According to the tradition mentioned above, the students stopped dying on the 33rd, but according to the calculation of <i>pros</i>, we mourn until the 34th. There are two opinions regarding this issue. Some maintain that we must observe the customs of mourning until the 34th day. This is the view of Ibn Shu’ib and <i>Tashbetz</i> 1:178, cited in <i>Beit Yosef</i> §493. SA 493:2 concurs. Perhaps these authorities explain that the students continued dying throughout the day of the 33rd; therefore, the mourning period ends only on the 34th. In contrast, <i>Ha-manhig</i> (<i>Hilkhot Erusin</i>, end of §106) implies that the period of mourning actually ends on Lag Ba-omer. Other Rishonim and Aḥaronim write similarly. According to them, we must explain that when the Sages use the word <i>pros</i>, they mean approximately half a month, because in reality we stop mourning <i>sixteen</i> days before Shavu’ot. So writes R. Yaakov b. R. Avraham Castro (Maharikash) in <i>Erekh Leḥem</i> (see also below n. 3).4. The Rishonim cite a tradition in the name of <i>Tosafot</i> (not printed in our text of the Gemara) that R. Akiva’s students died on the 33 ordinary, non-festive days of the <i>omer</i> period. If we subtract from the 49 days of the <i>omer </i>six days of Pesaḥ, <i>isru ḥag </i>(the day after Pesaḥ), six <i>Shabbatot</i>, and three days of Rosh Ḥodesh, we are left with 33 days on which the students died. Consequently, we observe customs of mourning for 33 consecutive days. Some observe them at the beginning of the <i>omer</i>, while others do so at the end. <i>Beit Yosef</i> cites this tradition in the name of Ibn Shu’ib, and Rema 493:3 mentions it as well. <i>Baḥ</i>, MB 493:13, and BHL <i>ad loc</i>. clarify the details of this practice. Many Ashkenazim observe the customs of mourning during the latter part of the <i>omer</i>, because the Crusades – during which their ancestors experienced terrible massacres – began in the months of Iyar and Sivan. On the eighth of Iyar, the Jews of Speyer were massacred; the Jews of Worms on the 23rd of Iyar; the Jews of Mainz on the third of Sivan; and the Jews of Cologne on the sixth of Sivan. The earliest custom in this regard was to begin the mourning period on the second of Iyar and end it on Erev Shavu’ot. Nonetheless, one who follows this custom may start the mourning period at the beginning of the <i>omer</i> as well. Even though the laws of mourning do not find expression on <i>Ḥol Ha-mo’ed Pesaḥ</i> – as there is a mitzva to rejoice throughout the holiday – this does not take away from the 33 days, just as the days of Shabbat, on which mourning is precluded, count toward the 33 days of the <i>omer</i> and the seven days of regular mourning.<i>Minhagei Yisrael</i>, vol. 1, pp. 101-111, explains the Sephardic and Ashkenazic customs. In his addenda, vol. 4, pp. 237-241, he brings proofs that the word <i>pros</i> does not usually mean half, but “close to.” According to this, the version that reads “until <i>pros ha-Atzeret</i>” means until Erev Shavu’ot. It is important to note that there was another custom: to observe mourning throughout the <i>omer</i> period, except on Rosh Ḥodesh and Lag Ba-omer, when everything is permitted. We do not follow this practice (cited in MA 493:5 and MB 493:15).</i>
  
  Section 3
  
  Customs of Mourning during the <i>Omer</i> Period / Sephardic Practice
  According to <i>Shulḥan Arukh</i> (493:1-2), the customs of mourning begin on the first day of the <i>omer</i> and last until the morning of the 34th. This is based on the tradition that, according to the Gemara, R. Akiva’s students died until <i>pros ha-Atzeret</i>, meaning fifteen days before Shavu’ot. This implies that we must continue mourning until the 34th day of the <i>omer</i>. However, as with the laws of mourning during <i>shiva</i> (the seven-day mourning period for a close relative), a small part of a day is considered like a whole day. Therefore, just as a mourner may terminate his <i>shiva </i>period after starting to mourn for only a short time at the beginning of the seventh day, since he has effectively completed that day, the same applies to the mourning of the <i>omer</i> period: One need not wait until the end of the 34th day. Rather, all customs of mourning cease to apply a few moments after daybreak on the morning of the 34th, because a small part of that day is considered like the whole day.
  Despite this, one may sing, play music, and dance on Lag Ba-omer, in honor of the anniversary of R. Shimon bar Yoḥai’s death. However, the other customs of mourning remain binding. Thus, according to this practice, one may not get married or cut one’s hair on Lag Ba-omer, and when the day ends, one may not play music or dance on the night of the 34th. When the morning of the 34th comes, however, all practices of mourning cease to apply. (Those who follow Arizal’s customs act stringently and refrain from cutting their hair until Erev Shavu’ot; see <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 493:13.)
  Some Sephardic communities – like those from Turkey and Egypt – end all customs of mourning on Lag Ba-omer. Even though most Sephardim in Israel today do not follow this practice, if there is a great need to be lenient on Lag Ba-omer or the night of the 34th, one should consult with a Torah scholar.3<i class="footnote">The Sephardic custom is elucidated in SA 493:1-2, and we explained its foundations in the previous section (custom 3), based on the meaning of “<i>pros ha-Atzeret</i>,” which means the 34th day of the <i>omer</i>. However, some Sephardic <i>poskim</i> maintain that the customs of mourning end on Lag Ba-omer. Maharikash and R. Yaakov Rakaḥ write in this vein, and Maharikash explains in <i>Erekh Leḥem</i> that <i>pros</i> does not necessarily mean exactly half a month. <i>Sheyarei Knesset Ha-gedola</i> (<i>Hagahot Beit Yosef</i> 493:3) writes that in and around Constantinople, it was customary to get married on Lag Ba-omer. <i>Pri Ḥadash</i>, <i>Nehar Mitzrayim</i>, and others rule similarly. However, the prevalent custom follows SA’s opinion. This can be found in <i>Yeḥaveh Da’at</i> 3:31 and <i>Yabi’a Omer</i>, OḤ 3:26:4. Nonetheless, in pressing circumstances, and when there is potential for monetary loss, there is room to be lenient, provided that a Torah scholar rules that one may do so. R. Ovadia Yosef writes in this vein in <i>Yabi’a Omer</i> 5:38. This leniency applies especially to those who come from places like Turkey, where it is customary to be lenient on Lag Ba-omer. (On the night of the 34th, one may also factor in Ramban’s opinion, namely, that a small part of the night is considered like the entirety of the day; see below, n. 5.)According to Radbaz and <i>Pri Ḥadash</i>, one who has yet to fulfill the mitzva of procreation need not avoid getting married during this period. Yemenite Jews followed such a custom (<i>Shetilei Zeitim</i> 493:4, Maharitz 2:111). In practice, though, we are not lenient regarding this issue, unless circumstances are pressing, and even then, only in accordance with the ruling of a Torah scholar. (Even Yemenite Jews are not lenient; see <i>Shulḥan Arukh Ha-mekutzar</i> 92:7.)</i>
  
  Section 4
  
  Customs of Mourning during the <i>Omer</i> Period / Ashkenazic Practice
  The prevalent custom among Ashkenazim in Israel today amalgamates several traditions. Most customs of mourning last until Lag Ba-omer, while some continue afterward. This is based on the tradition that although the plague ended on Lag Ba-omer, students who fell ill before then died between the 34th day of the <i>omer</i> and Shavu’ot (Maharal, <i>Ḥidushei Aggadot</i>, <i>Yevamot</i> 62b). Therefore, Ashkenazim do not cut their hair, get married, play music, or dance until Lag Ba-omer. Afterward, however, they refrain only from weddings and large celebrations. Another reason for this custom is that during the Crusades and the Khmelnytsky Massacres of 1648-1649, tens of thousands of Ashkenazic Jews were killed. Since these murders occurred mainly during the latter part of the <i>omer</i> period, Ashkenazic communities refrain from large celebrations during this period. From Rosh Ḥodesh<i> </i>Sivan, however, it is customary to permit weddings, because the joy of Shavu’ot, which we already begin to experience from the beginning of the month, cancels the mourning. Some rule leniently and allow one to get married from Lag Ba-omer and on, and to avoid only optional large celebrations until Shavu’ot. (In the note below, we will mention another custom that was very widespread in Germany.)4<i class="footnote">The Ashkenazic custom in Israel regarding weddings is explained in<i> Minhagei Eretz Yisrael</i> 18:2. <i>Siddur Pesaḥ Ke-hilkhato</i> 12:3 states likewise. This custom satisfies all the various traditions. First of all, 33 days of mourning are observed at the beginning of the <i>omer</i> period, which satisfies the tradition that Rema quotes from <i>Tosafot</i>. It also fits with the tradition that the plague ceased on Lag Ba-omer. In addition, we can explain that the textual variant that states that R. Akiva’s students died until <i>pros ha-Atzeret</i> means <i>approximately</i> half a month before Shavu’ot. Furthermore, following this practice means that there is no great difference between the Ashkenazic and Sephardic customs. Nonetheless, we still continue to avoid large celebrations even after Lag Ba-omer, in accordance with the tradition that R. Akiva’s students who fell ill before the 33rd died throughout the remainder of the <i>omer</i> period. Furthermore, <i>Taz</i> 493:2 states that we observe these customs because of the tragedies that occurred after Lag Ba-omer. Another explanation for this custom is that it fits with our version of the Gemara (<i>Yevamot</i> 62b), which states that the students died between Pesaḥ and Shavu’ot. And since refraining from getting married is the only expression of mourning mentioned in the writings of the Ge’onim, we do not get married during the entire <i>omer</i> period (except from Rosh Ḥodesh Sivan and on). The prohibitions against cutting one’s hair and listening to music were instituted later; therefore, it is customary to observe these prohibitions only until Lag Ba-omer. Another way to interpret the Ashkenazic custom is that one must observe any 33 days of mourning, not necessarily the first 33 days of the <i>omer </i>period. Accordingly, we count 33 days starting from the day after <i>isru ḥag</i> until the 29th of Iyar (not including Rosh Ḥodesh Iyar and Lag Ba-omer). Thus, everything is permissible from Rosh Ḥodesh Sivan and on. Some authorities permit weddings after Lag Ba-omer, if necessary, because they fulfill a mitzva, and prohibit only optional large celebrations until Shavu’ot.In Germany, the Jews adopted the fourth custom from the above list, according to which the important part is to observe 33 days of mourning at the beginning or end of the <i>omer</i> period. Here, too, there are several options: 1) to observe 33 days of mourning from the beginning of the <i>omer</i> period (like the Ashkenazic custom in Israel); 2) from the thirtieth of Nisan, which is the first day of Rosh Ḥodesh Iyar, until the morning of the third of Sivan; 3) from the second of Iyar until Erev Shavu’ot (Rema 493:3, MB 493:15).Rema 493:3 writes that two different customs should not be observed in the same place, because of the prohibition of <i>lo titgodedu </i>(“do not make factions”). However, if people from various communities gather together in one place, they may follow different customs. R. Moshe Feinstein concurs in <i>Igrot Moshe</i>, OḤ 1:159. According to the German practice (the fourth custom), if there is no established custom in a particular city, it is permissible to choose one of the customs, as long as they do not adopt only the leniencies of multiple customs. They may even observe the first 33 days one year and begin on Rosh Ḥodesh Iyar the next, because these are not really different customs; the main idea is to observe 33 consecutive days of mourning. <i>Ḥatam Sofer</i> OḤ 142 states that one may follow one practice regarding weddings and another regarding haircuts. Nowadays, there are barely any Ashkenazim in Israel who have the custom of holding weddings before Rosh Ḥodesh Iyar, so it seems preferable to discourage people from holding weddings then, because the Israeli practice is also based on the third custom mentioned above, and one should not follow two different practices in one place.</i>
  On the day of Lag Ba-omer itself, it is permissible to get married and take a haircut. There is a dispute, however, regarding the night: some say that weddings and haircuts are permitted at night as well, because the entirety of Lag Ba-omer is joyous. Others maintain that one is required to observe 33 consecutive days of mourning, so it is permissible to get married and get a haircut only after morning has arrived and we can apply the rule: “Part of a day is considered like a whole day.” It is customary to act stringently <i>le-khatḥila</i>, but one may follow those who rule leniently if necessary. According to all customs, it is permissible to celebrate with music and dancing on the night of Lag Ba-omer.5<i class="footnote">The plain meaning of Rema 493:2 implies that it becomes permissible to get married and get a haircuts only on the morning of Lag Ba-omer, not on the night of the 33rd. This is because we must observe 33 days of mourning, and SA YD 295:1 rules in accordance with the opinion of Maharam of Rothenburg (as opposed to Ramban) that a small part of the night is not considered like the whole of the day; this principle only applies to a small part of the daylight hours. Gra concurs, and MB <i>ad loc. </i>10 inclines toward this opinion as well. However, many authorities, including <i>Ma’adanei Yom Tov</i>, <i>Ḥok Yaakov</i>, <i>Mor U-ketzi’a</i>, and others, maintain that the entirety of Lag Ba-omer is permissible. Their reasoning is that Lag Ba-omer, both night and day, is a time of joy, when R. Akiva’s students stopped dying. The problem, however, is that we need to observe 33 days of mourning. According to those who do not celebrate weddings until Rosh Ḥodesh Sivan, there is no problem, because they observe more than 33 days of mourning. There is also no difficulty according to our version of Maharil’s work, which states that one must avoid cutting one’s hair for only 32 days, since he writes that we refrain from weddings for the entire <i>omer</i> period. SAH 493:5 writes that this <i>halakha</i> is connected to the question of whether <i>Taḥanun</i> is recited at <i>Minḥa</i> on the day before Lag Ba-omer. According to those who maintain that <i>Taḥanun</i> is omitted, the mourning period lasts 32 days, and it is customary to omit <i>Taḥanun</i> (see below ch. 5 n. 1). If we, nonetheless, insist on 33 days of mourning, and we do not include the days after Lag Ba-omer in this count, perhaps we can rely on Ramban’s opinion that a small part of the night is considered like the entire day. Then, we can celebrate weddings and cut our hair a few moments after the night of Lag Ba-omer begins (so states <i>Pri Ḥadash</i>).</i>
  
  Section 5
  
  Customs of Mourning during the <i>Omer</i> Period / Weddings and Engagements during the <i>Omer</i> Period
  Now that we have discussed the duration of the mourning period, we will outline the laws of the various customs in detail. The Ge’onim write that ever since R. Akiva’s students died in the period between Pesaḥ and Shavu’ot, the Jewish people have a custom not to get married during this time.
  Some <i>poskim</i> maintain that only optional marriages are prohibited, like that of a man who has been married before and has already fulfilled the mitzva of procreation. However, one who has yet to fulfill the mitzva of procreation may get married during the <i>omer </i>period, because the mitzva of marriage overrides the custom (Radbaz, <i>Pri Ḥadash</i>). In practice, though, the consensus of Aḥaronim is that it is customary not to get married during this period, even if one has yet to fulfill the mitzva of procreation, because otherwise the custom of mourning would have almost no significance. One may, however remarry his ex-wife, because it is a mitzva to do so and it is not an overly joyous occasion (MB 493:1, <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 493:2-3).
  According to the custom of most Sephardim, the prohibition against getting married lasts from the beginning of the <i>omer</i> period until the 34th day. That is, one may get married from the morning of the 34th and on. Some Sephardic communities follow a more lenient custom and permit getting married from Lag Ba-omer. Under pressing circumstances, one may follow this practice, in accordance with the ruling of a Torah scholar (see above n. 3).
  The Ashkenazic custom in Israel is to forbid weddings from the beginning of the <i>omer</i> period until the 29th of Iyar, allowing them only from Rosh Ḥodesh Sivan and on. Some rabbis permit those who have yet to fulfill the mitzva of procreation to get married from Lag Ba-omer and on, and one who wishes to be lenient for the sake of this great mitzva may do so. All Ashkenazic customs agree that one may get married on the day of Lag Ba-omer, and some are even lenient on the night of Lag Ba-omer; one who wishes to follow this leniency may do so. Additionally, all agree that if a wedding takes place on the day of Lag Ba-omer, the celebrations may continue into the night of the 34th.6<i class="footnote">Regarding the custom not to get married until Rosh Ḥodesh Sivan, see n. 4. The Chief Rabbinate of Israel has established that all Ashkenazim may get married on Yom Yerushalayim (the 28th of Iyar), the day Jerusalem was reunified in 1967. Regarding the night of Lag Ba-omer, see n. 5. If the wedding took place on the day of Lag Ba-omer, the celebrants may continue the meal and dancing into the night of the 34th.Under pressing circumstances, some Ashkenazic <i>poskim</i> allow a couple to get married on Friday, the 31st day of the <i>omer</i>, when Lag Ba-omer falls out on Sunday, just as Rema permits cutting one’s hair on that day. Others forbid this. According to Sephardic practice, it seems clear that one should not be lenient in this regard.MB 493:5 maintains that if Rosh Ḥodesh Iyar falls out on Shabbat – making it doubly joyous – one may get married on Friday and serve the meal and rejoice on Shabbat/Rosh Ḥodesh. Sephardim rule leniently in this case only under pressing circumstances (<i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 493:42, based on <i>Beit David</i> and Ḥida).</i>
  If one is invited to a wedding on a day when weddings are forbidden according to his custom, but the groom follows a custom that permits weddings on that day, he may attend the affair, partake of the meal, and dance with joy before the bride and groom (<i>Igrot Moshe,</i> OḤ 1:159).
  Only weddings are forbidden. One may hold an engagement party, on condition that no music is played.7<i class="footnote">Even though such a party is joyous, it is permitted because it involves some element of a mitzva, as it strengthens the bond between the couple. Nonetheless, one should not play music at such an occasion, because it is not considered an actual <i>se’udat mitzva</i> (a ceremonial festive meal associated with a mitzva), as MA 493:1 and MB 493:3 demonstrate regarding such a meal, in contrast to what <i>Yalkut Yosef </i>states writes (<i>Hilkhot Sefirat Ha-omer</i> §35) in MB’s name. Furthermore, we will explain below, in section 9, that even at a full-fledged <i>se’udat mitzva</i>, like a <i>brit mila</i>, one may play music only if the local custom is to play music at all such events, and there is not always music at engagement parties. In the last few years, however, many people have adopted the custom of playing music and dancing at engagement parties. Therefore, one who believes that this is the custom of his entire environment may be lenient if he wishes and play music to the minimum extent that is considered acceptable. Still, it is proper to hold a <i>siyum </i>at the party, in order to ensure that it is a <i>se’udat mitzva</i>.</i>
  
  Section 6
  
  Customs of Mourning during the <i>Omer</i> Period / Haircuts
  The Rishonim write that one should not get a haircut during the <i>omer</i> period. As we learned above (sections 3-4), Sephardim observe this prohibition until the morning of the 34th day of the <i>omer</i>. Ashkenazic custom, on the other hand, permits it from the morning of Lag Ba-omer, and some are even more lenient, permitting haircuts on the night of Lag Ba-omer. In a time of need, one may rely on those who rule leniently (see above n. 5).
  Only regular haircuts, which include an element of joy, are prohibited. However, one may trim his mustache if it interferes with his eating. Similarly, one who gets headaches when his hair is too long, or one who has sores on his head, may cut his hair during this period (based on SA 551:13, MB <i>ad loc. </i>21, and BHL <i>ad loc.</i>; <i>Siddur Pesaḥ Ke-hilkhato</i> 12:8-9). If one has lice, or one’s child has lice, then if there is no other way to get rid of them, a haircut is permissible.
  The prohibition applies to both men and women. However, a woman may cut her hair for purposes of modesty. For example, if her hair comes out of her head covering, she may cut it (SA 551:13, MB <i>ad loc. </i>79). One may also cut or pluck hair for cosmetic purposes. Therefore, women may pluck their eyebrows or remove facial hair (<i>Piskei Teshuvot</i> 493:7, quoting R. Shlomo Zalman Auerbach; see also <i>Igrot Moshe</i>, YD 2:137).
  One may not cut children’s hair during this period, unless there is a great need to do so, such as to prevent them from suffering (see SA 551:14, MB <i>ad loc. </i>82).
  The main participants in a <i>brit mila</i> – the father of the child, the <i>sandak</i>, and the <i>mohel</i> – may cut their hair in honor of the occasion (MB 493:12; we will discuss the status of Yom Ha-atzma’ut below, 4:11). According to Ashkenazic custom, one may cut his hair in anticipation of Rosh Ḥodesh Iyar when it falls out on Shabbat (MB 493:5). Sephardim are lenient in this regard only under pressing circumstances (<i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 493:42).8<i class="footnote">According to Ashkenazic custom, one may shave and cut his hair in honor of Shabbat when Lag Ba-omer falls out on Sunday (Rema 493:2); Sephardic custom prohibits this. If Lag Ba-omer falls out on Friday, however, even Sephardim allow cutting one’s hair and shaving on that day (SA 493:2).</i>
  Those who follow the customs of Arizal take care not to cut their hair for the entire <i>omer</i> period, until Erev Shavu’ot, when they cut their hair in honor of the festival. According to the custom of Arizal, one should not cut his hair even for the sake of a <i>brit mila</i>. The only exception is cutting the hair of three-year-old boys for the first time on Lag Ba-omer (<i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 493:13; see below, 5:6 regarding the custom of <i>ḥalaka </i>or <i>upsherin</i>).
  
  Section 7
  
  Customs of Mourning during the <i>Omer</i> Period / Shaving
  A question arises regarding the issue of shaving during the <i>omer</i> period. May one who shaves regularly throughout the year do so during this period? Many authorities maintain that shaving is included in the prohibition of cutting one’s hair, so whenever haircuts are prohibited, shaving is prohibited as well. Most yeshiva students follow this practice, to the point that refraining from shaving has become the most prominent sign of mourning during the <i>omer</i> period.
  Some <i>poskim</i>, however, maintain that there is a fundamental difference between haircuts and shaving: a haircut is special occasion that includes a joyous element. It is common that people get their hair cut in honor of holidays and celebratory events. In contrast, shaving is a routine practice nowadays, done daily or every few days in order to remove unsightly whiskers and stubble. Therefore, the custom to refrain from cutting one’s hair does not apply to shaving. According to this opinion, it is especially appropriate to shave on Fridays, to avoid greeting Shabbat in a disrespectful manner.
  Those who want to rely on the lenient opinion may do so, and one should not rebuke them for this practice. However, it is proper for each person to follow the practice of his father or the instruction of his rabbi. Even though, technically, one may rely on the reasoning of those who rule leniently, we cannot ignore the fact that the custom to abstain from shaving during the <i>omer </i>period is a strong expression of one’s willingness to sacrifice for the sake of mitzva observance, so there is concern that abolishing this custom will harm one’s dedication to upholding traditional custom. Therefore, it is proper for each person to do as his father does, or as his rabbi instructs him to do, because, in this case, the issues of tradition and environmental influences are more important than the technicalities of whether the mourning customs apply to shaving.9<i class="footnote">Many authorities rule stringently, forbidding all shaving during the <i>omer</i> mourning period. So writes <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim </i>551:66. In section 493:19, he quotes the Aḥaronim as saying that one may shave only if not doing so will cause a loss of income. <i>Igrot Moshe</i> OḤ 4:102 permits shaving in order to avoid financial loss as well; for example, if one’s employers demand that he shave. On the other hand, one can argue that daily shaving is not like cutting one’s hair. After all, the concept of shaving daily did not exist when the custom to refrain from cutting one’s hair as a sign of mourning first began. And just as, with regard to a mourner’s prohibition to bathe, we distinguish between bathing for pleasure or refreshment and bathing in order to remove filth, so too, one could distinguish between festive shaving and shaving in order to remove unsightly facial hair. The purpose of all the mourning customs of the <i>omer </i>period is to avoid celebrating, not to exhibit mourning, and allowing beard stubble to remain on one’s face is an exhibition of mourning. Granted, one should not be lenient on this issue during <i>shiva</i> and <i>shloshim</i>, but just as we allow shaving during the year-long mourning period after the death of a parent, so may we be lenient during the <i>omer</i> period and the Three Weeks, until Rosh Ḥodesh Av. R. Hershel Schachter cites this position in <i>Nefesh Ha-Rav</i> (p. 191) in the name of R. Yosef Dov Soloveitchik. This is especially true with regard to shaving before Shabbat. After all, MA 551:14 cites <i>Hagahot Asheri</i> as saying that Ashkenazim, who customarily refrain from haircuts for the entire Three Weeks period, should not get haircuts even before Shabbat, because people do not cut their hair every week. This implies that those who have the custom of shaving every week may shave in honor of Shabbat. See BHL 551:3, which states that the Yerushalmi also indicates that one may shave in honor of Shabbat. In addition to all this, it should be noted that, originally, the only custom of mourning during the <i>omer </i>period was to refrain from getting married, and according to the Ge’onim, Jews already began observing this custom soon after R. Akiva’s students died. In contrast, the custom to avoid haircuts is first mentioned in the writings of the Rishonim: <i>Orḥot Ḥayim</i>, <i>Shibolei Ha-leket</i>, and others. Perhaps they instituted it after additional tragedies befell the Jewish people (like the Crusades; see <i>Minhagei Yisrael</i>, vol. 1, pp. 105, 112-117). <i>Responsa</i> <i>Radbaz </i>2:687 writes that some people have a custom that they may cut their hair the entire month of Nisan, during which fasting and eulogizing is forbidden, while others maintain that one may get a haircut every Friday. He also permits getting a haircut on Rosh Ḥodesh Iyar, disputing the opinion of SA 493:3. His position implies that one may follow the more lenient opinions when it comes to this issue. The original Yemenite custom did not forbid haircuts during the <i>omer </i>period; this community began acting stringently only later on. R. David Mishreqi (the author of <i>Shetilei Zeitim</i>) and Maharitz (<i>Responsa Pe’ulat Tzadik</i> 2:76) rule that one should get a haircut on Erev Shabbat. Thus, when there is an uncertainty whether shaving has the same status as cutting one’s hair, one may certainly take into consideration those who rule leniently. See <i>Responsa Ner Ezra</i>, vol. 2, pp. 155-158, where the author concludes that one may shave before Shabbat, writing that this is the opinion of R. Shlomo Min-Hahar and R. Aharon Lichtenstein. R. Nachum Rabinovitch, <i>rosh yeshiva</i> of Yeshivat Birkat Moshe in Ma’ale Adumim, recommends that everyone act as his father does, to avoid a situation in which a father shaves and his son does not, or vice versa, thus derogating from the father’s honor.Another reason to permit shaving on Fridays is that those who shave regularly usually feel great discomfort when they are unable to shave for several days. This may be similar to the dispensation allowing one to trim his mustache if it interferes with his eating, or to remove hairs that cause head sores or headaches. See <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 493:17, which allows one to cut his hair in honor of Shabbat, if his long hair causes him suffering. In addition, Ḥida mentions (in <i>Yosef Ometz</i> §40) the rationale that those who shave regularly suffer greatly when they do not shave, even more than one suffers due to long hair.In my humble opinion, it would technically be proper to rule that those who shave throughout the year should shave in honor of Shabbat, and those who wish to be lenient may shave every day, because the customs of mourning do not apply to daily shaving. However, as I stated above, one should be careful not to undermine tradition in the case of a custom that is displayed so prominently. Therefore, everyone should follow his father’s custom or do as his rabbi instructs him. See a similar discussion below, 8:11, regarding shaving during the Three Weeks.</i>
  
  Section 8
  
  Customs of Mourning during the <i>Omer</i> Period / Dancing and Musical Instruments
  Since it is customary not to celebrate too much during the <i>omer</i> period, the Aḥaronim write that one may not engage in optional dancing (dancing that is not for the sake of a mitzva; MA 493:1). They also forbid playing or listening to musical instruments.
  According to Sephardic custom, the laws of mourning last until the morning of the 34th day of the <i>omer</i>. Nevertheless, in honor of the <i>hilula </i>(<i>yahrzeit</i>, anniversary of a death) of R. Shimon bar Yoḥai, music and dancing are permitted on Lag Ba-omer. Afterward, however, the prohibition resumes and continues through the night of the 34th, until the next morning, when all customs of mourning cease to apply.
  According to Ashkenazic practice, the prohibitions last until the end of the 32nd day of the <i>omer</i>, meaning that music, dancing, and rejoicing are permitted from the beginning of the night of Lag Ba-omer, in honor of the <i>hilula </i>of R. Shimon bar Yoḥai. Most Ashkenazim refrain from large celebrations – like festive graduation ceremonies or dance nights – until Shavu’ot, but one may play and listen to musical instruments. One may conduct exercise classes with musical accompaniment even before Lag Ba-omer, but ideally the volume of the music should be lowered so that it is clear that the purpose of the music is to facilitate exercise, not to bring joy.10<i class="footnote">Ashkenazic Aḥaronim were uncertain whether one may make large celebrations after the 33 days of primary mourning are finished. They are even uncertain concerning the days between Rosh Ḥodesh Sivan and Shavu’ot, as SHT cites 493:4 in the name of <i>Eliya Rabba</i> and <i>Pri Megadim</i>. <i>Siddur Pesaḥ Ke-hilkhato</i> (ch. 12, n. 50) also cites this uncertainty. R. Shlomo Zalman Auerbach and R. Shmuel Wosner rule stringently (<i>Piskei Teshuvot</i> ch. 493 n. 43). Even though the custom in Israel is to permit weddings after Rosh Ḥodesh Sivan, one should be stringent throughout the <i>omer</i> period with respect to optional dancing. The rationale for extending the customs of mourning beyond Lag Ba-omer is twofold: 1) the tradition that R. Akiva’s students died throughout the <i>omer</i> period, or at least on the weekdays therein; 2) the fact that so many tragedies befell the Ashkenazic communities during these days. The only difference is that we are more stringent in our observance of these customs before Lag Ba-omer than we are afterward. All this was already explained above, in sections 2 and 4 and in notes 2 and 4.The distinction between a large celebration and a regular one is undefined. However, festive graduation ceremonies and dance nights are certainly considered large celebrations. On the other hand, exercise classes are permitted. If one is uncertain whether an event is considered a large celebration, one may be lenient if one combines it with a <i>siyum </i>or some other mitzva component. According to Sephardic custom, one may participate in any type of celebration after Lag Ba-omer. If many of the participants in an event are Sephardim, the group as a whole may be lenient, in accordance with their custom, but it is preferable to combine the event with a <i>siyum</i> or some other mitzva.</i>
  It is customary to permit dancing and playing music on <i>Ḥol Ha-mo’ed</i> <i>Pesaḥ</i>, because it is a mitzva be joyful then (MB 529:16). Weddings, however, may not be held on <i>Ḥol Ha-mo’ed</i>, because we do not mix one celebration with another (SA 546:1). The Sages also forbid getting a haircut on <i>Ḥol Ha-mo’ed</i>, so that people do so prior to the festival (<i>ibid</i>. 531:2).
  A Jew who makes a living playing music may perform at non-Jewish affairs if he needs the income. One may also teach or study music during the <i>omer </i>period, since these endeavors are not joyful (<i>Siddur Pesaḥ Ke-hilkhato</i> 12:16; see <i>Piskei Teshuvot</i> 493:4). However, a music student who, in any event, studies only intermittently throughout the year, should schedule a break, if possible, during the mourning period of the <i>omer</i>. If he intends to take only one break a year, it is preferable that it be during the Three Weeks (see below 8:2).
  
  Section 9
  
  Customs of Mourning during the <i>Omer</i> Period / <i>Brit Mila</i>, <i>Hakhnasat Sefer Torah</i>, and Bar Mitzva Celebrations
  One may hold a <i>se’udat mitzva</i> and sing and dance at such a meal, just as one does throughout the year. For example, one may prepare a festive meal for a <i>brit mila</i>, <i>pidyon ha-ben</i> (redemption of a firstborn son), or <i>siyum</i> during the <i>omer </i>period. One who regularly dances and plays happy music at such meals may do so during the <i>omer</i> period, because it is for the joy of a mitzva.
  The same goes for hiring musicians: if the local custom is that one always hires musicians for a <i>se’udat mitzva</i>, one may do so during the mourning period of the <i>omer</i> as well. Even though some <i>poskim</i> rule stringently on this matter, the <i>halakha</i> follows those who are lenient, since the <i>halakha </i>always follows the lenient opinion in the case of an uncertainty about a custom of mourning. If, however, it is not clear that people are accustomed to hiring musicians for such events, it is preferable to avoid doing so during this period.
  One may celebrate a <i>hakhnasat sefer Torah </i>(inauguration of a new Torah scroll) with music, singing, and dancing, as is customary, because this singing and dancing derives from a mitzva.
  The same applies to celebration on the day a boy becomes a bar mitzva or a girl becomes a bat mitzva (that is, on the day of his thirteenth birthday or her twelfth birthday according to the Hebrew calendar): one may celebrate the occasion as one would at any other point throughout the year. When it is impossible to schedule the party on the day the boy actually becomes obligated in <i>mitzvot</i>, one still may conduct a festive meal, but without playing music. If, however, the organizers make sure that someone makes a <i>siyum </i>on the completion of a tractate of the Talmud or an order of the Mishna at the beginning of the party, they may play music as people generally do at bar mitzva celebrations.11<i class="footnote">See MA 493:1 and MB 493:3, who write that an engagement party is considered a <i>se’udat mitzva</i> to some degree. Also see above, n. 7. Those who permit playing musical instruments at a <i>se’udat mitzva</i> include: <i>Igrot Moshe</i>, OḤ 2:95, EH 1:97; <i>Mishneh Halakhot</i> 6:109; <i>Yeḥaveh Da’at</i> 6:34. Those who forbid include: <i>Minḥat Yitzḥak</i> 1:111, based on <i>Da’at Kedoshim</i>; see also <i>Piskei Teshuvot</i> 493:5. The <i>halakha</i> follows the lenient opinion when it comes to these laws. <i>Shalmei Mo’ed</i>, p. 454 states in the name of R. Shlomo Zalman Auerbach that one may celebrate a bar mitzva on a different day, as long as there is no band or dancing. Even someone who is confined to a wheelchair or otherwise cannot walk, but whose mind is unimpaired, may not hold a joyous celebration during this period.</i>
  
  Section 10
  
  Customs of Mourning during the <i>Omer</i> Period / Listening to Music on Electronic Devices
  Many <i>poskim</i> maintain that there is no difference between listening to live music and listening to music on the radio or any other electronic device; both are forbidden during the <i>omer </i>period (until Lag Ba-omer) and the Three Weeks. One may, however, listen to non-instrumental music on an electronic device (<i>Igrot Moshe</i>, YD 2:137, <i>Yeḥaveh Da’at</i> 6:34). Some forbid even this, because the device itself is considered a musical instrument (<i>Tzitz Eliezer</i> 15:33, <i>Shevet Ha-Levi</i> 8:127).
  However, some maintain that the prohibition on music does not apply to listening to music on the radio or any other personal electronic device, as listening to music this way is not festive, whereas live music is. Furthermore, nowadays, listening to music on electronic devices is a regular, universal practice, and since it has become so routine, it is no longer considered a source of joy and festivity. Thus, listening to it is like listening to singing without musical accompaniment, which is permitted during the <i>omer</i> period. In addition, a distinction should be made between joyous songs and regular songs; only joyous songs should be forbidden to listen to during the <i>omer</i>, but regular tunes, and certainly sad tunes, should not be prohibited during the mourning period of the <i>omer</i>. Therefore, one who wishes to be lenient may rely on this opinion and listen to regular and sad songs on a personal electronic device. However, he should not play this music loudly, because the power of a sound that fills a room generates a festive atmosphere.It seems that according to all views, a driver who is worried that he might fall asleep at the wheel may listen to music in order to keep himself alert.12<i class="footnote">The following <i>poskim</i> prohibit listening to music on electronic devices: In <i>Igrot Moshe</i>, YD 2:137 and OḤ 1:166, R. Moshe Feinstein ruled stringently, stating that one may not listen to musical instruments throughout the year, as a sign of mourning for the Temple’s destruction – all the more so, during the <i>omer</i> period and the Three Weeks. And even though R. Ovadia Yosef permits listening to music throughout the year, he prohibits listening to instrumental music on the radio and the like during the <i>omer </i>period and the Three Weeks (<i>Yeḥaveh Da’at</i> 6:34). (In private conversation, however, he permitted Israeli radio station <i>Arutz Sheva </i>to play music, to ensure that they would be able to continue broadcasting Torah-oriented shows.) <i>Minḥat Yitzḥak</i> 1:111 concurs. R. Shlomo Zalman Auerbach and R. Yosef Shalom Elyashiv prohibit listening to music on the radio as well (<i>Shalmei Mo’ed</i>, p. 453). <i>Tzitz Eliezer</i> 15:33 and <i>Shevet Ha-Levi</i> 8:127 forbid even non-instrumental music.However, the reasons for leniency are compelling. First of all, musical instruments are not necessarily expressions of joy. See <i>Shabbat</i> 151a, which mentions that flutes were used in funeral elegies. Similarly, <i>Pri Megadim</i> permits playing music during the <i>omer</i> period in order to make a living; this ruling is quoted in BHL 551:2. Maharam Schick (YD 368) discusses the distinction between joyous tunes and sad tunes, stating that sad tunes are permitted during times of mourning. (However, he prohibits teaching music to certain children during their year of mourning, because they learn music only to show off, not to make a living.) In any case, we see that only joyous songs are forbidden. In MT, Laws of Fasts 5:14, where Rambam deals with the prohibition of playing music following the destruction of the Temple, his language implies this as well: “Similarly, they ordained that one should not play melodies with any sort of musical instrument. It is forbidden to celebrate with such instruments or to listen to them being played beacause of the destruction [of the Temple].” Based on this, it seems that the prohibition against listening to musical instruments relates mainly to happy songs, which are often accompanied by dancing, but regular songs – and certainly sad ones – are permitted. <i>Responsa Ḥelkat Yaakov</i> 1:62 brings up another point: listening to music via electronic devices is not included in the decree (or custom) of mourning, because these devices did not exist when the decree (or custom) was originally established. It may be that the reason many <i>poskim </i>disagreed with this ruling is that these devices were rare at the time, and listening to them was considered a festive activity. Nowadays, however, listening to music players is routine and uneventful; therefore, it is not included in the custom to refrain from listening to live music. My father and teacher, R. Zalman Baruch Melamed, agrees with this viewpoint. R. Shmuel David writes likewise in <i>Teḥumin</i>, vol. 13. See also below 8:4. Once again, since the entire prohibition is based on a custom, the <i>halakha</i> follows the more lenient opinion in cases of uncertainty. This is how <i>Arutz Sheva</i> conducted itself during the mourning period of the <i>omer</i>, broadcasting regular songs and avoiding songs that evoke celebration and dancing.All agree that one may not attend a concert, even if the songs being performed are regular or sad songs, because the very act of gathering for a concert is festive and thus joyous. In my humble opinion, the same is true of listening to mild songs at a high volume: they become somewhat festive because of the force of the sound. According to all opinions, a driver may listen to music in order to keep himself awake, both because listening to music while driving is not so joyous and because of the possible danger to life. Even the <i>poskim</i> who rule stringently agree that one who suffers from depression may listen to music in private, as cited in <i>Hilkhot Ḥag Be-ḥag</i> ch. 7 n. 39.</i>
  
  Section 11
  
  Customs of Mourning during the <i>Omer</i> Period / <i>She-heḥeyanu</i>
  During the <i>omer</i> period, one may buy a new fruit, garment, or piece of furniture and recite the <i>berakha </i>of <i>She-heḥeyanu</i> (the <i>berakha </i>recited over special occasions or new experiences) over it. However, in Ashkenazic communities, after the Crusades and the horrific massacres that the Christians carried out against Ashkenazic communities during the <i>omer</i> period, some rabbis began treating the mourning of the <i>omer</i> period as stringently as that of Three Weeks. According to this position, just as we refrain from reciting <i>She-heḥeyanu</i> during the Three Weeks – because it is inappropriate to recite, “Who has given us life…and brought us to this time,” during the period in which the Temple was destroyed – so too, it is inappropriate to recite <i>She-heḥeyanu</i> during a time in which holy Jews were murdered.
  In practice, however, the accepted <i>halakha</i> is that there is no prohibition against reciting <i>She-heḥeyanu</i> during the <i>omer</i> period, because these days are not comparable to the days between 17 Tamuz and Tisha Be-Av. Nonetheless, one who wishes to be stringent and refrain from buying clothing and furniture during this period should be commended. In a time of need, however, even one who is generally stringent may be lenient. For example, one who needs an article of clothing or a piece of furniture may buy it. Similarly, if an opportunity arises to buy one of these items at a reduced price, he may buy it. Those who follow the more stringent custom should wear the garment for the first time, and recite <i>She-heḥeyanu</i> over it, on Shabbat, Rosh Ḥodesh, Yom Ha-atzma’ut, or at a <i>se’udat mitzva</i>. Likewise, if one buys a new piece of furniture, he should try to begin using it on one of these joyous days.
  Similarly, one may buy a house and even move into it during the <i>omer </i>period, especially if the house is in Eretz Yisrael, and all the more so if it is located in an area that is devoid of Jews, because buying a house in such a place fulfills the mitzva of settling Eretz Yisrael optimally. An individual buyer recites <i>She-heḥeyanu</i>, and a married couple recites <i>Ha-tov Ve-hametiv</i>.13<i class="footnote"><i>Leket Yosher</i> quotes his teacher, R. Yisrael Isserlein, the author of <i>Terumat Ha-deshen</i>, as saying that one should avoid reciting <i>She-heḥeyanu</i> during the <i>omer </i>period. Several other Rishonim and Aḥaronim rule similarly. However, many Aḥaronim reject this stringent custom, including <i>Ma’amar Mordechai</i> 493:2 – quoted in MB 493:2 – and <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 493:4. See <i>Yabi’a Omer</i> OḤ 3:26 and <i>Yeḥaveh Da’at</i> 1:24, which summarize the various opinions. Some are stringent regarding moving into a new house, because this is a very joyous occasion, similar to the joy of a wedding (<i>Responsa Avnei Tzedek</i>, YD 44). <i>Yeḥaveh Da’at</i> 3:30 rules leniently.It is important to note that the <i>omer</i> period has a joyous side as well. Accordingly, Ramban writes (in his commentary on <i>Parashat Emor</i>) that they are like <i>Ḥol Ha-mo’ed</i>, like intermediate days between Pesaḥ and Shavu’ot. However, they also have an aspect of tension and suspense, since one must ascend during this period from one level to the next, until he reaches the pinnacle of the giving of the Torah<i> </i>at Sinai. When one is unable to climb from one level to the next in the proper order, the result is crisis and misfortune, as the Jewish people have experienced throughout their history. This is why we mourn during the <i>omer</i> period. Nevertheless, the holiness of these days remains intact, and thus this period is still very conducive to spiritual growth and purification, in anticipation of the giving of the Torah and the opportunity to attain intimacy with God.</i>
  One may invite friends to a meal during the <i>omer</i> period, as long as they do not play musical instruments there. One may also go on a trip or go hiking, because one must avoid only joyous activities, not all pleasurable ones. Even though some are stringent in this regard, the <i>halakha</i> follows the more lenient opinion when it comes to these customs of mourning. Nevertheless, it is better not to schedule a school trip until after Lag Ba-omer, because such trips are very joyous. However, a school may schedule an educational trip during this period, even <i>le-khatḥila</i>.
  
  Section 12
  
  Customs of Mourning during the <i>Omer</i> Period / A Brief Summary of the Joyous Days within the <i>Omer</i> Period
  None of the customs of mourning are practiced on <i>Ḥol Ha-mo’ed Pesaḥ</i>, because it is a mitzva to rejoice then, as we explained above, in section 8, regarding music.
  According to some <i>poskim</i>, one may get a haircut on Rosh Ḥodesh Iyar, because it is like a Yom Tov and none of the customs of mourning apply on it. In practice, though, it is customary to refrain from getting a haircut on that day, as <i>Shulḥan Arukh</i> (493:3) rules.
  According to Ashkenazic custom, if Rosh Ḥodesh Iyar falls out on Shabbat, giving it extra joy, one may get a haircut on Friday. Likewise, one may also get married on that Friday, shortly before Shabbat, such that the celebration and the festive meal take place on Shabbat and Rosh Ḥodesh. The prevalent custom among Sephardim is to be lenient in this regard only under pressing circumstances.15<i class="footnote">According to Radbaz, Maharikash, and Maharam Lunzano, one may get a haircut on Rosh Ḥodesh (even when it does not fall out on Shabbat). In contrast, <i>Beit Yosef</i> maintains that this is forbidden, and this is the general practice. Regarding weddings on Rosh Ḥodesh that coincides with Shabbat, see above n. 6; see section 6 regarding haircuts.</i>
  Yom Ha-atzma’ut is a holiday of thanksgiving and rejoicing. Therefore, it is proper to shave in anticipation of Yom Ha-atzma’ut, and one may even cut one’s hair for this occasion. Getting married, however, is prohibited (see below 4:11).
  According to Ashkenazic practice, one may get a haircut and get married on the day of Lag Ba-omer, and in a time of need, one may even be lenient on the night of Lag Ba-omer. According to Sephardic custom, however, one may not get a haircut or get married on Lag Ba-omer, as explained above in sections 3 and 4.
  When Lag Ba-omer falls out on Friday, even Sephardim may cut their hair then (SA 493:2).
  According to Ashkenazic practice, one may cut one’s hair on the Friday preceding Lag Ba-omer when it falls out on Sunday. According to Sephardim, however, this is prohibited (see above n. 8. Regarding weddings, some Ashkenazic <i>poskim</i> rule leniently under pressing circumstances, but Sephardim prohibit this; see n. 6.).
  Even according to the custom of many Ashkenazim, who refrain from getting married until Rosh Ḥodesh Sivan, one may get married on the 28th of Iyar (Yom Yerushalayim). Likewise, one may conduct large celebrations on that day (see below 4:11).
  
  
  
  
  
  Section 1
  
  Yom Ha-atzma’ut, Yom Yerushalayim, Yom Ha-zikaron, and Yom Ha-Sho’ah / The Mitzva of Settling Eretz Yisrael
  When the State of Israel was established, on the fifth of Iyar in 5708 (1948), the Jewish people fulfilled the mitzva of settling Eretz Yisrael (the land of Israel). It is true that even prior to the establishment of the state, any Jew who lived in Eretz Yisrael fulfilled this mitzva, and the Sages even said:One should always dwell in Eretz Yisrael, even in a city inhabited mostly by idolaters, and he should not dwell outside the land, even in a city inhabited mostly by Jews, for anyone who dwells in Eretz Yisrael is like one who has a God, and anyone who dwells outside the land is like one who has no God. (<i>Ketubot</i> 110b)However, the primary mitzva is for the Jewish people collectively to have sovereignty over Eretz Yisrael. The mitzva for every Jew to dwell in Eretz Yisrael is an offshoot of the collective mitzva that is incumbent upon the Jewish people.
  This is the meaning of the verse, “You shall take possession of the Land and settle in it, for I have assigned the land to you to possess” (Bamidbar 33:53). “You shall take possession” denotes conquest and sovereignty, while “and settle in it” implies inhabiting the land to prevent it from being desolate. Similarly, the Torah states, “you shall possess it and settle in it” (Devarim 11:31). Accordingly, Ramban defines the mitzva as follows: “We were commanded to take possession of the land that God, may He be exalted, gave to our fathers, Avraham, Yitzḥak, and Yaakov; and we must not leave it in the hands of any other nation or let it remain desolate” (Addendum to Rambam’s <i>Sefer Ha-mitzvot</i>, Positive Commandment 4).
  This mitzva is incumbent upon the Jewish people in every generation. For a long time, however, we lacked power and were thus forced to neglect this mitzva. We did not have a military or weapons with which to conquer and settle our land. In recent generations, God showed kindness to His people and a national spirit began to stir. Jews went forth and assembled in Eretz Yisrael. They planted trees, developed the country’s economy, organized a defense force, and resisted foreign rule, so that when the British Mandate ended, our public representatives were able to declare the establishment of the State of Israel. On that day, the Jewish people began fulfilling the mitzva of settling Eretz Yisrael. While it is true that we are not yet in control of the entire Eretz Yisrael, and we are still somewhat dependent on the nations of the world, we are actually fulfilling the mitzva of settling Eretz Yisrael once again.
  We likewise find that the <i>halakhot </i>of mourning over Eretz Yisrael’s destruction depend on Jewish sovereignty over the land. The Sages enacted that one who sees the cities of Judea in ruins should recite, “Your holy cities have become a desert” (Yeshayahu 64:9) and tear his garments. The <i>poskim</i> explain that the definition of “in ruins” depends on who is in control. If non-Jews rule the land, its cities are considered ruined, even if most of the inhabitants are Jews, and one must rend his garment upon seeing them. But if Jews control the cities, they are not considered ruined, even if non-Jews form the majority of their inhabitants, and one does not rend his garments upon seeing them (<i>Beit Yosef</i> and <i>Baḥ</i> OḤ 561; MA <i>ad loc. </i>1 and MB <i>ad loc. </i>2).
  In addition, the Sages lavish praise upon the mitzva of settling Eretz Yisrael, going so far as to say that it is equal to all the <i>mitzvot</i> of the Torah (<i>Sifrei</i>, Be-ha’alotekha §80).1<i class="footnote">Ramban outlines the foundations of the mitzva of settling Eretz Yisrael in his addendum to Rambam’s <i>Sefer Ha-mitzvot</i>, Positive Commandment 4, and my master and teacher, R. Zvi Yehuda Kook, expands upon these foundations in his work <i>Li-netivot Yisrael</i> (vol. 1, “<i>Le-tokef Kedushato shel Yom Ha-atzma’ut</i>,” pp. 246-250, see also pp. 160-162; vol. 2, “<i>Mizmor Yud-tet shel Medinat Yisrael</i>,” pp. 357-368). The following is a synopsis of his approach. The mitzva of settling Eretz Yisrael applies in every generation, as Ramban <i>loc. cit</i>. and Rivash (<i>Responsa Rivash </i>§387) write. Therefore, the <i>halakha</i> that one can compel his or her spouse to move to Eretz Yisrael (<i>Ketubot</i> 110b) applies at all times, as SA EH 75:3-5 determines. This is also the consensus of the Rishonim and Aḥaronim, as <i>Pitḥei Teshuva</i> <i>ad loc. </i>6 cites. While it is true that <i>Tosafot</i> in <i>Ketubot</i> 110b quote Rabbeinu Ḥayim’s opinion that the mitzva does not apply nowadays, the most prominent Rishonim and Aḥaronim do not even address this opinion; they believed that an errant student authored this statement (Maharit, YD 28; many of the greatest Aḥaronim agree; see also <i>Gilyon Maharsha</i>, <i>Ketubot</i> 110b; <i>Responsa Ḥatam Sofer</i>, YD 234). The fact that the main fulfillment of the mitzva revolves around Jewish sovereignty is elucidated in <i>Yeshu’ot Malko</i>, YD 66, <i>Avnei Nezer</i>, YD 455, and elsewhere.Even though the Sages comment that several other <i>mitzvot</i> are equal to all the <i>mitzvot </i>(regarding <i>brit mila</i> in <i>Nedarim</i> 32a; <i>tzedaka</i> in <i>Bava Batra</i> 9a; <i>tzitzit</i> in <i>Shevu’ot</i> 29a; <i>tefilin</i> in <i>Menaḥot</i> 43b; Shabbat in <i>y. Nedarim</i> 3:9; Torah study and acts of kindness in <i>m.</i> <i>Pe’ah</i> 1:1), nonetheless, from a halakhic standpoint, settling Eretz Yisrael takes precedence over them all, as it is the only one that overrides a <i>shvut </i>(rabbinic prohibition on Shabbat). If one needs to violate a <i>shvut</i> in order to perform a <i>brit mila</i> on Shabbat, we postpone the <i>brit</i> instead of violating the <i>shvut</i>. For the sake of settling Eretz Yisrael, however, the Sages rule that one may purchase a home in Eretz Yisrael on Shabbat, if necessary, even if this entails violating the <i>shvut</i> of telling a non-Jew to do <i>melakha </i>(prohibited work) on Shabbat, as the Talmud states in <i>Gittin</i> 8b and BK 80b (and <i>Tosafot ad loc.</i>). This ruling does not only apply to the redemption of all of Eretz Yisrael; rather, even the purchase of just one house still overrides a <i>shvut</i>! Furthermore, in order to erect a protective fence around Shabbat, the Sages abrogate the Torah commandments of <i>shofar</i> and <i>lulav</i> when Rosh Ha-shana and the first day of Sukkot coincide with Shabbat. When it comes to settling Eretz Yisrael, however, the Sages suspend their own enactments by permitting one to violate a <i>shvut</i> – a serious rabbinic prohibition – for its sake. (In fact, <i>Smag</i> apparently considers telling a non-Jew to do <i>melakha </i>a Torah prohibition.)Moreover, we are commanded to sacrifice our lives for the sake of the mitzva of settling Eretz Yisrael. We know this because the Torah commands us to take possession of the land—that is, to conquer it—and soldiers inevitably endanger their lives in war. See <i>Minḥat Ḥinukh</i> §425.The reason Rambam does not include this mitzva in his count of the 613 <i>mitzvot </i>is that it transcends the normal value of <i>mitzvot</i>; it is not listed in the detailed enumeration because, as Rambam writes in his introduction to <i>Sefer Ha-mitzvot</i> and again with respect to Positive Commandment §153, <i>mitzvot </i>that encompass the entire Torah are not listed individually. Besides which, it is implausible to say that the mitzva of settling Eretz Yisrael is only rabbinically mandated today, since the Sages stated, following the destruction of the Second Temple, that settling the land is equal to all the <i>mitzvot</i> of the Torah; it is highly unlikely that they would say such a thing about a rabbinic mitzva. Moreover, it is improbable that the Sages would dismantle a family or allow one to violate a <i>shvut</i> merely for the sake of a rabbinic mitzva (see R. Yaakov Zisberg’s <i>Naḥalat Yaakov</i>, vol. 1, pp. 201-249).</i>
  
  Section 2
  
  Yom Ha-atzma’ut, Yom Yerushalayim, Yom Ha-zikaron, and Yom Ha-Sho’ah / The Beginning of the Redemption and Sanctifying God’s Name
  The establishment of the State of Israel removed the disgrace of exile from the Jewish people. Generation after generation, we wandered in exile, suffering dreadful humiliation, pillaging, and bloodshed. We were an object of scorn and derision among the nations; we were regarded as sheep led to the slaughter, to be killed, destroyed, beaten, and humiliated. Strangers said to us, “You have no hope or expectation.” That situation was a terrible <i>ḥilul Hashem</i> (desecration of God’s name), because God’s name is associated with us, and when we are degraded, His name becomes desecrated among the nations (see Yeḥezkel 36).
  The prophets of Israel prophesied, in God’s name, that the exile will eventually end: “I will take you from among the nations and gather you from all the countries, and I will bring you back to your own land” (Yeḥezkel 36:24); “They shall build houses and dwell in them; they shall plant vineyards and enjoy their fruit” (Yeshayahu 65:21); “Again you shall plant vineyards on the hills of Samaria; Men shall plant and live to enjoy them” (Yirmiyahu 31:4); “And the desolate land, after lying waste in the sight of every passerby, shall again be tilled. And men shall say, ‘That land, once desolate, has become like the Garden of Eden; and the cities, once ruined, desolate, and ravaged, are now populated and fortified” (Yeḥezkel 36:34-35); “I will restore My people Israel. They shall rebuild ruined cities and inhabit them; they shall plant vineyards and drink their wine; they shall till gardens and eat their fruits. And I will plant them upon their soil, nevermore to be uprooted from the soil I have given them – said the Lord your God” (Amos 9:14-15).
  However, after so many years passed without God’s word coming to fruition, God’s name became increasingly desecrated in the world, and the enemies of Israel decided that there is no chance that the Jews would ever return to their land. Even the Sages spoke in hyperbole about the miracle of the ingathering of the exiles, to the point that they said, “The ingathering of the exiles is as great as the day upon which the heaven and earth were created” (<i>Pesaḥim</i> 88a). But a miracle occurred, and God fulfilled His promise, causing an enormous and awesome <i>kiddush Hashem</i> (sanctification of God’s name). This <i>kiddush Hashem </i>became amplified even further during the Six-Day War, when Jerusalem was reunified and the holy cities within Judea and Samaria were recaptured.
  This process – the ingathering of the exiles and the blooming of the wasteland – which gained tremendous momentum when the State was established, marks the beginning of the redemption. As R. Abba said, “There is no clearer sign of the end of the exile than this verse: ‘But you, O mountains of Israel, shall yield your produce and bear your fruit for My people Israel, for their return is near’ (Yeḥezkel 36:8) (<i>San</i>. 98a).” Rashi comments, “When Eretz Yisrael yields its fruit in abundance, the End will be near, and there is no clearer sign of the end of the exile.”
  Nevertheless, many things still need to be fixed. Unfortunately, we have not yet fully repented, and many Jews have yet to immigrate to Eretz Yisrael. Despite this, the Sages taught that redemption can come in one of two ways. They interpreted the verse, “I the Lord will speed it in due time” (Yeshayahu 60:22) to means that if we achieve complete repentance, God “will speed it”; i.e., He will hasten the redemption. But if we do not repent fully, the redemption will still come “in due time,” through natural processes (<i>San</i>. 98a). That is, even if Israel fails to repent, when the predetermined time for redemption arrives, certain natural processes will begin to unfold. These processes will be full of complications and severe hardships, causing the Jewish people to return to their land and rebuild it. We will proceed from stage to stage in this manner, until the ultimate redemption materializes. These hardships, which stimulate the redemptive process, are called the birth-pangs of the Messiah. The more we strengthen ourselves in the <i>mitzvot </i>of settling Eretz Yisrael and penitence, the sweeter and more pleasant these birth-pangs will become (based on Vilna Gaon in <i>Kol Ha-tor</i>). Concerning this type of redemption, the Sages say, “Such is the redemption of Israel: at first little by little, but as it progresses it grows greater and greater” (<i>y.</i> <i>Berakhot</i> 1:1).
  Explicit verses in the Torah and the Prophets indicate that the order of redemption is as follows. First, there will be a small degree of repentance and the Jewish people will gather in their land, which will begin to yield its fruit. Afterward, God will bestow upon us a spirit from on high, until we return to Him completely.2<i class="footnote">My teacher and master, R. Zvi Yehuda Kook, explains in detail (in “<i>Ha-medina Ke-hitkayemut Ḥazon Ha-ge’ula</i>,” <i>Li-netivot Yisrael</i>, vol. 1, pp. 261-272) that the order of redemption is as follows: first there will be a small degree of repentance, with a return to Eretz Yisrael and a national revival. Then, a complete return to God will ensue. We will mention here a few of the many sources that confirm this idea. In the section dealing with repentance in Devarim 30, the Torah states that there will first be a return “to (<i>ad</i>) the Lord,” which refers to a minor repentance stemming from fear and harsh decrees. Afterward, the exiles will gather in Eretz Yisrael, and then a complete return “to (<i>el</i>) God” will take place. R. Zvi Yehuda explains, based on the teachings of his father, R. Avraham Yitzḥak Kook, that the minor repentance will manifest itself in a return to Eretz Yisrael. (This return began with a holy awakening of love, when the Ḥasidim and the students of the Vilna Gaon immigrated to Eretz Yisrael in the 1800s.) Yeḥezkel 36 also describes the redemption in this order, as does the Talmud (<i>San.</i> 97b). There, R. Yehoshua opines that redemption does not depend on repentance; rather, God will empower a king as cruel as Haman, and this will cause the Jews to repent, albeit only partially. R. Eliezer, who argues with R. Yehoshua on this matter, remains silent at the end of the debate, implying that he concedes the dispute. Other sources that indicate that redemption is independent of repentance include: <i>Shemot Rabba</i> 25; <i>Tikunei Zohar Ḥadash</i>; Ramban’s commentary on Devarim 32; <i>Or Ha-ḥayim </i>to Vayikra 25:28; R. Shlomo Eliasov’s <i>Hakdamot U-she’arim</i> 6:9, especially pp. 273-276, where R. Eliasov quotes some of the greatest Aḥaronim who viewed the modern-day ingathering of exiles as the beginning of the redemption. My teacher and master, Rav Zvi Yehuda Kook adds (<i>op. cit.</i>,<i> </i>vol. 2, p. 365) that one who fails to recognize these divine acts of kindness lacks faith, and though this lack of faith sometimes wraps itself in the garb of piety and religiosity, it is actually a denial of the divine nature of the Written Torah, the words of our Prophets, and the Oral Torah. <i>Sanhedrin</i> 98b quotes several Amora’im who were so afraid of the terrible suffering that would occur during the era of the birth-pangs of the Messiah that they said, “Let him (the Messiah) come, but let me not see him.” See other sources in <i>Em Ha-banim Semeiḥa</i> by R. Y. S. Teichtal, <i>Ha-tekufa Ha-gedola</i> by R. M. M. Kasher, and <i>Kol Ha-tor</i> – reprinted at the end of R. Kasher’s book – which contains profound ideas that the Vilna Gaon revealed to his students on the topic of redemption. See also <i>Ayelet Ha-shaḥar</i> by R. Y. Filber, the section entitled “<i>Shivat Tziyon Ha-shelishit</i>.”</i>
  
  Section 3
  
  Yom Ha-atzma’ut, Yom Yerushalayim, Yom Ha-zikaron, and Yom Ha-Sho’ah / Salvation of Israel
  On Yom Ha-atzma’ut (Israel’s Independence Day), the Jewish people were delivered from bondage to freedom, from subjugation by foreign powers, with all it entails, to political independence. This also brought about an actual physical salvation from death: until then, we were unable to defend ourselves from the attacks of our enemies, but from that day on, thanks to God’s kindness, we have defended ourselves and triumphed over our enemies. Although the enemies who have risen up to destroy us have not yet been destroyed, ever since the establishment of the state we have had an army, thank God, so we have the power to fight back and triumph. And even though more than 20,000 holy souls have given their lives in wars and terror attacks since the establishment of the state, just a few years earlier, during the horrific Holocaust, more than six million holy Jews were killed in the span of five years – more than 300 times that amount. This is the difference between having the ability to fight back and not having that ability.
  That day brought about a salvation for Diaspora Jews, as well. They now have a country that is always willing to take them in and that even acts on their behalf in the international arena. Before the state was established, almost no one paid attention when the Jews would complain about the murderous, anti-Semitic persecution that raged in many countries. After Israel gained independence, however, even the most evil regimes were forced to take into consideration Israel’s actions on behalf of the Jews living in their midst. Even Communist Russia had to relent and allow the Jews to leave from behind the Iron Curtain, something that was unfathomable before the state was established.
  The establishment of the state also brought spiritual salvation to the Jews. The Jewish nation underwent a profound spiritual crisis in the modern era. The opportunity to integrate into the civil and national frameworks of developed nations, which Jews now enjoyed, generated a strong desire to assimilate. This is not the place to elaborate on the reasons for this crisis; R. Kook deals with the issue at length, discussing its various facets. Practically speaking, a dangerous process of assimilation and the abandonment of religion developed in all countries that embraced modernity. This process threatened the very existence of the Jewish communities in the Diaspora. Assimilation began approximately 200 years ago in Western Europe, spreading gradually to Eastern Europe and the capital cities of the more developed Arab countries. Today, most youths in the greater Jewish community in the United States marry outside the faith, and even those who marry Jews generally do not have many children. Under these circumstances, Diaspora Jewry is fading away. Only in Israel is the Jewish population growing, and intermarriage there is relatively rare. Moreover, the percentage of Jews connected to Torah and <i>mitzvot</i> in Israel is higher than that of any other Jewish community in the world. This spiritual salvation came about in the merit of the establishment of the state, which enabled the ingathering of the exiles and diminished the temptation of assimilation.
  Thus, Yom Ha-atzma’ut is invested with three sanctities: the sanctity of the mitzva of settling Eretz Yisrael; the sanctity of the beginning of the redemption, which created a <i>kiddush Hashem</i> in the eyes of the nations; and the sanctity of the salvation that the establishment of the state brought for the Jewish people.
  
  Section 4
  
  Yom Ha-atzma’ut, Yom Yerushalayim, Yom Ha-zikaron, and Yom Ha-Sho’ah / The Three Oaths
  The verse states: “I adjure you, O maidens of Jerusalem, by gazelles or by hinds of the field: Do not wake or rouse love until it please!” (Shir Ha-shirim 2:7). The Sages explain that God administered three oaths: two to Israel – not to ascend to their land forcefully all together (lit. “on a wall”) and not to rebel against the nations – and one to the gentiles – not to subjugate the Jews excessively (<i>Ketubot</i> 111a). Afterward, the Gemara adds three other oaths that God administered to the Jews: “That they will not reveal the End of Days, that they will not delay the End, and that they will not reveal the secret to the idolaters.” Furthermore, “R. Elazar says: The Holy One, blessed be He, said to Israel, ‘If you fulfill the oath, well and good; but if not, I will allow your flesh [to be devoured] like [that of] the gazelles and the hinds of the field.’”
  R. Yitzḥak de Leon, author of <i>Megilat Esther</i>, understands the oaths to mean that “we may not rebel against the nations and conquer Eretz Yisrael by force,” and this is what the Sages meant when they stated that we may not ascend “on a wall.” Based on this, he concludes that there is no mitzva to settle Eretz Yisrael until the Messiah arrives (gloss on Ramban’s addendum to <i>Sefer Ha-mitzvot</i>, Positive Commandment 4).
  However, the rest of the great Rishonim and Aḥaronim maintain that the mitzva of settling Eretz Yisrael is fixed and eternal, as Ramban states and as <i>Shulḥan Arukh</i> (EH 75:3-5), and <i>Pitḥei Teshuva</i> (EH 75:6) assert. Thus, one should not infer from this aggadic statement that the mitzva of settling Eretz Yisrael no longer applies.
  Many interpretations have been given for the three oaths. Several of them imply that we must not precipitate the End of Days by ascending to the land by force, without first considering the matter realistically. Indeed, there is reason to fear that, because of the hardships of exile and the protracted period of longing for redemption, people will ascend to Eretz Yisrael impetuously, without any practical means by which to build the land and defend themselves against the nations of the world. This will lead to destruction and crisis instead of the beginning of the redemption. Therefore, God made us swear that we will not attempt to return before carefully calculating our actions. Rather, we should ascend and build the land gradually, in coordination with the nations of the world, or by way of manifest miracles, if we deserve the “I will speed it” form of redemption.
  Indeed, the modern return to Zion occurred gradually. The Jewish community in Eretz Yisrael established itself through small steps, while the Zionist Organization simultaneously engaged in diplomatic efforts, until the world recognized the Jewish people’s right to return to their land and build a national home there. Accordingly, after the League of Nations agreed, at the San Remo conference, to return Eretz Yisrael to the Jewish people, R. Meir Simḥa of Dvinsk wrote that “the fear of the oaths has departed.”3<i class="footnote">The full quote is cited in <i>Ha-tekufa Ha-gedola</i>, p. 175. We will mention a few of the sources. Rashi explains the Gemara’s statement “They shall not go up as a wall” to mean, “Together, with a strong hand.” <i>Avnei Nezer</i>, YD 453, states that if the Jews ascend to Eretz Yisrael with the permission of the nations, it is not considered “with a strong hand.” R. Yisakhar Shlomo Teichtal concurs in <i>Em Ha-banim Semeiḥa</i>, pp. 226-228 (English edition), adding that when the Jews in exile encounter great suffering, it is a heavenly sign that they must ascend to Eretz Yisrael (see the index there). R. Zvi Yehuda Kook explains this principle briefly in <i>Li-netivot Yisrael</i>, vol. 2, pp. 274-275. The entire comprehensive work of R. M. M. Kasher, <i>Ha-tekufa Ha-gedola</i>, is filled with sources for the mitzva of settling Eretz Yisrael and the beginning of the redemption, as well as explanations of the three oaths; see pp. 175-176, 273ff.Even if one wants to explain the oaths differently, the rule is that we do not derive <i>halakha</i> from aggadic statements (<i>Avnei Nezer</i>, YD 454). Hence, Rif, Rosh, and all the other early halakhic commentators on <i>Ketubot</i> do not mention the three oaths. On the contrary, they write that there is a mitzva to ascend to Eretz Yisrael. Likewise, Rambam and SA do not mention the oaths in their works. <i>Pnei Yehoshua</i> (on <i>Ketubot</i> 111a) points out that <i>Yoma</i> 9b implies the opposite – that the redemption did not come because the Jews did not ascend as a wall. And since these two aggadic sources contradict each other, we must understand them in some other, non-halakhic way. According to <i>Sefer Hafla’ah</i> (<i>Ketubot</i>, <i>loc. cit.</i>), the “wall” only relates to the immigration to Eretz Yisrael from Babylonia. The Vilna Gaon writes in his commentary to Shir Ha-shirim that the oaths relate to the construction of the Temple, warning us not to be overly eager and build it without divine authorization, given through a prophet. According to R. Tzadok Ha-Kohen of Lublin (<i>Divrei Sofrim</i> §14), even <i>Megilat Esther</i> would agree that there is a mitzva to settle Eretz Yisrael nowadays. For a comprehensive treatment of this issue, see <i>Naḥalat Yaakov</i> by R. Yaakov Zisberg, vol. 2, pp. 715-815</i>
  
  Section 5
  
  Yom Ha-atzma’ut, Yom Yerushalayim, Yom Ha-zikaron, and Yom Ha-Sho’ah / Establishing Yom Ha-atzma’ut as a Permanent Holiday
  There is a mitzva to establish a holiday of rejoicing and praising God on a day when the Jewish people were saved. It was on this basis that the Sages established Purim and Ḥanuka as permanent holidays. Even though one may not add <i>mitzvot</i> to the Torah, this mitzva is derived from a <i>kal va-ḥomer </i>(<i>a fortiori</i> argument): When we left Egypt and were delivered from slavery, God commanded us to celebrate Pesaḥ and sing praise to Him every year; all the more so must we celebrate Purim, when we were saved from death (<i>Megilla</i> 14a). This principle served as the Sages’ basis for establishing Ḥanuka as well (Ritva <i>ad loc</i>.). Ḥatam Sofer explains (end of YD 233, OḤ 208) that since this mitzva is derived from a <i>kal va-ḥomer</i>, it is considered a Torah commandment. However, the Torah does not prescribe exactly how to establish a holiday; therefore, one who does anything to commemorate the salvation fulfills his Torah obligation. It was the Sages who determined that we read the <i>megilla</i>, conduct a festive meal, send <i>mishlo’aḥ manot </i>(gifts of food) to others, and give charity to the poor on Purim, and light candles on Ḥanuka.
  Many Jewish communities throughout the ages kept this mitzva, instituting days of joy in commemoration of miracles that they experienced. Many of them included the word “Purim” when naming these days, like “Purim Frankfurt” and “Purim Tiberias.” Some communities had a custom to eat festive meals, send <i>mishlo’aḥ manot </i>to one another, and give charity to the poor on these days. Maharam Alashkar writes that the enactments that these communities made have binding force, obligating all of their descendants to keep them, even if they move to a new community (<i>Responsa Maharam Alashkar </i>§49). Other Aḥaronim concur (MA and <i>Eliya Rabba</i> 686:5).4<i class="footnote"><i>Pri Ḥadash</i> (OḤ 496, <i>Kuntres Ha-minhagim</i> 14) disagrees with Maharam Alashkar, stating that we may not establish new holidays after the destruction of the Temple, when the Sages canceled the holidays enumerated in <i>Megilat Ta’anit</i>. However, Ḥatam Sofer, OḤ 191, demonstrated that we should create new holidays; the fact that the Sages canceled the holidays mentioned in <i>Megilat Ta’anit</i> is no proof, since they canceled only the holidays that were connected to the Temple. Ḥatam Sofer adds that he himself celebrates “Purim Frankfurt” (or “Purim Winz”) on the twentieth of Adar, because he was born in Frankfurt, even though he had since moved elsewhere. It is also well known that Rambam established holidays for himself and his offspring in commemoration of salvations that he experienced – for example, surviving a storm at sea. A similar account is found in <i>Ḥayei Adam</i> 155:41. <i>Yaskil Avdi</i> OḤ 7:44:12 cites many examples of the institution of “Purim” days in various communities and consequently rules (vol. 8, omissions 4) that we may establish Yom Ha-atzma’ut as a holiday. Two more important sources on this issue from the Rishonim are: Ibn Ezra, Bamidbar 10:10; Rabbeinu Tam, cited in <i>Tosafot Ri</i> (<i>Berakhot</i> 8a in the Rif pages).</i>
  The great sage R. Meshulam Rath writes: “There is no doubt that we are commanded to rejoice, establish a holiday, and recite <i>Hallel</i> on the fifth of Iyar, the day that the government, the members of the Knesset [who were chosen by the majority of the people], and most of the greatest rabbis established as the day on which to celebrate, throughout the land, the miracle of our salvation and freedom” (<i>Responsa Kol Mevaser</i> 1:21).5<i class="footnote">In his <i>Responsa Kol Mevasser</i> 1:21:2-3, R. Meshulam Rath (who R. Zvi Yehuda Kook said was the generation’s greatest sage after the passing of R. Avraham Yitzḥak Kook) explains – based on Ramban, Ritva, and other Rishonim and Aḥaronim – that the foundation of the mitzva to establish Yom Ha-atzma’ut as a holiday is the <i>kal va-ḥomer</i> mentioned above. Therefore, establishing it was not a violation of <i>bal tosif </i>(adding to the laws of the Torah), since the prohibition against inventing a holiday refers only to holidays that do not commemorate a salvation. Based on this <i>kal va-ḥomer</i>, however, we are obligated to institute holidays that commemorate salvations. R. Roth adds that a prophet may not establish a new holiday based on prophecy. In the case of Purim was it necessary to produce a special scriptural exposition (<i>Megilla</i> 7a), only in order to canonize the book of Esther as part of Scripture.It is worth noting R. Meshulam Rath’s reliable statement that Yom Ha-atzma’ut was instituted by the majority of the greatest rabbis. (Although they disputed whether one should recite <i>Hallel</i> with a <i>berakha</i>, most of the greatest rabbis agreed on the basic obligation to give thanks and rejoice.) And when Ḥatam Sofer, OḤ 191, s.v. “mihu,” writes that one might violate the prohibition of <i>bal tosif</i> by establishing a holiday for all of Israel, he merely means that one may not establish a national holiday to commemorate a miracle that happened to one Jewish community. However, when the entire Jewish people experienced a miracle, we are obligated to establish a holiday for all of Israel. See also R. Nahum Rackover’s <i>Hilkhot Yom Ha-atzma’ut Ve-Yom Yerushalayim</i>, which includes articles on the mitzva to establish a holiday on Yom Ha-atzma’ut written by the chief rabbis of Israel and other great Torah scholars.Some have asked why Yehoshua neglected to establish a holiday to celebrate the conquest of Eretz Yisrael. The answer is that the festival of Pesaḥ commemorates both the redemption from Egypt and Israel’s subsequent entry into Eretz Yisrael. This corresponds to the fifth expression of redemption. Alternatively, R. Tzadok Ha-Kohen of Lublin (<i>Pri Tzadik </i>on Tu Be-Av) posits that the holiday of Tu Be-Av (the fifteenth of Av) was established to commemorate this event. Also, see below, n. 7.</i>
  
  Section 6
  
  Yom Ha-atzma’ut, Yom Yerushalayim, Yom Ha-zikaron, and Yom Ha-Sho’ah / Reciting <i>Hallel</i>
  It is a mitzva to recite <i>Hallel</i> on special occasions, in order to thank and praise God for the miracles He performs on our behalf. First and foremost, we recite <i>Hallel </i>on the festivals that the Torah commands us to observe: Pesaḥ, Shavu’ot, and Sukkot, when we remember the miracles and acts of kindness that God performed for us when He took us out of Egypt, gave us the Torah, and brought us through the wilderness to Eretz Yisrael.
  The Sages also instituted the recitation of <i>Hallel</i> on all eight days of Ḥanuka, as the <i>beraita</i> states:Why did they see fit to require us to recite the complete <i>Hallel</i> on these days? To teach us that for every salvation God performs for Israel, they (the Jews) come before Him in song and praise. Accordingly, it says in the book of Ezra, “They responded with praise (<i>hallel</i>)<i> </i>and thanks to the Lord: ‘For He is good….’” (<i>Megilat Ta’anit</i>, ch. 9)
  Similarly, the Talmud states that after the miracle of the splitting of the Red Sea:The prophets among them instituted that the Jews should recite <i>Hallel</i> at every episode and for every trouble that does not befall them, and when they are redeemed they should recite it over their redemption. (<i>Pesaḥim</i> 117a)Rashi explains that the Sages of the Second Temple era relied on this principle to institute the recitation of <i>Hallel</i> on Ḥanuka.
  It follows that we must recite <i>Hallel</i> over the miracle that God performed for us on Yom Ha-atzma’ut. On that day we were saved from the worst hardship of all, that of exile and subjugation to foreigners, which caused all of the terrible suffering and massacres that we experienced for nearly 2,000 years.6<i class="footnote">In <i>y. Pesaḥim</i> 10:6, we read that <i>Hallel</i> should be recited on such occasions: “When the Holy One, blessed be He, performs miracles for you, you should sing songs of praise” – meaning, you should recite <i>Hallel</i>. <i>Shemot Rabba</i> 23:12, commenting on the Song of the Sea, concurs: “‘They said (lit. “they said, saying”)’ (Shemot 15:1) – We will say to our children, and our children to their children, that when You perform miracles for them, they should sing a song like this one before You.” The Talmud (<i>Megilla</i> 14a) asks why we do not recite <i>Hallel</i> on Purim and offers three answers: 1) From the moment the Jews first entered Eretz Yisrael, we do not recite <i>Hallel</i> on miracles that occur outside Eretz Yisrael; 2) R. Naḥman maintains that we read <i>Megilat Esther</i> in place of <i>Hallel</i>; 3) Rava states that we do not recite <i>Hallel</i> on Purim because we remained subjugated to Aḥashverosh. The miracle of Yom Ha-atzma’ut occurred in Eretz Yisrael and freed us from our subjugation to other nations. Therefore, according to all opinions, we must recite <i>Hallel</i>.The <i>poskim</i> dispute whether the obligation to recite <i>Hallel</i> on days the Jews were saved from distress is mandated by Torah law or rabbinically. <i>Behag</i> and other Rishonim maintain that it is a Torah obligation. (Until King David’s time, no specific formula for praising God had yet been instituted; everyone would compose his own, private thanksgiving prayer. After David composed the book of Tehilim, however, the prophets ordained that we recite specific chapters of Tehilim in order to fulfill the mitzva of praising and thanking God.) According to Rambam, the whole concept of reciting <i>Hallel</i> – whether on the festivals recorded in the Torah or in commemoration of the salvations that God performed for the Jews – is a rabbinic mitzva. Netziv posits (<i>She’iltot</i> 26:1) that reciting <i>Hallel</i> at the time a miracle occurs, as the people of Israel did when they sang the Song of the Sea, is a Torah commandment, while reciting it every year thereafter is a rabbinic mitzva. Ḥatam Sofer, OḤ 208, s.v. “u-mikol makom,” implies that the Torah commandment exists every year (also see end of YD 233).</i>
  We must be very careful not to deny God’s benevolence, as the Sages say, “Whoever acknowledges a miracle done on his behalf will be privileged to have another miracle done for him.” Conversely, if we neglect to thank God, we will delay the redemption, God forbid. The Talmud relates that King Ḥizkiyahu was a very righteous man who spread Torah extensively throughout Israel, but difficult times eventually beset him. King Sennacherib of Assyria besieged Jerusalem with a mighty army, intending to destroy it, and Ḥizkiyahu fell deathly ill. Nevertheless, he did not lose faith; instead, he cried out to God, who performed a great miracle on his behalf, curing his illness and destroying Sennacherib’s entire army in one night. At that moment, God wanted to declare Ḥizkiyahu the Messiah, consider the war against Sennacherib the apocalyptic war of Gog and Magog, and bring redemption to the world. But Ḥizkiyahu did not sing songs of praise, i.e., <i>Hallel</i>, over his redemption. The heavenly attribute of justice said to God, “Master of the Universe, if You did not make King David of Israel, the Messiah, even though he uttered so many songs and praises before You, will You make Ḥizkiyahu the Messiah, seeing that he failed to sing songs of praise after You performed all of these miracles for him?” Therefore, the matter was sealed, and great sorrow spread throughout all the worlds. The earth wanted to sing songs of praise in Ḥizkiyahu’s stead, and the “minister of the world” wanted to defend him, but their pleas were rejected; the opportunity was lost. The prophet said, “Woe to me! Woe to me! Until when?” (<i>San</i>. 94a).
  The same is true of us. For many generations we prayed, “Raise high the banner to gather our exiles” and “Swiftly, lead us upright to our land.” Now that our prayers have been answered, shall we not thank God? Similarly, it says, “Save us, Lord our God, and gather us from among the nations, that we may give thanks to Your holy name and glory in Your praise” (Tehilim 106:47). Now that He has gathered us, shall we not thank His holy name and sing His praise?
  
  Section 7
  
  Yom Ha-atzma’ut, Yom Yerushalayim, Yom Ha-zikaron, and Yom Ha-Sho’ah / Reciting a <i>Berakha </i>on <i>Hallel</i>
  Some say that even though we thank God on Yom Ha-atzma’ut, we should not recite <i>Hallel</i> with a <i>berakha</i>. They mention five main reasons: 1) Based on several Rishonim, Ḥida maintains that <i>Hallel</i> is recited with a <i>berakha</i> only when all of Israel experiences a miracle, and when Israel declared its independence only a minority of world Jewry was living in Eretz Yisrael; 2) We should give thanks only for a complete salvation, and our enemies still threaten us on all sides; 3) The spiritual state of the country’s leaders and many of its citizens 4) It is proper to show deference to the opinion that maintains that <i>Hallel</i> should be said only when a revealed miracle occurs, like the miracle of the oil on Ḥanuka, not on a natural miracle like the establishment of the state; 5) It is uncertain whether the day of thanksgiving should be set for the day Israel declared independence (the fifth of Iyar), the day the War of Independence ended, or the day the United Nations decided to establish a Jewish State (the sixteenth of Kislev, or November 29).
  Because of all or some of these concerns, the Chief Rabbinate Council originally prescribed that one recite <i>Hallel</i> without a <i>berakha</i> during <i>Shaḥarit</i> on Yom Ha-atzma’ut. Over the course of the next 26 years, however, Israel’s situation improved dramatically. We were privileged to liberate Judea and Samaria in the Six-Day War, and we even came out of the Yom Kippur War with a great victory, despite the adverse turn of events at the start of the war. More than three million Jews already resided in the land, five times the number that lived there at the State’s inception in 1948. Therefore, on the 25th of Nisan, 5734 (1974), the Chief Rabbinate Council assembled once again – at the initiative of the Ashkenazic Chief Rabbi, R. Shlomo Goren – to discuss the issue of <i>Hallel</i> on Yom Ha-atzma’ut. They decided, by majority vote, that a strong case can be made in favor of reciting the full <i>Hallel</i> with a <i>berakha</i> on Yom Ha-atzma’ut morning. On this basis, it was the practice of my teacher and master, R. Zvi Yehuda Kook, to recite <i>Hallel</i> with a <i>berakha</i> at Yeshivat Mercaz HaRav, and all of his students follow this practice as well.
  In response to the claim that <i>Hallel</i> may be recited only on a miracle that affects all of Israel, the council explained that the establishment of the state constituted a salvation for all of Israel (as explained above, section 3). In addition, the residents of Eretz Yisrael are considered the entirety of Israel. The day when independence was declared was specifically chosen as the day of thanksgiving because it was the foundation for the deliverance and salvation that took place.7<i class="footnote">According to R. Meshulam Rath, it would have been appropriate to institute the recitation of <i>Hallel</i> with a <i>berakha</i> on Yom Ha-atzma’ut immediately after the State was established. He writes: “The leaders who chose this day in particular were correct, for that was when the main miracle occurred, when we went from bondage to freedom by declaring independence. Had we postponed this declaration for a different day, we would have missed the opportunity and we would not have attained the recognition and consent of the world’s major powers, as is well known. This miracle also brought in its wake the second miracle: being saved from death, both in terms of our war against the Arabs in Eretz Yisrael and the salvation of the Diaspora Jews who immigrated to the land. This led to the third miracle: the ingathering of the exiles” (<i>Kol Mevaser </i>1:21). My teacher and master, R. Zvi Yehuda Kook, explains further (<i>Li-netivot Yisrael</i>, vol. 1, pp. 248-249) that the courage displayed in declaring the state was miraculous in its own right; see BM 106a and <i>Tosafot ad loc.</i>However, R. Ovadia Hadaya (<i>Yaskil Avdi</i> OḤ 6:10) – although agreeing fully that the establishment of the State was the beginning of the redemption – cites Ḥida in <i>Ḥayim Sha’al</i> 2:11 as saying that <i>Hallel</i> should be recited only over a miracle that happened to all of Israel, adding that the salvation of 1948 was not complete. Furthermore, he asserts that no miracle happened on Yom Ha-atzma’ut itself; on the contrary, the war intensified. R. Hedaya was also uncertain of the appropriate date on which to establish the holiday: perhaps the day of the cease-fire is most appropriate, or the sixteenth of Kislev (November 29), when the United Nations confirmed the Jewish people’s right to a state. To avoid disrupting the order of our prayers, which contains deep meaning and significance, R. Hedaya concludes that one should recite <i>Hallel</i> without a <i>berakha</i> after the conclusion of <i>Shaḥarit</i>. R. Ovadia Yosef (<i>Yabi’a Omer</i> OḤ 6:41) agrees that we should omit the <i>berakha</i>, because the miracle did not happen to all of Israel<i> </i>and because we still have a long way to go before reaching a state of peace and security, from both a political-military and spiritual standpoint. R. Yosef Messas (<i>Otzar Ha-mikhtavim</i> 3:1769) maintains that one should recite the full <i>Hallel</i> (with a <i>berakha</i>). R. Shalom Messas felt that one should recite the <i>berakha</i>, but when he heard R. Ovadia Yosef’s opinion he ruled that one who already has a custom to recite the <i>berakha</i> should continue to do so, while one who does not have such a custom should refrain from reciting the <i>berakha</i> (<i>Shemesh U-magen</i> 3:63, 66). My teacher and master, R. Shaul Yisraeli, maintains that one should recite the <i>Hallel</i> without a <i>berakha</i>. Former Chief Rabbis R. Avraham Shapiro and R. Mordechai Eliyahu, concur, but R. Shapiro agrees that one who wants to recite the <i>berakha</i>, in accordance with his custom, may do so (cited in <i>Ha-Rabbanut Ha-Rashit</i>, vol. 2, pp. 901-903).Those who maintain that one should recite <i>Hallel</i> with a <i>berakha</i> explain that the miracle actually did happen to all of Israel, as R. Rath writes (above). According to them, even Ḥida would agree that one should recite the <i>berakha</i>. Furthermore, the residents of Eretz Yisrael are considered the entirety of Israel. This is how R. Shlomo Goren and R. Yehuda Gershuni explain the matter (their position is cited in <i>Hilkhot Yom Ha-atzma’ut Ve-Yom Yerushalayim</i>). <i>Yabi’a Omer</i> <i>loc. cit</i>. 3 states that the Jews of Eretz Yisrael are considered the entirety of Israel only for specific issues. R. Uri Sherki rebuts this claim in his <i>Siddur Beit Melukha</i> (<i>Ba Orekh</i>, sec. 2). Regarding the claim that we should not recite the <i>berakha </i>because the salvation was incomplete, we can learn from Ḥanuka that this is irrelevant. After all, the Jews at the time observed the holiday after their first victory, even though they needed to fight many more difficult battles over the next few decades (see below 11:3). They would establish a holiday after every subsequent victory (see below 11:1). Moreover, when the wars finally ended, Hellenism had already spread throughout the Hasmonean Empire (see below 11:4). It is implausible to say that the Sages instituted Ḥanuka only in commemoration of the miracle of the oil, as the first day of Ḥanuka is observed in celebration of the military victory. Furthermore, the <i>kal va-ḥomer</i> that is cited to support the very foundation of our observance of Yom Ha-atzma’ut relates to the salvation, not the miracle. The fact that many holy soldiers have been killed does not preclude the recitation of <i>Hallel</i>; after all, more fighters were killed in the Hasmonean wars, and they nevertheless established a holiday. In addition, we have at least as much geo-political independence as the Hasmoneans did. R. Goren substantiates his position that it is a mitzva to recite <i>Hallel</i> with a <i>berakha</i> in his work <i>Torat Ha-mo’adim</i>, as does R. Natan Zvi Friedman in <i>Responsa Netzer Mata’ai</i> §36. This is also the opinion of R. Ḥayim David Halevi in <i>Dat U-medina</i>, p. 82.Quoting testimony by R. Yehuda Ushpizai, R. Shmuel Katz writes in his work <i>Ha-Rabbanut Ha-Rashit</i> (vol. 2, p. 841, n. 33) that Chief Rabbis Yitzḥak Herzog and Ben-Zion Uziel believed that it was appropriate to recite <i>Hallel</i> with a <i>berakha</i> from the moment the state was established, but since they were told that Ḥazon Ish and other rabbis strongly opposed this, they refrained from issuing such a ruling, so as not to increase strife. R. Katz cites R. Shlomo Yosef Zevin as saying that this is cause for eternal weeping: that due to external intervention by rabbis who were not members of the Chief Rabbinate Council, the chief rabbis did not rule immediately when the state was established in favor of reciting <i>Hallel</i> with a <i>berakha</i> (<i>loc. cit.</i> p. 890 n. 6). Similarly, R. She’ar Yashuv Cohen relates that his father, R. David Cohen (known as “the Nazir”), maintained that one should recite <i>Hallel</i> with a <i>berakha</i>, but since his opinion was not accepted, he did not recite the <i>berakha</i>, explaining: “I am missing the <i>ve-tzivanu</i> (‘and commanded us’) of the Chief Rabbinate.”It is worth citing here part of a sermon that my teacher and master, R. Zvi Yehuda Kook, delivered on Israel’s nineteenth Yom Ha-atzma’ut, when the Chief Rabbinate had not yet instructed the public to recite a <i>berakha</i> on <i>Hallel</i>:An important man approached me and asked why our rabbis do not permit us to recite <i>Hallel</i> with a <i>berakha</i> on Yom Ha-atzma’ut. I answered that the Rabbinate’s decision is balanced and correct. The Chief Rabbinate’s edicts are made for the entire population, and – unfortunately and disgracefully – many of our people do not acknowledge God’s great deeds as revealed in the reestablishment of Jewish sovereignty in Eretz Yisrael. And since they lack this belief, they lack the joy that goes along with it and we cannot obligate them to recite a <i>berakha</i>. This can be compared to the <i>berakha</i> a person recites upon seeing a long-lost friend: If he is happy to see his friend, he recites the <i>berakha</i>, but if he feels no joy, he does not recite it. R. [Yehuda Leib] Maimon, who was totally dedicated to the rebuilding of God’s nation and territorial inheritance, was filled with the joy of faith when the state was born. He therefore instituted the recitation of <i>Hallel</i> with a <i>berakha</i> in his synagogue. The same is true of other, similar places, like the army and the religious kibbutzim. However, the all-inclusive Chief Rabbinate cannot issue a comprehensive ruling for the entire population, instructing them to recite a <i>berakha</i>, when many people are not ready for this. In our central yeshiva (Yeshivat Mercaz HaRav), we follow the Rabbinate’s ruling, because we are not some <i>kloyz</i> (private house of study) of a specific group. We belong to the concept of the entirety of Israel, which is centered in Jerusalem, and since – painfully and shamefully – there are currently obstacles preventing the public as a whole from attaining full faith and joy…it is appropriate that we, too, act in accordance with the Rabbinate’s ruling for the general public. (<i>Li-netivot Yisrael</i>, vol. 2, pp. 359-360)After the Six-Day War, R. Zvi Yehuda bemoaned the fact that the Rabbinate did not immediately institute the recitation of <i>Hallel</i> with a <i>berakha</i> on Yom Ha-atzma’ut. When R. Goren did so after Israel was victorious in the Yom Kippur War, R. Zvi Yehuda was elated, and this became the custom of Yeshivat Mercaz HaRav. Even though various events have occurred since then – ups and downs – and the Chief Rabbinate does not have the same status as it once had, nonetheless, the recitation of <i>Hallel</i> with a <i>berakha</i> was already established, and this is the practice of R. Zvi Yehuda’s students.</i>
  
  Section 8
  
  Yom Ha-atzma’ut, Yom Yerushalayim, Yom Ha-zikaron, and Yom Ha-Sho’ah / <i>She-heḥeyanu</i> and <i>Hallel</i> at Night
  According to R. Meshulam Rath, since Yom Ha-atzma’ut is a holiday on which Israel was saved, it is appropriate to recite the <i>berakha </i>of <i>She-heḥeyanu</i> on the day, as we do on all our holidays, including Purim and Ḥanuka. He believes, however, that the obligation to recite <i>She-heḥeyanu</i> depends on one’s level of joy. Therefore, one who is not particularly happy may recite the <i>berakha</i> but is not obligated to do so, while one who enjoys and is happy about the establishment of the State is obligated to recite <i>She-heḥeyanu</i> on Yom Ha-atzma’ut.
  Many others maintain that one should not recite <i>She-heḥeyanu</i> on Yom Ha-atzma’ut, because the Sages instituted the recitation of this <i>berakha</i> only for holidays on which one may not do work, like the three festivals, Rosh Ha-shana, and Yom Kippur. The reason we recite <i>She-heḥeyanu</i> on Ḥanuka and Purim, on which work is not prohibited, is that we perform special <i>mitzvot</i> on these days: we read the <i>megilla</i> on Purim and light candles on Ḥanuka. The <i>berakha</i> does not pertain to the very essence of the day, as one only recites <i>She-heḥeyanu</i> over the essence of a holiday if work is prohibited on that day.
  One who wants to go above and beyond and satisfy all opinions should wear a new garment and recite <i>She-heḥeyanu</i> on it, having in mind that the <i>berakha</i> applies to the holiday as well. If he is the <i>ḥazan</i>, it is best to recite the <i>berakha</i> on the garment right before <i>Hallel</i>. This way, the listeners can also fulfill their obligation.8<i class="footnote">R. Meshulam Rath’s position is found in <i>Responsa Kol Mevaser</i> 1:21. MB concurs in his BHL (692, s.v. “She-heḥeyanu”), writing that one recites <i>She-heḥeyanu</i> over the essence of a holiday, even if work is not prohibited. R. Rath adds that it is preferable to recite the <i>berakha</i> before the recitation of <i>Hallel</i>, as then it might be considered a <i>berakha</i> over the mitzva, like the <i>She-heḥeyanu</i> we recite before lighting the candles on Ḥanuka. He also relies on the opinion of <i>Baḥ</i> and others, who maintain that the principle that we rule leniently in a case of uncertainty regarding <i>berakhot</i> (i.e., one omits the <i>berakha</i>) does not apply to <i>She-heḥeyanu</i>. Ḥatam Sofer, OḤ 55, adds that in any case of uncertainty involving <i>She-heḥeyanu</i>, one must recite the <i>berakha</i> if he knows that he is happy. R. Goren concurs in <i>Torat Ha-mo’adim</i>, as does <i>Mishpetei Uziel</i>, OḤ 3:23. On the other hand, <i>Yaskil Avdi</i> 6:10 writes that one should not recite <i>She-heḥeyanu</i> on Yom Ha-atzma’ut, for the reasons stated above. He is also uncertain whether the miracle took place specifically on Yom Ha-atzma’ut. R. Ovadia Yosef writes the same in <i>Yabi’a Omer</i> 6:42, quoting many <i>poskim</i> who maintain that the principle that we rule leniently in a case of uncertainty regarding <i>berakhot</i> applies to <i>She-heḥeyanu</i> as well. This is also <i>Beit Yosef</i>’s opinion, and, according to Rambam, reciting a <i>berakha</i> <i>le-vatala</i> is prohibited by Torah law. R. Moshe Zvi Neriya agrees that one should not recite <i>She-heḥeyanu</i> on Yom Ha-atzma’ut.</i>
  Some maintain that the salvation of Yom Ha-atzma’ut is similar to that of the Exodus from Egypt, and thus we must recite <i>Hallel</i> at night. This was R. Shlomo Goren’s custom, and some communities follow this practice. However, many authorities maintain that the practice<i> </i>of reciting <i>Hallel</i> on the night of Pesaḥ is a unique law, and we cannot invoke this law to support following this practice on other holidays. The proof for this is that we recite <i>Hallel</i> on the other holidays during the day alone. Therefore, one should not recite <i>Hallel</i> on the night of Yom Ha-atzma’ut. This is the practice of most of R. Zvi Yehuda Kook’s students.9<i class="footnote">R. Goren’s position is found in <i>Torat Ha-Shabbat Ve-hamo’ed</i>. See R. Shmuel Katz’s article “<i>Ha-Rabbanut Ha-Rashit Ve-Yom Ha-atzma’ut</i>” (sec. 4, nn. 7, 8, 17, 18). A book titled <i>Ke-lavi Shakhen</i>, in memory of Gad Ezra, <i>Hy”d</i>, contains articles on this issue: one by R. Sherki, who supports reciting <i>Hallel</i> at night; and one by R. Yaakov Ariel, who opposes it. R. Moshe Zvi Neriya expressed this view before R. Ariel did (see <i>Kovetz Hilkhot Yom Ha-atzma’ut Ve-Yom Yerushalayim</i>), quoting several reasons why <i>Hallel</i> is recited specifically on Pesaḥ night, none of which are relevant to Yom Ha-atzma’ut. R. Ariel Edri concurs in a booklet called <i>Shaḥar Ahaleleka</i>. According to R. Hai Gaon, it seems that we recite <i>Hallel</i> on the first night of Pesaḥ because one must view himself as if he is actually leaving Egypt that night. Consequently, he must sing praise as the miracle occurs, an element that does not apply to any other holiday. Most rabbis accept this viewpoint, especially since prior to R. Goren’s tenure as Chief Rabbi, everyone agreed that <i>Hallel</i> pertains to the day alone. And when R. Goren publicized his ruling that <i>Hallel</i> should be recited at night, it stirred a dispute, and it is unclear whether the Chief Rabbinate Council agreed with his ruling. In practice, R. Zvi Yehuda Kook instructed his students at Yeshivat Mercaz HaRav to recite <i>Hallel</i> at night, in accordance with R. Goren’s ruling. However, it seems that he personally disagreed. Later on, when R. Avraham Shapiro became Chief Rabbi, the yeshiva stopped reciting <i>Hallel</i> at night. Most of R. Zvi Yehuda’s students follow this practice.</i>
  
  Section 9
  
  Yom Ha-atzma’ut, Yom Yerushalayim, Yom Ha-zikaron, and Yom Ha-Sho’ah / Celebrating Yom Ha-atzma’ut on a Different Date
  The fifth of Iyar can fall out on a Monday, Wednesday, Friday, or Shabbat. When it falls out on a Friday or Shabbat, there is good reason for concern that the celebrations and ceremonies will cause public desecration of Shabbat. Therefore, it was decided – at the request of the Chief Rabbinate – that whenever the fifth of Iyar falls out on a Friday or Shabbat, Yom Ha-atzma’ut is celebrated on the preceding Thursday (the third or fourth of Iyar). Eventually, it became apparent that even when Yom Ha-atzma’ut falls out on a Monday, this still causes Shabbat desecration. Since Yom Ha-zikaron (Memorial Day), which takes place the day before Yom Ha-atzma’ut, begins on Saturday night in this case, this causes many Jews to desecrate Shabbat in preparing for Yom Ha-zikaron. Therefore, it was decided – again at the request of the Chief Rabbinate – that both of these holidays would be postponed by a day, such that Yom Ha-zikaron would be observed on the fifth of Iyar and Yom Ha-atzma’ut on the sixth of Iyar. In practice, then, on three of the four days on which Yom Ha-atzma’ut can potentially fall, we celebrate it either before or after its genuine date.
  We find a similar concept in the laws of other holidays. Out of concern that one might carry a <i>shofar</i> or <i>lulav</i> through <i>reshut ha-rabim </i>(the public domain) on Shabbat, the Sages canceled these <i>mitzvot</i> on Shabbat. Therefore, when Rosh Ha-shana falls out on Shabbat, we do not blow the <i>shofar</i> that day, and when the first day of Sukkot falls out on Shabbat, we do not take the <i>lulav </i>that day. Thus, the Sages canceled Torah commandments in order to avoid Shabbat desecration. Despite this, we may not change the actual date of a holiday since it is written explicitly in the Torah. The date of a rabbinically ordained holiday, however, may be moved. For example, when Purim falls out on Shabbat, we read the <i>megilla</i> and give gifts to the poor on Friday, read the special Torah reading and recite <i>Al Ha-nisim</i> on Shabbat, and eat a festive meal and send <i>mishlo’aḥ manot</i> to others on Sunday (SA<i> </i>688:6, MB <i>ad loc. </i>18; below 17:5). And when Tisha Be-Av falls out on Shabbat, we postpone the fast until Sunday (see SA<i> </i>551:4, 554:19).
  The same is true of Yom Ha-atzma’ut; it all depends on how the holiday was instituted. Whichever day the representatives of the people and the Chief Rabbinate decide is the day to celebrate the establishment of the State is the day when we must thank God for His salvation.10<i class="footnote">This has been the Chief Rabbinate’s position throughout its history. It is true that, in 1981, R. Shlomo Goren believed that one should recite <i>Hallel</i> on the fifth of Iyar when it falls out on<i> </i>Shabbat, reasoning that whatever festive practices do not entail Shabbat desecration should be observed in their proper time, as is the case on Purim (<i>Torat Ha-Shabbat Ve-hamo’ed</i>). Nevertheless, all the other rabbis maintained that no distinction should be made, as R. Yaakov Ariel explains in <i>Be-ohalah shel Torah</i> §73. R. Ariel states that it seems we should omit <i>Taḥanun</i> on the fifth of Iyar (if it falls on a Friday), just as Tisha Be-Av retains its status with regard to certain laws even when it falls out on Shabbat (<i>ibid.</i>). He concludes that if the fifth of Iyar falls out on Shabbat, we still recite <i>Av Ha-raḥamim</i>, because of the misfortunes that occurred in Iyar. It seems to me that we should, nevertheless, omit <i>Tzidkatekha</i> from the <i>Minḥa</i> service. It also seems – and so decided the Chief Rabbinate in 2004 – that when the fifth of Iyar falls on a Monday, meaning that Yom Ha-atzma’ut is pushed off to Tuesday, we do not recite <i>Taḥanun</i> on Monday. In his work <i>Ha-Rabbanut Ha-Rashit</i> (pp. 898-899), R. Shmuel Katz explains that even R. Goren originally maintained that <i>Hallel</i> should be recited on the day that was chosen for the general celebrations, as opposed to Shabbat. He changed his mind only later, in 1981. In n. 33, R. Katz relates, in the name of R. Yitzḥak Alfasi, that in 2001 the members of R. Goren’s synagogue, Komemiyut Avraham, followed the prevalent custom not to recite <i>Hallel</i> on Shabbat, because some heard from R. Goren that the general public did not accept his ruling on this matter.Rav Kook writes in <i>Mitzvat Re’iyah</i>, OḤ 688:1 that the Sages instituted two days of Purim in order to distinguish between a Torah commandment, which has one fixed time for everyone, and a rabbinic commandment, which is observed at different times in different locations. Perhaps this explains why the Sages instituted two levels of <i>mehadrin</i> observance with regard to lighting Ḥanuka candles, a feature that is not found in relation to Torah commandments, whose laws are fixed. Based on this, we can state that it is fitting for Yom Ha-atzma’ut not to have a fixed date, seeing that it is a rabbinic enactment.</i>
  It is interesting to note that the actual declaration of Israel’s independence took place earlier than originally planned, in order to prevent Shabbat desecration. The British Mandate ended on Friday night at midnight, but the heads of the People’s Council did not want to declare statehood through Shabbat desecration, so they moved the declaration up to Friday afternoon, the fifth of Iyar.
  
  Section 10
  
  Yom Ha-atzma’ut, Yom Yerushalayim, Yom Ha-zikaron, and Yom Ha-Sho’ah / Yom Yerushalayim
  With God’s help, the Jewish nation achieved an extraordinary victory over its enemies in the Six-Day War. The war began on three fronts, and in the span of just six days, Israel utterly shattered its enemies’ military strength and dealt them a total defeat. At the same time, all the holy places in Judea and Samaria – most significantly the Old City of Jerusalem and the Temple Mount – were liberated, along with the Sinai Peninsula and the Golan. Anyone who viewed these events honestly and had even the slightest spark of faith in his heart saw clearly the words of our holy Torah, “Since the Lord your God moves about in your camp to protect you and to deliver your enemies to you” (Devarim 23:15). This great victory was truly a manifest miracle.
  In order to thank God and publicize the miracle, the Chief Rabbinate – headed by R. Isser Yehuda Unterman and R. Yitzḥak Nissim – ordained the 28th of Iyar, the day on which the Old City and the Temple Mount were liberated, as a day of thanksgiving and joy for all of Israel, on which <i>Hallel</i> is recited, with a <i>berakha</i>, after <i>Shaḥarit</i>. R. Shlomo Yosef Zevin and R. Shaul Yisraeli also participated in and supported this decision.11<i class="footnote">See R. Shmuel Katz’s article on the topic in <i>Ha-Rabbanut Ha-Rashit</i>, vol. 2, especially pp. 974-5. For the exact wording of the Chief Rabbinate’s decision, see <i>Hilkhot Yom Ha-atzma’ut Ve-Yom Yerushalayim</i>, p. 387. A responsum from R. Unterman is cited on p. 125, which discusses the great importance of the mitzva to publicize a miracle. This mitzva is possibly even more important than that of reciting the <i>Shema</i>; we even interrupt Torah study on Purim to participate in reading the <i>megilla</i>, in order to publicize the miracle. There, R. Unterman also expands upon the mitzva of establishing a holiday on a day when the Jews were delivered from distress. R. Meir Kaplan writes likewise (<i>loc</i>. <i>cit. </i>p. 204). R. Seraya Deblitzky also writes of the need to establish a day of thanksgiving for the Six-Day War (<i>loc. cit. </i>p. 61). According to R. Ovadia Yosef, however, one should not recite a <i>berakha</i> on the <i>Hallel</i> that one recites on Yom Yerushalayim, as he maintains, based on Ḥida’s opinion, that we cannot institute the recitation of <i>Hallel</i> with a <i>berakha</i> unless a miracle happens to all of Israel, and R. Ovadia does not view the Jews of Jerusalem as the entirety of Israel. The Chief Rabbinate decided that even when the 28th of Iyar falls out on a Friday, the date when <i>Hallel</i> is recited should not change.</i>
  
  Section 11
  
  Yom Ha-atzma’ut, Yom Yerushalayim, Yom Ha-zikaron, and Yom Ha-Sho’ah / Shaving, Haircuts, Weddings, and <i>Taḥanun</i>
  After Yom Ha-atzma’ut was established as a day of joy and thanksgiving, the question arose: do the customs of mourning that we observe during the <i>omer </i>period apply to Yom Ha-atzma’ut? Responses to this question have varied greatly. The accepted practice is not to observe customs of mourning that subvert the joy of Yom Ha-atzma’ut, and therefore, one may dance and play music. However, one should not schedule a wedding on that day, because avoiding weddings is not considered an expression of mourning that clashes with the joy of Yom Ha-atzma’ut.
  Those who shave regularly should shave in advance of Yom Ha-atzma’ut, just as one would put on special clothing before the holiday begins. Regarding haircuts, it seems that only one who looks disgraceful because of his long hair may cut his hair prior to Yom Ha-atzma’ut. One who looks decent, however, may cut his hair only on Yom Ha-atzma’ut itself, because then the joy of the day overrides this custom of mourning.12<i class="footnote">Sephardic Chief Rabbi R. Yitzḥak Nissim writes (<i>Hilkhot Yom Ha-atzma’ut Ve-Yom Yerushalayim</i>, pp. 334-340) that all customs of mourning are canceled on Yom Ha-atzma’ut. He bases his ruling on the <i>poskim</i> who maintain that one who has not yet fulfilled the mitzva of procreation may get married during the <i>omer </i>period (Radbaz, <i>Pri Ḥadash</i>). Similarly, some people cut their hair during the <i>omer </i>period in honor of Shabbat and Rosh Ḥodesh (Radbaz, R. Yaakov Emden). Furthermore, R. Ḥayim Palachi writes (<i>Mo’ed Le-khol Ḥai</i> §6) that since a miracle happened to some of the people of his city on the eighth of Iyar, and to others on the eleventh, it is their custom to cut their hair on these days. In addition to R. Nissim’s proofs, there is even more room for leniency when it comes to shaving, because shaving is not festive in nature; it simply eliminates one’s mournful appearance, as we explained above (3:7). <i>Responsa Yaskil Avdi</i> 6:10, on the other hand, does not permit haircuts or weddings on Yom Ha-atzma’ut. My teacher and master, R. Zvi Yehuda Kook, used to rebuke students who usually shave but look like mourners on Yom Ha-atzma’ut, saying, “Their countenance accuses them” (Yeshayahu 3:9) – that they are not happy and that they do not truly thank God for the miracle. See R. Shmuel Katz’s essay in <i>Ha-Rabbanut Ha-Rashit</i>, vol. 2, pp. 877-882.Regarding mourners: According to a responsum written by R. Goren (<i>op. cit. </i>p. 900, n. 37), Yom Ha-atzma’ut and Yom Yerushalayim, like Ḥanuka, do not cancel <i>shiva</i>. Therefore, a mourner does not recite <i>Hallel</i>, nor do others recite <i>Hallel</i> in a house of mourning; they must recite it elsewhere. If the mourner has completed <i>shiva</i>, he should join the festive prayers and celebrations, as long as there is no live music. A mourner may not cut his hair during <i>shloshim</i> in honor of these holidays.</i>
  The Chief Rabbinate, under the leadership of R. Isser Yehuda Unterman and R. Yitzḥak Nissim, determined that even Ashkenazim who observe the customs of mourning during the latter part of the <i>omer </i>period should not curtail their joy on the 28th of Iyar, Yom Yerushalayim. Indeed, they should even be permitted to schedule weddings then. This is because, first of all, many communities terminate all the restrictions after Lag Ba-omer (see above 3:2-4), and moreover, now that the 28th of Iyar has been instituted as a day of thanksgiving and joy over the miracle that God performed for the nation of Israel, one should certainly refrain from mourning.
  We do not recite <i>Taḥanun</i> on Yom Ha-atzma’ut or Yom Yerushalayim, or at <i>Minḥa</i> preceding these days (<i>Peninei Halakha</i>: <i>Prayer</i> 21:7; see also ch. 21 n. 1).
  
  Section 12
  
  Yom Ha-atzma’ut, Yom Yerushalayim, Yom Ha-zikaron, and Yom Ha-Sho’ah / Yom Ha-zikaron: A Day of Remembrance for Israel’s Fallen Soldiers
  From a halakhic standpoint, there is no need to institute a general memorial day for the holy soldiers who were killed in battle. Rather, one should do what the Jewish people have always done for any Jew who dies: on the <i>yahrzeit </i>(anniversary of death), a memorial prayer is recited and the deceased’s son or relatives recite <i>Kaddish</i>, study Torah, and give charity to elevate their loved one’s soul. Those who go beyond this hold a full memorial service with Torah lectures to elevate the deceased’s soul.
  We have fought many wars throughout our long history, often losing more soldiers in one war than the IDF has lost in all of its battles combined. Nevertheless, the Sages never instituted a memorial day for those killed in battle. When we were victorious, we celebrated, and when we lost, we mourned individually. The only tragedy for which the Sages instituted public mourning, in the form of fast days, is the destruction of the Temple, which was a spiritual and national destruction. Indeed, the destruction of the Temple is the source of all the troubles, evil decrees, and bloodshed that our nation has suffered throughout the long exile. Even the Fast of Gedalia was instituted in commemoration of the Temple’s destruction, not because Gedalia’s righteousness warranted that all of Israel mourn his death each year. Rather, his assassination extinguished the last flicker of hope for the Jews who remained in Eretz Yisrael after the destruction of the First Temple.
  Moreover, just a few years before the State of Israel was established, six million Jews were horrifically and cruelly murdered. They were our brothers no less than the soldiers who fell in battle, and they were far greater in number, more than 300 times the number of soldiers who have died in all of Israel’s wars. How, then, can we establish a day of mourning for Israel’s soldiers on the same scale as for the six million?
  Rather, if a memorial day is warranted, it is on condition that we dedicate the day to educating the public about the essence and purpose of the nation of Israel and about the value of self-sacrifice on behalf of the Jewish people. Many people mistakenly believe that the more we bow our heads in grief and express our pain over the fallen soldiers through somber hues, the more we honor their memories. However, the opposite is true. Our attitude toward the fallen should be that they are holy; their entire lives were refined and sanctified through their self-sacrifice for the people and land of Israel. The Sages say about such people, “No one can dwell in the section of the Garden of Eden where those who were killed by the kingdom dwell” (<i>Pesaḥim</i> 50a). A nonbeliever thinks that the fallen are deader than the living, but a believing Jew knows that they are more alive than all the rest. They died young in this world, but they are truly alive in the everlasting world, the World to Come. They are much more alive than we are. They are holy, and, as the Sages say, “What is holy exists forever” (<i>San</i>. 92a).
  By dying in sanctification of God’s name, they rose above the personal existence of each individual Jew to the all-encompassing level of the entire Jewish people. By sacrificing their lives for the Jewish people, they were elevated to the status of the Jewish people as a whole, and as a result they are more connected to God, the source of life. Therefore, in dying they added much life in both the World of Truth and this world. Moreover, it is to their credit that we can live in Israel today; everything we accomplish is thanks to them.
  Sadly, people who lack faith, who do not understand the Jewish people’s past or its mission, have seized control of the Israel’s media and cultural life. In the beginning, the secularists still possessed an inkling of Judaism, based on what they heard in their parents’ home, but over time, alienation from Torah values took its toll and they turned Yom Ha-zikaron into a day of weakness and defeatism. Instead of honoring the memories of the fallen, trying to understand the essence of the nation of Israel, and investing meaning into the soldiers’ self-sacrifice, they emphasize the pain, despair, and destruction, portraying the deaths of these soldiers as meaningless. They appear to be honoring the fallen, but in reality, there is no greater affront to the honor of these martyrs than the inappropriate character that these people have attached to Yom Ha-zikaron. The fundamental flaw in their approach is their disregard for the Jewish national destiny for whose sake the soldiers sacrificed their lives.
  If we nonetheless observe Yom Ha-zikaron, we must underscore the soldiers’ self-sacrifice in sanctification of God’s name. We must emphasize how they demonstrated to us that the vision of the ingathering of the exiles and the rebirth of the nation of Israel in its ancient homeland is so great that it is worth giving up one’s life in this world for its sake. This will strengthen us and inspire us to follow their lead. The children we bear and raise exist in their merit; the settlements we establish flourish because of them; the Torah we learn is theirs; the ethical Jewish society we want to build here, as the prophets foretold, is theirs. If we remember this, and exert a great deal of effort, we will be able to continue in their path, the path of self-sacrifice for the Jewish people. Then we will truly honor them, as holy and pure souls, illuminating the world and shining like the glow of the heavens.
  This is also what we must say to the bereaved families, which produced these holy and courageous warriors: do not surrender to death; continue to live by their strength. Do not bow your heads; rather, stand up straight and tall in their honor. Lift your eyes beyond the ordinary horizon and look toward the vision of the redemption and the End of Days. And even if there are tears in your eyes, those are tears of grandeur.
  
  Section 13
  
  Yom Ha-atzma’ut, Yom Yerushalayim, Yom Ha-zikaron, and Yom Ha-Sho’ah / The Siren and Moments of Silence on Yom Ha-zikaron
  In its “Yom Ha-zikaron Law,” the Knesset determined that the day before Yom Ha-atzma’ut shall be:The Memorial Day for the soldiers of the Israel Defense Forces who gave their lives to ensure the continued existence of the State of Israel, and for those who fought and fell in the campaigns to create the State of Israel – to meditate upon their memory and extol their acts of courage.… Commemorations, public gatherings, and ceremonies will be held in army bases and in educational institutions. Flags will be lowered to half-mast in all public buildings.In addition, the Knesset decided that “Two minutes of silence will be observed throughout the entire country, during which all work and travel will cease.” To facilitate the two minutes of silence, a siren wails throughout the country, and people stand still in honor of the fallen. At 8:00 p.m. on Yom Ha-zikaron evening, the siren sounds for one minute, and at 11:00 a.m. the next morning it sounds for two minutes, during which time people dedicate their thoughts to the memory of the fallen. The siren is sounded in the middle of the official ceremonies to begin the commemoration.
  Some claim that one may not stand at attention when the siren sounds, because this custom has no basis in rabbinic literature. Rather, we copied it from the gentiles, and one may not follow the ways of the nations, as it says, “Nor shall you follow their laws” (Vayikra 18:3). In practice, however, the vast majority of <i>poskim</i> maintain that the prohibition against following the ways of the gentiles applies only when one of two conditions is met: 1) the custom entails a breach of modesty or humility; 2) it has no apparent reason or benefit, making it clear that it is based on non-Jewish superstition (Maharik, §88; Rivash §158). R. Yosef Karo and Rema concur (<i>Beit Yosef</i> and Rema, YD 178:1). Thus, since the custom in question has a purpose – the siren and the minutes of silence unite everyone together in remembrance of the fallen – it is not considered a forbidden gentile practice.13<i class="footnote">Despite this, the Vilna Gaon opines that we may not imitate the gentiles even with regard to a custom that has a rationale behind it. Therefore, he prohibits placing branches in a synagogue on Shavu’ot, because the gentiles put trees in their houses of worship on their holidays (<i>Ḥayei Adam</i> 131:13; see <i>Bi’ur Ha-Gra</i>, YD 178:7). Practically speaking, though, most <i>poskim</i> disagree with him and uphold the custom of decorating the synagogue on Shavu’ot, as Rema 494:3 and MA 494:5 state: Since there are reasons for this custom, it is not considered following the laws of the gentiles. Furthermore, if that is their ruling with regard to the custom of placing branches in a synagogue, which is actually done in houses of idol worship, there should certainly be no concern regarding the custom of standing during the siren, which has no hint of idolatry whatsoever. In addition, this custom is almost unheard of among non-Jews today.</i>
  Others claim that one should not interrupt Torah study on account of the siren. However, my teacher and master, R. Zvi Yehuda Kook, writes, “Standing during the siren for the fallen soldiers of the IDF contains within it the holy mitzva of remembering the glory of the holy martyrs.” Moreover, we may add that meditating on the memory of the martyrs and on the mitzva to sacrifice one’s life to save the nation and conquer Eretz Yisrael is tantamount to thinking Torah thoughts. And even those who do not understand this must be mindful of Hillel the Elder’s teaching: “Do not separate from the community” (<i>Avot</i> 2:4).14<i class="footnote"><i>Pesikta Zutreta</i> (<i>Lekaḥ Tov</i>) on Shemot 2:11 states:“Some time after that, when Moshe had grown up, he went out…” – He went out to see the suffering of Israel. This is what Hillel taught, “Do not separate from the community.” If one sees the community in pain, he should not say, “I will go to my house, eat and drink, and all will be well with me.” Rather, one should bear the burden with his fellow Jews.<i>Midrash Sekhel Tov</i>, commenting on the same verse, adds:This is what Hillel taught, “Do not separate yourself from the community.” Our Sages taught, “If the community is in pain and someone separates from them and eats and drinks, two ministering angels accompany him, place food (some versions read “coals”) on his head, and say, ‘So-and-so separated himself from the community in their time of trouble; he shall not see the community’s consolation.”’ We learn from a different <i>beraita</i>: When the community is in pain, one should not say, “I will go to my house, eat and drink, and all will be well with me.” And if he did so, the verse says about him, “Instead, there was rejoicing and merriment, killing of cattle and slaughtering of sheep, eating of meat and drinking of wine: Eat and drink, for tomorrow we die!” (Yeshayahu 22:13). What is written afterward? “Then the Lord of Hosts revealed Himself to my ears: “This iniquity shall never be forgiven you until you die.”R. Zvi Yehuda Kook’s position is quoted in <i>Teḥumin</i>, vol. 3, p. 388. See also R. Yaakov Ariel’s <i>Responsa Be-ohalah shel Torah</i>, YD 23. R. Ḥayim David Halevi writes in <i>Aseh Lekha Rav</i> 4:4 that one who is involved in Torah study at home should continue learning, for standing silently is an illusory form of honor, which one must practice only when others are watching. R. Halevi adds that in public, one may stand and continue thinking about the topic he was studying. R. Yehuda Henkin concurs in <i>Teḥumin</i>, vol. 4, p. 125. However, I believe that what I wrote in the main text is correct, as contemplating the mitzva of <i>kiddush Hashem</i> is itself considered meditating on Torah, and it is preferable to include oneself in the community with such holy thoughts.</i>
  
  Section 14
  
  Yom Ha-atzma’ut, Yom Yerushalayim, Yom Ha-zikaron, and Yom Ha-Sho’ah / Yom Ha-Sho’ah: Holocaust Remembrance Day
  In 1959, the Knesset legislated that the 27th of Nisan shall be Martyrs’ and Heroes’ Remembrance Day:to meditate on the memory of the Holocaust, which the Nazis and their collaborators perpetrated against the Jewish people and of the acts of heroism and revolt performed in those days.… Throughout the state shall be a two-minute silence, during which all work and all road traffic shall be suspended; there shall be memorial gatherings, popular rallies, and commemorative functions in army camps and educational institutions; flags on public buildings shall be flown at half-mast; broadcasts shall express the special character of the day.The two minutes of silence take place at 11:00 a.m., after which the official ceremonies begin.
  However, unlike Yom Ha-zikaron, to which the Chief Rabbinate consented, the Torah sages at the time objected to the establishment of this Remembrance Day (commonly known as Yom Ha-Sho’ah) on the 27th of Nisan. After all, the month of Nisan is a time of joy, as evidenced by the <i>halakha</i> that one does not recite <i>Taḥanun</i> or establish a public fast day during the entire month of Nisan (SA<i> </i>429:2). In addition, we refrain from delivering eulogies and saying memorial prayers throughout the month (MB 429:8). Many even have a custom not to visit cemeteries in Nisan, and one whose relative’s <i>yahrzeit</i> is in Nisan is instructed to visit the grave the day before the month begins. Therefore, it is clearly inappropriate to institute, in the month of Nisan, a memorial day for the souls of the martyrs who were murdered in the Holocaust. Rather, the proper time to remember the Holocaust is on the fast days that have already been established in commemoration of the destruction of the Holy Temple, especially Tisha Be-Av. Indeed, the Chief Rabbinate established the fast of Asara Be-Tevet as a day of general mourning (<i>Yom Ha-Kaddish Ha-klali</i>) over the souls of the holy martyrs who were killed in the Holocaust, whose date of death is unknown.
  It seems to me that the way to endow the 27th of Nisan with some sort of appropriate character nonetheless is to establish it as a day on which to focus on cultivating the concept of the Jewish family. Undoubtedly, the last request of the six million who were tortured and killed in cruel and unusual ways was that the Jewish people should continue to live, multiply, and grow. They surely hoped that the terrible suffering that our nation underwent for thousands of years, especially during the Holocaust, should not be for naught, and that every surviving Jew should do everything in his or her power to marry, bear children, and continue the legacy, in order to fulfill the verse “The more they were oppressed, the more they increased and spread out” (Shemot 1:12). Therefore, it is appropriate for public figures to get together on this day and come up with ways to encourage marriage and procreation, while teachers should speak about the great responsibility that we – those who escaped from the sword – have to ensure the continued existence and growth of the Jewish nation.
  The same goes for the siren. When the siren wails on Yom Ha-Sho’ah, we should think about how to promote the development of the Jewish nation, in memory of the victims of the Holocaust. Then, our participation in this practice will not be an expression of mourning or memorializing the deceased, but an expression of rebirth and revival, which is appropriate for the month of Nisan. Furthermore, such thoughts would not be considered wasting time that could be used for Torah study. In any event, even one who does not have these things in mind should not separate himself from the community.
  With God’s help, our judges will soon be restored as of old. When this occurs, we will pose this question to them, and they will instruct us how and when it is appropriate to memorialize the holy martyrs.
  
  
  
  
  
  Section 1
  
  Lag Ba-omer / Lag Ba-omer
  It is customary to rejoice somewhat on Lag Ba-omer. Even though we observe some customs of mourning during the <i>omer</i> period, nevertheless, one may sing and dance on Lag Ba-omer. <i>Taḥanun</i> is recited neither on Lag Ba-omer nor at <i>Minḥa</i> on the preceding day. One may not fast on Lag Ba-omer.1<i class="footnote">Although one may not fast on Lag Ba-omer, a bridegroom does fast (MA 573:1). Some say that even a bridegroom does not fast (<i>Mishmeret Shalom</i> §38). <i>Levush</i>, <i>Pri Megadim</i>, and others state that one does not recite <i>Taḥanun</i> at <i>Minḥa</i> on the previous day. <i>Ḥok Yaakov</i>, however, rules that one should recite it. See <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 493:28. It seems that the prevalent custom is to omit it.</i>
  The reason we rejoice on Lag Ba-omer is that the Rishonim had a tradition that the students of R. Akiva stopped dying on the 33rd day of the <i>omer</i> (Me’iri, <i>Yevamot</i> 62b; SA 493:2). Some explain that his students actually continued dying, but on the 33rd day of the <i>omer</i> R. Akiva began teaching new students – including R. Shimon bar Yoḥai – who did not die in the plague, and through them Torah spread among the Jewish people. This is why we rejoice on Lag Ba-omer (<i>Pri Ḥadash</i> 493:2). Others claim that on the 33rd day of the <i>omer</i> R. Akiva conferred rabbinic ordination on his five new students – R. Meir, R. Yehuda, R. Yosi, R. Shimon bar Yoḥai, and R. Elazar b. Shamu’a – who continued the tradition of Torah (<i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 493:26, based on <i>Sha’ar Ha-kavanot</i>). Another reason for rejoicing on Lag Ba-omer is that it is the <i>yahrzeit </i>or <i>hilula</i> of the holy Tanna R. Shimon bar Yoḥai, who was R. Akiva’s disciple.
  We will first summarize briefly the customs of mourning and rejoicing that apply on Lag Ba-omer. According to all customs, one may sing, dance, and play musical instruments on Lag Ba-omer, from beginning to end. Regarding weddings and haircuts, the matter depends on one’s custom. According to the customs of Ashkenazic and some Sephardic communities, one may get married and cut one’s hair during the day of Lag Ba-omer, and some permit these activities even at night. According to the custom of most Sephardim, however, one may not get married or cut one’s hair on Lag Ba-omer (see above 3:4-5). Nonetheless, when Lag Ba-omer falls out on Friday, one may cut one’s hair in honor of Shabbat, even according to Sephardic custom (SA 493:2). Those who follow the customs of Arizal do not cut their hair on Lag Ba-omer even in this situation, because they refrain from cutting their hair throughout the <i>omer</i> period, until Erev Shavu’ot (<i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 493:13).
  
  Section 2
  
  Lag Ba-omer / The <i>Hilula</i> of R. Shimon bar Yoḥai
  Many people have a custom to spend Lag Ba-omer on Mount Meron, where R. Shimon bar Yoḥai (Rashbi) and his son, R. Elazar, are buried. There, they rejoice greatly, light bonfires, sing, and dance. Participants in these celebrations include righteous individuals and Torah scholars.
  Some great Torah authorities, however, doubted the legitimacy of this practice. After all, how can we establish a festival on a day when no miracle happened and that the Sages did not institute as a holiday? While it is well known that we do not recite <i>Taḥanun</i> or fast on Lag Ba-omer, there is no known source indicating that it is a holiday (<i>Ḥatam Sofer</i>, YD 233). And if it is in honor of the anniversary of R. Shimon bar Yoḥai’s death, it would be more appropriate to fast, which is the customary observance of the anniversary of a great sage’s death. So why do people rejoice and celebrate the <i>hilula</i> of R. Shimon bar Yoḥai (<i>Sho’el U-meshiv</i> 5:39)?
  Yet, as noted, many people, including great scholars and righteous individuals, celebrate and rejoice with the joy reserved for <i>mitzvot</i>. Even though the <i>yahrzeit </i>of a great individual is generally a sad occasion, the kabbalists conveyed in the name of R. Shimon bar Yoḥai that he wanted people to rejoice on his <i>yahrzeit</i>. The <i>Zohar</i> calls the day of R. Shimon bar Yoḥai’s passing a “<i>hilula</i>,” a term linked to wedding celebrations. A person’s level of intimacy with the <i>Shekhina</i> in this world is akin to betrothal, whereas in the next world the level of intimacy is more comparable to marriage. In this world, death is viewed as being exceedingly sad, and when a righteous person dies, he leaves a void, and the nation mourns his loss. In the supernal worlds, however, it is understood that everything is for the best. On the contrary, when a truly righteous person is freed from the shackles of this world, he can absorb the full light of the Torah. This is especially true of those sages who delve into the esoteric aspects of the Torah, for their primary engagement is with the inner light of the Torah and the soul. As long as they remain within the confines of this world, its physical boundaries obscure the light of the Torah and the soul. However, when they depart from this world and are released from its physical boundaries, the gates of wisdom and inner light are opened wide before them. Then they are able to understand fully the deep secrets they studied during their lives. Already on the day they die, it is possible to discern that the walls and barriers of this world are fading away. Accordingly, <i>Idra Zuta</i> (<i>Zohar </i>3:287b and 3:296a) relates that on the day R. Shimon bar Yoḥai died, he revealed deep and wondrous secrets that he was not allowed to reveal beforehand, and he simultaneously cried and rejoiced.
  Therefore, the day that a righteous person dies is like a wedding, because on that day he can consummate his connection to the <i>Shekhina</i>, and his Torah becomes a great source of illumination in the supernal realms. Consequently, his disciples and successors in this world can better connect to the depth of his Torah and esoteric teachings. Therefore, disciples who understand this deep idea customarily celebrate a <i>hilula</i> on the day their righteous master, who revealed the Torah’s secrets, died.2<i class="footnote">In <i>Pri Tzadik</i> (<i>Lag Ba-omer</i> 1), R. Tzadok Ha-Kohen of Lublin explains that there is a distinction between the anniversaries of death of a great scholar in the realm of the Written Torah and a great scholar in the realm of the Oral Torah. The Written Torah is fixed and stable, and thus the day when a great scholar of this corpus died – such as the seventh of Adar, when Moshe died – is a painful day. In contrast, we celebrate a <i>hilula</i> on the day a great scholar of the Oral Torah died, because his Torah continues to proliferate and become more nuanced after his death.</i>
  R. Shimon bar Yoḥai, who composed the <i>Zohar</i>, is unique in that even Jews who do not understand the secrets of the Torah celebrate his <i>hilula</i>. This is how Lag Ba-omer became a day of celebration for the esoteric side of the Torah. Many people go up to Mount Meron for R. Shimon bar Yoḥai’s <i>hilula</i>. The great scholars among them rejoice over the secrets that were revealed to them in his merit and in the merit of his disciples and successors. Even though the masses who join in the festivities do not understand the secrets of the Torah, they rejoice over the fact that the Torah is deeper than the sea and that there are great scholars and righteous people who connect to its deep secrets, as this entire world of darkness is made slightly more pleasant because of them. Furthermore, the very recognition that there are deep secrets beyond the average person’s comprehension generates humility and wisdom, and even simple folk are elevated by virtue of this awareness.
  
  Section 3
  
  Lag Ba-omer / The Personality of R. Shimon bar Yoḥai
  Before we elaborate on the customs of the <i>hilula</i>, we will briefly discuss the unique character of R. Shimon bar Yoḥai and his mentor, R. Akiva. In general, the Sages tended to act according to the “middle path,” taking into consideration the difficulties that commonly arise in this world. R. Shimon bar Yoḥai, however, adhered to the absolute truth, without considering the real limitations of this world. Therefore, miracles were performed on his behalf, and he met with success in his endeavors.
  One expression of R. Shimon bar Yoḥai’s approach pertains to foreign rule over Eretz Yisrael. The Sages taught that a Jew should pray for the welfare of the kingdom under whose rule he lives, and they tried, to the best of their ability, to avoid clashes between the Jewish people and the various empires that ruled over them. Only when there was no other recourse, and the kingdom forced the Jewish people to violate their religion, did the Sages call for rebellion. In the absence of religious persecution, however, they would try to find a way to reconcile with the kingdom. Accordingly, the Talmud (<i>Shabbat</i> 33b) relates that several of the Sages were once talking about the Roman Empire. R. Yehuda b. Ila’i began the discussion with words of praise for the Romans, saying, “How pleasant are the deeds of this nation; they established marketplaces, erected bridges, and built bathhouses.” Even though R. Yehuda knew that the Romans issued harsh decrees against the Jews – even destroying the Second Temple and killing hundreds of thousands of Jews during the Great Revolt and the Bar Kokhba revolt – he preferred to concentrate on the positive side of their rule, in order to avoid heightening tensions. R. Yosi preferred to remain silent. Apparently, he did not agree with R. Yehuda’s words of praise, but he did not want to denounce the Romans either, so as not to create pointless tensions. R. Shimon bar Yoḥai, in contrast, was unable to tolerate words of praise for the evil Roman Empire, and he said, “All that they built they built solely for their own needs. They established marketplaces in which to station prostitutes, bathhouses in which to pamper themselves, and bridges from which to collect taxes.” The Romans found out about this conversation and decreed: R. Yehuda, who praised us, shall be promoted; R. Yosi, who remained silent, shall be exiled; and R. Shimon bar Yoḥai, who denounced us, shall be put to death. R. Shimon bar Yoḥai fled and hid in the <i>beit midrash</i> (study hall) together with his son, while his wife provided them with food and water. It is important to note that after the rebellions that the Jews staged against the Roman Empire – rebellions that caused many Roman deaths and shook the entire empire – the Romans took no chances and hunted down any display of Jewish opposition to their rule. Apparently, Roman troops searched for R. Shimon bar Yoḥai for years, in order to kill him. The situation became so dangerous that R. Shimon bar Yoḥai could no longer rely on his wife, so he and his son moved into a cave. Miraculously, a carob tree sprouted outside the cave and a spring began to flow there, providing them sustenance for twelve years, until they heard that the emperor had died and his decree was nullified. R. Shimon bar Yoḥai and his son reached such great heights in spirituality and asceticism while there, that when they left the cave they could not tolerate worldly matters; everywhere they looked burst into flames. Consequently, they had to return to the cave for another year in order to delve deeper into the Torah and understand the value of this world. Only then did they leave the cave permanently (<i>Shabbat</i> 33b).
  Another example of R. Shimon bar Yoḥai’s uncompromising attitude concerns the issue of making a livelihood. Most of the Sages maintained that everyone must work for a living; even Torah scholars must work and support themselves. R. Shimon bar Yoḥai, on the other hand, said:If a man plows at the time of plowing, plants at the time of planting, reaps at the time of reaping, threshes at the time of threshing, and winnows when it is windy, what will be of the Torah? Rather, when Israel does God’s will, their work is done by others, and when they fail to do God’s will, they do their own work… (and even) the work of others.” (<i>Ber</i>. 35b)The Gemara concludes with the practical comment of Abaye: “Many have followed the advice of R. Yishma’el (who advocated combining Torah study with a worldly occupation), and it has worked well; others have followed R. Shimon bar Yoḥai and it has not been successful.” Likewise, Rava instructed his students to work for two months of the year in order to support themselves (<i>Ber. </i>35b).
  Admittedly, R. Shimon bar Yoḥai’s approach is not suitable for the public at large, and the necessities of life force us to take its constraints into consideration, in accordance with the view of most of the Sages. Indeed, it is God’s will that we work toward perfecting the world while taking into account the obstacles in our way and without relying on miracles.3<i class="footnote">When R. Shimon and R. Yehuda disagree, the <i>halakha </i>follows R. Yehuda. When R. Shimon and R. Yosi disagree, the <i>halakha </i>follows R. Yosi (<i>Eruvin </i>46b). Similarly, R. Shimon said that one may provoke the wicked in this world (<i>Ber.</i> 7b). In addition, he clung to the Torah so diligently that Torah became his profession. Therefore, <i>Shabbat</i> 11a states that he was exempt from praying, because prayer deals with temporal life, as opposed to Torah, which is eternal life. He also spoke a great deal about the uniqueness of Israel. For example: “Wherever Israel was exiled, the Divine Presence accompanied them” (<i>Megilla</i> 29a), and “The Holy One, blessed be He, gave Israel three gifts by way of suffering: Torah, Eretz Yisrael, and the World to Come” (<i>Ber.</i> 5a).</i> Nonetheless, it is very valuable to have a great Torah scholar who lives his life according to eternal values, without compromise. This way, everyone can see tangibly the absolute adherence to Torah. It is true that practical decisions and general guidance for the public are determined by the majority of the Sages of Israel, who take into account the limitations of this world and extenuating circumstances. Nevertheless, the grand vision of faith and redemption shines forth from the strength of R. Shimon bar Yoḥai, who sacrificed himself for Israel’s glory and its faith, establishing for future generations that the Roman Empire, which persecuted the Jews, was an evil kingdom. This is why the Jewish masses hallow and venerate R. Shimon bar Yoḥai.
  R. Shimon bar Yoḥai’s focus on the esoteric side of the Torah is connected to his unique personality. By studying these dimensions of the Torah, one can connect better to what lies beyond ordinary life in this world, to the eternal world, to Israel’s unique character, and to the assurance of redemption. Such study elevates a person beyond our opaque and troublesome external existence and illuminates eternal concepts for him with a rare light.
  
  Section 4
  
  Lag Ba-omer / R. Akiva
  Hidden within the <i>hilula</i> celebration of Lag Ba-omer is another memorial: a memorial for the greatest expositor of the Oral Torah, the wondrous Tanna, R. Akiva, one of whose five greatest disciples was R. Shimon bar Yoḥai. The Talmud relates that R. Shimon bar Yoḥai would encourage his students to review his own teachings because they were a condensed version of R. Akiva’s teachings (<i>Gittin</i> 67a). R. Shimon bar Yoḥai also learned to sacrifice himself for Israel’s honor from his master, as R. Akiva supported the rebellion against the Romans and encouraged Bar Kokhba’s revolt. In addition, the celebration of the esoteric Torah on Lag Ba-omer is connected to R. Akiva as well: It is said that R. Akiva entered the <i>Pardes</i> (lit. “orchard” or “paradise”) – that is, the deep secrets of the Torah – and came out unscathed (<i>Ḥagiga</i> 14b). In contrast, the other sages who entered with him did not come out unscathed, as they were incapable of absorbing the awesome secrets of the <i>Pardes</i>.
  The halakhic reason given for rejoicing on Lag Ba-omer revolves around the fact that R. Akiva’s disciples continued the tradition of the Torah, as we explained above (section 1). After all, R. Akiva is one of the pillars of the Oral Torah. R. Tzadok Ha-Kohen of Lublin explains (<i>Pri Tzadik</i>, <i>Lag Ba-omer</i> 1) that the Sages did not establish a <i>hilula</i> on the anniversary of R. Akiva’s death because he was killed by the government. Therefore, they established the <i>hilula</i> on the day his student, R. Shimon bar Yoḥai, died. Thus, it turns out that R. Shimon bar Yoḥai’s <i>hilula</i> includes R. Akiva’s <i>hilula </i>as well. Therefore, it is appropriate to focus on R. Akiva’s teachings and greatness on Lag Ba-omer.
  There was almost no one who began studying Torah under worse conditions than R. Akiva. Nonetheless, by virtue of his diligence and great faith, he reached the loftiest heights (see <i>Avot De-Rabbi Natan</i>, ch. 6). To a large extent, this was due to his wife Raḥel, the daughter of Kalba Savu’a, one of the wealthiest Jews of the age. She recognized the greatness of his soul and promised that she would marry him if he would study Torah. Her wealthy father disowned her as a result, but she refused to change her mind, marrying R. Akiva and becoming one of the poorest Jews of the time. Despite all this, she continued, with great self-sacrifice, to encourage her husband to study Torah. After R. Akiva became the greatest Torah sage of his generation, he said to his students, “My [knowledge] and your [knowledge] are truly hers” (<i>Ketubot</i> 63a).
  R. Yehuda said in the name of Rav: When Moshe ascended on high, he found the Holy One, blessed be He, engaged in affixing coronets to the letters. He said to Him, “Master of the Universe, who is preventing You?” (Who needs these precise coronets? No one understands their meaning, anyway.) God responded to him, “There will arise a person, many generations from now, named Akiva ben Yosef, who will derive heaps of laws from every jot…. Moshe replied, “Master of the Universe, You have such a man and You are giving the Torah through me?” He replied, “Be silent! This is what arose in My thoughts ….” (<i>Menaḥot</i> 29b)The fact that God showed Moshe R. Akiva specifically, from among all the Sages of Israel, indicates that he is considered the greatest expositor of the Oral Torah. (See also <i>San</i>. 86a, where the Gemara states that all anonymous halakhic teachings stem from him.)
  R. Akiva’s dedication to faith in God and Torah was boundless. Even after 24,000 of his students died, he did not lose faith. Rather, he continued to teach more students, who proceeded to spread Torah throughout Israel. When he saw a fox leaving the site of the Holy of Holies, and his colleagues cried, he began to rejoice because of his faith that just as the prophets’ warnings of disaster came true, so too will their words of consolation (<i>Makkot</i> 24b).
  When the Romans issued a decree prohibiting Torah study, R. Akiva sacrificed himself by teaching Torah to the masses. He was eventually caught, incarcerated, and sentenced to a cruel death. The Sages say:When R. Akiva was taken out for execution, it was the time to recite the <i>Shema</i>. And while they combed his flesh with iron combs, he was accepting upon himself the yoke of the kingship of heaven (by reciting the <i>Shema</i>). His disciples said to him, “Our master, even to this point?” (One is exempt from reciting the <i>Shema</i> under such excruciating circumstances. Why, then, are you exerting yourself so greatly to read it now?) He said to them, “All my days I have been troubled by the verse, ‘With all your soul,’ [which I interpret to mean that one must love God] ‘even if He takes your soul.’ I said, ‘When will I have the opportunity to fulfill this?’ Now that I have the opportunity, shall I not fulfill it?” He prolonged the word <i>eḥad</i> (in the verse, “Hear, O Israel, the Lord is our God, the Lord is one [<i>eḥad</i>]”) until his soul departed while saying it. A heavenly voice went forth and proclaimed, “Happy are you, Akiva, that your soul has departed with the word <i>eḥad</i>”…. A heavenly voice went forth and proclaimed, “Happy are you, R. Akiva, for you are destined for life in the World to Come.” (<i>Ber</i>. 61b)
  
  Section 5
  
  Lag Ba-omer / Bonfires on Lag Ba-omer
  For hundreds of years, there has been a custom to light a large bonfire near R. Shimon bar Yoḥai’s grave on Mount Meron, in honor of his <i>hilula</i>. Ḥasidim have a custom to light bonfires in other places as well. Some light candles in their synagogues in commemoration of the <i>hilula</i>.
  Candles and light allude to Torah and <i>mitzvot</i>, as it says, “For the commandment is a candle and the Torah is light” (Mishlei 6:23). Fire is a wondrous thing. Out of inanimate, cold logs and oil suddenly comes forth a flame that has tremendous power – to give light and warmth, and to burn. This is why Torah and <i>mitzvot</i> are compared to fire and flame. If one studies the Torah and observes the <i>mitzvot</i> in this dark, cold world, one gains everlasting illumination.
  Ḥasidim customarily light bonfires on Lag Ba-omer to allude to the great light of the Torah’s secrets that R. Shimon bar Yoḥai revealed. The <i>Zohar</i> (3:291b) relates that R. Shimon bar Yoḥai revealed great secrets to his students on the day he died, which were recorded in <i>Idra Zuta</i>, and his students could not draw near to him because of the great fire that surrounded him.
  Nevertheless, we must emphasize that the customs of rejoicing on Lag Ba-omer are not obligatory. Neither Rambam nor <i>Shulḥan Arukh</i> rule that one must light a bonfire on Lag Ba-omer or visit the grave of R. Shimon bar Yoḥai. Furthermore, many great Torah scholars disregard these customs altogether.
  
  Section 6
  
  Lag Ba-omer / The Custom of Giving Boys their First Haircut
  Some have a custom to refrain from cutting their sons’ hair until they reach the age of three. When their son reaches that age, they cut his hair and leave his sidelocks. This way, they train him to keep the mitzva of “You shall not round off the side-growth on your head” (Vayikra 19:27), which means that one may not cut his hair in a rounded fashion by removing the sidelocks.
  Those who follow this custom find an allusion to it in the mitzva of <i>orla</i>, the Torah prohibition on eating fruit from a tree for the first three years after it planting. The Sages state that the three years of <i>orla</i> allude to the first three years of a child’s life, before he learns to speak and converse, when he cannot fulfill any <i>mitzvot</i>. “In the fourth year all its fruit shall be set aside for jubilation before the Lord” (Vayikra 19:24), meaning that his father consecrates him for Torah study (<i>Tanḥuma</i>, <i>Kedoshim</i> 14). Those who follow this custom thus explain that during a child’s first three years of life, he is like a tree that is subject to the prohibition of <i>orla</i>, and thus one should not cut his hair. When the fourth year arrives, however, and he is capable of maintaining some degree of sanctity, they cut his hair and leave his sidelocks, which is one of the first <i>mitzvot</i> that we fulfill through him. In addition, this is a special mitzva because it causes the child to become recognizably Jewish.
  Since this is the mitzva through which we begin educating the child to fulfill the <i>mitzvot</i>, it is customary to rejoice, in order to encourage the child to love <i>mitzvot</i>. Therefore, the parents of the child invite relatives and friends to celebrate together with food and drink. This festive event is called a <i>ḥalaka </i>or <i>upsherin</i>.
  Many Jews from the Galilee had a custom to cut their son’s hair near the grave of R. Shimon bar Yoḥai in Meron, so that the child’s inauguration into mitzva observance could be accompanied by connection to a great and righteous sage. Jews from Jerusalem, who lived far from Meron, customarily went to the burial site of Shimon Ha-Tzadik, north of the Old City of Jerusalem. Members of other communities would cut their sons’ hair near the local synagogue. Some have a custom to ask a Torah scholar to cut the first lock of hair.
  Some people have a custom to go to Meron on Lag Ba-omer and cut the hair of any son whose third birthday fell or will fall within a few months of Lag Ba-omer. Some take care not to cut a child’s hair before his third birthday. Therefore, if his birthday falls out after Lag Ba-omer, they wait until his birthday to cut his hair. If he was born a few weeks before Lag Ba-omer, they wait until Lag Ba-omer to cut his hair. But if he was born several months before Lag Ba-omer, they cut his hair on his birthday.4<i class="footnote">Arizal cut his son’s hair at the age of three, on Lag Ba-omer, in Meron. See <i>Responsa Arugat Ha-bosem</i>, OḤ 210.</i>
  Despite this, it is important to emphasize that there is no obligation to follow these customs. Furthermore, the custom of cutting the hair of young children is not mentioned at all in Rambam, <i>Shulḥan Arukh</i>, or the works of the other renowned <i>poskim</i>. Therefore, anyone who wants to cut his son’s hair even before his third birthday may do so, and such is the practice of many Torah scholars.
  
  Section 7
  
  Lag Ba-omer / Throwing Clothes into the Bonfire and Praying at the Gravesites of <i>Tzadikim</i>
  Many people had a custom to throw expensive clothing into the bonfire at Meron, explaining that they do so in honor of R. Shimon bar Yoḥai. There are even testimonies that great rabbis followed this practice. On the other hand, some authorities are skeptical about this practice, claiming that it has no basis and, worse, that it is forbidden because of <i>bal tashḥit </i>(the prohibition against destroying things needlessly). It is true that people used to burn the king’s clothes after his death, but that was because no one else may use them, out of honor for the king. Here, however, why should we burn clothing for no reason (<i>Sho’el U-meshiv</i>, 5:39; <i>Ḥikrei Lev</i>, <i>Mahadura Batra</i>, YD 11)? Others try to justify the custom, saying that one transgresses the prohibition of <i>bal tashḥit</i> only when destroying something for truly no reason, but if there is a purpose, like honoring R. Shimon bar Yoḥai, it is permissible (see <i>Torah Li-shmah</i> §206). In practice, if one’s ancestors did not follow this practice, it is inappropriate for him to observe such a disputed custom. But if one's ancestors had the custom to burn clothes, one may rely on the <i>poskim </i>who justified the custom. Nevertheless, it is preferable to donate the value of the clothing to charity than to destroy them in a fire.
  When going to pray at the gravesites of saints and sages, one must be careful not to turn toward them in prayer, because we are commanded to pray to God alone. Anyone who prays to a saint violates a prohibition and is similar to one who engages in necromancy, which the Torah forbids (Devarim 18:11). Some authorities permit one to turn to a deceased saint to ask him to intercede before the Exalted One on behalf of those who pray at his grave (<i>Pri Megadim</i>, <i>Eshel Avraham</i> 581:16). Others, however, prohibit this, because this too has elements of necromancy. Rather, we must direct all of our prayers exclusively to the Master of the Universe, without involving any intermediaries. One who is praying to God may ask Him to accept his prayers in the merit of a particular sage or saint (Maharil, <i>Taz</i> 581:39), because when we connect to the Torah teachings and good deeds of a righteous person, we become better, more perfect people, and in that merit we ask God to accept our prayers.
  
  
  
  
  
  Section 1
  
  The Four Fasts Commemorating the Destruction of the Temple / The Institution of the Fasts
  After the destruction of the First Temple, the prophets instituted fast days in commemoration of the terrible events surrounding its destruction and the exile of the Jews from their land. They wished to inspire the people to feel pain and mourn the destruction and the exile, and lead them to repent and rectify the evil deeds that caused all the misfortune that has been visited upon the Jewish people from then until this very day.
  They instituted a fast on the tenth of Tevet (Asara Be-Tevet) because that is when King Nebuchadnezzar of Babylonia began his siege of Jerusalem. They instituted a fast in Tamuz because the walls of Jerusalem were breached in that month. The ninth of Av was established as a fast day (Tisha Be-Av) because the Temple was destroyed on that day. The third of Tishrei (Tzom Gedalia) was instituted as a fast over the murder of Gedalia ben Aḥikam – leader of the Jews who remained in Judea after the destruction of the Temple – because his death extinguished the last ember of Jewish sovereignty in Eretz Yisrael.
  The Jewish people observed these fasts throughout the seventy-year Babylonian exile. When they were privileged to build the Second Temple, the question arose: Must we continue fasting on these days? The prophet Zechariah answered:Thus said the Lord of Hosts: The fast of the fourth month (in Tamuz), the fast of the fifth month (9 Av), the fast of the seventh month (Tzom Gedalia), and the fast of the tenth month (10 Tevet) shall become occasions for joy and gladness, happy festivals for the House of Judah; but you must love honesty and integrity. (Zechariah 8:19)Indeed, during the Second Temple era, these days became joyous festivals.
  When the Second Temple was destroyed, the original enactment was reinstated for all four fast days. However, the date of the fast in Tamuz, commemorating the breach of Jerusalem’s walls, was changed. When the First Temple was destroyed, the city was breached on the ninth of Tamuz, and thus the Jewish people fasted on that day throughout the seventy-year Babylonian exile. When the Second Temple was destroyed, however, Jerusalem was breached on the seventeenth of Tamuz, which is when we have fasted ever since. Even though the four fasts were originally instituted by the prophets to commemorate the destruction of the First Temple – which is why we fast on the tenth of Tevet, which is when Nebuchadnezzar laid siege to Jerusalem during the time of the First Temple, and on Tzom Gedalia, which marks the end of Jewish sovereignty in Eretz Yisrael at the end of the First Temple era – the Sages nonetheless decided to establish the fast commemorating the breach of Jerusalem’s on the seventeenth of Tamuz (Shiva Asar Be-Tamuz), which is when the city was breached at the time of the Second Temple, because the pain of the second destruction is more acute to us. Furthermore, the verse calls that fast “the fast of the fourth month,” implying that the most important part the enactment is that it should take place sometime during the fourth month, Tamuz. Therefore, even when the Sages changed the date from the ninth to the seventeenth, they did not substantively alter the prophets’ enactment of a fast in the fourth month over the breach of Jerusalem. Nothing changed with regard to the ninth of Av, because both Temples were destroyed on that day.1<i class="footnote"><i>Tashbetz</i> 2:271 explains at length that the four fasts commemorate primarily the destruction of the First Temple, which is when the divine Presence departed, and when the prophets first enacted the fasts. The Sages, who lived after the destruction of the Second Temple, did not alter the original enactment, as evident from the fact that they did not institute a fast on the day the Romans began their war on Jerusalem. We fast on the seventeenth of Tamuz instead of the ninth because the original enactment of a fast day commemorating the breach of Jerusalem referred to the month of Tamuz. Therefore, it may be moved from the ninth to the seventeenth. Ramban writes in <i>Torat Ha-adam</i> (p. 243, Chavel edition) that we fast on the seventeenth of Tamuz because the destruction of the Second Temple is more painful for us (based on <i>Yoma</i> 9b). According to the Yerushalmi, R. Tanḥum b. Ḥanila’i said that, in truth, Jerusalem was breached on the seventeenth of Tamuz during the First Temple period as well. The people simply miscalculated, thinking that the breach had occurred on the ninth, and the verse (Yirmiyahu 39:2, 52:6) did not want to deviate from what the people thought (<i>y. Ta’anit</i> 4:5). However, Rava states that at the time of the First Temple, the city was indeed breached on the ninth of Tamuz, while the same tragic event took place on the seventeenth of Tamuz in the Second Temple era (<i>Ta’anit</i> 28b). <i>Tosafot</i> (RH 18b, s.v. “zeh”) state that the Bavli and the Yerushalmi dispute the matter.</i>
  
  Section 2
  
  The Four Fasts Commemorating the Destruction of the Temple / Asara Be-Tevet
  The prophets established a fast day on the tenth of Tevet, because that is when Nebuchadnezzar and his army arrived to besiege Jerusalem, marking the beginning of the series of catastrophes that culminated in the destruction of the First Temple and the exile of the divine Presence. Though the siege that led to the destruction of the Second Temple began on a different date, nevertheless, the beginning of the overall destruction of the Temple and the Jewish kingdom occurred on the tenth of Tevet.
  Once Asara Be-Tevet was established as a fast day, the Sages added two other painful events, which occurred around that date, to the day’s commemoration: the death of Ezra the Scribe, which occurred on the ninth of Tevet, and the translation of the Torah into Greek, which occurred on the eighth of Tevet. The Chief Rabbinate of Israel further established it as a day of general mourning and recitation of <i>Kaddish</i> (<i>Yom Ha-Kaddish Ha-klali</i>) for the martyrs who were killed in the Holocaust and whose date of death is unknown.
  The Sages say that Ezra the Scribe was worthy of having the Torah given through him, had Moshe not preceded him (<i>San</i>. 21b). He is second in stature only to Moshe. Ezra enacted ten fundamental decrees (BK 82a), and, by doing so, laid the foundation for the activities of the Sages of the Oral Torah, who likewise made enactments and instituted safeguards to protect the Torah. The Sages further state that Ezra, who migrated from Babylonia to Eretz Yisrael to build the Second Temple, was actually the prophet Malachi (<i>Megilla</i> 15a). That is, on one hand, he was the last of the prophets, of those who belong to the era of the Written Torah; while on the other hand, he was the first Sage of the Oral Torah. Thus, he was the great Torah scholar who linked the Written Torah and Oral Torah. And just like Moshe, he cared for the people of Israel and bore the burden of leading them. He was one of the leaders of the return to Eretz Yisrael from Babylonia and one of the builders of the Second Temple.
  Later on, during the Hellenistic period, a terrible decree was issued against the Jewish people: they must translate the Torah into Greek. That day was as calamitous for Israel as the day when the Golden Calf was made, because the Torah belongs to the Jewish people, and its translation into Greek undermined its uniqueness, allowing it to be viewed at something that anyone can handle. This occurred on the eighth of Tevet, causing darkness to descend upon the world for three days. Therefore, on Asara Be-Tevet, we mention this painful event as well.
  My teacher and master, R. Zvi Yehuda Kook, said that we must rectify these three things on Asara Be-Tevet: 1) in response to the siege of Jerusalem, we must strengthen the walls of the city and build up Eretz Yisrael both spiritually and physically; 2) in response to the death of Ezra the Scribe, we must enhance and glorify the Torah while working to bring about the ingathering of the exiles, as Ezra did; 3) in response to the translation of the Torah into Greek, we must restore the authentic spirit and culture of Israel and uproot all the spirits of wickedness that accrued to it throughout the duration of the exile, when other nations ruled over us.
  
  Section 3
  
  The Four Fasts Commemorating the Destruction of the Temple / Shiva Asar Be-Tamuz
  The Sages state in the Mishna:Five tragic events befell our forefathers on the seventeenth of Tamuz: the Tablets [containing the Ten Commandments] were shattered; the [daily] <i>Tamid</i> offering was terminated; the city of Jerusalem was breached; and Apostomus burned a Torah scroll; and placed an idol in the Temple. (<i>Ta’anit</i> 26a-b)
  The first event was that the Tablets were broken. After the revelation at Mount Sinai, when the people of Israel accepted the Torah, Moshe remained atop the mountain for forty days and forty nights, where he learned Torah directly from God. When he descended the mountain carrying the Tablets of the Covenant, which were engraved with the Ten Commandments, he saw that a golden calf had been fashioned, and some of the people were straying after it. He immediately became physically weak and broke the Tablets. Thus, not only were the Tablets broken on the seventeenth of Tamuz, but the sin of the Golden Calf occurred on that day as well.
  The second event was that the <i>Tamid</i> offering was terminated. The <i>Tamid</i> was the most important offering brought in the Temple. Its importance stems from its consistency: They would bring the <i>Tamid</i> offering twice a day, every day, once in the morning and once in the afternoon. Even during the first Roman siege of Jerusalem, the Romans supplied the Jews with lambs to be used for the <i>Tamid</i> offering. This continued until the sixteenth of Tamuz. The seventeenth of Tamuz was the first day on which the offering was not brought (see BK 82a).
  The third event is that Jerusalem’s walls were breached. The fourth event is that Apostomus, a Roman officer, burned a Torah scroll.
  The fifth event is that an idol was placed in the Holy Temple. Some say that this event took place in the First Temple era and was perpetrated by King Menasheh. Others say that it took place in the Second Temple era, and that the perpetrator was the wicked Apostomus (<i>y. Ta’anit</i> 4:5).
  However, the event that ultimately prompted the establishment of a fast day was the breach of Jerusalem’s walls. The Romans besieged the city for three years, yet they were unable to conquer it. Finally, because of baseless hatred and infighting among the Jews, the city’s defenders grew weak, and the Romans prevailed. On the seventeenth of Tamuz, they succeeded in breaking through the walls of Jerusalem and penetrating inward. Practically speaking, once the city was breached, the campaign was lost. Battles continued to rage in Jerusalem for another three weeks, but in the end, the Romans conquered the Temple Mount and burned down the Second Temple on the ninth of Av, thus beginning the long period of our exile.2<i class="footnote">See the previous note regarding the breach of Jerusalem’s walls during the First Temple period, which the verse says occurred on the ninth of Tamuz, and the reason we fast on the day it happened during the Second Temple period.</i>
  If we look closely at the matter, we will see that there is an inner connection between the five tragedies that occurred on the seventeenth of Tamuz. Each one manifests a crisis that first affects spiritual roots, then pierces the wall of faith, and finally causes severe damage that, if not repaired promptly, will lead to total destruction, as symbolized by Tisha Be-Av. The sin of the Golden Calf was not outright heresy. The people still believed in God as the Creator of the world, but they believed that the Calf had certain powers as well. Once they began with their strange forms of worship, however, they no longer had the fortitude to resist the bad report later brought by the spies, and they rebelled against God and His servant Moshe. Thus, they violated the purpose for which the nation of Israel was created – the revelation of the divine Presence in this world – in the very land that was dedicated to this purpose, Eretz Yisrael. The same is true of the termination of the <i>Tamid</i> offering, the placement of an idol in the Temple, and the burning of the Torah. None of these events alone entailed complete destruction, but they represent fundamental spiritual damage that, if left unrepaired, will grow worse and worse, leading eventually to total destruction.
  
  Section 4
  
  The Four Fasts Commemorating the Destruction of the Temple / Tisha Be-Av
  The Sages state in the Mishna:Five tragic events befell our forefathers on the ninth of Av: It was decreed that our ancestors would not enter Eretz Yisrael; the First and Second Temples were destroyed; Beitar was captured; and the city [of Jerusalem] was plowed up. (<i>Ta’anit</i> 26b)
  The first event happened in the generation of the wilderness. Moshe granted the people’s request and sent twelve spies to scout the Land of Canaan. Upon their return, ten of them slandered the land and “took the heart out of” the people (Devarim 1:28) by saying that they would not be able to conquer the Land of Canaan because its inhabitants were powerful giants.The whole community broke into loud cries, and the people wept that night. All the people of Israel complained against Moshe and Aharon. The whole community said to them: “If only we had died in the land of Egypt, or if only we might die in this wilderness! Why is the Lord taking us to that land to fall by the sword? Our wives and our children will be spoils! It would be better for us to go back to Egypt!” And they said to one another, “Let us head back for Egypt.” (Bamidbar 14:1-4)
  Yehoshua and Kalev rebuked them, saying:The land…is exceedingly good. If the Lord is pleased with us, He will bring us into that land, a land that flows with milk and honey, and give it to us; only you must not rebel against the Lord. Have no fear then of the people of the country, for they are our prey: Their protection has departed from them, but the Lord is with us. Have no fear of them! (<i>ibid</i>. 7-9)Nonetheless, the people did not accept their words. On the contrary, “the whole community threatened to pelt them with stones” (<i>ibid</i>. 10).
  The Sin of the Spies was worse than the sin of the Golden Calf on many levels. In the sin of the Golden Calf, the people did not completely reject God and Moshe; they merely erred, thinking that Moshe disappeared and that God would no longer reveal Himself to them manifestly. Therefore, they felt it necessary to search for a god that could serve as an intermediary between them and the Creator. Consequently, God later forgave the Jews for this sin. When it came to the Sin of the Spies, however, the people denied God’s ability to operate in this world and help them conquer Eretz Yisrael. They even betrayed their main mission, for which the world was created and for which Israel was chosen – to reveal the divine Presence in this world, through Eretz Yisrael. Therefore, God did not pardon the Sin of the Spies; rather, He decreed that all those who participated in the sin must die in the desert. Only Yehoshua b. Nun and Kalev b. Yefuneh, who refused to join in the sin, were privileged to enter Eretz Yisrael.
  That night, when the people wept and showed disdain for the “delightful land” (Zechariah 7:14), was the night of the ninth of Av. God said, “You wept in vain; I will make you weep for all generations” (<i>San</i>. 104b). At that moment, it was decreed that the Temple would be destroyed (<i>Midrash Tanḥuma, Shelaḥ</i>).
  The sin of the Golden Calf caused a breach in our wall of faith; consequently, the walls of Jerusalem were likewise breached, and a crack formed in the Torah’s glory and the Temple service. The Sin of the Spies destroyed basic faith in Israel’s mission to sanctify God’s name in this world, and all of the hardships that stemmed from it indicate the nullification and destruction of our ability to reveal holiness in Eretz Yisrael on a permanent basis. First, it was decreed, on the ninth of Av, that the generation of the wilderness would not enter Eretz Yisrael, and since we did not subsequently rectify the Sin of the Spies, both Temples were destroyed. We failed to rectify the sin after that, as well, so the city of Beitar was destroyed when Bar Kokhba’s rebellion faltered, and Jerusalem was plowed up. All of these tragic events prevented the revelation of the divine Presence in Eretz Yisrael, and that is why we mourn and fast on Tisha Be-Av.
  
  Section 5
  
  The Four Fasts Commemorating the Destruction of the Temple / Tzom Gedalia
  On the third of Tishrei, Gedalia b. Aḥikam was killed. After the First Temple was destroyed and most of the Jewish people were exiled to Babylonia, the king of Babylonia appointed Gedalia b. Aḥikam to govern the Jews who remained in Judea. The Jewish people as a whole hoped that this surviving remnant, by reestablishing themselves in Eretz Yisrael, could rebuild the Temple and reestablish Jewish sovereignty, together with those who would eventually return from Babylonia after seventy years of exile. Indeed, for some time it seemed that the meager population that remained in the land was recovering from the Temple’s destruction and beginning to cultivate fields and vineyards.
  However, the king of Ammon, who wanted to eradicate the remnant of Israel, sent Yishmael b. Netania to murder Gedalia. Yishmael had an additional, personal reason to carry out the scheme: He was a member of Judea’s royal family, and he thought that he should govern Judea instead of Gedalia. Several military officers warned Gedalia about Yishmael and even recommended killing him before he could carry out his plan. But Gedalia did not believe them, accusing them of maligning Yishmael. In the seventh month, Yishmael ben Netania ben Elishama, who was of royal descent and had been one of the king’s officers, came with ten men to Gedalia ben Aḥikam at Mitzpa; and they ate together there at Mitzpa. Then Yishmael ben Netania and the ten men who were with him arose and struck down Gedalia ben Aḥikam ben Shafan with the sword and killed him…along with all the Judeans who were with him…and the Chaldeans who were there. (Yirmiyahu 41:1-3)This extinguished the last ember of Jewish sovereignty in Eretz Yisrael and realized the full measure of exile. This is why the prophets instituted a fast day.
  There is some uncertainty as to when exactly Gedalia was killed. The Talmud states that the murder happened on the third of Tishrei (RH 18b; <i>y. Ta’anit</i> 4:5). However, some Rishonim explain that he was killed on the first of Tishrei, but since the holiday of Rosh Hashana is celebrated on that day, the fast was postponed until the third of Tishrei.3<i class="footnote">This is the opinion of Rabbeinu Yeruḥam (<i>Toldot Adam Ve-Ḥava </i>18:2). Likewise, Ibn Ezra and Radak explain that the word “month” in Yirmiyahu 41:1 implies the first of the month, because that is when the month begins. The fast was simply postponed until the third of the month. Even though only one day of Rosh Ha-shana was observed at that time, the Sages did not want to require us to fast immediately following a holiday. Therefore, they postponed the fast to the third of Tishrei. And even after the practice of observing two days of Rosh Hashana began, the fast remained on the third of Tishrei. <i>Responsa Rosh Yosef</i> maintains that since Tzom Gedalia is observed on a day other than its true date, its laws are more lenient than those of the other fasts. Hence, one who celebrates a <i>brit mila</i> on the third of Tishrei may eat a festive meal and does not need to make up the fast. <i>Taz</i>, OḤ 549, however, dismisses this position, as does BHL <i>ad loc.</i>, based on Ritva. Their reasoning is that even if Gedalia was actually killed on the first of Tishrei, since the fast was established on the third of the month, it is not considered postponed. Rather, that is its proper date.</i>
  The Sages also state that the institution of Tzom Gedalia demonstrates that the death of a righteous individual is tantamount to the destruction of the House of God (RH 18b).
  
  
  
  
  
  Section 1
  
  The Minor Fasts / The Status of the Minor Fasts Today
  When the prophets instituted the four fasts after the destruction of the First Temple, they modeled them after the fast of Yom Kippur. This is how the Sages usually enact decrees, modeling them after the Torah’s commandments. Just as Yom Kippur lasts an entire day, from evening to evening, so too, they instituted the four fasts as full-day fasts; just as there are five prohibitions on Yom Kippur – eating and drinking, bathing, anointing oneself, wearing leather shoes, and engaging in sexual relations – so too, they prohibited these things on the fasts over the destruction of the Temple. This is how the Jews observed these fasts throughout the seventy-year Babylonian exile.
  When the exiles returned from Babylonia to build the Second Temple, these fasts were canceled and transformed into holidays, as it says:Thus said the Lord of Hosts: The fast of the fourth month (in Tamuz), the fast of the fifth month (9 Av), the fast of the seventh month (Tzom Gedalia), and the fast of the tenth month (10 Tevet) shall become occasions for joy and gladness, happy festivals for the House of Judah; but you must love honesty and integrity. (Zechariah 8:19)
  When the Second Temple was destroyed, however, the Jews reverted to observing these fasts, continuing to do so throughout the difficult years following the destruction of the Second Temple, during which Bar Kokhba’s rebellion and the destruction of Beitar and Judea took place. Thus, the status of these fasts depends on our national situation: At a time of evil decrees and persecution, we are obligated to fast, but when the Temple is standing, these fasts become days of joy and gladness.
  In an intermediate situation – when, on the one hand, the Temple is ruined, but on the other hand, there are no harsh decrees against us, as was the case during R. Yehuda Ha-Nasi’s lifetime – the status of these fasts depends on the will of the Jewish people: “If they want, they fast; if they do not want, they do not fast.” This applies to Asara Be-Tevet, Shiva Asar Be-Tamuz, and Tzom Gedalia. Tisha Be-Av, however, does not depend on the nation’s will, and everyone is obligated to fast even in such an intermediate situation, because misfortune abounded and both Temples were destroyed on that day (RH 18b).
  In practice, the Jewish people observe all the fasts, even in the intermediate situation, and therefore all Jews are obligated to fast on these days. This <i>halakha</i> applies until the Temple is rebuilt, speedily in our days, when the fast days will become days of joy and gladness.1<i class="footnote">The Talmud states (RH 18b):R. Papa said: “What [the verse] means is this: When there is peace, [these days] shall be for joy and gladness; when there are royal decrees, they shall be fast days; if there are no royal decrees but no peace, then if they want they fast, and if they don’t want, they don’t fast.” If that is the case, Tisha Be-Av also [should be optional]! R. Papa replied: “Tisha Be-Av is different because several misfortunes happened on it, as Mar said, ‘On Tisha Be-Av, the Temple was destroyed the first and second time, Beitar was captured, and the city [of Jerusalem] was plowed up.’”According to Rashi, the definition of “when there is peace” – when the fasts are canceled – is when the nations of the world have no dominion over the Jews. If so, it is possible that Jews living in the State of Israel today are exempt from fasting. However, most Rishonim, including Ramban, <i>Tur</i>, and others, maintain that “when there is peace” means when the Temple is built. Therefore, even after the establishment of the State of Israel, we are in the intermediate situation and thus must fast in accordance with Jewish custom. The Rishonim also disagree about the nature of the “royal decrees” that render the fasts obligatory. Ramban maintains that it is when the Jewish people experience harsh decrees, while Rashi, <i>Tur</i>, and <i>Tashbetz</i> claim that it is specifically when there is religious persecution, meaning, decrees that prevent us from fulfilling the Torah’s commands. Their dispute stems from variant readings of the Talmud in RH 18b. (In the main text I wrote simply that the fasts became obligatory again after the destruction of the Second Temple. However, <i>Ḥatam Sofer</i>, OḤ 157 states that the Jews began fasting even before the destruction actually took place, once the Sanhedrin was exiled, as <i>Yosippon </i>attests. This shows that despite the existence of the Temple, the harshness of the decrees against the Jewish people is what determines the obligation to fast. Perhaps this supports Rashi’s opinion.)</i>
  
  Section 2
  
  The Minor Fasts / The Laws of the Minor Fasts
  As we have learned, since we no longer suffer from harsh decrees and religious persecution, and, on the other hand, the Holy Temple is still in ruins, the status of the minor fasts currently depends on the will of the Jewish people. Just as the very obligation to fast depends on Israel’s desire, so do the other laws of the fast. And when the Jews accepted upon themselves to fast during these “intermediate” periods, they did not agree to treat these fasts as strictly as they treat Yom Kippur. This is the fundamental difference between the three minor fasts and Tisha Be-Av. Because so many hardships befell us on the ninth of Av, we are obligated to fast on that day even during an intermediate period, and its laws remain as originally established. This means that the fast lasts for an entire 24-hour day and includes prohibitions on bathing, applying ointments, wearing shoes, and engaging in sexual relations, just like on Yom Kippur.
  However, the laws of the other fasts that were instituted as a result of the destruction of the Temple are more lenient. We fast only during the daytime and we are only prohibited from eating and drinking; we need not refrain from bathing, anointing ourselves, wearing shoes, or engaging in sexual relations.
  Another difference is that pregnant and nursing women must fast on Tisha Be-Av. Only illness renders one exempt. On the three minor fasts, however, even pregnant and nursing women who are not ill are exempt from fasting, because when the Jewish people originally accepted upon themselves to fast on these days, they were lenient with regard to pregnant and nursing women, exempting them from fasting (SA 550:1-2).2<i class="footnote">During periods of harsh decrees, must we treat all the fast days like Tisha Be-Av? It would seem that, according to the Gemara (RH 18b, quoted above), during periods of harsh decrees, like the Crusades, the Spanish Inquisition, the Khmelnytsky Uprising, and the Holocaust, the Jews were obligated to fast on the three minor fasts as they did on Tisha Be-Av. However, as far as we know, no Rishonim mention that this was practiced. Even Ramban, who writes, in <i>Torat Ha-adam</i> (p. 243, Chavel edition), that the Jews accepted all the fasts upon themselves in practice, adding, “All the more so in our generation, for due to our sins, Israel’s hardships have proliferated, and there is no peace; therefore, everyone must fast,” nevertheless did not write that one needs to fast from the night before. On the contrary, he concludes, “Go see what the people do.” Apparently, he means to say that it is customary to treat them like minor fasts. This is the ruling in SA 550:2. Perhaps the reason for this is that after the harsh decrees that followed the destruction of the Second Temple ceased, the obligation to fast on the three minor fasts were nullified, and the obligation became dependent on the nation’s will. The people only accepted upon themselves to fast during the day, and since this is all that they accepted, the original institution remained null. Thus, even if there are new decrees, the fast applies only during the daytime. The Vilna Gaon offers a similar explanation in his commentary on <i>Shulḥan Arukh</i>, saying that R. Yehuda Ha-nasi eliminated the more stringent elements of the three fasts when he saw that Israel’s hardships were eased.However, some maintain that we must observe full-day fasts whenever there is a period of harsh decrees and religious persecution. This seems to be the simple understanding of the matter as explained by Ramban and the other <i>poskim</i>. That is, whenever there are harsh decrees, the obligation to fast returns to its original status, and the three minor fasts take on the laws of Tisha Be-Av. <i>Tashbetz</i> 2:271 concurs, but states that if the persecution affects only part of the Jewish people, only those affected must fast from the night before. Sometimes, though, even they are exempt from the stricter fast, since the persecution itself prevents them from fasting.<i>Shlah</i>, <i>Masekhet Ta’anit</i>, <i>Ner Mitzva</i> §6 states that it would have been appropriate to be stringent and treat all three minor fasts like Tisha Be-Av, but we do not impose an enactment upon the people unless they can bear it. Therefore, the Sages ruled stringently only with regard to Tisha Be-Av. <i>Sefer Ha-pardes</i> (a work attributed to Rashi) indicates that an individual who feels that he can tolerate it should fast from nightfall on all the fasts. He concludes that it is good to be stringent only in the area of eating, while it is unnecessary to observe the other afflictive prohibitions; and if one wishes to be stringent, he should do so in private, to avoid religious exhibitionism <i>(yuhara</i>)<i>.</i> MA and many other Aḥaronim mention this ruling. Apparently, they understood that since evil decrees existed in their times, it was appropriate to be stringent on the three minor fasts, but the masses did not conduct themselves in this manner. Therefore, individuals who are capable of being stringent should do so. The reason <i>Sefer Ha-pardes</i> ruled leniently regarding the other restrictions is that their status is more lenient from the start. After all, many <i>poskim</i> maintain that these restrictions are not forbidden by Torah law even on Yom Kippur. MA and MB 550:6 state that the only area in which one should not be stringent is wearing shoes, because it would look ridiculous to walk around without shoes when everyone else is wearing shoes. This implies that it is good to be stringent about washing, anointing oneself, and the like. I believe that their reasoning is based on the fact that there were so many harsh decrees, as I wrote above; SHT <i>ad loc. </i>9 concurs.In any event, nowadays, since the establishment of the State of Israel, there seems to be no reason whatsoever to be stringent. We are obligated to fast regardless of the nation’s will only when there are harsh decrees, according to Ramban, or religious persecutions, according to <i>Tashbetz</i> and <i>Tur</i>. But if there are no such torments, all agree that there is no obligation to fast in the manner of Tisha Be-Av on the three minor fasts. Even if we interpret <i>Shlah</i> to mean that the Jewish people would have accepted the three minor fasts as full-day fasts if they were able to do so even during an intermediate period, which depends on Israel’s will, and therefore individuals should fast the entire day, there is still no room whatsoever to be stringent in modern-day Israel, where – thank God – we are not even subservient to the nations of the world. After all, Rashi maintains that the fasts are completely nullified when we are free from the yoke of the nations. While most Rishonim disagree with Rashi (see n. 1 above), if Rashi considers a situation joyous, it cannot possibly be a day on which fasting is completely obligatory. Therefore, there is no room to be stringent by fasting from the night before and observing the other restrictions on the three minor fasts as we do on Tisha Be-Av.</i>
  Preferably, one should be stringent and refrain from bathing in hot water during a minor fast, but one may bathe in lukewarm water for purposes of cleanliness. During the fast, it is also inappropriate to cut one’s hair, listen to joyous music, or shop for things that make one happy.3<i class="footnote">SA 550:2 rules that one may bathe on the minor fasts. Most <i>poskim</i> agree, and the <i>halakha</i> follows their opinion. <i>Tosafot</i> (<i>Ta’anit</i> 13a, s.v. “ve-khol”) quotes Raavya as saying that one may even bathe in hot water, adding that his father R. Yoel prohibits the use of hot water. Several other Rishonim and Aḥaronim mention this stringency. Two possible explanations can be given for this stringency. 1) The Sages introduced it at a time of harsh decrees; if so, there is no room to adopt it nowadays, as explained in the previous note. 2) It was enacted in order to ensure that the three minor fasts are not more lenient than the Nine Days, on which we do not bathe due to our mourning over the destruction of the Temple. This reason is mentioned in BHL 551:2, s.v. “me-Rosh Ḥodesh” and SHT 550:8 in the name of <i>Eliya Rabba</i>, <i>Ateret Zahav</i>, and <i>Pri Megadim</i>. One who wishes to be stringent in this matter should observe all the customs of the Nine Days, which include not listening to joyous music, not cutting one’s hair, and not reciting <i>She-heḥeyanu</i> if possible, <i>le-khtatḥila </i>(see below 8:7; <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim </i>551:209). There is no custom to refrain from doing laundry (perhaps because it is a custom of mourning that is only meaningful if it is observed for an extended period of time and it has no significance if it is observed for just one day). It is appropriate to avoid large celebrations like dances, even on the night of a fast. Regarding weddings, however, there are varying opinions. Since weddings involve the fulfillment of a mitzva, they may be permitted on the night of a fast. Nonetheless, on the night of 17 Tamuz, one should follow the more stringent opinion, because the Three Weeks begin then and it is not fortuitous to hold such events during that period (below ch. 8 n. 1). Some authorities prohibit washing even in cold water on the minor fasts. In practice, however, it seems that even one who wants to be stringent in general may be lenient and wash in lukewarm water, as one may be lenient on this issue even during the Nine Days (see below 8:19). It is a mitzva to bathe in hot water in honor of Shabbat (SA 260:1); therefore, if one of the minor fasts falls out on a Friday, one should bathe in hot water.</i>
  
  Section 3
  
  The Minor Fasts / The Duration of the Minor Fasts
  The minor fasts last from dawn (<i>alot ha-shaḥar</i>) until <i>tzeit ha-kokhavim </i>(when three medium-sized stars are visible in the sky). There are different opinions as to when exactly <i>alot ha-shaḥar</i> occurs: either when the first light begins to appear in the east (when the sun is 17.5 degrees below the horizon) or a short time later, when the eastern part of the sky is illuminated (and the sun is 16.1 degrees below the horizon).
  Likewise, there are also two primary opinions about when <i>tzeit ha-kokhavim</i> occurs: either when experts or those with excellent eyesight can see three stars (and the sun is 4.8 degrees below the horizon) or when average people can see three stars (and the sun is 6.2 degrees below the horizon).
  It is a common misconception that there is a fixed interval between <i>alot ha-shaḥar</i> and <i>hanetz ha-ḥama </i>(sunrise) and between <i>shki’at ha-ḥama </i>(sunset)<i> </i>and <i>tzeit ha-kokhavim</i>. This is not the case: these intervals depend on the time of year and the place. Therefore, one should use a precise calendar to determine these times.4<i class="footnote">Regarding <i>alot ha-shaḥar</i>, see <i>Peninei Halakha</i>: <i>Prayer</i>, ch. 11 nn. 1 and 10. Regarding <i>tzeit ha-kokhavim</i>, see <i>ibid</i>. ch. 25 n. 3. I will provide some examples in order to give the reader an idea of the differences. According to the 16.1  measurement, the interval between <i>alot ha-shaḥar</i> and <i>hanetz ha-ḥama</i> in Eretz Yisrael on Tzom Gedalia is c. 73 minutes, whereas it is c. 86 minutes on 17 Tamuz. According to the 17.5T measurement, the interval is c. 80 minutes on Tzom Gedalia and c. 94 minutes on 17 Tamuz. I approximate because the solar date that coincides with the Hebrew date changes from year to year, resulting in a fluctuation of c. two minutes. On Israel’s coastal plain, the sun rises later because the mountains in the east hide the sun longer. Therefore, the interval between <i>alot ha-shaḥar</i> and sunrise<i> </i>increases by about five minutes. The interval between <i>shki’a</i> and <i>tzeit ha-kokhavim</i> also fluctuates depending on the time of year, but the difference is smaller. There is also a considerable difference between the hill country and the plains in Israel. According to the earlier measurement (4.8.), the interval between <i>shki’a</i> and <i>tzeit</i> in Jerusalem on Tzom Gedalia can be as short as 14 minutes. And according to the later measurement (6.2 ), the interval on the coastal plain on 17 Tamuz can be as long as 29.5 minutes. This is why one must use a precise calendar. In the footnotes cited above from <i>Peninei Halakha</i>:<i> Prayer</i>, I explain the issue in depth.</i>
  Technically, <i>halakha </i>follows the more lenient opinion, because these fasts are rabbinic enactments. However, it is best to be stringent. Since we are already fasting all day long, it is preferable to add a few extra minutes in order to fulfill our obligation according to all opinions.
  When Asara Be-Tevet falls out on a Friday, one must fast until after <i>tzeit ha-kokhavim</i>, even though Shabbat has already begun by then (SA 249:4).
  One who flies from America to Israel will experience a shorter fast, as he is flying against the direction of Earth’s rotation. Every hour in flight shortens the fast by more than half an hour. One who flies from Israel to America extends his fast, as he is flying in the same direction as Earth’s rotation. Every hour in flight adds more than half an hour to the fast. As a rule, the fast starts at <i>alot ha-shaḥar</i> and ends at <i>tzeit ha-kokhavim</i>, of wherever one happens to be at the time (see <i>Igrot Moshe</i>, OḤ 3:96).
  
  Section 4
  
  The Minor Fasts / Eating and Drinking Before Dawn
  Even though the fast starts at <i>alot ha-shaḥar</i>, one’s prohibition to eat sometimes begins the night before. Namely, if one had in mind not to eat anymore before the fast, it is considered as if he accepted the fast upon himself, and he may not eat anymore. Therefore, if one went to sleep the night before a fast and woke up before dawn, he may not eat, since he had already taken his mind off of eating. However, if he stipulates mentally before going to sleep that he will eat if he wakes up before dawn, he may eat, because he has not yet accepted the fast upon himself.
  This applies to eating. With regard to drinking, however, the <i>poskim</i> disagree. According to Rema, one may drink before dawn<i> </i>even if he did not explicitly stipulate before going to sleep that he would do so, because many people drink of water when they wake up. Therefore, it is as if he had in mind to drink if he wakes up before dawn. <i>Shulḥan Arukh</i> (564:1), however, maintains that there is no difference between eating and drinking, and only one who stipulates before going to sleep that he will drink some water when he wakes up before dawn may do so. In practice, one who wants to drink before the fast begins should stipulate mentally that he will do so, but <i>be-di’avad</i>, one who wakes up before dawn and is thirsty may drink, even if he failed to stipulate this (see MB 564:6, <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 564:10).5<i class="footnote">This question is discussed in <i>Ta’anit</i> 12a. The reason for the prohibition is that one who goes to sleep takes his mind off of eating, and since these fasts were originally intended to begin at night, as we explained in section 1, if one takes his mind off of eating, it is as if he has accepted the fast. (See Ran 4:1, s.v. “Yerushalmi,” who mentions this rationale with regard to reciting <i>Aneinu</i> at night, even when one fasts only during the day.) Making a stipulation helps, as <i>y. Ta’anit </i>1:4 indicates.With regard to drinking water, since the dispute concerns a rabbinic law, the <i>halakha</i> follows the lenient opinion. Moreover, it seems that Rif agrees with Rosh who rules leniently. <i>Taz</i> 564:2 also concurs. Nonetheless, it is best to stipulate, as MA 564:2 and MB 564:6 state. <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 564:10 cites several Aḥaronim who say that one who has a craving to drink may do so.Tangentially, I would like to point out that even on a regular day, when one may not eat before <i>Shaḥarit</i>, one may eat before dawn and even begin a meal a half-hour before then. According to the custom of the kabbalists, however, one should not eat anything before praying in the morning, assuming one got regular sleep (<i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 564:7). However, even the kabbalists are lenient when it comes to drinking.</i>
  
  Section 5
  
  The Minor Fasts / Rinsing One’s Mouth
  <i>Le-khatḥila</i>, one should not wash his mouth on the minor fasts, because there is concern that one might swallow drops of water. However, one who knows that he has bad breath may wash out his mouth, because he has no intention to drink, only to clean his mouth. Still, he should be very careful not to swallow any water. One may use toothpaste in order to clean out his mouth thoroughly and remove bad breath.
  On Tisha Be-Av, which is a more stringent fast, there is an additional prohibition against washing oneself. Therefore, one should be more stringent on Tisha Be-Av and, unless it is very necessary, one should not rinse his mouth. Only one who would be greatly distressed may wash his mouth and brush his teeth, without toothpaste, even on Tisha Be-Av. On Yom Kippur, however, when one must fast by Torah law, one may not be lenient in this regard.6<i class="footnote">While it is true that, according to SA 567:3, one may not rinse one’s mouth on a fast day, many Aḥaronim, including MB 567:11, state that it is permitted if not doing so would cause distress. This is even permitted on Tisha Be-Av, in a case of great suffering. We are more spoiled today because of a higher hygienic awareness, and refraining from rinsing one’s mouth in the morning causes most people distress. Therefore, those who suffer may wash their mouths (see below ch. 8 n. 19). Regarding toothpaste, see <i>Berakhot</i> 14a: “One who is fasting may take a taste, without any issue.” Most Rishonim understand that the Gemara is talking about tasting without swallowing, in order to know how the dish tastes, but one may not swallow. There is also debate as to which fast day is at issue. According to Rosh, the Gemara’s statement applies to any communal fast (except Tisha Be-Av), and SA 567:1 rules accordingly. <i>Tosafot</i> maintain that the Sages permitted tasting only on personal fast days, not on communal fasts. Rema writes that it is customary to be stringent and not to taste anything on a fast day. However, MB 567:6 states that one may be more lenient if he is tasting food for the sake of a <i>se’udat mitzva</i>. Certainly, then, one who suffers when he does not brush his teeth with toothpaste may be lenient. Perhaps even Rema would agree with this, because such a person has no intention to taste the toothpaste, only to clean out his mouth. Tisha Be-Av is more stringent, because washing in general is forbidden then, and washing one’s mouth is included in this restriction. Nonetheless, one who is greatly distressed may wash his mouth. However, he may only do so without toothpaste, because even Rosh, who rules leniently on the issue of tasting food on a fast day, forbids tasting on Tisha Be-Av. We rule even more stringently on Yom Kippur, because it is prohibited to eat and drink on Yom Kippur – even a <i>ḥatzi shi’ur </i>(an amount below the threshold of punishment) – by Torah law.</i>
  
  Section 6
  
  The Minor Fasts / One Who Forgets That It Is a Fast Day
  One who accidentally eats or drinks on a fast day must continue fasting, because these days were instituted as fast days due to the distress that we experienced on them. Even if one eats or drinks enough to be viewed as having broken his fast, and thus may no longer recite <i>Aneinu</i> in the <i>Amida</i> (as we will explain in section 10 below), the prohibition on eating and drinking still applies to him. After all, one who committed one transgression is not then permitted to commit further transgressions (SA 568:1). In such a case, one does not need to make up the fast on a different day, because we are obligated to fast specifically on the days that the Sages established for fasting. Despite this, some people have a custom to accept upon themselves another fast to atone for the fast that they broke, but one is not obligated to do so (MB 568:8). It is better to atone by giving more charity and studying more Torah.
  The <i>poskim</i> disagree about the case of one who forgets that it is a fast day, recites a <i>berakha</i> over a cup of water, and then remembers the fast. Some say that one is prohibited to recite a <i>berakha</i> in vain (<i>le-vatala</i>)<i> </i>by Torah law, while drinking on a fast day is only a rabbinic enactment. Therefore, it is preferable to take a small drink in order to prevent oneself from violating the prohibition of reciting a <i>berakha</i> <i>le-vatala</i>. Others maintain that since most Rishonim maintain that reciting a <i>berakha</i> in vain is a rabbinic prohibition, it is better not to drink at all. In addition, it is improper to correct one transgression by committing another one. It seems that one should follow this approach.7<i class="footnote">Some say that it is best to drink a little to avoid the prohibition of <i>berakha le-vatala</i> (<i>Birkat Ha-bayit</i> 19:15 and R. Ovadia Yosef). Their reason is that SA 215:4 rules that reciting a <i>berakha</i> <i>le-vatala</i> is a Torah prohibition and the prohibition of eating and drinking on a fast is rabbinic. However, most Rishonim maintain that the prohibition of reciting a <i>berakha le-vatala </i>is rabbinic. Besides, these fasts days were instituted by the prophets, and some say that such <i>mitzvot</i> have the status of Torah law. Furthermore, it may be that these fasts have a Torah aspect to them, since they are like vows. Moreover, it is better to commit a transgression passively than to do so actively. This is how <i>Da’at Torah</i> 568:1 and <i>Sha’arei Teshuva </i>§1 rule. Similarly, MB 515:5 rules that one who recites a <i>berakha</i> over <i>muktzeh</i> food on Yom Tov should not eat it.</i>
  
  Section 7
  
  The Minor Fasts / Sick People Are Exempt from Fasting
  The prophets and the Sages instituted the fasts for healthy people, not for sick people. In this, Yom Kippur differs from all other fasts. On Yom Kippur, even sick people must fast, as it is a Torah command. Only those whose lives may be at risk if they fast are exempt, since saving a life overrides the Torah’s commandments. On the other fasts, however, which were instituted by the Sages, anyone who is sick is exempt from fasting, even if his condition is not life-threatening.
  In general, one is considered sick if his pain or weakness prevents him from continuing his normal routine of life, forcing him to lie down. For example, those who suffer from the flu, angina, or a high fever do not need to fast.
  Almost everyone experiences headaches and weakness on fast days, and most people find it easier to spend the day in bed than to continue to function normally. Sometimes, one who is fasting feels even worse than one who has the flu. Nonetheless, this is not considered a sickness, but rather the natural effects of fasting, which will pass within a few hours after the fast is over. Therefore, only one who needs to lie down because of an illness is exempt from fasting. One who is suffering from the fast itself, however, must continue to fast even if he prefers to lie down in bed due to his weakness. One is only exempt from the fast if he becomes so weak from fasting that he actually becomes ill.
  In addition, anyone who knows that fasting may cause him to become sick does not need to fast. For example, one who suffers from an active ulcer or severe migraines is exempt from fasting, because it is liable to precipitate his illness. Similarly, a weak person who knows that there is a good chance that he will become ill if he does not eat is exempt from fasting. Diabetics who need to take insulin do not need to fast and are even exempt from fasting on Yom Kippur. Those who have kidney stones and thus need to drink large quantities of water are exempt from fasting. One who has high blood pressure is not considered sick and should fast, unless his doctor instructs him otherwise. Whenever one is in doubt, one should consult a God-fearing doctor.8<i class="footnote">Regarding the various illnesses, I enlisted the aid of R. Prof. Avraham Steinberg, author of <i>Encyclopedia of Jewish Medical Ethics</i>. Some say that there is a difference between Tisha Be-Av and the other, minor fast days. On Tisha Be-Av, only one who is actually sick or liable to become sick because of the fast is exempt. On the minor fasts, however, even one who is in great pain – significantly more than other people – is exempt from fasting. This is derived from the law of pregnant and nursing women, who are not considered sick and are thus obligated to fast on Tisha Be-Av and exempt from the minor fasts. Accordingly, AHS 550:1 states that one who is weak should not be stringent and fast on the minor fasts; he must fast only on Tisha Be-Av. <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 550:6, 554:31 concurs. However, many <i>poskim</i> do not make such a distinction, and we can explain their reasoning as follows: the Sages exempt only pregnant and nursing women from the minor fasts because the fetus or baby needs nourishment, but those who are suffering but not actually sick remain obligated. Either way, it seems that in cases of doubt, one may be more lenient on the minor fasts than on Tisha Be-Av.</i>
  One who is exempt from fasting because of an illness may, <i>le-khatḥila</i>, eat a full meal and drink as much as he needs starting from the morning, but it is inappropriate for him to indulge in delicacies. He need not ration his food into very small quantities, as a sick person might be instructed to do on Yom Kippur, because sick people are simply not obligated to fast on fast days of rabbinic provenance. It is only on Yom Kippur, when fasting is mandated by Torah law that even sick people must fast, that the Sages ruled stringently that those who are dangerously ill and need to eat must do so in quantities smaller than the threshold of punishment, if possible, to avoid breaking the fast.9<i class="footnote">Less than the threshold of punishment (<i>paḥot mi-keshi’ur</i>)<i> </i>means drinking less than <i>melo lugmav </i>(a cheekful) and eating less than the bulk of a date (<i>ke-kotevet</i>) within nine minutes. See below ch. 10, n. 2, where we cite more stringent opinions, mainly regarding Tisha Be-Av, though most <i>poskim</i> follow the more lenient view.</i>
  It is also important to note that sick people who need to take medication regularly, like one who has started a regimen of antibiotics or one who suffers from a chronic disease, must continue taking their medication even on a fast day. If possible, one should swallow the medication without water. It should be noted that almost no medication, including antibiotics, does any harm to one who swallows it without water. One who cannot swallow pills without water should add something bitter to the water to the point that it becomes undrinkable, and then use it to swallow the pill.
  
  Section 8
  
  The Minor Fasts / Pregnant and Nursing Women on Tisha Be-Av and the Minor Fast Days
  Pregnant and nursing women must fast on Tisha Be-Av, because only sick people are exempt from fasting on Tisha Be-Av, and pregnant and nursing women are considered healthy unless they feel unusually weak. However, pregnant and nursing women need not fast on the minor fast days since, technically, the prophets’ main enactment of these fasts was for times when Israel is faced with harsh decrees; when no such decrees exist, it is up to the Jewish people to decide whether they want to fast or not. Indeed, the Jewish people have accepted upon themselves to fast on these days until the Temple is rebuilt, speedily in our days. However, from the very beginning, the common practice has been that pregnant and nursing women do not fast on these days, because it is harder for them to fast.
  Nevertheless, many pregnant and nursing women in Ashkenaz were stringent with themselves and fasted on the minor fast days. Perhaps they did this because of the harsh decrees that they experienced there. In any event, the prevalent custom today, even among those of Ashkenazic descent, is that pregnant and nursing women do not fast on the minor fast days. And even if a particular woman wants to be stringent, it is better that she refrain from doing so if she has trouble fasting. From the moment a woman knows that she is pregnant, she is exempt from the fast.10<i class="footnote">In general, a pregnant woman refers to one who is noticeably pregnant (c. three months pregnant). However, in the present case, the Aḥaronim stated that since a woman is in greater pain and at higher risk of miscarriage specifically during the first few months of pregnancy, a woman who knows with certainty that she is pregnant, based on a test or the like, is exempt from fasting. However, MB 550:3 and SHT <i>ad loc</i>. 2 state that one may rely on this approach and be lenient before the fortieth day of pregnancy only if she is in great pain (as then she is considered sick). In my humble opinion, though, this ruling was based on technology available then, which could not produce certainty of early-stage pregnancy. However, if one knows with certainty that she is pregnant, the danger of miscarriage already exists, and it is clear that her aches are a result of her pregnancy. Therefore, like all pregnant women, she need not fast. <i>Mikra’ei Kodesh</i> (Harari) ch. 1 n. 10 states that R. Mordechai Eliyahu ruled likewise.Rabbeinu Yeruḥam, Radbaz, and other <i>poskim</i> write that pregnant and nursing women may not fast on the minor fast days. Rema writes that such women have a custom to be stringent and fast. The Aḥaronim (<i>Ḥayei Adam</i> 133:6, AHS 550:1) divide pregnant and nursing women into three categories: healthy women have the custom to be stringent; those who experience some pain when fasting are exempt from the custom to be stringent, but are not prohibited from fasting; and those who suffer greatly may not be stringent. Nowadays, the prevalent ruling for Ashkenazic women is to refrain from fasting. See <i>Piskei Teshuvot</i> 550:1, which cites extremely lenient views, stating that all women who might give birth are exempt from these fasts, so that they have strength to give birth. <i>Piskei Teshuvot</i> also cites the view that such women should “redeem” the fast by giving charity. Most <i>poskim</i> do not accept this opinion, but one may use it as an additional reason to rule leniently in cases of uncertainty.</i>
  A nursing woman is exempt from the minor fasts as long as she is still nursing her child. Even if the child receives additional nourishment, the mother does not need to fast as long as she has not stopped nursing. Some <i>poskim</i> exempt all women from fasting for 24 months after giving birth, because, in their opinion, the exemption is not contingent upon nursing but on the trauma of childbirth, from which it takes 24 months to recover. In practice, most <i>poskim</i> rule stringently and require women who have stopped nursing to fast even on the minor fast days. This is the prevalent custom. However, one who wishes to be lenient has authorities on whom to rely, as several great <i>poskim</i> rule leniently on this issue.11<i class="footnote">The following authorities rule leniently: Maharsham, <i>Da’at Torah</i> 550; <i>Yeḥaveh Da’at</i> 1:35. See the previous note. According to the straightforward interpretation, however, only nursing women are exempt; this is the view of most <i>poskim</i>. R. Mordechai Eliyahu concurs in <i>Hilkhot Ḥagim</i> 24:35. For a summary of the various opinions, see <i>Mikra’ei Kodesh</i> (Harari) 1:4.</i>
  
  Section 9
  
  The Minor Fasts / Minors, Bridegrooms, and Soldiers
  Children who have yet to reach the age at which they are obligated in the <i>mitzvot</i> are exempt from the rabbinic fasts. Additionally, the Sages did not require us to train our children to fast for a few hours; they did so only in regard to Yom Kippur, which is mandated by Torah law. Nonetheless, many have a custom to train their children to fast for a few hours, each child according to his ability. Despite this, children should not fast for the entire day (<i>Responsa Rema</i> <i>Mi-Fano</i> §111; see <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 554:23). When feeding children on a fast day, one should give them only simple foods, in order to teach them to mourn with the congregation (MB 550:5).
  Brides and grooms must fast on the minor fast days. Even though they have a mitzva to rejoice for seven days after their wedding, and therefore they may not accept upon themselves a private fast, nonetheless, they must observe public fasts, because public mourning overrides private joy. Moreover, brides and grooms have a special mitzva to remember the destruction of the Temple, as it says in Tehilim (137:6): “If I do not keep Jerusalem in memory even at my happiest hour” (Ritva, BHL 549:1. Many authorities are lenient regarding Ta’anit Esther; see below ch. 14 n. 12).
  The main participants in a <i>brit mila</i> – the father, the <i>sandak</i>, and the <i>mohel</i> – also must fast. The same is true of a father who performs a <i>pidyon ha-ben</i> on a fast day; he, too, may not eat. Instead, it is customary to perform the <i>brit</i> or the <i>pidyon</i> toward the end of the fast and conduct the festive meal after <i>tzeit ha-kokhavim</i>.12<i class="footnote">According to the Vilna Gaon (end of §686), the main participants in a <i>brit</i> and a bridegroom on the day of his wedding need not observe the minor fasts. Most <i>poskim</i>, however, maintain that they must fast. When the fast is postponed, however, the celebrants may eat after the earliest time for praying <i>Minḥa </i>(half an hour after midday), even on Tisha Be-Av. So states SA 559:9. And even though some authorities rule stringently on the matter, as <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 559:74 explains, the majority rules leniently. MB and <i>Torat Ha-mo’adim</i> 2:5-6 concur. In practice, however, AHS 559:9 states:Nevertheless, we have not seen or heard of anyone who does this, especially concerning us, who eat most of our festive meals at night. This is true of all fasts, not only of Tisha Be-Av. And even if a fast is postponed, we do not partake of a festive meal until nighttime, whether it is for a <i>brit mila</i> or a <i>pidyon ha-ben</i>. This is the common practice, and one should not change it.See below ch. 10 n. 28. If the postponed fast falls out during the seven days of celebration following a wedding, the <i>poskim </i>debate whether the bride and groom must complete the fast. Many authorities are lenient, including the Vilna Gaon. Thus, those who desire may be lenient and fast until the earliest time for <i>Minḥa</i>, and then eat. On Ta’anit Esther, a more lenient fast, one may certainly be lenient (SHT 686:16).</i>
  Soldiers who are engaged in a defensive operation that is liable to be compromised if they fast should eat and drink as they normally do, so that they can carry out their mission properly. However, soldiers who are merely training must fast.
  
  Section 10
  
  The Minor Fasts / The <i>Aneinu</i> Prayer
  The Sages prescribed the addition of a special <i>berakha</i> during the <i>ḥazan</i>’s repetition of the <i>Amida </i>on fast days. This addition is inserted between the <i>berakhot</i> of <i>Go’el Yisrael</i> and <i>Refa’einu</i> at <i>Shaḥarit</i> and <i>Minḥa</i>. It is only recited when there are at least six people in the congregation who are fasting, and the <i>ḥazan</i> must be one of them (SA 566:5).13<i class="footnote">SA 566:3 states that the <i>ḥazan</i> recites <i>Aneinu</i> only if there are ten people present who are fasting. However, many Aḥaronim explain that this is true only if a particular community establishes a fast day, but regarding the four fasts that the Prophets instituted, six people fasting are sufficient. See MB 566:14. When there are fewer than six people fasting, the <i>ḥazan</i> should recite <i>Aneinu</i> in <i>Shome’a Tefila</i>, as an individual would.If the <i>ḥazan</i> forgets to recite <i>Aneinu</i> and has not yet said God’s name at the end of <i>Refa’einu</i>, he should go back and recite <i>Aneinu</i> in its proper place. If, however, he has already said God’s name, he should recite <i>Aneinu</i> in <i>Shome’a Tefila</i>, as an individual would. If he forgets to insert it even there, he should recite it, without its conclusion “Blessed are You…Who answers in time of distress,” after “…Who blesses His people Israel with peace,” before he says, “<i>Yiyhu le-ratzon</i>”<i> </i>(“May the words of my mouth…”; MB 119:19). An individual who forgets to recite <i>Aneinu</i> in <i>Shome’a Tefila</i> should insert it in the supplications that follow the <i>Amida</i>.</i>
  During the silent <i>Amida</i>, <i>Aneinu</i> is not recited as a separate <i>berakha</i>, but rather as an insertion in the middle of <i>Shome’a Tefila</i> (<i>Ta’anit</i> 13b). There are various customs regarding when we recite <i>Aneinu</i>. Some say that <i>Aneinu</i> should be recited in all three of the daily prayers; even though we do not fast at night, one should recite it in <i>Ma’ariv</i> because the day as a whole is called a fast day. Yemenite Jews and members of some Sephardic communities follow this custom. Some Sephardic communities have the custom to recite <i>Aneinu</i> only while they are fasting. Therefore, on the minor fasts they recite it in <i>Shaḥarit</i> and <i>Minḥa</i>, and on Tisha Be-Av they recite it in <i>Ma’ariv</i> as well (based on <i>Ha-ma’or</i>, <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 565:17). Ashkenazim customarily recite <i>Aneinu</i> in <i>Minḥa</i> only, out of concern that one may become weak and break his fast after <i>Shaḥarit</i>. Then, his statement “on our fast day” will turn out to be a lie. Therefore, they recite <i>Aneinu</i> only at <i>Minḥa</i>, because one who has fasted this long will probably complete the fast (based on the Ge’onim and Rashi; Rema 565:3). Everyone should follow his family custom.
  One who eats less than a <i>kezayit</i> or drinks less than <i>melo lugmav </i>is considered to still be fasting and should recite <i>Aneinu</i>. But if one ate or drank more than that, he has broken his fast and may not recite <i>Aneinu</i>.14<i class="footnote">There are varying opinions on this issue, and MB 568:3 states, based on <i>Nehar Shalom</i>, that one should recite <i>Aneinu</i>. In BHL 565:1, however, he cites <i>Ma’amar Mordechai</i>’s opinion that one who eats on a fast day should not recite <i>Aneinu</i> at all. <i>Shevet Ha-Levi</i> 5:60 reconciles this contradiction by explaining that one who is exempt from fasting should not recite <i>Aneinu</i>, whereas one who ate accidentally should recite it, because the fast applies to him. In my humble opinion, however, in light of the Ashkenazic custom not to recite <i>Aneinu</i> in <i>Shaḥarit</i> because one might not fast the entire day, we can clearly infer that one who has already eaten should not recite it. Many Sephardim have adopted this custom. Even one who merely intends to eat, but has not yet done so, should not recite <i>Aneinu</i> (SA 562:1; see MB <i>ad loc</i>. 6).It is also unclear how much one needs to eat in order to be viewed as no longer fasting. Regarding Yom Kippur, the Sages say that eating a date’s bulk of food within the time it takes to eat half a loaf of bread, or drinking <i>melo lugmav</i> of fluid, is enough to eliminate the pangs of fasting. However, SA 568:1 states that one who eats a <i>kezayit</i> of food in the time it takes to eat half a loaf of bread has broken his fast, as a <i>kezayit</i> is the standard measure for all eating-related laws. See <i>Piskei Teshuvot</i> 568:1, which explains that the Aḥaronim debate the matter. Since there is uncertainty regarding this issue, it is better to be passive and not recite <i>Aneinu</i> if one ate a <i>kezayit</i> of food.</i> (Nonetheless, he must continue fasting, as mentioned above, section 6.)
  
  Section 11
  
  The Minor Fasts / The Torah Reading for Fast Days
  During <i>Shaḥarit</i> and <i>Minḥa</i> of public fast days, we read the section of the Torah that describes how God forgave Israel after the sin of the Golden Calf (<i>Sofrim</i> 17:7, SA 566:1). This symbolizes that just as God forgave us for the sin of the Golden Calf and gave us a new set of Tablets, so will He forgive all of our sins and rebuild the Holy Temple, speedily in our days.
  Most <i>poskim</i> maintain that we read the <i>haftara</i> beginning “Seek the Lord while He can be found” (Yeshayahu 55-56) at <i>Minḥa</i>, and all Ashkenazim follow this practice (Rema 566:1). However, most Sephardim do not customarily read a <i>haftara</i>. Nonetheless, a Sephardic man who is called up third to the Torah in a place where the custom is to read the <i>haftara</i> should read it and recite the accompanying <i>berakhot</i> (<i>Yaskil Avdi</i> 6:9).
  These readings are read only if at least six people present are fasting. One who is not fasting should not be called up to the Torah. <i>Bedi’avad</i>,<i> </i>if one who is not fasting was called up to the Torah, and he is embarrassed to say that he is not fasting, he may go up to the Torah.15<i class="footnote">MB 566:21 cites a dispute as to whether, <i>be-di’avad</i>, one who is not fasting may go up to the Torah if called, and concludes that if he is a Torah scholar and is worried about disgracing God’s name, he may go up. <i>Torat Ha-mo’adim</i> 4:5-6 writes that such a person should not go up to the Torah. <i>Ḥatam Sofer</i>, OḤ 157, however, maintains that one who is not fasting may go up to the Torah on mandatory fast days, and AHS 566:11 concurs. Therefore, it seems that anyone who is embarrassed may rely on these authorities and go up to the Torah.</i>
  The Ashkenazic custom is to recite the <i>Avinu Malkeinu</i> prayer after the <i>Amida</i> of both <i>Shaḥarit</i> and <i>Minḥa</i>, while Sephardim do not recite it.
  
  Section 12
  
  The Minor Fasts / <i>Birkat Kohanim</i> at <i>Minḥa</i>
  Throughout the year, <i>Birkat Kohanim </i>is not performed at <i>Minḥa</i> as it is at <i>Shaḥarit </i>(according to Ashkenazic custom in Eretz Yisrael and according to Sephardic custom worldwide), because people usually eat a meal before <i>Minḥa</i>, and we are concerned that the Kohanim might bless the people while under the influence of alcohol, which is forbidden. On fast days that have a <i>Ne’ila</i> service, like Yom Kippur and the fasts that the Sages instituted for droughts, the Kohanim bless the people at <i>Ne’ila</i>, because there is no reason to be concerned that they will be drunk, as it is a fast day. During <i>Minḥa</i> of those days, however, the Kohanim do not bless the people, out of concern that they may mistakenly think that they may do so on regular days as well. On ordinary fast days, when we do not pray <i>Ne’ila</i>, the law depends on when the congregants pray <i>Minḥa</i>. If a congregation that recites <i>Birkat Kohanim </i>prays <i>Minḥa </i>at the same time that <i>Ne’ila</i> would take place, i.e., shortly before <i>shki’a</i>, the Kohanim bless the people (cf. <i>Ta’anit</i> 26b; SA 129:1). But if the congregation prays <i>Minḥa</i> earlier, <i>Birkat Kohanim</i> is omitted, since it is not the time designated for <i>Ne’ila</i>. In such a case, the <i>ḥazan</i> also omits “<i>Elokeinu Ve-Elokei Avoteinu</i>,” which is customarily recited when no Kohanim are present.
  Therefore, it is proper for congregations that recite <i>Birkat Kohanim </i>to schedule <i>Minḥa</i> on fast days for a time that enables people to participate in the mitzva of <i>Birkat Kohanim</i>. Ideally, one should pray <i>Minḥa</i> within half an hour of <i>shki’a</i>, which is the best time to pray <i>Ne’ila</i>. Nevertheless, as long as the congregation prays after <i>plag ha-minḥa </i>(one and a quarter seasonal hours before the end of the day; see n. 16), the Kohanim may bless the people. If they pray earlier than that, however, <i>Birkat Kohanim</i> is omitted.
  A Kohen who is not fasting should not perform <i>Birkat Kohanim</i>. If there are no other Kohanim present, some maintain that he still may not perform the mitzva (<i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 129:5), while others maintain that he should. The latter opinion goes as far as to say that he should perform it even if there is one other Kohen (<i>Lu’aḥ Eretz Yisrael</i>; <i>Halikhot Shlomo</i>, <i>Tefila</i> 10:13). If there are fewer than six people fasting, no Kohen should perform the blessing at <i>Minḥa</i>, even one who is fasting (see <i>Piskei Teshuvot</i> 129:2).16<i class="footnote">According to <i>Ginat Veradim</i>, a Kohen who is not fasting may nonetheless perform <i>Birkat Kohanim </i>at <i>Minḥa</i> of a fast day in congregations that recite <i>Birkat Kohanim</i>, because there is no concern that he will perform the blessing while drunk on a fast day. All other <i>poskim</i> disagree. According to <i>Ḥazon Ish</i>, OḤ 20, Kohanim may perform the mitzva even when praying an early <i>Minḥa</i>, as there is no concern that they will be drunk. However, most <i>poskim</i> maintain that <i>Birkat Kohanim</i> is recited only when praying <i>Minḥa</i> at the time of <i>Ne’ila</i>, which is close to <i>shki’a</i>. <i>Rav Pe’alim</i> OḤ 5, <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 129:7, <i>Lu’aḥ Eretz Yisrael</i> (by R. Yeḥiel Michel Tikochinsky), <i>Piskei Teshuvot</i> 129:1 all maintain this view. The basis for this opinion is the fact that the Kohanim do not bless the people at <i>Minḥa</i> of Yom Kippur, as the Sages were concerned that they might mistakenly do so on a regular day. The reason they were concerned is that <i>Minḥa</i> can be prayed on Yom Kippur at the same time we pray <i>Minḥa</i> on a regular day. Furthermore, the earliest time for <i>Minḥa</i> is close to midday, which is when people eat lunch and are liable to drink wine, as opposed to <i>Ne’ila</i>, which is said at the end of the day. Therefore, on a day that has no <i>Ne’ila</i> service, the Kohanim bless the people during <i>Minḥa</i> in congregations that recite <i>Birkat Kohanim</i> only if it is said at the time of <i>Ne’ila</i>. Nonetheless, everyone agrees that if the Kohanim ascended the platform to perform the mitzva during a <i>Minḥa</i> service that is being held before <i>plag ha-minḥa</i>, they may continue. Many authorities rule this way with regard to <i>Minḥa</i> of Yom Kippur. <i>Plag ha-minḥa</i> is 1.25 seasonal hours before the end of the day. There is a dispute whether “the end of the day” refers to <i>shki’a</i> or <i>tzeit ha-kokhavim</i>; see <i>Peninei Halakha</i>: <i>Prayer</i>, ch. 24 n. 9. For our purposes here, we calculate <i>plag</i> from <i>shki’a</i>, as explained there, ch. 20, n. 3. <i>Le-khatḥila</i>, it is best to schedule <i>Minḥa</i> such that the congregation will recite the <i>Amida </i>half an hour before <i>shki’a</i>, as this is the proper time, <i>le-khatḥila</i>, for <i>Ne’ila</i>.<i>Be-di’avad</i>,<i> </i>if the <i>ḥazan</i>’s repetition of the <i>Amida</i> extends past <i>shki’a</i>, the Kohanim may perform the mitzva up until <i>tzeit ha-kokhavim</i>, as there is a combination of uncertainties here: 1) According to Raavya, <i>Yere’im</i>, and <i>Or Zaru’a</i>, Kohanim may perform the blessing at night; 2) the status of <i>bein ha-shmashot</i> is uncertain, and it may be considered daytime; 3) according to Rabbeinu Tam, the period following <i>shki’a</i> is definitely daytime. SAH 623:8 and <i>Piskei Teshuvot</i> 623:13, quoting R. Shlomo Zalman Auerbach and R. Yosef Shalom Elyashiv, both rule accordingly. <i>Yeḥaveh Da’at</i> 6:40 and <i>Or Le-Tziyon</i> 2:8:13 concur, adding that this period lasts for 13.5 minutes following <i>shki’a</i>.</i>
  
  
  
  
  
  Section 1
  
  The Customs of the Three Weeks / The Three Weeks
  The Three Weeks, which begin on the night of Shiv’a Asar Be-Tamuz and continue through Tisha Be-Av, are a painful time. This period is often known as <i>Bein Ha-metzarim</i>,<i> </i>recalling the verse, “All her pursuers overtook her in the narrow places (<i>bein ha-metzarim</i>)” (Eikha 1:3). Therefore, the Sages recommended that we take extra precautions on these days, which are prone to calamity. For example, even though one must always be careful and vigilant, those who go on a hike or swim in the sea must be even more careful during this period (see <i>Eikha Rabba</i> 1:29).
  In order to signify the nature of this period, the Sages instituted the reading of special <i>haftarot</i> that deal with calamity on the three <i>Shabbatot</i> of the Three Weeks. On the seven <i>Shabbatot</i> following Tisha Be-Av, we read seven <i>haftarot</i> of consolation (SA 428:8, based on <i>Pesikta</i>).
  Even though the Sages did not make any special enactments to mark the suffering and mourning of the Three Weeks, the Jewish people adopted the custom to refrain from music and dancing, and to avoid reciting <i>She-heḥeyanu</i> during this period.1<i class="footnote">Even though Shiv’a Asar Be-Tamuz begins at daybreak, the customs of mourning of the Three Weeks begin the night before. As we learned above, the fast was originally supposed to begin at night. The reason we begin fasting in the morning is that there are no harsh decrees against the Jewish people today. Therefore, it is up to the Jewish people to decide whether or not they want to fast, and they have decided to fast only from daybreak. However, the Three Weeks begin on the night of 17 Tamuz. Ḥida writes in this vein in <i>Responsa Ḥayim Sha’al</i> 1:24, based on Ramban. R. Moshe Feinstein, in <i>Igrot Moshe </i>OḤ 1:168, however, rules leniently, permitting weddings on the night of 17 Tamuz. Elsewhere (OḤ 4:112:2), he allows one to cut one’s hair then, if there is a great need. <i>Tzitz Eliezer</i> 10:26 disagrees, forbidding even weddings – through which one fulfills a mitzva – on the night of the seventeenth, because the Three Weeks have already begun. This seems correct.</i>
  There are other customs of mourning that various communities have adopted. Ashkenazim and some Sephardim, including Jews from Morocco and Djerba, refrain from cutting their hair during the Three Weeks. Other Sephardim are strict about this only during the week of Tisha Be-Av. Ashkenazim, Yemenites, and most Sephardim do not conduct weddings during the Three Weeks. Other Sephardim are more lenient, only avoiding weddings from the beginning of the month of Av (see below, section 7).
  In the following sections we will discuss at length the customs of the Three Weeks, the Nine Days, and the week of Tisha Be-Av.
  
  Section 2
  
  The Customs of the Three Weeks / Dancing and Music
  The Aḥaronim write that it is forbidden to hold dances from 17 Tamuz through 9 Av (MA 551:10). This prohibition includes playing and listening to instrumental music. Thus, one may not hold or attend dance classes, concerts, or sing-alongs during the Three Weeks. One may hold or attend an aerobics class, whose main purpose is exercise, until the beginning of Av, but one should lower the music so that it is clear that the purpose is exercise, not celebration.
  A professional Jewish musician may play at non-Jewish events until the end of Tamuz. Even though he plays joyous music there, it does not make him so happy, because he is preoccupied with his work. From the beginning of Av, however, he should not play music at all (BHL 551:2).
  Since the reason music is prohibited is that it brings people joy, music teachers may continue giving lessons until the week of Tisha Be-Av, because neither the teacher nor the students experience joy through music lessons. In addition, canceling the lessons will cause the teacher financial loss, and the students will have to expend extra effort afterward to return to their normal learning pace, possibly even requiring extra classes. It is best to learn sad melodies during the Three Weeks (<i>Tzitz Eliezer</i> 16:19). If the teacher and students usually take a break from their lessons at some point in any event, it is preferable, if possible, to schedule the break for the Three Weeks.
  
  Section 3
  
  The Customs of the Three Weeks / Playing Music and Singing at a <i>Se’udat Mitzva</i>
  One may sing happy songs at a <i>se’udat mitzva</i>, like the meal at a <i>brit mila</i>, <i>pidyon ha-ben</i>, or <i>sheva berakhot</i>. One may also celebrate a bar mitzva or bat mitzva during this period, but only on the actual day that the child comes of age.
  The <i>poskim</i> disagree about a locale where people always have musicians at a <i>se’udat mitzva</i>: May one have them during the Three Weeks as well? Some say that one may do so, since the music is for the sake of a mitzva. Others, however, forbid this. One who wants to be lenient has an opinion to rely on, as long as this is the general practice throughout the year.
  Therefore, in a locale where people always hire musicians for bar mitzva celebrations, one may do so during the Three Weeks. However, if some people hire two musicians and others hire three, it is proper to hire only two during the Three Weeks. The same is true of all mitzva celebrations: We follow the general practice of the rest of the year.
  Once the month of Av arrives, one should not hire musicians for any celebration. Similarly, one should not play recordings of happy songs, and one may only sing along with songs that relate to the mitzva celebration. One may even dance a little in a circle, as many people customarily do at a <i>brit mila</i> celebration.2<i class="footnote"><i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 551:40 cites a dispute among the Aḥaronim as to whether one may play music at a mitzva celebration. <i>Hilkhot Ḥagim</i> 25:6 rules stringently. <i>Torat Ha-mo’adim</i> 5:4 cites several Aḥaronim who rule leniently on this issue. See also <i>Piskei Teshuvot</i> 551:13, where it states that one should not be lenient after the first of Av.</i>
  Members of communities whose custom is to allow holding weddings until the end of Tamuz may hire a regular band for their weddings, because there is no celebration with a bride and groom without musical instruments. Even those whose custom is to refrain from getting married during these days may attend and dance at these weddings, as the joy they experience stems from a mitzva.
  
  Section 4
  
  The Customs of the Three Weeks / Listening to Music on Personal Electronic Devices
  Some authorities maintain that just as one may not listen to live music during the Three Weeks, so too one may not listen to recorded music played on home electronic devices during this period. One may listen only to songs without instrumental accompaniment during the <i>omer</i> period and the Three Weeks. This is how some of the greatest <i>poskim</i> rule (<i>Igrot Moshe</i> YD 2:137; <i>Yeḥaveh Da’at</i> 6:34). Some <i>poskim</i> even forbid listening to non-instrumental (“<i>a cappella</i>”) music during these periods (<i>Tzitz Eliezer</i> 15:33).
  However, some permit listening to music on electronic devices, reasoning that the Aḥaronim only prohibited listening to live musical performances, which entails some degree of festivity. Listening to music through electronic devices, on the other hand, is not particularly festive. Granted, when phonographs, radios, and tape recorders were first introduced, people truly experienced joy when using them to listen to music. Today, however, when everyone listens to music on electronic devices all the time, people do not experience so much joy in doing so. Thus, it is not prohibited to listen to them during the Three Weeks.
  Furthermore, a distinction can be made between happy songs and regular songs. It is only fitting to prohibit happy songs during the Three Weeks, whereas regular tunes, and certainly sad ones, should not be prohibited. Similarly, the Gemara (<i>Shabbat</i> 151a) teaches that the custom was to play flutes at a funeral in order to arouse people to cry out in anguish over the deceased, and this was part of the mitzva of accompanying the deceased to his final resting place (<i>levayat ha-met</i>). This shows that there is no sweeping prohibition against hearing instrumental music. Rather, one may not listen to happy tunes during times of mourning. I heard from my father and teacher that not only may one play sad instrumental songs related to the destruction of the Temple on the radio during the Nine Days, but it is actually good to do so, because it inspires people to mourn the destruction even more.3<i class="footnote">Among those who prohibit listening to music on the radio are: <i>Igrot Moshe</i>, YD 2:137 and OḤ 1:166, which tends toward stringency with respect to listening to instrumental music at all times nowadays; <i>Yeḥaveh Da’at</i> 6:34 permits listening to instrumental music in general but forbids listening to them on the radio and the like during the <i>omer</i> period and the Three Weeks. (In private conversation, however, he allowed Israeli radio station <i>Arutz Sheva</i> to play music during these periods, to avoid causing them to cancel their Torah-oriented segments.) <i>Tzitz Eliezer</i> 15:33 even forbids listening to non-instrumental music on the radio during these mournful periods. However, the rationale of those who rule leniently is strong, especially since the entire custom of refraining from listening to instrumental music and dancing during these times is first mentioned in the works of the Aḥaronim; it is not an ancient institution. Similarly, <i>Responsa Ḥelkat Yaakov</i> 1:62 concludes that listening to music on an electronic device is not included in the decree (or the custom of mourning) because these devices did not exist when the decree was first enacted. It seems, then, that the prohibition depends on whether or not the music is joyous. We can also derive this from the fact that the Aḥaronim permit attending music lessons during these periods because such music is not joyous. Clearly, then, it all depends on whether the music is joyous. Maharam Schick, YD 368, distinguishes between joyous music and sad music, ruling that sad music is not forbidden during times of mourning. This can also be inferred from the wording of Rambam in Laws of Fasts 5:14, where he discusses the prohibition of playing music after the destruction of the Temple: “Similarly, they ordained that one should not play melodies with any sort of musical instrument. It is forbidden to celebrate with such instruments or to listen to them being played, [as an expression of mourning] for the destruction [of the Temple].” According to this, it appears that the prohibition relates mainly to listening to joyous music, which is associated with dancing, while regular songs, and certainly sad ones, are permissible. Some people do not make any distinction between joyous songs and sad songs. These people take care, on the one hand, not to hear or play musical instruments during the Three Weeks or the <i>omer </i>period, but on the other hand will play joyous non-instrumental songs. They are mistaken, however, as one should be more stringent about hearing happy songs, even without instrumental accompaniment, than about hearing sad songs with instrumental accompaniment, concerning which one may rely on the lenient opinion. See R. Shmuel David’s article in<i> Teḥumin</i> 13. Also see above 3:10.Even according to the more stringent opinion, one who is listening to a radio talk show that occasionally plays musical selections is not obligated to turn the radio off. However, one who takes care to turn it off when the music comes on should be commended (<i>Hilkhot Ḥagim</i> 25:9).It seems that even according to the more stringent <i>poskim</i>, one may be lenient on Friday afternoon and Saturday night, because the sanctity and joy of Shabbat extends to these times. Indeed, we do not say <i>Taḥanun</i> on Friday afternoons, and we continue to wear Shabbat clothing on <i>Motza’ei</i> <i>Shabbat</i>.</i>
  
  Section 5
  
  The Customs of the Three Weeks / The <i>Halakha</i> in Practice
  It seems that in practice, according to the lenient view, we should divide all songs into three categories: 1) joyous songs, like those played at weddings; 2) songs that are neither especially joyous nor especially sad, which includes most contemporary music and most classical compositions; 3) sad songs, like those played or sung when mourning a death or the destruction of the Temple.
  From the beginning of the Three Weeks, one should refrain from listening to the first category of music – joyous songs. Starting from the first of Av, one should refrain from listening to the middle category as well, and listen only to sad songs, the third category. It also seems to me that when one listens to loud music, even if it is a neutral song, the force of the sound makes it more festive and practically transforms it into a joyous song. Thus, one may not listen to loud music even if it is the type of music that is permitted during the Three Weeks.
  Furthermore, it seems that one may not attend a concert featuring sad music (requiems) during the Three Weeks. Even though the music is mournful, concerts are festive and joyous events, as evidenced by the fact that people usually dress up for them. However, it would seem that one may play a sad tune in commemoration of Jerusalem at a cultural event, even during the Nine Days (based on <i>Shabbat</i> 151a).
  
  Section 6
  
  The Customs of the Three Weeks / Hiking, Swimming, and Hotel Vacations
  Some maintain that one must refrain from hiking and swimming or bathing in the sea or a swimming pool during the Three Weeks, in order to limit our enjoyment during this mournful period. Furthermore, since these days are prone to calamity, one must avoid potentially dangerous activities.
  From a halakhic standpoint, however, these activities are not prohibited. After all, the Sages only instructed us to curtail our joy from the first day of Av. They did not prohibit engaging in pleasurable and enjoyable activities before then. The only thing one should avoid is special celebrations, like parties, concerts, and dances. Therefore, one may go hiking and swimming and one may vacation in a hotel until the end of Tamuz. In addition, the concern about engaging in potentially dangerous activities is not so serious that one must be more cautious than one generally should be throughout the year. Thus, one may go hiking and engage in similar activities during the Three Weeks, while taking particular care to follow the safety precautions that apply to such activities throughout the year.
  “When Av arrives, we curtail our joy” (<i>Ta’anit </i>26b). Therefore, one must refrain from outings and recreational activities that are mainly designed to provide pleasure and joy. However, one may go on a trip or vacation that is designed primarily for educational or therapeutic purposes during the Nine Days. The same goes for swimming, whether in the sea or in a pool: If the purpose is leisure, it is forbidden. However, if one’s doctor instructs him to swim for health reasons, he may do so even during the Nine Days.4<i class="footnote"><i>Yesod Ve-shoresh Ha-avoda</i> states that it is proper to avoid enjoying oneself during the Three Weeks. R. Ḥayim Palachi writes (in <i>Masa Ḥayim</i>) that the rabbis of his city (Izmir) instituted a prohibition against strolling through the orchards, on the beach, or along the banks of the river during the Three Weeks (quoted in <i>Sdei Ḥemed</i>, <i>Ma’arekhet Bein Ha-metzarim</i> 1:10). The other Aḥaronim, however, did not cite this stringency. It is mentioned only in contemporary works (<i>Am Ke-lavi</i>, p. 170; <i>Nit’ei Gavriel</i> 23:3, as a secondary opinion; <i>Mikra’ei Kodesh</i> [Harari], 5:1). It appears that this is a pious custom, which is why most Aḥaronim do not cite it. In practice, the <i>halakha </i>dictates that one must curtail pleasurable, joyous activities only during the Nine Days. We find the same idea with regard to consuming meat and wine and engaging in joyous business transactions: They are forbidden only from the first of Av. Similarly, there is no reason to prohibit hiking because it is dangerous. The very obligation to avoid danger is a Torah command; while we are exceptionally cautious during these days, this does not mean that we create an entirely new system of safety rules.The same applies to swimming in the sea or a river. It is similar to hiking both in terms of the pleasure derived and the danger involved. There is a <i>posek</i> who is stringent about this (<i>Mekor Ḥayim</i> by the author of <i>Ḥavot Ya’ir</i>, 551:4), but many authorities permit it, as we find in <i>Terumat Ha-deshen</i> §150, which states that people used to bathe in rivers during the Nine Days, and no one protested. <i>Shulḥan Gavo’ah</i> §551 writes that the custom in Thessaloniki was to swim in the sea even on the day before Tisha Be-Av. Likewise, <i>Yeḥaveh Da’at</i> 1:38 states that one may swim in a pool or in the sea even during the week of Tisha Be-Av. It seems more proper to be stringent regarding swimming for pleasure during the Nine Days, not because swimming is inherently problematic, but because we must curtail our joy, as we will explain below. Nevertheless, we can derive from the opinions quoted above, based on a <i>kal va-ḥomer</i> argument, that swimming and hiking are permissible during the Three Weeks.However, it is preferable, <i>le-khatḥila</i>, to avoid going with a large group on an outing and to refrain from scheduling a summer camp during the Three Weeks. These activities are exceptionally joyous, as they are somewhat similar to dances. Nevertheless, <i>be-di’avad</i>, if it is very difficult to schedule the outing or the summer camp for a different time, one may participate in these activities until the first of Av, since these activities are not really similar to dances, whose main purpose is merrymaking. Rather, the goal of an outing is to acquaint the participants with a new place and to allow them to enjoy the social setting. Indeed, it would be proper to change the scholastic calendar such that schools would be in session during the Three Weeks. This way, fewer people would go on outings or go swimming during this period. As things stand today, however, the Three Weeks is when summer camps operate and the yearly vacation takes place. Therefore, one should not be stringent beyond the demands of the law and forbid outings or swimming before the first of Av. Regarding swimming daily for exercise, which is not considered recreational, but part of a healthy lifestyle, see below, section 21, where we explain that according to Sephardic custom it is proper to be stringent in this regard during the week of Tisha Be-Av, and according to Ashkenazic custom, from the first of Av. (See <i>Rav Pe’alim</i> 4:29, which states that even though one who begins swimming lessons before the Three Weeks should be stringent during the Nine Days, one should not rebuke him if he acts leniently and continues his lessons during the Nine Days and the week of Tisha Be-Av. It is written in the name of Ḥazon Ish that one may swim during the Nine Days for health reasons.)</i>
  
  Section 7
  
  The Customs of the Three Weeks / Reciting <i>She-heḥeyanu</i> During the Three Weeks
  Some of the greatest Rishonim would refrain from eating a new fruit or buying a new garment during the Three Weeks, in order to avoid reciting <i>She-heḥeyanu</i>. They reasoned: How can we say, “Blessed are You, Lord…Who has given us life, sustained us, and brought us to this time” during a period of such misfortune? (<i>Sefer Ḥasidim</i> §840). Even though some of the greatest <i>poskim</i> felt that one does not need to follow this stricture (<i>Taz</i>, Vilna Gaon), over time it became customary to be stringent and avoid reciting <i>She-heḥeyanu</i> during the Three Weeks. Therefore, we take care not to eat any new fruit or buy any new garment that would require one to recite <i>She-heḥeyanu</i>.
  However, until the end of Tamuz one may purchase items that would not require one to recite <i>She-heḥeyanu</i>. For example, one may buy socks or undershirts, because these items of clothing are not significant enough to warrant the recitation of <i>She-heḥeyanu</i>. One may also purchase shoes if it is not his custom to recite <i>She-heḥeyanu</i> over them (SA and Rema 223:6; also see <i>Peninei Halakha: Berakhot </i>ch. 17 n. 4). Similarly, a couple may buy a piece of furniture, because, as partners in the purchase, they recite the <i>berakha </i>of <i>Ha-tov Ve-hametiv </i>rather than <i>She-heḥeyanu</i>. An individual, on the other hand, must refrain from buying furniture to avoid reciting <i>She-heḥeyanu</i> (SA 223:5; <i>Peninei Halakha: Berakhot </i>17:3).
  Until the end of Tamuz, one may also buy a fancy garment that requires alterations, to be worn after Tisha Be-Av. Since it cannot be worn at the time when it is purchased, one does not recite <i>She-heḥeyanu</i> at that time (MB 223:17). Furthermore, according to those who customarily recite <i>She-heḥeyanu</i> only when they first wear the clothing (which is the prevalent custom), one may buy a new garment during the Three Weeks, on the condition that he wears it and recites the <i>berakha</i> after Tisha Be-Av. Once Av begins, we minimize our business dealings, and so it is proper to avoid such a purchase even if one will not recite <i>She-heḥeyanu</i> at the time of purchase (see below, section 18).
  
  Section 8
  
  The Customs of the Three Weeks / In Which Cases May One Recite <i>She-heḥeyanu</i>?
  One who is presented the opportunity to perform a mitzva that requires one to recite <i>She-heḥeyanu</i>, like a <i>brit mila</i> or a <i>pidyon ha-ben</i>, recites the <i>berakha</i>, because he did not determine the timing of the <i>berakha</i>. Rather, God granted him the opportunity to perform a mitzva that requires one to recite <i>She-heḥeyanu</i> during the Three Weeks (SA 551:17).
  Similarly, one who sees a close friend after not seeing him for thirty days, and is happy to see him, should recite <i>She-heḥeyanu</i>, since if he does not recite it immediately, he loses the opportunity to recite the <i>berakha</i>. Likewise, one who sees his newborn daughter for the first time should recite <i>She-heḥeyanu</i>, since if he does not do so immediately, he loses the opportunity to recite the <i>berakha</i> (based on SA 225:1, MB 223:2).
  According to most <i>poskim</i>, one may recite <i>She-heḥeyanu</i> on the <i>Shabbatot</i> of the Three Weeks. Even though some rule stringently on this issue (based on Arizal), in practice one may be lenient and recite <i>She-heḥeyanu</i> over a new fruit even on Shabbat Ḥazon (the Shabbat before Tisha Be-Av). Therefore, one who gets a new fruit during the week should postpone eating it until Shabbat, and then recite <i>She-heḥeyanu</i> over the fruit. If he cannot postpone eating it – for example, if he has no access to a refrigerator, and the fruit might spoil before Shabbat – he should eat it immediately and recite <i>She-heḥeyanu</i> (Rema 551:17, MB 551:98). With regard to a new article of clothing, one may likewise recite <i>She-heḥeyanu</i> on the <i>Shabbatot</i> before the first of Av. However, on Shabbat after the first of Av, one should be stringent and not wear the new garment, and thus not recite <i>She-heḥeyanu</i> (MB 551:98).
  
  Section 9
  
  The Customs of the Three Weeks / Marriage and Engagement
  It is customary in most Jewish communities that no weddings are held during the Three Weeks. Technically, the prohibition applies only to an “optional” wedding, i.e., that of a man who has already fulfilled the mitzva of procreation by fathering a son and a daughter; one who has yet to fulfill this mitzva may get married even during the Nine Days. Nevertheless, it is customary not to schedule any weddings during this period, because it is an inauspicious time. Weddings should take place in times of good omens and good fortune, and this period is not one of good omen or good fortune. Some Sephardim do not hold weddings only during the Nine Days (see n. 5).
  Until the first of Av, one may hold a modest, small-scale engagement party. Since such a party is a celebration of the couple’s agreement to get married, the event contains a mitzva component and is thus permitted (see above ch. 3 n. 7, regarding whether one may play music at such an event). One may not, however, hold a large-scale engagement party during the Three Weeks. During the Nine Days, when we must curtail our joy, one may not hold even a modest, small-scale party. However, the parents of the couple may meet, even during the Nine Days, in order to decide on the details of the wedding, and refreshments may be served at this meeting. Even though this, too, involves joy, it is permissible because such a meeting transforms the couple’s relationship into an accomplished fact, which brings them closer to the mitzva of marriage. It is also permissible for singles to date for the sake of marriage during the Nine Days.5<i class="footnote"><i>Beit Yosef</i> and MB 551:14 explain that even marriages that fulfill a mitzva are prohibited during this period, because the time is inauspicious. Vilna Gaon 551:69 adds a novel idea, explaining that even from the standpoint of mourning the destruction of the Temple, one should refrain from getting married during this period. As the Talmud (BB 60b) states, if it were possible, it would be proper to avoid marriage altogether following the destruction of the Temple. Though we are unable to do this, it is proper to refrain from getting married at least during the Three Weeks.The Sephardic custom: Yemenite Jews do not get married starting from the seventeenth of Tamuz. <i>Knesset Ha-gedola</i> (whose author was from Turkey) was stringent, ruling that one may not even get engaged during the Three Weeks, and indeed, Moroccan Jews follow this custom. <i>Ben Ish Ḥai</i>, Year 1, Devarim 4 forbids weddings and states that it is proper to be stringent regarding engagements as well, in accordance with the ruling of <i>Knesset Ha-gedola</i>. <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 551:44 also cites this position. R. Mordechai Eliyahu concurs in <i>Hilkhot Ḥagim</i> 25:3. SA 551:2, however, forbids weddings only during the Nine Days, and <i>Yabi’a Omer</i> 6:43 reinforces this, adding that one should not be stringent when it means restricting a mitzva, especially in our generation.A couple may undergo <i>erusin </i>(betrothal, i.e., <i>kiddushin</i> without <i>ḥupa</i>) during the Nine Days, and even on Tisha Be-Av itself, so that the man can ensure that no one else may preempt him and marry the woman. This is permissible only on condition that no festive meal is served during the Nine Days. Nowadays, we perform the <i>erusin</i> and <i>nisu’in</i> (marriage) together. Nonetheless, we learn from the fact that <i>erusin</i> is permitted that the parents of the couple may meet during the Nine Days in order to agree upon the conditions of the marriage, and that light refreshments may be served there. MB 551:16 rules this way as well.</i>
  
  Section 10
  
  The Customs of the Three Weeks / Haircuts
  The Sages instituted prohibitions against cutting one’s hair and washing one’s clothes during the week of Tisha Be-Av (<i>Ta’anit</i> 26b). Accordingly, <i>Shulḥan Arukh</i> (551:3) rules that one may not cut one’s hair from the beginning of the week in which Tisha Be-Av falls, and many Sephardim follow this practice. One may not cut even children’s hair if they have reached the age of <i>ḥinukh</i> (education), in order to train them to mourn the destruction of the Temple. The custom, moreover, is not to cut the hair of even children who have yet to reach the age of <i>ḥinukh</i>, in order to express the sorrow we feel during this period (SA 551:14).
  Ashkenazim and some Sephardim – including Jews from Morocco and Djerba, and those who follow Arizal’s customs – are stringent and avoid haircuts during the entirety of the Three Weeks (Rema 551:4; <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 551:80; <i>Kitzur </i>SA [Toledano] 387:8; <i>Brit Kehuna</i> 2:12; Jews from Tunis and Algiers customarily do not cut their hair starting from the first of Av, based on the ruling of R. Yehuda Ayash). There is disagreement about whether these communities should be stringent about haircuts for children during the entirety of the Three Weeks or only during the week of Tisha Be-Av. In a time of need, one may be lenient until the week of Tisha Be-Av (MB 551:82).
  This prohibition does not apply only to head and facial hair, but applies to body hair as well. One may, however, trim mustache hair that interferes with one’s eating (SA 551:12-13).
  A woman may cut her hair if it is beginning to slip out of her head-covering due to its length. A woman may also remove facial or body hair that mars her beauty (MB 551:79, <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 551:47).6<i class="footnote">Some are even more lenient, maintaining that the prohibition on haircuts does not apply to women at all, in accordance with the opinion of SA regarding mourning after <i>shiva</i> (YD 390:5). This ruling is found in <i>Panim Me’irot</i> 2:37 and <i>Torat Ha-mo’adim</i> 5:26.</i>
  In honor of a <i>brit mila</i>, the father, the <i>sandak</i>, and the <i>mohel</i> may cut their hair, until the week of Tisha Be-Av (see below, section 19, regarding clothing).
  It is proper for a bar mitzva boy to refrain from cutting his hair during the Three Weeks, because he can cut his hair before the seventeenth of Tamuz. However, if the boy’s father usually shaves every day, he may shave in honor of his son’s becoming a bar mitzva, until the week of Tisha Be-Av (see <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 551:10, <i>Piskei Teshuvot</i> 551:6).
  One may comb one’s hair even during the week of Tisha Be-Av (MB 551:20, <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 551:46). The Aḥaronim debate whether one may cut one’s nails during the Nine Days, although one certainly may do so in honor of Shabbat (MB 551:20, <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 551:48).
  
  Section 11
  
  The Customs of the Three Weeks / Shaving One’s Beard During the Three Weeks
  As we have learned, the custom among Ashkenazim and some Sephardim is to refrain from cutting one’s hair during the entirety of the Three Weeks. Regarding shaving one’s beard, however, a question arises.
  According to many <i>poskim</i>, there is no difference between cutting one’s hair and shaving; both are forbidden throughout this period (<i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 551:66, 493:19). This is the custom of most yeshiva students and those who observe <i>mitzvot</i> meticulously.
  However, some maintain that it is proper, <i>le-khatḥila</i>, to shave every Friday in the period before the first of Av (based on MA and <i>Pri Megadim</i>). Others permit one to shave every day until the first of Av, since doing so does not entail any joy. According to them, the custom not to cut one’s hair applies only to haircuts, which are a somewhat happy occasion, and not to shaving, which is only the removal of unsightly facial hair and entail no joy. One who is lenient in this regard has an opinion to rely on, and others should not rebuke him. This is especially true in Israel, where Jews of all backgrounds live side by side, and most Sephardim are lenient regarding this issue. In addition, when there is an uncertainty regarding the Ashkenazic custom, one may take the Sephardic custom into account. In practice, everyone should follow his father’s custom – whether it is lenient or strict – to avoid disrespecting him.
  However, starting on Rosh Ḥodesh Av, it is clear that according to both Ashkenazic and Sephardic custom one should not shave, even in honor of Shabbat Ḥazon. 
  According to all opinions and customs, one may not cut one’s hair during the week in which Tisha Be-Av falls, nor is there any allowance to shave.7<i class="footnote">Regarding shaving during the Three Weeks: MA 551:14 states in the name of <i>Hagahot Asheri</i> that according to Ashkenazic practice one should not cut one’s hair even before Shabbat, because people do not usually cut their hair every week. This implies that those who shave regularly may shave in honor of Shabbat. <i>Pri Megadim</i>, <i>Eshel Avraham</i> 551:14 similarly states that one may cut one’s hair for the sake of Shabbat before the first of Av. While <i>Mateh Yehuda</i> 551:4 rules stringently, <i>Pri Megadim</i>’s opinion seems more correct in the case of shaving, because one who refrains from shaving looks unsightly on Shabbat. See also BHL 551:3, which states that the Yerushalmi indicates that one may cut one’s hair in honor of Shabbat even during the Nine Days. R. Akiva Eger concurs. Another reason to be lenient is that those who shave regularly generally feel great distress when they go several days without shaving. Perhaps this is similar to cutting mustache hairs that interfere with eating, or applying ointment on Tisha Be-Av, which is permitted for one who suffers from head sores (SA 554:15). It also coincides with the ruling that I heard, that one may cut hairs that cause sores or headaches. In <i>Nefesh Ha-Rav</i>, R. Hershel Schachter writes in the name of R. Yosef Dov Soloveitchik that the Three Weeks have the same status as the year-long mourning period for a deceased parent, during which shaving is permissible; the customs of the Nine Days are like those of the <i>shloshim</i> period over the death of a close relative, when shaving is prohibited; and Tisha Be-Av is equivalent to <i>shiva</i>. Based on this, he permits shaving every day, until the first of Av, because not doing so makes one look disgraceful. See <i>Tzohar</i>, vol. 3, p. 39, where R. Soloveitchik’s opinion is challenged, but these challenges can be rejected. Also see <i>Responsa Ner Ezra</i>, vol. 2, pp. 155-158, which concludes that one may shave before Shabbat, stating that this is the opinion of R. Shlomo Min-Hahar and R. Aharon Lichtenstein.However, many <i>poskim</i> rule stringently, forbidding shaving altogether. So states <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 551:66. <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim </i>493:19 quotes Aḥaronim who state that one may shave if refraining from shaving will cause a loss of income. Most people who observe the <i>mitzvot</i> meticulously follow this viewpoint. <i>Igrot Moshe</i>, OḤ 4:102 also only allows shaving in order to avoid monetary loss.In my humble opinion, it seems that technically, it is proper even for those who follow Ashkenazic custom to shave every Friday, until the first of Av. On other days of the week, however, it is preferable to be stringent. Nevertheless, one who is lenient has an opinion to rely on. One may be lenient to maintain his livelihood as well. Starting from the first of Av, it is proper to be stringent, both throughout the week and on Friday. Even though one could argue that it is imperative to shave in honor of Shabbat – as the Yerushalmi and R. Akiva Eger imply, as cited in BHL 551:3 – nevertheless, we find in the writings of the Rishonim (<i>Kol Bo</i>, cited in <i>Beit Yosef</i> 551:4) that it is customary to refrain from shaving before Shabbat Ḥazon, so that we enter Tisha Be-Av as mourners. We also find that the prevalent Ashkenazic custom was to refrain from wearing Shabbat clothes on Shabbat Ḥazon, as Rema 551:2 states. Even though we do not follow this custom, we can still learn from it that according to Ashkenazic practice, one need not be so meticulous about the honor of Shabbat Ḥazon. Therefore, during the Nine Days, it is better to refrain from shaving before Shabbat. In my humble opinion, it is proper to recommend to Sephardim that they, too, refrain from shaving during the Nine Days. Firstly, this is the law for those who forbid haircuts throughout the Three Weeks (Jews from Morocco and Djerba, and those who follow Arizal’s customs; Tunisian and Algerian Jews avoid haircuts starting from the first of Av). In addition, we find that this was the Sephardic custom, as cited in <i>Kol Bo</i> (by R. Aharon of Lunel, which is in Provence), that one must enter Tisha Be-Av in a disgraceful state. Today, the most prevalent sign of mourning is being unshaven, and, conversely, shaving is a tangible expression that one is not mourning. Therefore, it is proper to display this sign of mourning during the Nine Days and on Tisha Be-Av. Furthermore, it is proper to minimize discord, when possible. Accordingly, several contemporary authors write that Sephardim studying in Ashkenazic yeshivot should adopt Ashkenazic stringencies (<i>Yeḥaveh Da’at</i> 4:36). Even though today’s <i>yeshivot</i> in our communities are not Ashkenazic or Sephardic <i>per se</i>, but are open to students of all backgrounds, it is preferable, when possible, to minimize variation of customs. Therefore, when it comes to shaving for Shabbat before the first of Av, it is preferable to follow the custom of most Sephardim, who shave during the Three Weeks. During the Nine Days, however, it is better to follow the custom of Ashkenazim and some Sephardim, who do not shave. Nonetheless, one should not rebuke one who wants to rely on the logic found in BHL and follow the custom of the Sephardim who shave in anticipation of Shabbat Ḥazon. During the week of Tisha Be-Av, however, everyone agrees that one may not shave.Practically speaking, I heard proper guidance from R. Naḥum Rabinovitch, the <i>rosh yeshiva </i>of Yeshivat Birkat Moshe in Ma’aleh Adumim. He suggests that everyone follow his own father’s custom, to avoid a situation in which a father is shaven during the Three Weeks and his son is not, or vice versa, as this could be an affront to the father’s honor. I would add that if the father follows the more stringent custom, there is reason to be concerned that if his son shaves, people will think that he is doing so for reasons of convenience, and not for the sake of Shabbat, which will result in an affront to God’s honor. Furthermore, one should not ignore the fact that one who refrains from shaving for three weeks demonstrates that observing Jewish customs is very important to him, and by doing so he sanctifies God’s name. See above ch. 3 n. 9.</i>
  
  Section 12
  
  The Customs of the Three Weeks / When Av Arrives, we Curtail our Joy
  The Sages state in the Mishna (<i>Ta’anit</i> 26b), “When Av arrives, we curtail our joy,” because this is a period of mourning over the Temple’s destruction. Therefore, one should not engage in joyous activities like hikes, hotel vacations, and social gatherings. Communities may schedule only events whose main purpose is educational or communal. In addition, one who needs to relax for health reasons may take a vacation in a hotel or a convalescent home (see above, section 6).
  It is customary to refrain from arranging the warp strings (<i>sheti</i>)<i> </i>on a weaving loom during the Nine Days. The basis for this is the fact that the function of the Foundation Stone (<i>even ha-shtiya</i>), upon which the Holy of Holies stood and which is the foundation of the world, was abrogated. Therefore, we refrain from arranging the warp strings, which are the foundation of a garment. One also may not sew or knit new clothes or crochet a yarmulke during the Nine Days (SA 551:7-8). However, one may mend old clothes. One who makes a living sewing clothes or manufacturing material, and needs the income from the Nine Days, should ask a Torah scholar how to act.
  It is best to cancel sewing lessons during the Nine Days, but if necessary, one may continue them, on condition that the students do not engage in sewing new garments. Rather, they should mend old ones or practice sewing on useless pieces of cloth.
  The Sages also say that during this period, one should curtail business dealings that are joyous. It is even proper to decrease one’s involvement in all types of transactions. We also avoid joyous building projects and plantings; we will explain the details of these laws below (section 18). Since we curtail our joy during this period, it became customary to refrain from consuming meat and wine, which make one happy (as explained in sections 13-15).
  Since this is a period of calamity, the Sages recommend that one who is involved in a legal dispute with a non-Jew should avoid going to court in the month of Av, because the Jewish people have bad fortune during this time and he is liable to lose the case (SA 551:1).8<i class="footnote">The simple understanding is that one should avoid interacting with the non-Jew until Tisha Be-Av, but afterward one may contend with him as he would throughout the year. <i>Korban Netanel</i> quotes this interpretation in the name of the <i>Zohar</i>. MA, however, cites Rabbeinu Yeruḥam as saying that one should avoid interacting with the non-Jew throughout the month of Av. See MB 551:2, SHT <i>ad loc.</i> 2.</i>
  
  Section 13
  
  The Customs of the Three Weeks / Meat and Wine
  The Rishonim had a custom to refrain from eating meat and drinking wine during the period of mourning over the destruction of the Temple. Some observed this stringency every weekday throughout the Three Weeks, while others did so only during the week in which Tisha Be-Av fell. Most Rishonim maintain that the proper practice is to refrain from consuming meat and wine during the Nine Days.
  According to the Mishna (<i>Ta’anit</i> 26b), the prohibition on eating meat and drinking wine only applies to the <i>se’uda ha-mafseket</i>, the final meal before the fast of Tisha Be-Av begins. Nonetheless, the Rishonim adopted the stringency of refraining from consuming meat and wine during the entirety of the Nine Days, because meat and wine are known to bring joy, and the Sages said, “When Av arrives, we curtail our joy.” Furthermore, when the Holy Temple was destroyed, we ceased bringing meat offerings and pouring wine libations on the altar. Consequently, it would have been proper to abstain entirely from eating meat and drinking wine until the Temple is rebuilt, but we are unable to withstand such a decree (see BB 60b). However, during the periods that were established as times of mourning over the destruction of the Temple, there is room to be stringent.
  In practice, the Ashkenazic custom to abstain from meat and wine throughout the Nine Days includes Rosh Ḥodesh Av. This was also Arizal’s practice. According to the custom of most Sephardim, however, one may eat meat and drink wine on Rosh Ḥodesh; the prohibition begins when the day ends (MB 551:58, <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 551:125). We are stringent on the tenth of Av as well, taking care to refrain from eating meat and drinking wine then too, because the Temple continued to burn on that day. Ashkenazim abstain only until midday on the tenth of Av, while most Sephardim are stringent until the end of the day on the tenth of Av (SA and Rema 558:1, <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i>, <i>ad loc.</i> 10).
  The custom of Yemenite Jews is not to be stringent about this at all; they eat meat and drink wine throughout the Nine Days, only abstaining from meat and wine at the <i>se’uda ha-mafseket</i>, as the Mishna rules.
  
  Section 14
  
  The Customs of the Three Weeks / The Laws of Eating Meat and Drinking Wine
  The prohibition on eating meat includes all types of meat: beef and poultry, fresh, frozen, and cured. Fish, however, is permitted.
  It is customary to be particular even regarding foods that were cooked together with meat. For example, if potatoes were cooked with meat, one should not eat even the potatoes alone during the Nine Days, because the flavor of meat can be discerned in them. However, one may cook food in a pot that is usually used for meat, as long as the meat flavor in the food is not perceptible (MB 551:63, <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 551:142).
  Grape juice is included in the prohibition on wine, but alcoholic beverages like whisky and beer are permitted. One also may season a dish with wine vinegar.
  If wine was added to dough, the resulting baked goods may be eaten during the Nine Days, because one cannot detect the flavor of wine in them. <i>Le-khatḥila</i>, however, one should not mix wine into dough during this period.9<i class="footnote">Some <i>poskim</i> permit drinking distilled wine (brandy, cognac) that includes ingredients in addition to wine, while others prohibit it.According to many <i>poskim</i>, one may eat meat that is left over from Shabbat Ḥazon or from before the first of Av, because it will spoil if no one eats it. Some Aḥaronim rule stringently on the matter. Apparently, though, today, when there is no concern of wasting food because one can freeze the meat, there is no allowance to eat meat left over from the Shabbat meals.Regarding melaveh malka (the festive meal eaten after Shabbat): <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 551:144 cites opinions of Aḥaronim who permit eating leftovers from Shabbat at the “fourth meal,” as long as one does not buy more food than usual for Shabbat in anticipation of this additional meal. <i>Piskei Teshuvot</i> writes that some permit one who is accustomed to eating meat every <i>Motza’ei Shabbat</i> at the <i>melaveh malka</i> meal to do so after Shabbat Ḥazon as well. Some rule stringently on this issue, too.</i>
  One who is even slightly ill may eat meat and drink wine, if it helps him (MB 551:61). A woman who has given birth within the last thirty days may eat meat in order to regain her strength. Similarly, a nursing mother who needs meat in order to increase her milk supply may eat meat during the Nine Days.
  According to the custom of Sephardim and some Ashkenazim, the person who recites <i>havdala</i> after Shabbat Ḥazon may drink the wine in the <i>havdala </i>cup; in fact, he may drink the entire cup. Despite this, it is preferable to use grape juice, which does not bring joy. According to the custom of other Ashkenazim, if there is a child present who has reached the age of <i>ḥinukh</i> for reciting <i>berakhot</i> before eating, but does not yet understand why we mourn over Jerusalem (age six to nine, approximately), the person reciting <i>havdala</i> has the child in mind when reciting the <i>berakha</i> of <i>Ha-gafen</i>, and the child drinks the wine. If no such child is available, however, the adult who recites <i>havdala </i>drinks the wine.10<i class="footnote">SA 551:10 states that one may drink the wine from <i>havdala</i>. Rema and MB 551:70 state that one should give the wine to a minor. In <i>Darkhei Moshe</i> 551:9, Rema quotes Maharil as saying that, <i>le-khatḥila</i>,<i> </i>an adult may drink the wine from <i>havdala</i>, and all the more so wine from a <i>se’udat mitzva</i>. Other Ashkenazic Rishonim and Aḥaronim followed this practice. It is preferable to recite <i>havdala</i> over grape juice, because even though it is included in the prohibition against wine, it does not make one happy. <i>Mikra’ei Kodesh</i> (Harari) 1:14 quotes this in the name of R. Mordechai Eliyahu.The age of <i>ḥinukh </i>for <i>berakhot </i>is approximately six. According to <i>Eshel Avraham</i> (Buczacz), the age of <i>ḥinukh </i>for mourning over the Temple is when the child can understand the meaning of the destruction of the Temple and the fact that we do not eat meat because the sacrifices were annulled. According to many <i>poskim</i>, this occurs at the age of nine or ten. Others say that it occurs at the age of thirteen.According to MA and <i>Ḥayei Adam</i>, one may, <i>le-khatḥila</i>, feed meat and wine to children who have not yet reached the age of <i>ḥinukh</i>. Basing himself on <i>Eliya Rabba</i>, <i>Dagul Me-revava</i>, and <i>Derekh Ha-ḥayim</i>, MB 551:70 writes that this is permissible only in the case of <i>havdala</i> or if they are weak.</i>
  
  Section 15
  
  The Customs of the Three Weeks / Meat and Wine on Shabbat Ḥazon and at a <i>Se’udat Mitzva</i>
  We eat meat and drink wine on Shabbat Ḥazon, as we do on every other Shabbat of the year. After all, even if Tisha Be-Av itself falls out on Shabbat, causing the fast to be postponed to Sunday, one may eat meat and drink wine on that Shabbat; one may even serve a meal as lavish as that of King Solomon in his time, since there is no mourning on Shabbat (SA 552:10).
  In addition, one may taste the meat dishes that one prepares in honor of Shabbat Ḥazon, to see if they need additional seasoning. This is because the purpose of this tasting is not to enjoy, but rather to prepare for the mitzva of <i>oneg Shabbat</i> (making Shabbat a delight).
  Similarly, one may eat meat and drink wine at a <i>se’udat mitzva</i>, such as a meal in honor of a <i>brit mila</i>, a <i>pidyon ha-ben</i>, or a <i>siyum</i>. One may also eat meat and drink wine at a bar mitzva celebration, provided that it takes place on the day the boy becomes obligated in <i>mitzvot</i> (see above, section 3).
  There are divergent customs, however, regarding the number of people one may invite to such a meal. Some say that during the Nine Days one must limit the number of people one invites to the celebrants plus an additional <i>minyan </i>of ten men. Others maintain that one may invite all the people whom he would have invited had the meal occurred a different time. According to Rema, during the Nine Days, until Shabbat Ḥazon, one may invite anyone he would normally invite, but during the week of Tisha Be-Av, one should invite only a <i>minyan</i> of men, in addition to the celebrants. In practice, the halakhic ruling in practice varies according to the circumstance and the need.
  The Aḥaronim write further that one should not intentionally schedule a <i>siyum</i> for the Nine Days, in order to permit the consumption of meat and wine, as this is a willful abrogation of the mourning over the Temple. Rather, only one who happens to complete a unit of Torah study during the Nine Days, in the course of his regular studies, may organize a festive <i>siyum</i> meal, provided that he usually does so when celebrating a <i>siyum </i>similar to this one (MB 551:73).11<i class="footnote">Regarding the number of people one may invite to a <i>se’udat mitzva</i>: See <i>Torat Ha-mo’adim</i> 5:49, which summarizes the three opinions and rules in accordance with the most lenient one. MB 551:77 and <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 551:165 indicate that there are two opinions regarding what it means to limit the number of guests. According to <i>Levush</i>, it means inviting ten people in addition to those who are actually celebrating the event and their relatives (close enough that they may not testify for or against them in court); one must follow this practice throughout the Nine Days. Rema, on the other hand, rules stringently only during the week of Tisha Be-Av, but during that period he rules even more stringently than <i>Levush</i> does, stating that in addition to the celebrants themselves, one may invite only enough people to complete a <i>minyan</i>, including relatives. <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> further states, citing <i>Ben Ish Ḥai</i>, that some people have a custom not to eat meat or drink wine even at a <i>se’udat mitzva</i>. Instead, they eat fish and serve other drinks, in order to avoid uncertainty regarding who may be invited. One certainly recites <i>Birkat Ha-mazon</i> over wine after a <i>se’udat mitzva</i>. Ḥabad Ḥasidim customarily celebrate <i>siyumim </i>specifically during the Nine Days, and they invite as many people as possible to the festive <i>siyum</i> meal, claiming that rejoicing over the Torah and increasing camaraderie are restorative. However, their opinion was not accepted in practice. In practice, the summer session in <i>yeshivot</i> ends on Tisha Be-Av, which means that the students usually complete the tractate that they study in that session during the Nine Days. But this is not done in order to cancel the mourning; therefore, the yeshiva may serve a distinguished meal, as befits the completion of a tractate that the students studied for an entire session.</i>
  Even one who regularly recites <i>Birkat Ha-mazon</i> over a cup of wine should recite it without wine during the Nine Days (Rema 551:10, <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 551:152).
  Some have a custom to make a festive meal on the night before a <i>brit mila</i>, but this meal is not considered a <i>se’udat mitzva</i>. Therefore, one may not eat meat or drink wine during such a meal when it coincides with the Nine Days.
  
  Section 16
  
  The Customs of the Three Weeks / Building and Planting During the Nine Days
  Since we curtail our joy from the beginning of Av, one may not build anything that brings joy during the Nine Days. For example, one may not expand one’s house or porch unless there is a vital need for this. In addition, one may not plaster or paint the walls of one’s home, because these are considered luxuries that make one happy, and one can live without them (SA 551:2). Similarly, one may not do renovations that are designed to beautify one’s home, like replacing shutters, closets, curtains, or anything else that is valuable, brings one joy, and is not absolutely necessary.12<i class="footnote">Building or repairing non-essential shutters and closets is considered joyous building. Thus states <i>Igrot Moshe</i>,<i> </i>OḤ 3:82, regarding a closet. It also seems proper to forbid putting up decorative wallpaper, as <i>Be-tzel Ha-ḥokhma</i> 4:54 states (and contrary to <i>Igrot Moshe</i> <i>loc. cit.</i>). Similarly, one may not install curtains that are purely ornamental; thus states <i>Hilkhot Ḥag Be-ḥag</i> 4:4. If, however, the main purpose of installing curtains or shutters is to ensure privacy, it would seem that it is permissible. The example of joyous building given in <i>Ta’anit</i> 14b is a “matrimonial house” for one’s son. This is not relevant today, which is why I did not mention it in the main text.</i>
  However, one who lives with his family in a cramped living space may build an additional room during the Nine Days. One may also engage in any type of construction that is designed to prevent damage. For example, if a wall is about to collapse, one may demolish it in an orderly fashion and rebuild it, even if he does not need the room where the wall is located and there is no danger involved, because this prevents damage to his property.
  Likewise, one may build, plaster, or paint for the sake of a mitzva, such as building a synagogue or a school (MB 551:12, <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 551:25). <i>Arukh Ha-shulḥan</i> (551:7) states that anything that is necessary for the public good is considered “for the sake of a mitzva” and is permissible.
  Similarly, one may not plant anything that brings joy, like decorative trees, hedges, or flowers (SA 551:2). However, one may maintain a decorative garden, water the garden, mow the lawn, and continue regular maintenance.
  Any planting that has an actual purpose is permissible. Therefore, one may plant fruit-bearing trees during the Nine Days. Similarly, one who makes a living growing decorative bushes and flowers may plant them in his nursery in order to sell them.
  
  Section 17
  
  The Customs of the Three Weeks / The Laws of Building during the Nine Days
  A Jewish contractor and Jewish workers may continue building residential homes during the Nine Days in order to sell them, because the units are designed as living quarters and not as luxury homes. In addition, this is their livelihood. Furthermore, if they are building houses in the Land of Israel, this fulfills a mitzva. Plastering and painting, however, should be postponed until after the Nine Days, unless this will cause excessive loss.
  <i>Le-khatḥila</i>,<i> </i>one who plans to build or install something superfluous in his home must stipulate with the contractor that he will refrain from working during the Nine Days. If, however, he mistakenly neglected to do so, he should ask the contractor to stop working during this period. Then, if the contractor asserts his right to continue working, there is no need to break the contract with him (MB 551:12, <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 551:24).
  A Jewish painter or plasterer may not work on another Jew’s home during the Nine Days. However, he may work on the home of a non-Jew. If he guaranteed that he would finish painting a Jew’s home, thinking that he could complete the job before the Nine Days, but is unable to do so in the end, he should ask the customer to exempt him from working during this period. He should even offer to pay the customer a small compensation. However, if the Jewish customer refuses to accept this, and the worker is afraid that he will sustain a great loss – like having to pay a large compensation – he may continue working during the Nine Days.13<i class="footnote">Further examination is needed to determine whether one may plaster or paint houses that are up for sale, or if one may build mansions in order to sell them. It seems that one may be lenient on this issue if he is liable to suffer a loss, since building luxury items is prohibited only if it is done for a specific Jew, as it brings joy. Preparing houses for sale, however, is considered working in order to make a living, and what I wrote in the main text follows this approach.</i>
  <i>Poskim </i>generally rule that one should not occupy a new apartment, whether it is owned or rented, during the Nine Days. However, if following such a ruling will cause great financial loss, one may occupy the apartment.
  
  Section 18
  
  The Customs of the Three Weeks / The Laws of Business Transactions During the Nine Days
  We curtail joyous business transactions during the Nine Days. That is to say, one may not buy luxury items like jewelry, clothing, fancy appliances, new furniture, or a car for personal use. Throughout the Three Weeks, one may not purchase anything that would require him to recite <i>She-heḥeyanu</i>. However, if it is something that does not require one to recite <i>She-heḥeyanu</i>, like a garment that still needs alterations or a jointly-owned piece of furniture, one may buy it until the first of Av (as explained above, section 7). During the Nine Days, however, one should refrain from purchasing things that bring joy. Therefore, one may not order a new garment from a tailor. The same applies to all items that bring one joy: If <i>She-heḥeyanu</i> is recited over it, one may not purchase it during the Three Weeks, but if <i>She-heḥeyanu </i>is not required, one must only refrain from buying it during the Nine Days.
  However, if one comes across an opportunity to buy an item that brings joy at a bargain price and is afraid that he will lose this opportunity if he waits until after Tisha Be-Av, he may purchase it during the Nine Days. However, it is best to bring it home or begin using it only after Tisha Be-Av.
  It is preferable to curtail even ordinary, non-joyous transactions. For example, if one usually makes a big shopping trip and stocks up on food and household items only once every few weeks, he should ideally do so before or after the Nine Days (based on<i> </i>SA 551:2, MB <i>ad loc. </i>11, 13).
  One may buy joyous items if they are needed for the sake of a mitzva. Therefore, one may purchase <i>tefilin</i> or Torah books during this period, because they are mitzva accessories and because one customarily does not recite <i>She-heḥeyanu</i> over them (<i>Peninei Halakha: Berakhot </i>17:9). <i>Be-di’avad</i>,<i> </i>one who does not have canvas or rubber shoes for Tisha Be-Av may buy them during the Nine Days (<i>Igrot Moshe, </i>OḤ 3:80).
  Merchants who deal in luxury items that bring joy, like jewelry and fancy clothing may do business during the Nine Days, in order to avoid losing their customers and thereby incurring great financial loss. However, they should try to engage mainly in preparations for transactions that will take place after the Nine Days. One who is able to close his store for the duration of the Nine Days without incurring significant financial loss should do so.14<i class="footnote"><i>Beit Yosef</i> explains that there are two types of prohibitions: It is clear from <i>Tosafot</i> in <i>Megilla</i> 5b that one may not trade in luxury items that bring joy. In <i>Yevamot</i> 43a, however, <i>Tosafot</i> cite an opinion that states that one should curtail all business dealings. The formulation in SA seems to rule in accordance with both opinions, as they do not contradict each other. SA 551:2 deals mainly with transactions that bring joy, whereas SA 554:22 implies that one should curtail all business dealings. MB 551:11 states that it is customary to be lenient regarding regular transactions, because it is otherwise difficult to make a living. This is why I wrote that the main prohibition relates to items that bring joy and added that one should, ideally, curtail all business dealings. See <i>Torat Ha-mo’adim</i> 5:16, which states that regular transactions are completely permitted, even defining cabinets and appliances as items that do not bring joy. However, <i>Igrot Moshe</i>, OḤ 3:82 states that purchasing bookcases brings one joy, and one should, therefore, avoid doing so during the Nine Days. It seems that one should refrain from buying anything that brings joy, unless there is concern of financial loss. Under such circumstances, the Sages permitted engaging in transactions, just as they permitted building a wall that brings joy, if there is concern that not doing so will result in damage (MB 551:13). This is why I wrote that merchants may continue their business dealings as usual, even if they deal in luxury items, because they are liable to sustain a loss if they stop working. Several Aḥaronim follow this position as well; see SHT <i>ad loc. </i>13. (These merchants are not helping others commit a transgression, because it may be that their customers are buying for the sake of a mitzva and cannot postpone their purchase. And even for those who are violating a prohibition by buying, since they can make their purchase elsewhere, some say that the prohibition of <i>lifnei iver</i> – putting a “stumbling block in front of the blind” [Vayikra 19:14] – does not apply to rabbinic commandments.)If postponing the purchase of furniture and clothing for a wedding would cause the wedding to be delayed, one may purchase these items during the Nine Days, because doing so is for the sake of the mitzva of marriage. This is allowed only if the groom has not yet fulfilled the mitzva of procreation (Rema 551:2, MB 551:14). Nowadays, however, postponing these purchases does not delay the wedding, because people book a wedding hall and send out invitations months in advance, and it is possible to buy everything before or after the Nine Days. Either way, no one would cancel a wedding on account of these purchases. Only in rare cases, when the families are under great pressure, may they buy clothing, as <i>poskim</i> typically permit many things in situations of great need. I have written that, in practice, one must recite <i>She-heḥeyanu </i>over the purchase<i> </i>of Torah books, which bring people great joy (<i>Peninei Halakha: Berakhot</i> 17:9). Nonetheless, one may buy Torah books during the Three Weeks. One should refrain from arranging these books on one’s shelves upon buying them until Shabbat, at which point one should begin learning from them and should then recite <i>She-heḥeyanu </i>(above, section 8). Then one should arrange the books on the shelves on <i>Motza’ei Shabbat</i>.</i>
  
  Section 19
  
  The Customs of the Three Weeks / The Prohibition on Laundry
  The Sages prohibited laundering clothes during the week in which Tisha Be-Av falls (<i>Ta’anit</i> 26b). This is an expression of mourning; out of pain and identification with the deceased or with the Temple’s destruction, one ceases to take care of himself and pamper himself. Ironing and dry cleaning are included in this prohibition.
  One may not even wash clothes in order to wear them after Tisha Be-Av, because one who does laundry appears as though he is taking his mind off of mourning over the Temple’s destruction. One also may not instruct a non-Jewish cleaner to wash one’s clothes for use after Tisha Be-Av (SA and Rema 551:3, MB <i>ad loc. </i>34).
  Just as one may not wash clothing during this period, one also may not wear freshly laundered clothing. This includes spreading fresh sheets on a bed, putting a freshly laundered tablecloth on a table, and using freshly laundered towels or cloth napkins.
  Sephardim observe all the prohibitions on washing clothes as they appear in the Mishna, i.e, only during the week of Tisha Be-Av. Ashkenazim, however, are stringent regarding all of these prohibitions from the beginning of Av. In honor of Shabbat Ḥazon, however, even Ashkenazim customarily wear freshly laundered Shabbat clothes (Vilna Gaon; see MB 551:6).
  Since the prohibition on wearing laundered garments lasts for several days, there is a custom to prepare a sufficient amount of “worn” clothes for this period. The procedure is as follows: before the prohibitions take effect, one must wear multiple articles of clothing in succession, each for about an hour or more. This way, the garments are no longer considered freshly laundered and thus may be worn during the prohibited period. One who did not manage to prepare clothes for himself before the prohibitions began to take effect may take a laundered garment, throw it on the floor, and even step on it. By doing so, it is no longer considered laundered and may thus be worn.
  During this period, one may wear clean underwear and socks and change soiled hand towels. Since people are accustomed nowadays to changing these items frequently, changing them does not have any element of pleasure; rather, it is simply removing something repulsive. However, since it is difficult to know exactly when these items have reached the point of becoming repulsive enough to be changed, in a case of uncertainty it is preferable to place the fresh ones on the floor before wearing them. In a time of need, when one is left without any clean underwear, one may wash underwear even on behalf of adults. However, it is preferable, when possible, to add one’s children’s clothes to this load of laundry.15<i class="footnote">According to Ashkenazic custom, one may wear laundered clothing on Shabbat Ḥazon. This follows the Vilna Gaon’s opinion, cited in MB 551:6. Nonetheless, one should not change one’s bedding, because that is unnecessary.The suggestion to throw freshly laundered clothes on the floor is cited in <i>Minḥat Yitzḥak</i> 10:44, in the name of <i>Kerem Shlomo</i>. In earlier generations, the custom was that it was prohibited to change underwear and socks, as is implied in MB 551:6 and <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 551:91 in the name of <i>Ben Ish Ḥai</i>. Today, however, we are more finicky, and we find it very difficult to tolerate the odor of these garments. Therefore, the accepted practice today is to wear laundered underwear and socks. This position is also cited in <i>Piskei Teshuvot</i> 551:17. See <i>Hilkhot Ḥag Be-ḥag</i> 4:27, which states that one should throw them on the floor for an hour. <i>Ben Ish Ḥai</i>, Devarim 6, permitted washing head scarves, because we find dirty head scarves repulsive. The same law applies to adults’ underwear: In a time of need, one may wash them during the Nine Days, similar to children’s clothes, as explained in the following section.Shining shoes: According to most <i>poskim</i>, this is not considered washing clothes and it is permissible even during the week of Tisha Be-Av. So states <i>Yabi’a Omer</i>, OḤ 3:31. <i>Igrot Moshe</i>, OḤ 3:80 permits shining shoes as long as one does not bring them to a burnish. In addition, <i>Igrot Moshe</i>,<i> </i>OḤ 3:79 prohibits dry cleaning, equating it to regular laundering.It should be noted that in Djerba (<i>Brit Kehuna</i>)<i> </i>as well as in some Moroccan Jewish communities, the custom was that washing clothes was prohibited from the first of Av.</i>
  If one’s shirt becomes stained in a way that makes him look unpresentable, and he has no other shirt to wear, he may clean the stain with water, for the sake of human dignity (<i>kevod ha-briyot</i>). If the stain does not come off with water alone, he may use soap.16<i class="footnote">It seems that spot cleaning a stain with water alone is not included in the prohibition of washing clothes. Accordingly, <i>Gesher Ha-ḥayim</i> 21:10-11 states that one may wash a stain with water during the <i>shiva </i>period. <i>Hilkhot Ḥag Be-ḥag</i> 4:14 concurs. If one cannot go out in public without cleaning the stain with a small amount of soap, he may do so. This is permissible because, first, it may be that rubbing out a stain while wearing the garment is not considered a prohibited form of laundering, and second, the value of human dignity is so great that it overrides even certain prohibitions (<i>Ber.</i> 19b).</i>
  One may not wear festive clothes during this period, even if they are not freshly laundered. This prohibition applies during the week of Tisha Be-Av for Sephardim and from the second day of Av for Ashkenazim. Therefore, one must remove his Shabbat clothes at the conclusion of Shabbat Ḥazon.
  However, in anticipation of a <i>brit mila</i>, the father, mother, <i>mohel</i>, and <i>sandak</i> may bathe and wear festive clothes, and if necessary may shave and cut their hair (MB 551:3). Close relatives of the boy’s parents, such as their parents and siblings, may wear festive clothes but may not cut their hair. The other guests may wear respectable clothes but may not wear festive clothes, such as those worn on Shabbat (see Rema 551:1; <i>Sha’arei Teshuva</i> 551:3; MB 551:3; <i>Halikhot Shlomo </i>14:9).
  
  Section 20
  
  The Customs of the Three Weeks / Children’s Clothing and Hospital Garb
  Clothes worn by babies who regularly soil their outfits are not included in the prohibition. Likewise, one may wash sheets and blankets of young children who wet themselves at night. In addition, many people are lenient, in a time of need, with regard to washing older children’s clothes, because they soil their clothes as well, and there is no element of joy in doing laundry for them (Rema 551:14). Ashkenazim may rely on this leniency <i>le-khatḥila</i> until Shabbat Ḥazon (MB 551:82, based on <i>Ḥayei Adam</i>). Afterward, one may be lenient and wash older children’s clothing only if there is a great need, such as when all of their clothes are soiled to the point where it would be unbecoming for children to wear them.17<i class="footnote">Rema 551:14 states that the prevailing custom is not to refrain from washing children’s clothing. We are lenient in this regard until the age of <i>ḥinukh</i>, i.e., six, and in a time of need we are even more lenient. <i>Hilkhot Ḥag Be-ḥag</i> 4:16 states in the name of R. Elyashiv that it is customary to regard eight-year-olds as small children. It would seem that older children who get themselves very dirty should be viewed as small children for this purpose.</i>
  When one is washing children’s clothes in a washing machine, one may not add adults’ clothing to the load. In addition, it is preferable, if possible, to dry even children’s clothing discreetly, inside one’s home, so as not to appear as if he is not mourning.
  In a hospital, one may change patients’ bedding and wash their clothes as one would do throughout the year, because the purpose of laundering these items is to maintain cleanliness and prevent infections, not for pleasure or added comfort. Guest houses and hotels may change their bed sheets for incoming guests, because people today find it disgusting to sleep on previously used bedding (<i>Tzitz Eliezer</i> 13:61). Ideally, a hotel guest should step on the new sheets a little before using them, so that they will no longer be considered freshly laundered. He should then ask the attendants not to change his bedding until after Tisha Be-Av.18<i class="footnote">A Jew may not do laundry for a non-Jew during the week in which Tisha Be-Av falls. Even Ashkenazim are stringent in this regard only during the week of Tisha Be-Av (MB 551:43). This is prohibited because of <i>mar’it ayin</i> (“appearance” of transgression), meaning that people will think that he is washing a Jew’s clothes. If, however, it is clear that the clothes belong to a non-Jew, he may wash them. A Jewish cleaner who has nothing to eat may wash clothes for non-Jews during this period (MB 551:42). One who runs a laundry service for a living may be lenient and operate it until Shabbat Ḥazon, even if he is Ashkenazic. The reason for this is that Sephardim are permitted to wash clothes until then, and Ashkenazim also permit laundering in certain cases, such as for a person who owns just one garment or in honor of Shabbat. (See <i>Hilkhot Ḥag Be-ḥag</i> 4:20, which permits such a person to work even during the week in which Tisha Be-Av falls, if he is liable to lose his job if he does not work. This requires further examination. See also <i>ibid</i>. 4:28.)</i>
  
  Section 21
  
  The Customs of the Three Weeks / Bathing
  Even though the Sages prohibited bathing on Tisha Be-Av only, the Rishonim were stringent and would refrain from bathing on the days preceding Tisha Be-Av as well. Many Iberian Jews were stringent as well, and would refrain from washing in hot water during the week of Tisha Be-Av. The Ashkenazic custom, on the other hand, was to refrain from bathing completely during the Nine Days, even in cold water. They would only rinse in cold water in preparation for Shabbat Ḥazon (SA 551:16, MB <i>ad loc</i>., <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim ad loc.</i> 186).
  Today, however, our hygiene and bathing habits have changed completely. In the past, people did not have running water in their homes, and bathing was thus considered a special occasion and a rare pleasure. Because of this, people barely suffered when they refrained from bathing. Nowadays, though, when people shower regularly, this has become a routine practice. Many people shower daily, with soap, and would suffer if they were to go even a single day without showering. Some even have difficulty falling asleep as a result.
  Therefore, one who feels pain when he refrains from washing himself may shower in lukewarm water, so that he does not take pleasure in his washing, but rather that the sole purpose of this activity should be his own cleanliness. One may even use soap in order to remove a bad odor from one’s body. And if one cannot tolerate having unclean hair, he may wash his hair with shampoo. These rules apply according to Ashkenazic custom throughout the Nine Days. According to Sephardic custom, they only apply during the week in which Tisha Be-Av falls; before then one may shower using hot water for pleasure.
  Even if having foul body odor due to lack of showering does not bother a particular person, he should nonetheless shower during the Nine Days and the week of Tisha Be-Av to remove this foul odor, because of the great value of human dignity. Moreover, many people are sensitive to bad smells nowadays, and if one fails to wash himself, he will cause a desecration of God’s name.
  Everyone showers in preparation for Shabbat Ḥazon. The only distinction is that Ashkenazim use lukewarm water, while Sephardim permit using hot water. Those who are accustomed to immersing in a <i>mikveh</i> every day may do so until the day before Tisha Be-Av, though they must make an effort to use lukewarm water rather than hot water.19<i class="footnote">SA 613:1 states explicitly that on Yom Kippur, one may wash his hands or body if they get soiled, because only washing for the sake of enjoyment is prohibited. MB <i>ad loc. </i>2 infers from this language that one who sweats profusely may wash himself in order to remove the sweat, because such washing is not for pleasure. In the end, though, MB permits this only for an <i>istenis</i> (a delicate and sensitive person). However, if the <i>poskim</i> permit this on Yom Kippur, which is ordained by Torah law – and several Rishonim maintain that even the prohibition on washing is a Torah prohibition – one may certainly be lenient during the Nine Days, when the prohibition on washing is less stringent and is based on the custom of the Rishonim.Today, almost everyone is considered an <i>istenis</i> with regard to foul odors, since we have sinks and faucets for washing, as well as sewage pipes that remove excrement and urine. In the past, foul odors were commonplace, as sewage would flow in canals in between the houses, or it was buried near villages. It is evident that all <i>halakhot </i>relating to foul odors are determined based on what is accepted in the current setting. Therefore, we are more stringent nowadays with regard to allowing prayer in the presence of foul odor (see <i>Peninei Halakha</i>: <i>Prayer</i> 3:10). In addition, our bathing habits have changed completely, as we shower much more frequently than in the past. Everyone is considered an <i>istenis</i> in this area, and thus we may shower for the sake of cleanliness. The only qualification is that one should use lukewarm water, so as not to derive pleasure from washing. One should not be stringent and wash exclusively in cold water, because most people are used to showering in hot water, and thus using cold water would cause them great pain. Therefore, one should use water that causes neither suffering nor pleasure. It is also worth noting that the difference between the Ashkenazic and Sephardic customs apparently stems from the difference in climate in the regions where each of these groups lived. There is a greater need to bathe frequently in the hotter, southern lands than there is in the colder, northern lands. Moreover, the conventional wisdom among the non-Jews in Europe at the time was that bathing is detrimental to one’s health, and thus they would bathe only once every few months. The Jews who lived there were also influenced by this viewpoint to some degree. Therefore, they acted stringently during the Three Weeks. Today, however, especially in Eretz Yisrael, people suffer greatly from not washing, and the custom, therefore, is to be lenient.</i>
  One may not swim for the purpose of recreation from the first of Av, because one must curtail joyous activities starting then. If the purpose is to improve one’s health, however, like those who swim daily for half an hour, it is permitted, according to Sephardic custom, until Shabbat Ḥazon. Afterward, though, it is proper to be stringent and refrain from all swimming. According to Ashkenazic custom, one may not swim even for health reasons throughout the Nine Days. One who needs to swim for therapeutic purposes may swim until the day before Tisha Be-Av (see above, section 6).
  
  Section 22
  
  The Customs of the Three Weeks / Shabbat Ḥazon
  Shabbat Ḥazon is the Shabbat preceding Tisha Be-Av, on which we read the <i>haftara</i> beginning with the words “The vision of Yeshayahu (<i>Ḥazon Yeshayahu</i>)” (Yeshayahu 1:1-27). This <i>haftara </i>contains admonitions that the prophet Yeshayahu pronounced to the people of Israel before the destruction of the Temple. According to Sephardic custom, the main expressions of mourning – like the prohibitions against washing clothes and bathing – begin immediately after this Shabbat, since that is when the week of Tisha Be-Av commences. Therefore, according to the custom of most Sephardim, there are no signs of mourning on Shabbat Ḥazon. According to Ashkenazic custom, however, several customs of mourning begin on Rosh Ḥodesh Av, making Shabbat Ḥazon part of the mourning period. Therefore, many of the European ancestors of Ashkenazim had the custom not to bathe in hot water before Shabbat Ḥazon or wear fancy Shabbat clothing on that Shabbat, as Rema writes (551:1, 16). Several great Ashkenazic sages, however, disagree with this custom, because one may not exhibit signs of mourning on Shabbat. Today, the prevalent custom among Ashkenazic Jews is to shower in lukewarm water, with soap and shampoo, in anticipation of Shabbat Ḥazon, and to wear laundered Shabbat clothing. Some are more stringent and leave out, or replace, one article of clothing, in order to express their sorrow over the destruction of the Temple (MB 551:6).20<i class="footnote">Ashkenazim read some of the verses of the <i>haftara</i> of Shabbat Ḥazon and one verse of <i>Parashat Devarim </i>in the tune of Eikha (even when that Shabbat does not fall out on the ninth of Av). Many Jews of North African descent read all three “<i>haftarot </i>of calamity” that are scheduled during the Three Weeks in a chant similar to that of Eikha. Most Sephardim, however, refrain from doing this, to avoid any expression of mourning on Shabbat.</i>
  If a bar mitzva boy is called up to the Torah on Shabbat Ḥazon, his parents may host a <i>kiddush</i> in his honor, as is done on any other Shabbat throughout the year, since one should not exhibit signs of mourning on Shabbat. The same is true on the Shabbat before a wedding (<i>Shabbat Ḥatan</i> or <i>aufruf</i>), when the bridegroom is called up to the Torah: the family and friends may eat their meals together and participate in a <i>kiddush</i>, as is customary. Similarly, when a baby boy is born, those who have a custom to host a <i>shalom zakhar</i> may do so as they normally would. (The laws of Tisha Be-Av that falls out on Shabbat or Sunday will be explained below, 9:4.)
  
  Section 23
  
  The Customs of the Three Weeks / “The Week of Tisha Be-Av” when Tisha Be-Av is Postponed to Sunday
  The laws of the week in which Tisha Be-Av falls pertain only to the Sephardic custom, which maintains that one may not cut one’s hair or wash clothes during that week, as the Mishna states (<i>Ta’anit</i> 26b). Ashkenazim, however, are more stringent and refrain from washing clothes from the first of Av (above, section 19). In addition, Ashkenazim and some Sephardim are stringent throughout the Three Weeks regarding haircuts (above, section 10).
  A year in which Tisha Be-Av falls out on a Sunday does not have a “week in which Tisha Be-Av falls,” as the fast begins immediately after Shabbat. When the customs of mourning pertaining to the tenth of Av end, so do all the customs of mourning that pertain to the Three Weeks.
  When Tisha Be-Av falls out on Shabbat, the fast is postponed to Sunday. Some say that since the ninth of Av is actually Shabbat, the entire week beforehand is considered “the week in which Tisha Be-Av falls” (<i>Smag</i>). Most <i>poskim</i>, however, maintain that since the fast is actually observed on Sunday, that year does not have a “week in which Tisha Be-Av falls” (Rosh, Ran). Most Sephardim follow this position (see SA 551:4). Therefore, they may wash clothes the entire week before Shabbat Ḥazon. However, it is proper that even Sephardim be stringent with regard to shaving in such a situation. That is, they should refrain from shaving throughout the previous week, in order to enter the fast with a recognizable sign of mourning on their faces (as explained above, n. 7). Those who are lenient have an opinion to rely on.
  
  
  
  
  
  Section 1
  
  The Eve of Tisha Be-Av / <i>Se’uda Ha-mafseket</i>
  One may not eat two cooked dishes at the last meal before the fast (<i>se’uda ha-mafseket</i>)<i> </i>of Tisha Be-Av (<i>Ta’anit</i> 26b), because that is when our mourning over the destruction of the Temple intensifies, and it is inappropriate, at such a time, to indulge oneself by eating a multi-course meal. One may eat a cooked dish, however, because this is not particularly indulgent. In addition, one may not eat meat or drink wine at this meal (<i>ibid</i>.), because these are dignified foods that bring joy. Indeed, the custom nowadays is to refrain from eating meat and drinking wine from the beginning of Av (see above 8:13); nonetheless, the prohibition to eat these items up until the <i>se’uda ha-mafseket</i> is based on a custom from the time of the Rishonim, while eating them at the <i>se’uda ha-mafseket</i> is a rabbinic prohibition. Therefore, a sick person or a postpartum woman, who could gain strength by eating meat, may do so during the Nine Days, but not at the <i>se’uda ha-mafseket</i>.1<i class="footnote">Even though a sick person is exempt from fasting on Tisha Be-Av, he should eat only simple foods. Therefore, he should not eat meat or two cooked dishes at the <i>se’uda ha-mafseket</i>. See below 10:3. One may only eat meat or drink wine if he receives an explicit medical directive to do so.It should be noted that according to the Gemara (<i>Ta’anit</i> 30a), one may eat cured meat and drink grape juice at the <i>se’uda ha-mafseket</i>, because they do not bring joy. However, since it is customary to observe the prohibition from the first of Av, it is obvious that one may not eat these items at the <i>se’uda ha-mafseket</i>.</i>
  What is the <i>se’uda ha-mafseket</i>? It is the last meal before the fast, eaten after midday. Thus, if one eats his last meal before midday, he may eat two cooked dishes at that meal. The prevalent custom is to eat a regular meal, with several dishes, earlier in the afternoon, and then to eat the <i>se’uda ha-mafseket</i>, with only one cooked dish, shortly before the fast. One should not circumvent the law by eating a full meal, with several dishes, close to the fast, reciting <i>Birkat Ha-mazon</i>, waiting a few minutes, and then eating another meal, consisting of one dish, so that the latter meal will be considered the <i>se’uda ha-mafseket</i>.
  <i>Be-di’avad</i>, however, if it is late and one did not manage to eat a full meal earlier in the afternoon, and he is concerned that it will be difficult for him to fast without eating several cooked dishes at the <i>se’uda ha-mafseket</i>, he may eat a full meal, go to the synagogue and pray <i>Minḥa</i>, and then return home to eat the <i>se’uda ha-mafseket</i>. However, he should take care not to eat so much during the first meal that he has no appetite for the <i>se’uda ha-mafseket</i> (SA and Rema 552:9, MB <i>ad loc. </i>22).
  
  Section 2
  
  The Eve of Tisha Be-Av / Which Foods Are Prohibited?
  During the <i>se’uda ha-mafseket</i>, one may eat as much raw food (e.g., fruits and vegetables) that he wants. If one cooks them, however, they are considered cooked dishes, despite the fact that they are edible even when uncooked.
  Cheese, yogurt, butter, and all other dairy products that are pasteurized are not considered cooked, because the pasteurization process is for health reasons, not in order to improve the taste of the food (SA 552:4, <i>Ba’er Heitev</i> <i>ad loc. </i>5, <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> <i>ad loc. </i>13).
  If carrots and potatoes were cooked together, one may not eat them at the <i>se’uda ha-mafseket</i>, because they are considered two cooked items. Rather, one may eat either the potatoes or the carrots. Similarly, one may not eat noodles cooked with cheese or lentils cooked with eggs, as these are considered a mixture of two cooked foods and may not be eaten together. Even if one prepares two dishes using the same kind of food, where the only difference between the two is that one is a thin mixture and the other is a thick mixture, they are considered two cooked dishes. Similarly, hard-boiled and soft-boiled eggs are considered two dishes. However, if a dish is typically made by mixing two food items, where one is the main ingredient while the other merely adds taste – like rice with some onions added – it is considered one dish (SA 552:3). One who belongs to a community in which mourners customarily eat a particular food, like eggs and lentils, may eat such a dish for the <i>se’uda ha-mafseket</i>, as it is considered a single dish even though it has two main ingredients.
  The prohibition applies to both cooked and fried foods, but baked goods – like bread and cake – are not included in the prohibition, as their main purpose is to satiate a person (<i>Eshel Avraham</i> [Buczacz]). Some refrain from eating cake at the <i>se’uda ha-mafseket </i>so as not to enjoy the meal too much. Pizza is considered a cooked dish because of the cheese that it contains.
  It is proper to refrain from eating chocolate, snacks, and candy at the <i>se’uda ha-mafseket</i>, because the entire purpose of these foods is to serve as treats, not to satiate a person (see Rema 552:1). However, if there is nothing else available with which to satiate oneself, one may eat them.
  Some say that one should avoid pickled foods so as not to enjoy the <i>se’uda ha-mafseket </i>too much. In addition, these might be considered cooked foods (<i>Shiyarei Knesset Ha-gedola</i>, <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 552:26). Others maintain that one may eat pickled foods (AHS 552:7).
  One may eat a salad of raw vegetables, even dressed, at the <i>se’uda ha-mafseket</i>. However, some recommend against eating fresh, dressed salad, so as not to enjoy the <i>se’uda ha-mafseket</i> too much (Ḥida, <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 552:11).
  The prevalent custom is not to eat fish at the <i>se’uda ha-mafseket</i>, because it is considered a dignified food, like meat. Some are lenient regarding herring and sardines that were not cooked (see SA 552:2, <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> <i>ad loc. </i>18).
  Cooked beverages are not considered cooked dishes. Therefore, technically, one may drink beer, ale, coffee, or tea at the <i>se’uda ha-mafseket</i>. However, many <i>poskim</i> rule that one should be stringent, <i>le-khatḥila</i>, and refrain from drinking these beverages, so as not to enjoy the meal too much. One who drinks beer at every meal and has difficulty digesting food without it may drink beer at this meal as well. Coffee and tea are considered less dignified than alcoholic beverages; therefore, one who feels a need to drink them may do so. However, if one is easily able to refrain from drinking them, it is preferable not to drink them. If necessary, one may drink sweet drinks like cola, but one should not drink them just to indulge oneself.
  
  Section 3
  
  The Eve of Tisha Be-Av / Customs of the <i>Se’uda Ha-mafseket</i>
  The Talmud (<i>Ta’anit</i> 30a) relates how R. Yehuda b. R. Ila’i would act at his <i>se’uda ha-mafseket</i>: He would be given dry bread with salt, and in an undignified place – between the furnace and the oven – eat it with a flask of water, as though in the presence of a newly-deceased relative. Rambam likewise accepted these stringencies, eating bread and water at this meal, without even one cooked dish.
  In general, though, people are advised to eat fruits and vegetables as well, in order to build up strength for the fast. Many have the custom to eat hard-boiled eggs as their one cooked food. The round shape of hard-boiled eggs alludes to the cyclical nature of life, which is why mourners eat them. There is no prohibition against eating two eggs. Others eat a lentil dish, as lentils are considered a mourner’s food as well (SA 552:5-6).
  In order to demonstrate our lowliness as a result of the destruction of the Temple, it is customary to sit on the floor during the <i>se’uda ha-mafseket</i>, but one need not remove one’s shoes (SA 552:7). Some say, based on Kabbala, that one should place a cloth separation between his body and the floor. Some are meticulous about this even if the floor is tiled (see <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 552:39). One who finds it difficult to sit on the floor, sick people, elderly people, and postpartum or pregnant women may sit on a chair, but preferably not one’s regular seat (see <i>ibid</i>. 552:38).
  Each member of the household should sit alone in a corner while eating the <i>se’uda ha-mafseket</i>, because it says in reference to a mourner, “Let him sit alone and be silent” (Eikha 3:28). Even if three men are dining in one place, they do not join together for a <i>zimun</i>, because each one is considered to be dining alone (SA 552:8, MB <i>ad loc. </i>19).
  After midday on the eve of Tisha Be-Av, one should, <i>le-khatḥila</i>, limit his Torah study to sad topics related to Tisha Be-Av or the laws of mourning. However, if one is worried that limiting himself specifically to these topics will curtail his Torah study, it is preferable that he study whatever his heart desires (see Rema 553:2, MB <i>ad loc. </i>8).
  One may continue to eat, if he so desires, after finishing the <i>se’uda ha-mafseket</i>, because the fast begins at sunset, not when the meal ends. Similarly, none of the laws of mourning of Tisha Be-Av apply until sunset, unless one accepted the fast early (SA 553:1, see MB <i>ad loc. </i>2).
  
  Section 4
  
  The Eve of Tisha Be-Av / The Transition from Shabbat to Tisha Be-Av when it Begins on <i>Motza’ei Shabbat</i>
  The rule is that we do not mourn on Shabbat. Therefore, even if the ninth of Av falls out on Shabbat, we postpone the fast to Sunday. Since there is no mourning on Shabbat, on that Shabbat we eat meat, drink wine, serve meals fit even for King Shlomo, and sing Shabbat songs as usual. Obviously, this law also applies when the ninth of Av falls out on Sunday; we treat the Shabbat immediately preceding the fast like any other Shabbat.
  However, there is an intermediate time between Shabbat and the start of the fast, when Shabbat has not yet ended but the prohibitions of the fast have already begun to take effect. This happens because of the uncertainty whether one day ends and the next day begins at <i>shki’a</i> or at <i>tzeit</i>. Therefore, the period between <i>shki’a</i> and <i>tzeit </i>– known as <i>bein ha-shmashot</i> – is ambiguous, as it might be considered day and might be considered night. Since there is a mitzva to extend Shabbat, we observe Shabbat until several minutes after <i>tzeit</i>. Consequently, the time between <i>shki’a</i> and shortly after <i>tzeit</i> is considered both Shabbat and part of the fast. During that time, one may not do anything that seems like a mourning custom, because we do not mourn on Shabbat. On the other hand, after <i>shki’a</i>, we avoid activities that are not essential for Shabbat, like eating, drinking, washing, and anointing oneself.
  Therefore, we eat <i>se’uda shlishit </i>(the third Shabbat meal) as on any other Shabbat, and we sing songs like we do on any other Shabbat. However, we stop eating and drinking before <i>shki’a</i>, because there is no obligation – from a Shabbat perspective – to continue eating <i>se’uda shlishit</i> after <i>shki’a</i> (SA 552:10, see MB <i>ad loc. </i>23). It is also proper to refrain from singing joyous songs after <i>shki’a</i>. This is not an expression of mourning because one would not spend all of Shabbat singing joyous songs anyway. We also refrain from washing and applying ointments after <i>shki’a</i>, since we do not bathe on Shabbat anyway. However, one who relieves himself during <i>bein ha-shmashot</i> should wash his hands normally, since otherwise he is, in effect, mourning on Shabbat.
  We remain in our Shabbat clothing, keep our shoes on, and continue to sit on chairs and greet one another until a few minutes after <i>tzeit</i>. Then we take leave of Shabbat by reciting the phrase “<i>barukh ha-mavdil bein kodesh le-ḥol</i> (“blessed is the One Who distinguishes sacred from profane”). We then remove our shoes, take off our Shabbat garments, and change into weekday clothes. One should wear clothes that were already worn during the previous week, because one may not wear freshly laundered clothing on Tisha Be-Av.2<i class="footnote">Some people have a custom to remove their shoes at <i>shki’a</i>, provided that they do so without letting others know that it is for the sake of mourning. Nonetheless, the prevalent custom is to remove one’s shoes only after Shabbat has ended. See <i>Hilkhot Ḥag Be-ḥag</i>, ch. 8 nn. 2, 7, which explains, based on the ruling of the Vilna Gaon, that one may not afflict oneself on Shabbat; therefore, one may wash and apply ointment until Shabbat ends. According to the accepted custom, however, one should refrain from all joyous activities, unless one’s abstention is recognizable as an act of mourning or self-affliction. Therefore, one should not, <i>le-khatḥila</i>, wash or apply ointment during <i>bein ha-shmashot</i>, but one should wash his hands normally after using the bathroom. That is, one should wash his entire hand, not just his fingers as on Tisha Be-Av.</i>
  Many communities have a custom to delay <i>Ma’ariv</i> until about fifteen minutes after Shabbat ends, in order to give everyone time to take leave of Shabbat at home, remove their shoes, change their clothes, and come to the synagogue for <i>Ma’ariv</i> and the reading of Eikha in weekday clothes.
  
  Section 5
  
  The Eve of Tisha Be-Av / <i>Havdala</i> on Tisha Be-Av When It Begins on <i>Motza’ei Shabbat</i>
  The fast begins immediately at the end of Shabbat, making it is impossible to recite <i>havdala</i> over a cup of wine. Therefore, we postpone reciting <i>havdala</i> over a beverage until after Tisha Be-Av ends. Nevertheless, we recite <i>havdala</i> in the <i>Amida </i>of <i>Ma’ariv </i>– “<i>Ata Ḥonantanu</i>” – after which one may perform <i>melakha </i>(activities forbidden on Shabbat). Some say that it is proper for women to pray <i>Ma’ariv</i> on such a <i>Motza’ei Shabbat</i>, so that they can make <i>havdala</i> by reciting <i>Ata Ḥonantanu</i>. Women who do not follow this practice should recite “<i>barukh ha-mavdil bein kodesh le-ḥol</i>,” after which they may do work (MB 556:2).
  In addition, we recite the <i>berakha</i> over fire on such a <i>Motza’ei Shabbat</i>, because this <i>berakha</i> is not dependent on the cup of wine. Rather, it is an expression of thanks to God for creating fire, which was revealed to Adam on the first <i>Motza’ei Shabbat</i>. It is customary to recite the <i>berakha</i> after <i>Ma’ariv</i>, before the reading of <i>Eikha</i>, because people light candles at that time. Women also recite the <i>berakha</i> over fire. One who delays and fails to recite a <i>berakha</i> over fire at the beginning of the evening may recite the <i>berakha</i> all night long, since the entire night of <i>Motza’ei Shabbat</i> is considered the proper time for this <i>berakha</i>.
  At the end of the fast, before eating or drinking, one must recite <i>havdala</i> over a beverage, which includes two <i>berakhot</i>: <i>Ha-gefen</i> on the beverage and <i>Ha-mavdil</i> (“Who distinguishes”). No <i>berakha</i> is recited on fragrance or fire.
  To elaborate, the Sages enacted that one may not do <i>melakha</i> on <i>Motza’ei Shabbat</i>, even after <i>tzeit</i>, before reciting some form of <i>havdala</i>, like <i>Ata Ḥonantanu</i>. Furthermore, one may not eat before reciting <i>havdala</i> over a beverage. Therefore, on a <i>Motza’ei Shabbat</i> that coincides with Tisha Be-Av, it is sufficient to make a verbal <i>havdala</i>, which allows one to do <i>melakha</i>. Then, when Tisha Be-Av ends, we recite <i>havdala</i> over a beverage before eating.
  Therefore, a sick person who needs to eat on Tisha Be-Av must recite <i>havdala</i> over a beverage before eating. In such a case, it is proper to use <i>ḥamar medina</i> – a respectable local beverage, other than wine (preferably an alcoholic beverage, but any ubiquitous drink, like coffee, will do; see <i>Peninei Halakha</i>: <i>Shabbat</i> I:8:4). If one has no such beverage, he should recite <i>havdala</i> over grape juice, and if even that is unavailable, he should recite <i>havdala</i> – <i>be-di’avad</i> – on wine and drink a cheekful (around 40 ml.). If a minor who has reached the age of <i>ḥinukh </i>for reciting <i>berakhot</i> is present, it is best to let him drink the wine instead of the sick person. A minor who eats on Tisha Be-Av need not recite <i>havdala</i> before eating (<i>Shemirat Shabbat Ke-hilkhatah </i>62:45).
  
  
  
  
  
  Section 1
  
  The Laws of Tisha Be-Av / Instituting the Fast of Tisha Be-Av
  As we already learned (6:1), the prophets instituted four fasts after the destruction of the First Temple, the gravest of which is Tisha Be-Av, the ninth day of the Hebrew month of Av, the day that the Temple was destroyed (for more on the meaning of the fast, see above 6:4). These fasts were modeled on Yom Kippur, which lasts an entire day and contains five prohibitions. When the Second Temple was built, these fasts were annulled, becoming joyous holidays. And when the Second Temple was destroyed, the four fasts reverted to their original status.
  After the period of harsh decrees ended and a new era began, in which the Temple was still in ruins but evil decrees no longer plagued us, the Sages determined that the status of three of the fasts – Asara Be-Tevet, Shiv’a Asar Be-Tamuz, and Tzom Gedalia – depended on the will of the Jewish people: “If they want, they fast; if they do not want, they do not fast.”
  On Tisha Be-Av, however, we must fast under all circumstances, because many tragedies befell the Jewish people on that day, including the destruction of both Temples. Even when we live in a tranquil time, its status is not dependent on Israel’s will. Rather, as long as the Temple sits in ruins, we must fast on that day, as the prophets enacted (RH 18b).
  This is the basis for the difference between Tisha Be-Av and the minor fasts. Our obligation to fast on Tisha Be-Av is based on an institution of the prophets, so all the laws of the fast apply in their entirety. On the minor fasts, however, our obligation is based on custom, since all of Israel agreed to fast on these days until the Temple is rebuilt. Thus, from the very outset, the accepted custom has been to treat them more leniently than Tisha Be-Av (as explained above, 7:1).1<i class="footnote">See above 7:1-2 and n. 1, where it is explained that “peace” means that the Temple stands; only then will Tisha Be-Av be annulled. The statement that the obligation to fast on Tisha Be-Av does not depend on Israel’s will is stated by Ramban in <i>Torat Ha-adam</i>, p. 244. This is also the opinion of Rashi, <i>Eshkol</i>, <i>Itur</i>, <i>Smak</i>, <i>Magid Mishneh</i>, and others. However, some – including Rashba and Ritva – maintain that in an intermediate situation, when the Temple is destroyed but evil decrees have ceased, we are exempt from fasting even on Tisha Be-Av, but the Jewish people decided to observe Tisha Be-Av as a full fast, in accordance with the original enactment, because of the numerous tragedies that occurred on that day. Nonetheless, the accepted practice follows the majority of Rishonim and Aḥaronim, who maintain that the fast of Tisha Be-Av is not dependent on anyone’s will. Rather, it is an obligation instituted by the prophets.</i>
  
  Section 2
  
  The Laws of Tisha Be-Av / General Rules of the Fasts
  There are three halakhic differences between Tisha Be-Av and the minor fasts: 1) Tisha Be-Av lasts an entire day, from <i>shki’at ha-ḥama</i> (sunset) of one day until <i>tzeit ha-kokhavim </i>(the emergence of three mid-sized stars) of the next day, whereas the minor fasts last only during daylight hours – from <i>alot ha-shaḥar</i> (dawn) until <i>tzeit</i>. 2) On Tisha Be-Av, there are five prohibitions: a) eating and drinking; b) washing; c) anointing oneself; d) wearing high-quality shoes; and e) engaging in sexual relations. On the minor fasts, however, only eating and drinking are prohibited. 3) Only sick people are exempt from fasting on Tisha Be-Av, whereas on the minor fast days, pregnant and nursing women are exempt as well.
  In general, the fast of Tisha Be-Av is equivalent to the fast of Yom Kippur: all enactments the Sages made regarding Tisha Be-Av were modeled after the Torah’s commandments regarding Yom Kippur. This includes the five prohibitions listed above. Nonetheless, since the fast of Tisha Be-Av is a rabbinic enactment, its laws are more lenient in two significant ways: 1) The Sages did not require sick people to fast on Tisha Be-Av. In contrast, sick people must fast on Yom Kippur, unless doing so would put his life in danger. 2) In situations of uncertainty, one should be stringent on Yom Kippur, but on Tisha Be-Av one may be lenient. This follows the rule that we are stringent in cases of uncertainty about Torah law, but lenient in cases of uncertainty about rabbinic law.
  However, Tisha Be-Av is more stringent than Yom Kippur in a certain way. On Tisha Be-Av, we are obligated to mourn. Therefore, we sit on the floor, refrain from greeting one another, darken the room at night, and are forbidden to enjoy Torah study. On Yom Kippur, however, we are obligated only to deprive ourselves, but besides the five afflictions, the day is considered a holiday: We wear nice clothing, sit on regular seats, sing songs, exchange greetings with one another, and of course, engage in Torah study without limits. (Regardless of the afflictions, <i>melakha </i>is forbidden on Yom Kippur just as it is forbidden on Shabbat.)
  
  Section 3
  
  The Laws of Tisha Be-Av / The Prohibition of Eating and Drinking and the Status of Sick People and Postpartum Women
  We have already explained the prohibition against eating and drinking on the minor fasts (above, 7:5-7) and have seen that there is a difference between those fasts and Tisha Be-Av: The minor fasts begin at <i>alot ha-shaḥar</i>, whereas Tisha Be-Av begins at <i>shki’a</i>. There is no difference, however, regarding the prohibition itself against eating and drinking.
  We also saw that sick people are exempt from fasting on Tisha Be-Av (the definition of a “sick person” is explained above, 7:7) and that they need not limit themselves to quantities that are less than the <i>shi’ur </i>of eating or drinking. Only on Yom Kippur, which is mandated by Torah law and which even sick people must observe, must one eat less than the <i>shi’ur</i>, when possible, to avoid breaking the fast. On rabbinically instituted fasts, however, sick people are completely exempt; therefore, they need not eat small quantities or fast for a few hours. Nevertheless, several Aḥaronim write that, if possible, it is proper for sick people to be stringent and refrain from eating and drinking on the night of Tisha Be-Av, so that they participate in the community’s pain. In the morning, though, they may eat and drink as needed, with no limitations.2<i class="footnote">Some Aḥaronim maintain that, <i>le-khatḥila</i>, even on Tisha Be-Av a sick person should preferably eat quantities of less than a <i>shi’ur</i>, so that he does not technically break his fast and can thus recite the <i>Aneinu </i>and <i>Naḥem </i>additions to the prayer<i> </i>(cited in <i>Sdei Ḥemed</i> and in <i>Tzitz Eliezer</i> 10:25, 16:2). BHL 554:6 rules similarly, quoting <i>Pitḥei Olam</i> as saying that in a place where cholera is not already rampant and the doctors say that people must eat in order to avoid catching the disease, one should eat portions that are smaller than the <i>shi’ur</i> on Tisha Be-Av. Similarly, MB 554:14 states in the name of <i>Eliya Rabba</i> that a postpartum woman should preferably fast for a few hours, if possible. <i>Ḥatam Sofer</i> OḤ 157 concurs, saying that if a sick person can suffice with just drinking, he should not eat, and if eating once will satisfy his needs, he should not eat twice. According to Maharil Diskin (<i>Kuntres Aḥaron</i> §75), there is room to be stringent in this matter, not as far as the obligation to fast is concerned, but in order to avoid separating from the community.In practice, if a sick person wants to be stringent and eat portions that are smaller than the <i>shi’ur</i>, he may later recite <i>Aneinu</i> and <i>Naḥem</i>, and some indeed go above and beyond in following this practice. Although the general rule is that sick people do not need to eat portions that are smaller than the <i>shi’ur</i>. So states AHS 554:7. Furthermore, even BHL only ruled that one should eat less than the <i>shi’ur</i> in reference to one who is not considered sick at all. <i>Nishmat Avraham</i> 4:554 and <i>Tzitz Eliezer</i> 10:25:16 concur.Sometimes it is not certain whether a person is sick or not. It seems that if the uncertainty stems from the person’s weakness – i.e., that it is likely that he will become truly sick over the course of the fast, as in the case of a pregnant woman who feels weak – it is proper to instruct him to begin eating and drinking less than the <i>shi’ur</i> in the morning, in accordance with the ruling of BHL. If, however, the uncertainty stems from the person’s fear, there are grounds to instruct him to begin fasting, but to eat and drink if his illness intensifies.</i>
  A woman within thirty days of childbirth is considered sick, because she has not yet sufficiently regained her strength. Therefore, she is exempt from fasting (SA 551:6).3<i class="footnote">Rema 554:6 writes that a woman should fast if seven days have passed since childbirth, unless she is in great pain. MB <i>ad loc. </i>14 quotes MA as saying that she may be lenient only if Tisha Be-Av is postponed. Nevertheless, AHS 554:7 states that nowadays a woman should not, God forbid, fast within thirty days of giving birth. Other Ashkenazic <i>poskim</i> rule this way as well. A woman who is lenient in this regard does not lose out at all.</i>
  A woman who has miscarried and feels weak has the same status as a postpartum woman and is exempt from the fast of Tisha Be-Av if it occurs within thirty days after her miscarriage.
  Those who are exempt from fasting should take care to eat only simple foods that they need for their health, not delicacies and treats for the sake of self-gratification. The <i>poskim</i> debate whether or not one who is permitted to eat recites <i>Naḥem</i> in <i>Birkat Ha-mazon</i>.4<i class="footnote">Many Ashkenazic <i>poskim</i> maintain that one recites <i>Naḥem</i> before the ending of the <i>berakha</i> of <i>U-venei Yerushalayim</i> (Rema 557:1). Others questioned this, claiming that the Sages never instituted the recitation of <i>Naḥem</i> in <i>Birkat Ha-mazon</i> (Vilna Gaon, quoted in MB 557:5). Still others say that it is best to recite it after all the <i>berakhot</i> of <i>Birkat Ha-mazon</i> are finished, together with the <i>Ha-raḥaman</i> prayers (<i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 557:11).</i>
  
  Section 4
  
  The Laws of Tisha Be-Av / Pregnant and Nursing Women
  We have learned that one of the differences between the minor fasts and Tisha Be-Av is that pregnant and nursing women are exempt from the minor fasts and obligated in Tisha Be-Av (above 7:8). The reason for this is that only sick people are exempt from fasting on Tisha Be-Av, while pregnant and nursing women – despite the aches and pains that they experience – are not considered sick (SA 554:5). If, however, they experience extraordinary weakness, they are considered sick and are exempt from fasting on Tisha Be-Av.
  For example, a pregnant woman who suffers greatly from vomiting or dizziness is considered sick and does not need to fast. Similarly, a pregnant woman who is extremely anemic – due to a low blood count, for example (generally less than 10 grams of hemoglobin per deciliter of whole blood; it is best to consult a medical professional about such matters) – is exempt from fasting. It goes without saying that one should not fast if there is a concern that doing so could cause a miscarriage. A woman who is not certain whether she is considered sick should begin fasting, but if she starts feeling very weak, then she is certainly considered sick and should eat and drink.5<i class="footnote">Some have ruled that in exceptionally hot weather, a pregnant woman who is suffering is exempt from fasting (R. Shlomo Zalman Auerbach). Others are even more lenient, ruling that all pregnant women are exempt from fasting altogether, either because heat waves can occur or because people in general are weaker nowadays (as cited in <i>Halikhot Beitah</i> ch. 25 n. 3). Nevertheless, in the main text I ruled in accordance with the accepted practical <i>halakha</i>, as formulated in <i>Pesaḥim</i> 54b, SA, and the Aḥaronim.</i>
  As we learned, a nursing woman must fast on Tisha Be-Av. Even though it is harder for her to fast because breastfeeding can deplete one’s fluids, this does not mean that she is considered sick. The baby does not suffer from the fast either. If the mother’s milk supply does not decrease when she fasts, the baby will certainly not feel any difference, and even if the milk supply decreases when she fasts, she can supplement with infant formula, sweetened water or infant cereal so that the baby does not suffer from the fast.6<i class="footnote">If a mother exclusively breastfeeds her baby and her milk supply decreases when she fasts, she should stop fasting and breastfeed her baby properly if she is unable to feed him formula or sweetened water from a bottle. Similarly, if a woman is concerned that fasting might cause her milk supply to become completely depleted, rendering her unable to breastfeed her baby, she should not fast. <i>Torat Ha-yoledet</i> 48:4 writes that such a woman should drink quantities smaller than a <i>shi’ur</i> because she is not really sick; the only reason she needs to drink is for her baby.</i> The best advice for most women whose milk supply decreases is to skip two feedings in alternating fashion. That is, a woman who nurses every three hours should breastfeed her baby at 10 AM, give him something else at 1 PM, breastfeed again at 4 PM, and give him a something else again at 7 PM. This way, she will not suffer too much from fasting and her milk supply will not decrease. If a nursing woman feels so anemic that her status changes from that of a nursing woman to that of a sick person, she may eat and drink.
  
  Section 5
  
  The Laws of Tisha Be-Av / Washing
  Any form of pleasurable washing is prohibited on Tisha Be-Av, whether the water is hot or cold. One may not even wash a small part of his body; one may not even dip one finger in water. However, one who became soiled with mud or feces, or has a nosebleed, may wash the soiled area, because his intention is not to take pleasure from washing (SA 554:9). Similarly, one who is changing a child’s diaper may wash the soiled area, even though he will wash his hand in the process. He may even use soap if the filth or odor does not come off with water alone.
  If one is preparing food for after the fast or for his children, he may rinse food items and dishes because this is not considered washing for the sake of pleasure. And even though one derives some pleasure every time one washes one’s body, since the main purpose is to remove filth, it is not considered washing for pleasure.
  If one perspired excessively, to the point where he is preoccupied and suffering, he may wash the sweaty area because he does not intend to derive pleasure (MB 613:2, SHT <i>ad loc</i>. 4). 
  Likewise, one who is very sensitive and cannot settle himself in the morning without washing his face may rinse his face with water. One who accumulates mucus in the corner of his eyes overnight and generally removes it with water may do so on Tisha Be-Av (SA 554:11, MB <i>ad loc. </i>22).
  One may not rinse one’s mouth on Tisha Be-Av. Nevertheless, one who will be very distressed if he does not do so may rinse his mouth and brush his teeth without toothpaste on Tisha Be-Av. On Yom Kippur, however, when there is a Torah obligation to fast, one may not be lenient regarding this issue (see above, 7:5 and n. 6).
  A bride within the first thirty days of her marriage may wash her face and apply any ointment she needs to avoid making herself unattractive to her husband (MB 554:29, SHT <i>ad loc</i>. 38).
  One may take a slightly damp towel and run it across one’s face, hands, and feet, because the prohibition of washing does not apply to such a small amount of moisture. The only condition is that the towel not be so wet that it could moisten one’s hand to the extent that his hand could then moisten something else (Rema 554:14, MB <i>ad loc. </i>27).
  
  Section 6
  
  The Laws of Tisha Be-Av / Washing for the Sake of a Mitzva
  One may wash one’s hands for the sake of a mitzva because such washing is not for the purpose of gaining pleasure. Therefore, Kohanim may wash their hands in preparation for <i>Birkat Kohanim</i> (Rema 613:3, SA 128:6). However, one may not immerse in a <i>mikveh</i> on Tisha Be-Av.7<i class="footnote">The mitzva for a <i>nida</i> (a woman who has menstruated and who must immerse in a <i>mikveh </i>before resuming relations with her husband) to immerse herself in a <i>mikveh</i> at the first halakhically acceptable opportunity does not override the prohibition against washing on Tisha Be-Av. Similarly, a man who usually immerses in a <i>mikveh</i> in order to remove the impurity caused by a seminal emission may not immerse on Tisha Be-Av, because a pious custom does not override the prohibition against washing (<i>Beit Yosef</i>, SA 554:8, 613:11).</i>
  Upon awakening in the morning, each person must wash his hands from the tips of the fingers to their base, because an evil spirit rests on one’s hands after a night’s sleep, and it can harm the orifices of one’s body. In order to remove this spirit, one must wash each hand three times alternately. After using the bathroom, one should wash his hands again once and recite the <i>berakha</i> of “<i>al netilat yadayim</i>,” because the Sages instituted a mitzva to wash one’s hands with a <i>berakha</i> in preparation for <i>Shaḥarit</i>. Even though we usually take care to wash the entire hand, on Tisha Be-Av one should wash only up to the base of one’s fingers, including the knuckles, because technically that is sufficient both for preparing for <i>Shaḥarit</i> and for removing the evil spirit (SA 613:2).8<i class="footnote">According to most <i>poskim</i>, one does not need to wash one’s hands more than once after using the bathroom; but some people are accustomed to washing three times (see MB 4:39). Those who always wash three times may do so on Tisha Be-Av as well, because this washing is for the sake of purification and a mitzva, not pleasure (see <i>Peninei Halakha</i>: <i>Prayer</i> 8:3-5 and n. 2).</i>
  <i>Le-khatḥila</i>,<i> </i>one should wash his hands before every prayer service throughout the year. Nevertheless, on Tisha Be-Av one should not wash his hands before praying, because doing so is not obligatory. However, if one touched filthy parts of his body and wants to recite sacred words, he should wash his hands, because this washing is for the sake of a mitzva, not in order to derive pleasure (MB 613:5-6, <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 613:6).
  There is uncertainty regarding the status of one who relieves himself without touching any part of the body that is usually covered, as perhaps he does not need to wash, since he did not touch any filth. In order to avoid this uncertainty, when one relieves oneself on Tisha Be-Av it is best to touch a part of the body that is usually covered and sweaty. This way, all agree that one may wash his hands until the base of one’s fingers, including the knuckles, in order to recite the <i>berakha</i> of <i>Asher Yatzar</i> in a state of cleanliness (SA 613:3, MB <i>ad loc. </i>4).9<i class="footnote">Some say that one who touches a part of the body that is usually covered should wash only that hand until the base of one’s fingers (<i>Ḥayei Adam</i> 40:18, MB 613:6). Others maintain that he must wash both hands (<i>Shlah</i>, <i>Yafeh La-lev</i>; see also <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 4:86). They also disagree about a case in which one touches his shoe – even if it is made of cloth – with one finger. There are many other uncertainties regarding these laws. For example, does one who touches an area that is usually covered, but which nonetheless is not sweaty, need to wash his hands (see <i>Peninei Halakha</i>: <i>Prayer,</i> ch. 5 n. 2)? Furthermore, technically, one who touches body parts that are usually covered may simply rub his hands on any sort of cloth and then recite sacred words (SA 4:23, MB <i>ad loc. </i>61). Why, then, do we not do so on Yom Kippur and Tisha Be-Av? In practice, it appears that if, in a certain situation, one generally is stringent throughout the year and washes his hands, he should wash them on Tisha Be-Av as well, because he is washing for the sake of a mitzva. If, however, he sometimes suffices with rubbing his hands on his clothing or the like, he should do the same on Tisha Be-Av. If one touches an area of his body that is usually covered and now wants to pray, he should wash his hands, because that is the <i>halakha</i>, as explained in <i>Peninei Halakha</i>: <i>Prayer</i> 5:2. If one touches an area of the body that is usually covered with one finger while in the bathroom, it seems that all would agree that he should wash both hands. After all, many authorities maintain that one must wash both hands upon leaving the bathroom, even if he did not relieve himself or touch a body part that is normally covered (see BHL 613:3). One who touches mud with his finger should wash only the soiled area, because there is no evil spirit there that spreads to the rest of the hand.</i>
  
  Section 7
  
  The Laws of Tisha Be-Av / Anointing Oneself, Fragrances, and Smoking
  One may not apply oil or ointment on Tisha Be-Av even to a small area of the body. In addition, one may not use cosmetics, like powders or salves, to beautify the skin or provide a pleasant fragrance. This prohibition applies specifically to anointing for the sake of pleasure; applying creams for medicinal purposes, however, is permitted. Therefore, one may apply petroleum jelly to dry lips or use anti-itch cream (SA 554:15). Likewise, one may apply mosquito repellent.10<i class="footnote">BHL 554:15 explains that there is a distinction between Yom Kippur and Tisha Be-Av regarding the prohibition of anointing oneself. On Yom Kippur, the prohibition also includes non-pleasurable anointing, as the Yerushalmi indicates. Therefore, one may not apply a salve for the purpose of removing filth on Yom Kippur. On Tisha Be-Av, however, the prohibition is a function of the laws of mourning. Therefore, only anointing for the sake of pleasure is prohibited, while anointing in order to remove filth is permissible. BHL thus rejects the opinion of <i>Mateh Yehuda</i>, which equates Tisha Be-Av and Yom Kippur in regard to this prohibition.</i>
  One may not smell perfumes or other fragrances on Tisha Be-Av, because doing so is pleasurable and one should curtail one’s pursuit of pleasures on the day on which our Holy Temple was destroyed. While some authorities have ruled leniently on this issue, since smelling fragrances is not one of the five prohibitions (MA), nonetheless, most <i>poskim</i> maintain that one should be stringent on Tisha Be-Av (SA 559:7, SHT 556:1).11<i class="footnote"><i>Shiyarei Knesset Ha-gedola</i> §§551, 567 states that one may not smoke on fast days, because smoking alleviates the anxiety of the destruction of the Temple and generates a feeling of satiation; it even causes a desecration of God’s name, since non-Jews refrain from smoking on their fast days. According to many other <i>poskim</i>, however, there is no prohibition against smoking, from the perspective of the fast day, especially for one who needs to smoke to relieve agitation. MB 555:8 permits smoking after midday, in private, for one who needs it. Many others permit smoking even before midday, in private, for one who needs it. These <i>poskim</i> are cited in <i>Yabi’a Omer</i> 1:33. <i>Hilkhot Ḥag Be-ḥag</i> ch. 7 n. 87 states that those who prohibit smoking are not referring to cigarettes, but to a type of smoking that entails more pleasure and involvement. It is by now clear that smoking is detrimental to one’s health, and it is a mitzva for one who is accustomed to smoking to make every effort to quit. Nevertheless, if one is already addicted to smoking, one may smoke on a fast day in order to relieve the pain of fasting.</i>
  
  Section 8
  
  The Laws of Tisha Be-Av / Wearing Shoes
  One may not wear high-quality shoes on Tisha Be-Av. In the past, high-quality shoes were commonly made from leather, since people did not know how to make strong, flexible, and durable shoes from other materials. There is a dispute among the <i>poskim </i>about the status of non-leather shoes. Some Rishonim were stringent and ruled that one may not wear such shoes on Tisha Be-Av if they actually protect the foot from the ground (Rashi, Rambam, <i>Tosafot</i>, Rabbeinu Yeruḥam). Other Rishonim permitted wearing such shoes on Tisha Be-Av even if they protect one’s feet from the rough ground (Ramban, Rosh, Rashba). Most of the Aḥaronim ruled in accordance with the latter Rishonim in practice (SA 614:2).
  Despite this, it seems clear that the lenient position was based on the reality of the time, in which all non-leather shoes were uncomfortable for walking, and thus it could be claimed that these were not considered proper shoes. Today, however, when manufacturers commonly produce high-quality non-leather shoes, one may not wear shoes of any material on Tisha Be-Av if it is a kind of shoe that people would wear year-round to walk on rocky ground. In the previous generation, when it was still uncommon to find high-quality shoes made from different materials, some <i>poskim </i>permitted wearing such shoes on Tisha Be-Av. However, as time goes by and excellent shoes made from different materials become increasingly common, fewer and fewer <i>poskim</i> permit wearing such shoes on Yom Kippur.
  Therefore, any shoe that people can wear outdoors on rocky ground may not be worn on Tisha Be-Av, no matter what the material of the shoe is. Thus, footwear such as “Crocs,” “Keds,” and “Converse All-stars” may not be worn on Tisha Be-Av. However, one may wear cloth slippers or very thin rubber shoes, since people generally would not wear these shoes when walking on rocky ground as one can feel the roughness of the ground when wearing them. Nonetheless, since there are still <i>poskim</i> who are lenient regarding non-leather shoes, one should not rebuke those who wish to rely on this opinion. (See <i>Ohalah shel Torah</i> 2:81; <i>Hilkhot Ḥag Be-ḥag </i>22:25 [in the name of R. Yosef Shalom Elyashiv]; this topic is explained in detail in <i>Peninei Halakha: Days of Awe</i> 8:5).
  Sick people and postpartum women, who are liable to catch a cold if they walk barefoot on the ground, may wear leather shoes. Similarly, one who is walking in an area where there is concern for scorpions and the like may wear leather shoes. Likewise, one who is walking in a muddy place may wear his regular shoes in order to avoid soiling his feet. A soldier on active duty may wear army boots (SA 554:17, 614:3-4). The reason for all these leniencies is that wearing shoes is prohibited on Tisha Be-Av only if one wears them for the sake of comfortable walking. When there is different reason for wearing them, however, the prohibition does not apply. If one requires orthotic shoe inserts and suffers without them, one may insert them into a slipper or thin rubber shoe that people generally would not wear throughout the year. This is permitted because one is not using these inserts for the sake of comfortable walking but in order to relieve his suffering. In addition, since the insert is not attached to the shoe, it can be claimed that it is not part of the shoe (<i>Ḥelkat Yaakov </i>2:83; <i>Shemirat Shabbat Ke-hilkhatah</i> 39:37).
  
  Section 9
  
  The Laws of Tisha Be-Av / Sexual Relations
  The fifth way in which we afflict ourselves on Tisha Be-Av is by abstaining from sexual relations. In order to distance ourselves from transgressing this prohibition, a couple must behave on the night of Tisha Be-Av as they do when the woman is a <i>nida</i>. That is, they may not touch each other, sleep in the same bed, or pass things to each other from hand to hand. During the day, they do not need to observe all the precautionary measures that apply while the woman is a <i>nida</i>, but they still may not touch each other affectionately or sleep in the same bed.12<i class="footnote">SA 554:18. Two adjacent beds are considered one bed. The Aḥaronim write that one should be stringent on Tisha Be-Av<i> </i>with regard to all the precautionary measures that couples observe during the <i>nida</i> period, just as one does on Yom Kippur (SA 615:1). According to most <i>poskim</i>, one should be stringent both on the day and night of Yom Kippur. <i>Taz</i> maintains that one does not need to be stringent during the day of Yom Kippur. Regarding Tisha Be-Av, however, many <i>poskim</i> write that one does not need to observe the precautions during the day, since everyone is mourning and the women do not adorn themselves; therefore, there is no reason to be concerned that contact between husband and wife will lead to sexual intercourse (MB 554:37, <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 554:85). Some rule stringently with regard to touching even during the day (<i>Kitzur </i>SA 124:12, <i>Hilkhot Ḥagim</i> 26:49). Either way, it seems that everyone agrees that affectionate touching is prohibited even during the day, as is sleeping in the same bed.</i>
  
  Section 10
  
  The Laws of Tisha Be-Av / Torah Study
  In addition to the five prohibitions that apply on Tisha Be-Av, there are other prohibitions that are connected to the fact that Tisha Be-Av is a day of mourning. Just as a mourner may not study Torah during the <i>shiva </i>period, one may not study Torah on Tisha Be-Av, so that one’s attention is not diverted from the mourning. Another reason one may not study Torah during a period of mourning is that Torah study makes one happy, as it says, “The precepts of the Lord are just, gladdening the heart” (Tehilim 19:9). One may not even think thoughts of Torah, because even that makes one happy. However, it is a mitzva to study sad sections of the Torah, which deal with the calamities that befell Israel and the afflictions that man encounters, as these sections are appropriate for the mood of the day. One should not study even these sections in depth, because such study makes one happy. However, if one thinks of a novel idea while studying a matter superficially, he does not need to worry, because that is the nature of learning (AHS 554:4). In addition, if one thinks of a significant idea and is worried that he may forget it by the end of the fast, he may write it down in shorthand (see <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 554:110).
  One may study the following topics. In <i>Tanakh</i>, one may study the chapters that describe the destruction of the Temple, which are found in the books of Melakhim, Divrei Ha-yamim, and Eikha. One may also study the prophecies of the destruction, which cover most of the book of Yirmiyahu, part of Yeḥezkel, and small portions of Yeshayahu and the books of Trei Asar. However, one should not study the prophecies that predict the calamities and destruction that will befall wicked nations, as these cause us joy. One may study the book of Iyov, which deals with suffering, but one should not study the end of the book. One may also study the sections of admonition and calamity in the <i>parshiyot</i> of Be-ḥukotai, Ki Tavo, and Ha’azinu. In all of these cases, one may study the verses with commentary, in order to understand the simple meaning of the passage, but not in order to delve deeply into the content.
  Regarding the aggadic sections of rabbinic literature, one may study the passages dealing with the destruction of the Temple in <i>Gittin</i> 55b-58a and most of <i>Midrash Eikha Rabba</i>, skipping the <i>midrashim</i> that deal with consolation. One may also study the third chapter of <i>Mo’ed Katan</i>, which deals with the laws of mourning and excommunication, as well as the sections at the end of <i>Ta’anit</i> that discuss the laws of Tisha Be-Av.
  Regarding halakhic topics, one may study the laws of the Three Weeks and Tisha Be-Av (SA OḤ 550-561), as well as the laws of mourning (SA YD 334-403). If a rabbi receives an urgent question in an area of <i>halakha</i> that one may not study on Tisha Be-Av, he should answer it without explaining his reasoning (MB 554:5).
  One may study ethical and moralistic works on Tisha Be-Av, even though they quote biblical verses and rabbinic statements, because their whole purpose is to inspire a person to repent for his sins. Therefore, the regular joy one feels when learning Torah is not present.13<i class="footnote">The source for these laws is <i>Ta’anit</i> 30a, and they are codified in SA 554:1-3. Some <i>poskim</i> rule that one may not study a moralistic work if it cites verses and statements of the Sages (see <i>Piskei Teshuvot</i> 554:2). However, the mainstream ruling is that this is permissible, as Me’iri states. <i>Torat Ha-mo’adim</i> 8:18 and <i>Hilkhot Ḥag Be-ḥag</i> ch. 7 n. 57 state likewise in the name of R. Yosef Shalom Elyashiv. They also explain the different opinions regarding what is considered in-depth study, which is prohibited. It seems that one may not study if the goal is to produce novel interpretations and understand the deeper meaning of a passage, but if the purpose is to understand the matter on a simple level, it is permissible.Some maintain that the mitzva of Torah study does not apply on Tisha Be-Av or to a mourner during the <i>shiva </i>period. Many others maintain that the mitzva always applies, but during these periods of mourning one must study the sad sections mentioned above (see <i>Yabi’a Omer</i> YD 8:35).Regarding whether young children may study Torah, see below, section 21.</i>
  Ideally, one should begin to observe these laws from midday on the day before Tisha Be-Av. However, as we already learned, if one feels that limiting his Torah study to these specific topics will curtail his study, he should study whatever his heart desires until Tisha Be-Av begins (Rema 553:2; MB <i>ad loc. </i>8; above 9:3).
  One may not read exciting books or newspapers, or study other disciplines on Tisha Be-Av, so as not to divert one’s attention from mourning (AHS, YD 384:9). However, it is permissible, and even fitting, to read history books about the destruction of the Temple, the exile, and the hardships that have befallen the Jewish people.
  
  Section 11
  
  The Laws of Tisha Be-Av / Greeting One Another
  Just as mourners may not greet others (SA YD 385), so too, one may not greet others on Tisha Be-Av (SA 554:20). The Hebrew expression that refers to greeting others is “<i>she’eilat shalom</i>,” which literally means to “inquire about the peace” of another. Since one who has lost a close relative is not in a state of peace, and no one is in a state of peace on Tisha Be-Av, because we are mourning the destruction of our Holy Temple, one may not greet others in either case.
  In particular, Torah students who know this <i>halakha</i> must be careful in this regard. However, when one who is unfamiliar with this <i>halakha</i> extends greetings, the recipient should return the greeting in a soft voice and serious tone, as one who is preoccupied with thoughts of mourning and sorrow, making sure not to insult the person in the slightest. If the person who initiated the greeting is eager to learn Torah and will definitely not be insulted, one should explain to him that we do not greet one another on Tisha Be-Av.
  According to most <i>poskim</i>, one may not even say, “Good morning,” or “Good evening” (MB 554:41, <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 554:90). Some, however, rule that only the greeting “<i>shalom</i>” is prohibited, but one may use phrases like “Good morning” (<i>Leket Yosher</i>). We already learned that in a time of need – in order to avoid insulting others – one may return a greeting; and since some maintain that “Good morning” and “Good evening” are not included in the prohibition, it is preferable to use these phrases rather than saying “<i>shalom</i>.”14<i class="footnote">We read in <i>t. Ta’anit</i> 3:11: “One may not greet <i>ḥaverim</i> on Tisha Be-Av, but [one may greet] a non-scholar in a soft voice.” Some understand this to mean that the prohibition applies only to Torah scholars, who are called <i>ḥaverim</i>. This appears to be Rambam’s view, as <i>Baḥ</i> understands it. However, <i>Mordechai</i>, <i>Mo’ed Katan</i> §895, presents a different version of the Tosefta: “One may not greet his friend (<i>ḥavero</i>).” SA 554:20 adopts this version, stating that one may not greet others on Tisha Be-Av, and that one who is greeted by someone who is unfamiliar with the <i>halakha</i> should answer in a soft voice. Virtually all the Aḥaronim concur. Nonetheless, we wrote above that one need not, and therefore should not, bring this to the attention of a non-scholar upon his greeting, since some maintain that such a person is not obligated in this <i>halakha</i>.</i>
  If one meets a friend who just got married or had a child, he may wish him “<i>mazal tov</i>,” since blessings and congratulations are not prohibited, only greetings (<i>Piskei Teshuvot</i> 554:19). Similarly, handshakes are not included in the prohibition (<i>Har Tzvi</i>, YD 290).
  Just as one may not greet others on Tisha Be-Av, one also may not send gifts to others (MB 554:41). Charity, however, is not considered a gift, so one may send food to the needy – it is even a mitzva to do so – so they can have something to eat after the fast (see <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 554:91).
  
  Section 12
  
  The Laws of Tisha Be-Av / Going on Trips and Visiting the Western Wall
  One must avoid going on trips on Tisha Be-Av, because they divert one’s attention from mourning. One should also avoid friendly conversations, because they can lead to laughter and levity (SA 554:21). It is better to discuss the destruction of the Temple, Israel’s tribulations, and the ways of achieving repentance for both the community and the individual.
  Even those who customarily visit cemeteries after reciting <i>Kinot</i> must take care not to go in large groups, because they might become distracted from mourning (Rema 559:10, MB <i>ad loc. </i>41).
  It is clear that one should not refrain from going to the Kotel (the Western Wall) out of concern that he might meet friends there and become happy. I heard from my father and teacher that there is no greater rectification for Tisha Be-Av than going to the Western Wall and praying for the Temple to be rebuilt speedily in our time. On the contrary, the fact that many people assemble there increases the power of one’s prayers and magnifies God’s glory. My father added that just as no one would claim that one may not build the Holy Temple during the Nine Days because it is an act of joyous building, so too it cannot be claimed that one may not visit the Western Wall on Tisha Be-Av since one might meet friends there. Rather, if one meets his friends there, he should avoid greeting them, but he may shake their hands affectionately and pray with them for the Temple to be rebuilt.
  
  Section 13
  
  The Laws of Tisha Be-Av / Sitting and Lying on the Ground
  Technically, there is no obligation to sleep or lie on the ground on Tisha Be-Av. This is because the Sages’ statement, “All <i>mitzvot</i> that apply to a mourner apply on Tisha Be-Av” (<i>Ta’anit</i> 30a), refers only to prohibitions, like washing, anointing oneself, wearing high-quality shoes, engaging in sexual relations, greeting others, and studying Torah. However, the <i>mitzvot</i> that a mourner must observe, like turning over his bed and sitting on the floor, technically do not apply on Tisha Be-Av (<i>Tur</i> §555). Nonetheless, it is customary to express our mourning on Tisha Be-Av in the way we lie down and sit as well. Since this law is based on custom, however, it is more lenient than the other prohibitions, as we will explain presently.
  Some people sleep on the ground on Tisha Be-Av; others sleep without a pillow; still others place a stone beneath their heads (SA 555:2). One who finds it difficult to sleep in this manner may sleep normally (MB 555:6). The prevalent custom is to place one’s mattress on the ground, thus precluding the need to remove one’s pillow. It is best to place a stone underneath the mattress. This way, one observes the custom of mourning without making it too difficult to fall asleep.
  It is customary to sit on the ground like mourners on Tisha Be-Av. However, since there is technically no halakhic obligation to do so, we are not stringent about this for the entire day (<i>Baḥ</i> 559:1). The Ashkenazic custom is to sit on the ground until midday, while the Sephardic custom is to do so until <i>Minḥa</i> <i>(</i>SA and Rema 559:3). Thus, one who takes a nap in the afternoon does not need to place his mattress on the ground.15<i class="footnote">Some rule that one may sit on a chair immediately after he is finished reciting <i>Kinot</i>. This is the opinion of <i>Sefer Ha-brit</i>, and it is also implied in <i>Sofrim</i> 18:7. Those who find it difficult to sit on the ground may rely on this ruling. Sephardim, as well, may be lenient, in a time of need, starting midday, or half an hour after midday, which is the earliest time one can pray <i>Minḥa</i>.</i>
  We already learned (above, 9:3) that some have a kabbalistic custom to refrain from sitting on the ground without a piece of cloth or wood between one’s body and the floor (<i>Birkei Yosef</i> 555:8). If the floor is tiled, however, many <i>poskim</i> maintain that there is no need for a separation, even according to Kabbala. Some are meticulous and use a separation even on tiled floors.
  Since there is technically no obligation to sit on the ground, one may sit on a small cushion or a low bench, but they should preferably be no higher than a <i>tefaḥ</i> (handbreadth) off the ground. If it is difficult to sit so low, one may be lenient and sit on a chair that is less than three <i>tefaḥim</i> high. If even this is difficult, one may sit on a chair that is slightly higher than three <i>tefaḥim</i>.16<i class="footnote">Maharil sat directly on the ground, but since there is no obligation to do so, MA 559:2 allows one to sit on a cushion. <i>Ben Ish Ḥai</i>, Year 1, Devarim 20 states that it should be no higher than a <i>tefaḥ</i>. Many are lenient and permit up to three <i>tefaḥim</i>, which is viewed as still attached to the ground (based on the principle of <i>lavud</i>), and Ḥazon Ish permits even more than three <i>tefaḥim</i>. MB 559:11 and SHT <i>ad loc. </i>9 permit one to sit on a low bench (which would likely be higher than three <i>tefaḥim</i>) in a time of need. Regarding the kabbalistic custom not to sit directly on the ground, see <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 552:39, which states that there is no obligation to use a separation when sitting on tiled floors. However, it is best to be stringent, when possible.</i> 
  Sitting on stairs is considered sitting on the ground, because people step on them (<i>Mekor Ḥayim</i>).
  Pregnant women, elderly people, sick people, and those who suffer from back pain – who find it difficult to sit on a low chair – may sit on regular chairs (AHS YD 387:3).
  
  Section 14
  
  The Laws of Tisha Be-Av / Working
  The Sages state: “Anyone who works on Tisha Be-Av will never see any sign of blessing from it” (<i>Ta’anit</i> 30b). The reason for this is that working distracts one from mourning. However, the Sages did not prohibit work on Tisha Be-Av explicitly. Rather, some places had a custom prohibiting it, while other places had a custom permitting it. Thus, the Sages ruled that the local custom determines one’s obligation, which means that one may not work on Tisha Be-Av in a place where it is customary to refrain from working (<i>Pesaḥim</i> 54b). Nowadays, the entire Jewish people have accepted the custom to refrain from working on Tisha Be-Av until midday. It is proper to continue doing so after midday, as well, in order to remain focused on the mourning. Therefore, we work after midday only if there is a great need (see SA and Rema 554:22, 24; MB <i>ad loc. </i>49).
  The types of work that are prohibited on Tisha Be-Av are those that take time and occupy one’s thoughts, like sewing, mending clothing, repairing furniture, fixing electrical appliances, and commerce. However, tasks that take little time to complete, like lighting or extinguishing a candle, tying or untying a knot, and traveling for a necessary purpose, are permitted, because they do not distract one from mourning. Writing is also considered work, because it is a distraction, but one may copy over things that are related to Tisha Be-Av.
  One may sell food items on Tisha Be-Av, so that people have food for the meal after the fast. At midday, one may begin preparing for the post-fast meal. Some women have a custom to clean the house meticulously after midday, in anticipation of the Messiah, who is supposed to be born on Tisha Be-Av, and one should not denounce their actions (<i>Birkei Yosef</i> 559:7).
  A Jew may instruct a non-Jew to do work for him on Tisha Be-Av. However, one may not instruct a non-Jew to do work that is done in public, like building a house or doing business in a store, because it appears disrespectful to the communal mourning (MB 554:46).
  One may do work on Tisha Be-Av if delaying the task will cause significant monetary loss, similar to the law on <i>Ḥol Ha-mo’ed</i> (SA 554:23).17<i class="footnote">SA implies that the prohibition on working, which is based on custom, applies for the entirety of Tisha Be-Av. The distinction I made between various types of work based on the duration of the task is found in <i>Terumat Ha-deshen</i> and Rema 554:22. The logic behind this distinction is that when it takes time to execute a task, it distracts one from mourning. This is the criterion that should be used to determine the law in every question in this matter. The Aḥaronim debate whether one may write on Tisha Be-Av, as BHL, s.v. “al,” and <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 554:110 demonstrate. My ruling in the main text follows the fundamental principle of the <i>halakha</i>: that it all depends on whether the task causes a distraction from mourning. If one is concerned that he will forget a novel idea that he thought of, he may write it down, in accordance with the law that permits one to do work in a situation of potential loss.</i>
  
  Section 15
  
  The Laws of Tisha Be-Av / Reading Eikha and Dimming the Lights
  We read Eikha after praying <i>Ma’ariv</i>. According to the Ashkenazic Rishonim, we recite a <i>berakha</i> over the reading of Eikha, as it is explained in <i>Sofrim </i>14:3 that we recite <i>berakhot </i>over the reading of all <i>megilot</i>.<i> </i>Others rule that we only recite a <i>berakha </i>when the <i>megilla </i>is written on parchment like a Torah scroll, but if it is not written on parchment we do not recite a <i>berakha </i>when we read it. Conversely, still others rule that even when a <i>megilla </i>is written on parchment we do not recite a <i>berakha </i>when we read it, since this <i>berakha </i>is not mentioned in the Talmud (<i>Beit Yosef </i>559:2). Many Aḥaronim ruled this way because of the uncertainty of the matter. In practice, all Sephardim and many Ashkenazim, including all Ḥasidim, read Eikha without reciting a <i>berakha</i>; while some Ashkenazim – especially those who follow the Vilna Gaon’s practices – read it from a kosher parchment scroll and recite a <i>berakha</i>.18<i class="footnote">It is explained in <i>Sofrim</i> 14:3 that we recite a <i>berakha</i> over the reading of all the <i>megilot</i>:<i> </i>Shir Ha-shirim on Pesaḥ, Rut on Shavu’ot, Eikha on Tisha Be-Av, Kohelet on Sukkot, and Esther on Purim. Thus rule the great Ashkanazic Rishonim: <i>Maḥzor Vitri</i>, <i>Hagahot Maimoniyot</i> in the name of Maharam, <i>Or Zaru’a, Shibolei Ha-leket, </i>Maharil, and <i>Ha-manhig</i>. Radbaz and <i>Beit Yosef</i> 559:2 state that people do not customarily recite a <i>berakha</i>. Rema 490:9 states that one should not recite a <i>berakha </i>because of the uncertainty involved, and <i>Taz</i>, <i>Pri Megadim</i>, and <i>Ḥok Yaakov</i> concur. In contrast<i>,</i> <i>Levush</i>, <i>Baḥ</i>, and MA 499:9<i> </i>rule that one should recite a <i>berakha</i>. Those who customarily recite a <i>berakha </i>take care to read the <i>megilla </i>from parchment (based on <i>Responsa Rema </i>§35 and MB 490:19). In <i>Peninei Halakha: Festivals </i>2:10 (and <i>Harḥavot ad loc.</i>) this law is explained from the perspective of all the various positions.</i>
  It is customary to darken the synagogue on the night of Tisha Be-Av, as it says, “He has made me dwell in darkness” (Eikha 3:6). The Midrash (<i>Eikha Rabba</i> 1:1) similarly states that God said to the ministering angels at the time of the destruction of the Temple, “What does a human king do when he is mourning?” They replied, “He extinguishes the lamps.” God said to them, “I will do the same,” as it says, “Sun and moon are darkened” (Yoel 2:10).
  Already at the beginning of the night, we turn off some of the lights in the synagogue, and it is proper to do the same at home. The main thing to be meticulous about is to dim the lights for the reading of Eikha, because that is when it was customary to blow out all the candles in the room, except for the few that were needed for reading Eikha (SA 559:3). Now that we use electric lights, some turn off all the lights before the reading and produce the necessary light with candles alone. Others keep a few electric lights on.
  The institution to read Eikha with the congregation primarily related to reading it at night, as it says in Eikha 1:2, “Bitterly she weeps in the night” (SA and Rema 559:1-2). However, many people have a custom to read it again during the day, after reciting the <i>Kinot</i>. In a place where the congregation does not read Eikha publicly during the day, it is proper for each individual to read it by himself (MB 559:2).
  
  Section 16
  
  The Laws of Tisha Be-Av / <i>Aneinu</i>, <i>Naḥem</i>, <i>Birkat Kohanim</i>, and <i>Taḥanun</i>
  The laws of reciting <i>Aneinu</i> on Tisha Be-Av are the same as on the other fast days, as explained above (7:10). As we learned, according to Sephardic custom, one should recite <i>Aneinu </i>in the silent <i>Amida </i>throughout the fast; therefore, on Tisha Be-Av, which begins at night, one should recite it at <i>Ma’ariv</i>, <i>Shaḥarit</i>, and <i>Minḥa</i>. According to Ashkenazic custom, however, the only silent prayer in which it is recited is <i>Minḥa</i>.
  The Sages instituted that one should add the <i>Naḥem</i> prayer to the <i>berakha</i> of <i>Boneh Yerushalayim</i> in the <i>Amida </i>whenever <i>Aneinu</i> is recited. The conclusion of the <i>berakha</i> is changed as well, becoming “<i>menaḥem Tziyon be-vinyan Yerushalayim</i>” (“Who comforts Zion with the rebuilding of Jerusalem”; Sephardic version) or “<i>menaḥem Tziyon u-voneh Yerushalayim</i>” (“Who comforts Zion and rebuilds Jerusalem”; Ashkenazic and North African version). 
  The text of <i>Naḥem</i> contains phrases that, seemingly, do not apply to modern-day Jerusalem, like: “The city…that grieves for the loss of its children…desolate without inhabitants. She sits with her head covered like a barren childless woman. Legions have devoured her; idolaters have taken possession of her.” However, it is difficult for us to change the formulation that the Sages instituted. In addition, unfortunately, this language can still apply to the Temple Mount. Furthermore, compared to what Jerusalem should be – the capital of the world, “perfect in beauty, joy of all the earth” (Eikha 2:15) – it is indeed considered destroyed and desolate.19<i class="footnote">One who forgets to recite <i>Naḥem</i> in its proper place should recite it in the <i>berakha</i> of <i>Avoda</i>, which relates to the Temple service (BHL §557). If one forgets to insert it there as well, he should recite it in <i>Elokai Netzor</i>. And if one remembers only after completing the entire <i>Amida</i>, he should not repeat the <i>Amida </i>in order to recite <i>Naḥem</i>.The custom of North African Jews is to recite <i>Naḥem</i> only at <i>Minḥa</i>, as Ashkenazim do (<i>Tefilat Ha-ḥodesh</i>). R. Mordechai Eliyahu writes in <i>Hilkhot Ḥagim</i> 27:2 that this is the normative Sephardic custom. The custom of the kabbalists of Yeshivat Ha-mekubalim (“Beit El”) is to recite <i>Naḥem</i> even at <i>Shaḥarit</i>.</i>
  One does not recite <i>Taḥanun</i> on Tisha Be-Av or at <i>Minḥa</i> on the eve of Tisha Be-Av, because Tisha Be-Av is called a <i>mo’ed</i>, as it says, “He has proclaimed a set time<i> </i>against me” (Eikha 1:15). The word “<i>mo’ed</i>” means “a set time” but is also used to mean “holiday.” In other words, if we are worthy, it will be a holiday; if not, it will be a set time of mourning (SA 559:4).
  Where the Kohanim recite <i>Birkat Kohanim </i>daily at <i>Shaḥarit</i>, the custom of some congregations is that they do not do so on Tisha Be-Av, as it says, “And when you lift up your hands, I will turn My eyes away from you” (Yeshayahu 1:15). This is similar to the <i>halakha</i> that a Kohen who is in mourning does not recite <i>Birkat Kohanim</i>, because he is forlorn and therefore unable to bless the congregants with peace. Most Ashkenazim and some Sephardim follow this custom. In other communities where <i>Birkat Kohanim </i>is generally recited, the Kohanim do recite it at <i>Shaḥarit</i> on Tisha Be-Av; this is the custom of the kabbalists of Jerusalem. Each community should continue following its own custom. According to all customs, in communities where <i>Birkat Kohanim </i>is recited daily, the Kohanim recite it at <i>Minḥa</i> on Tisha Be-Av, when the congregation prays <i>Minḥa </i>in the late afternoon (see above 7:12).
  On Tisha Be-Av, we pray like mourners do – patiently, in a soft voice, and without elaborate melodies (Rema 559:1).
  
  Section 17
  
  The Laws of Tisha Be-Av / Removing the Curtain from the Ark; <i>Talit</i> and <i>Tefilin</i>
  We remove the curtain from the synagogue’s ark prior to <i>Ma’ariv</i>, as it says, “The Lord has done what He purposed, has carried out the decree (<i>bitza emrato</i>)” (Eikha 2:17). Using a play on words, the Sages interpret the phrase <i>bitza emrato </i>to mean that God, as it were, tore His garment. This expresses the depths to which we have sunk since the Temple was destroyed (Rema 559:2). We return the curtain to its proper place before <i>Minḥa</i> (<i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 559:19). Many have a custom not to wear a <i>talit </i>or <i>tefilin</i> at <i>Shaḥarit</i>. Just as God, as it were, tore His garment, we too refrain from wearing a <i>talit</i>. And just as the verse states, “He has cast down from heaven to earth the majesty of Israel” (Eikha 2:1), which refers to God’s <i>tefilin</i>, so too we refrain from crowning ourselves with <i>tefilin</i>. However, since most Rishonim maintain that the mitzva of wearing <i>tefilin</i> applies on Tisha Be-Av as it does on all other days, we wear a <i>talit</i> and <i>tefilin</i> at <i>Minḥa</i>.
  We refrain from these <i>mitzvot</i> at <i>Shaḥarit</i> because that is when our mourning and pain reach their peak, with the recitation of the <i>Kinot</i>. By the time we pray <i>Minḥa</i>, however, we can already accept some consolation. <i>Shulḥan Arukh</i> rules that we follow this practice (555:1), and all Ashkenazic communities, as well as many Sephardic communities, follow it. However, one should wear his <i>talit katan</i> (<i>tzitzit</i>)<i> </i>from the beginning of the day as usual. Since it is uncertain whether one should recite a <i>berakha</i> when putting on <i>tzitzit</i> on the morning of Tisha Be-Av, it is preferable to sleep in one’s <i>tzitzit</i> on the night of Tisha Be-Av. This way, one will not be obligated to recite the <i>berakha</i> in the morning. Only before <i>Minḥa</i> should one recite the <i>berakha</i>, upon wrapping himself in his <i>talit</i>.
  Some are careful not to recite <i>Shema</i> without wearing a <i>talit</i> and <i>tefilin</i>, so they put them on at home before <i>Shaḥarit</i>, recite <i>Shema</i>, and then go to pray with the congregation without wearing a <i>talit</i> and <i>tefilin</i>. Some Sephardic communities have the custom to wear a <i>talit</i> and <i>tefilin</i> at <i>Shaḥarit</i>, as usual. Each community should continue following its custom.20<i class="footnote">According to Raavad, one should not wear <i>tefilin</i> on Tisha Be-Av, just like a mourner does not wear <i>tefilin</i> on his first day of mourning. Others maintain that although there is no obligation to wear <i>tefilin</i> on Tisha Be-Av, there is also no prohibition to do so. Me’iri quotes this in the name of “a few sages,” and <i>Magid Mishneh</i> explains that this is Rambam’s opinion (regarding the <i>tefilin </i>worn on the head). Ramban, Rashba, Rosh, and most Rishonim maintain that one must wear <i>tefilin</i> on Tisha Be-Av. The prevalent custom, as cited in SA 555:1, is not to wear them until <i>Minḥa</i>. Similarly, Maharam of Rothenburg and other Rishonim are quoted as saying that at <i>Shaḥarit</i> one should act as if it is the first day of one’s personal mourning and refrain from wearing <i>tefilin</i>. However, after <i>Minḥa</i> time, one must put on his <i>tefilin</i>, as if it is an ordinary day. Many great Sephardic sages, as well as a few Ashkenazic sages, took care to wear their <i>talit</i> and <i>tefilin</i> before <i>Shaḥarit</i>, in order to recite the <i>Shema</i> in the optimal way; afterward, they would go to the synagogue and pray with the congregation without wearing a <i>talit</i> and <i>tefilin</i>. This was the practice of Maharam Galanti. Some suggested that everyone should adopt this practice, including <i>Ben Ish Ḥai</i>, Year 1, Devarim 25 and R. Ḥayim Palachi. Some communities prayed together while wearing their <i>talitot</i> and <i>tefilin</i>. <i>Knesset Ha-gedola</i> states that this was the custom in Salonica, and <i>Shulḥan Gavo’ah</i> attests that this was the custom in Izmir. The kabbalists of Yeshivat Ha-mekubalim (“Beit El”) in Jerusalem also followed this custom, as cited in <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 555:4. If one’s father’s custom is to wear <i>tefilin</i> at <i>Shaḥarit</i> in the synagogue, and he himself prays in a congregation where they do not wear <i>tefilin</i>, he should put on <i>tefilin</i> at home, recite <i>Shema</i>, and then join the congregation at the synagogue without wearing <i>tefilin</i>.</i>
  
  Section 18
  
  The Laws of Tisha Be-Av / Torah Verses in the Prayers and in the <i>Berakha</i> of <i>She-asa Li Kol Tzorki</i>
  Most of the passages recited in the <i>Korbanot</i> section were included in the regular prayer service for two reasons: 1) to substitute for the actual offerings and as a preparation for prayer; and 2) so that every Jew studies a bit of Torah each day from Scripture, Mishna, and Talmud. Consequently, on Tisha Be-Av, when one may not study Torah, the question arises: May one recite these passages? Many <i>poskim</i> maintain that the main purpose of any part of our liturgy is simply to serve as prayer. Therefore, one may recite any liturgical passages on Tisha Be-Av. Sephardim, as well as some Ashkenazim, follow this viewpoint in practice. Others maintain that on Tisha Be-Av one may recite only what he recites on a regular basis in his prayers. He should not, however, recite passages that he does not usually recite in <i>Korbanot</i>.21<i class="footnote">SA 554:3 states that one may recite the entire daily liturgy, including the <i>midrash</i> of R. Yishmael. AHS 554:6 concurs. Rema 559:4 writes that one should not recite <i>Pitum Ha-ketoret</i>. See <i>Hilkhot Ḥag Be-ḥag</i> 7:44, which explains that Rema is referring to the <i>Pitum Ha-ketoret</i> at the end of <i>Shaḥarit</i>, since not everyone recites it. MB 554:7, however, implies that Rema is referring to the <i>Pitum Ha-ketoret</i> recited before the prayer service. Either way, it seems from MB that, as a rule, whatever one regularly recites in their daily prayers may be recited on Tisha Be-Av. This is the second opinion I recorded in the main text.</i>
  Some people recite several chapters of Tehilim every day, such that they complete the entire book every month. Some maintain that one may recite these daily chapters on Tisha Be-Av after midday. Others maintain that it is better to postpone reciting these chapters until after Tisha Be-Av (MB 554:7, <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 554:20).22<i class="footnote"><i>Taz</i> permits reciting on Tisha Be-Av the section of the weekly <i>parasha</i> designated for that day, in order to fulfill the rabbinic requirement of <i>shnayim mikra ve-eḥad targum</i>. Some rely on this opinion, including Chabad Ḥasidim, who recite sections of “<i>Ḥitat</i>”<i> </i>(<i>Ḥumash</i>, Tehilim, and <i>Tanya</i>) daily. However, the vast majority of Aḥaronim do not accept this viewpoint, as explained in SHT 554:11. Similarly, one should not read the daily portion of <i>Ḥok Le-Yisrael</i> or <i>Ma’amadot</i>, as <i>Birkei Yosef</i> 554:5 and MB 554:7 state. One may recite Tehilim on behalf of a sick person even before midday, because it is for a special need (<i>Divrei Malkiel</i> 6:9; <i>Torat Ha-mo’adim</i> 8:19, end of note).</i>
  One of the morning blessings<i> </i>is the <i>berakha </i>of <i>She-asa li Kol Tzorki</i>, which expresses gratitude to God for providing us with shoes to wear. Even though one may not wear high-quality shoes on Tisha Be-Av and Yom Kippur, Ashkenazim and some Sephardim recite the <i>berakha</i>, because it is a general expression of thanksgiving for the normal way of the world, not for the shoes one wears on any particular day. Moreover, one may wear low-quality shoes on these days. Furthermore, we put on regular shoes after the fast is over, and some say that the <i>Birkhot Ha-shaḥar </i>apply to the night as well. According to Arizal, however, one should not recite this <i>berakha</i> on these days, and most Sephardim follow this position.23<i class="footnote">Rosh, Ran, and <i>Tur </i>(OḤ 613) maintain that one should recite <i>She-asa li Kol Tzorki</i> on Yom Kippur, and MB 554:31 concurs. According to Rambam, however, one should not recite the <i>berakha</i>, because he maintains that if one does not derive pleasure from something, he does not recite a <i>berakha</i> on it, as <i>Beit Yosef</i>, OḤ 613 explains. The Vilna Gaon followed this custom as well, but he would recite the <i>berakha</i> after the fast, upon putting on his regular shoes (<i>Ma’aseh Rav</i> §9). In general, Arizal’s custom was to recite <i>berakhot</i> even on things that do not provide pleasure (see <i>Peninei Halakha</i>: <i>Prayer</i> 9:3), but he ruled that one should not recite this <i>berakha</i> on fast days, and his adherents follow this practice, as quoted in <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 46:17. <i>Rav Pe’alim</i> 2:8 states that one should not recite the <i>berakha</i> even after the fast ends. See <i>Torat Ha-mo’adim</i> 10:14, which mentions the accepted Sephardic ruling not to recite the <i>berakha</i> on fast days, but adds that those who do recite it have authorities to rely on, and that R. Ovadia Yosef (the author’s father) recites the <i>berakha</i>.</i>
  On the night of Tisha Be-Av, one may recite all the passages of the bedtime <i>Shema</i>, because one recites the verses in these passages as prayer, not as Torah study.
  
  Section 19
  
  The Laws of Tisha Be-Av / The Laws of the Tenth of Av
  The Babylonians conquered the Temple on the seventh of Av and set it ablaze toward evening on the ninth of the month, and it continued burning throughout the tenth. R. Yoḥanan commented that had he been alive at the time, he would have established the fast on the tenth of Av, because most of the Temple burned on that day. Some Amora’im adopted a stringency to fast on both the ninth and the tenth of Av. However, the prophets and the Sages established the fast on the ninth of Av, because the beginning of any calamity is more severe than its continuation, and the calamity of the Temple’s destruction began on the ninth of Av (<i>Ta’anit</i> 29a, <i>y. Ta’anit</i> 4:6). 
  Nonetheless, since the majority of the Temple actually burned on the tenth of Av, the Jewish people refrained from eating meat and drinking wine on that date: the whole day according to Sephardic custom, and until midday according to Ashkenazic custom (SA and Rema 558:1).
  Most Aḥaronim maintain that, in addition to abstaining from meat and wine, one may not do laundry or wear freshly laundered clothes, get a haircut, listen to happy music, or bathe in hot water on the tenth of Av. However, one may wash with lukewarm water. Some rule leniently, maintaining that one must only abstain from meat and wine, but may bathe, get a haircut, and do laundry without restriction. Ideally, one should follow the more stringent opinion, but one may be lenient under pressing circumstances.24<i class="footnote">Those who rule stringently include Maharshal, <i>Baḥ</i>, MA, <i>Eliya Rabba</i>, and others. Many people believe that Ashkenazim are stringent in this regard while Sephardim are lenient, but this is not borne out in the Aḥaronim. Many Sephardic <i>poskim</i> prohibit washing clothes, bathing, and cutting one’s hair on the tenth of Av, including: Ḥida (<i>Maḥzik Berakha</i> 558:1); R. Ḥayim Palachi (<i>Mo’ed Le-khol Ḥai</i> 10:92); and <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 558:6. <i>Knesset Ha-gedola</i> (<i>Hagahot Tur</i> §558), <i>Ma’amar Mordechai</i>, and <i>Yeḥaveh</i> <i>Da’at </i>5:41 rule leniently. BHL states that one may rely on the lenient opinion under pressing circumstances, a view that is shared by most <i>poskim</i>. R. Mordechai Eliyahu rules stringently (<i>Hilkhot Ḥagim</i> 29:3-4), adding that one who is stringent regarding all of the prohibitions for the entirety of the tenth of Av should be commended. <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 558:10 concurs.In general, the status of the tenth of Av is like that of the Nine Days according to Ashkenazic custom, albeit slightly more lenient. During the Nine Days, it is customary to limit the number of people one invites to a <i>se’udat mitzva</i> in which meat and wine are served. On the tenth of Av, however, we make no such limitations (MB 558:2). Some Ḥasidim have a custom to make a <i>siyum</i> on the night after Tisha Be-Av, because joy is hidden in the day’s inner essence, since the redemption begins then. The <i>poskim</i> also allow one to eat food that was cooked with meat – thus lending it the taste of meat – after the fast (BHL 558:2). It is proper to refrain from sexual relations on the night of the tenth of Av. However, if the wife went to the <i>mikveh</i> that night, or if either the husband or wife is going on a long trip the next day, they should not abstain from sexual relations (MB 558:2, <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 558:7).</i>
  Another prevalent custom is to refrain from reciting <i>She-heḥeyanu</i> on the tenth of Av, like during the Three Weeks (Ḥida, <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 558:8; see above 8:7-8).
  When the tenth of Av falls on a Friday, one may get a haircut, do laundry, and bathe in preparation for Shabbat, starting from the morning. If one is pressed for time, he may even start preparing for Shabbat immediately after Tisha Be-Av ends (MB 558:3; AHS 558:2; in the next section, we will explain the laws of the night after the fast when Tisha Be-Av is postponed).
  It is customary to postpone <i>Birkat Ha-levana</i> until after Tisha Be-Av, because the <i>berakha</i> must be recited joyously, and we curtail our joy during the Nine Days. Many people recite it immediately after <i>Ma’ariv</i> at the conclusion of the fast, but ideally it is improper to do so. After all, it is difficult to be happy then, when one has yet to drink, eat, wash his face and hands, or put on regular shoes. Therefore, each community should set a time – about an hour or two after the fast – for reciting <i>Birkat Ha-levana</i>, and in the meantime everyone will have a chance to eat and wash themselves somewhat. This way, they will be able to recite the <i>berakha</i> joyously. Where there is concern that postponing <i>Birkat Ha-levana</i> may cause some people to forget to recite it, the congregation may recite it immediately after the fast, but it is best to take a drink and wash one’s face beforehand.25<i class="footnote">We already mentioned this <i>halakha</i> above, 1:16. According to Maharil, <i>Birkat Ha-levana</i> should be postponed to another day. Rema 426:2 states that if Tisha Be-Av falls out on a Thursday, <i>Birkat Ha-levana</i> should be postponed to <i>Motza’ei Shabbat</i>, but if the fast falls out on any other day, the <i>berakha</i> should be recited the next night. However, most Aḥaronim write that one should not delay the mitzva. Rather, one must recite <i>Birkat Ha-levana</i> immediately after Tisha Be-Av. <i>Knesset Ha-gedola</i>, <i>Pri Ḥadash</i>, Ḥida, <i>Ḥayei Adam</i>, and MB 426:11 all concur. Some add another reason: We are somewhat happy on the night after Tisha Be-Av, because according to our tradition, the Messiah is born on Tisha Be-Av; therefore, it is fitting to recite <i>Birkat Ha-levana </i>then. Nonetheless, MB and other Aḥaronim write that it is proper to eat and put on regular shoes before reciting the <i>berakha</i>. See above, 1:16.</i>
  
  Section 20
  
  The Laws of Tisha Be-Av / When Tisha Be-Av Falls Out on Shabbat and is Postponed
  When the ninth of Av falls out on Shabbat, the fast is postponed to Sunday. On that Shabbat, we show no signs of mourning. Rather, we eat and drink like we do on any other Shabbat; one may even serve a meal as lavish as that of King Shlomo in his time (see above 9:4).26<i class="footnote">SA 554:19 states that when the ninth of Av coincides with Shabbat, one may engage in all the activities that are ordinarily prohibited on Tisha Be-Av, including sexual relations. Rema, however, rules that one should refrain from sexual relations, since acts of private mourning remain prohibited on that Shabbat, and refraining from these activities does not diminish the honor of Shabbat. MB <i>ad loc. </i>40 states – based on <i>Shlah</i> and MA – that on the night when a woman has immersed in a <i>mikveh</i>, when it is a mitzva to engage in sexual relations, even those who usually follow Rema’s rulings rely on SA’s opinion.</i>
  As we learned above (section 4), pregnant and nursing women must fast on Tisha Be-Av. If the fast was postponed, however, the law is more lenient: if they feel slightly weak or if they experience some type of pain, they are exempt from fasting, even though they are not actually sick (BHL 559:9, s.v. “ve-eino”; <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 559:75).
  The main participants at a <i>brit mila</i> must fast on Tisha Be-Av. However, the law is more lenient when the ninth of Av falls out on Shabbat and the fast is postponed to Sunday. According to most <i>poskim</i>, the main participants at a <i>brit mila </i>may pray <i>Minḥa</i> after midday, perform the circumcision immediately afterward, and then eat and drink. Some <i>poskim</i> rule stringently on the matter. In practice, the prevalent custom is to perform the <i>brit mila</i> toward the end of the fast and schedule the meal for after <i>tzeit ha-kokhavim</i>.27<i class="footnote">SA 559:8 rules leniently and permits the main participants in the <i>brit mila </i>to eat and drink on a postponed fast day, and most <i>poskim </i>concur, including MB and <i>Torat Ha-mo’adim </i>2:5. However, other <i>poskim</i>, such as MA 559:11, rule stringently; also see <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 559:74. Many communities follow this stringent position in practice. <i>Knesset Ha-gedola</i> states that the Jews of Turkey were stringent in this regard; <i>Shulḥan Gavo’ah</i> states that this was also the custom in Salonica; and <i>Responsa Pe’ulat Tzadik</i> 3:147 states that this was the custom in Yemen as well. AHS 559:9 states: “We have never seen or heard of anyone” scheduling a meal on a postponed Tisha Be-Av, or even on one of the minor fasts that was postponed. (<i>Yeḥaveh Da’at</i> 3:40 rules leniently regarding pregnant and nursing women when the fast is postponed, even if the woman feels no discomfort at all.)</i>
  When the ninth of Av falls out on Shabbat and the fast is postponed to Sunday, the tenth of Av, the customs of mourning do not continue after the fast ends. Thus, one may get a haircut, do laundry, and bathe in hot water immediately after <i>tzeit</i>. However, many authorities maintain that one should refrain from eating meat and drinking wine that night. Since everyone fasted during the day, it is improper to rejoice immediately by consuming meat and wine (Rema 558:1, MB <i>ad loc. </i>4-5, <i>Hilkhot Ḥagim</i> 29:9). Others are lenient and permit eating meat and drinking wine immediately once the fast ends (R. Ḥayim Vital, <i>Pri Ḥadash</i>, <i>Torat Ha-mo’adim</i> 11:8).
  
  Section 21
  
  The Laws of Tisha Be-Av / Minors
  It is a mitzva to educate our children to observe the <i>mitzvot</i> relating to Tisha Be-Av and mourning over the destruction of the Temple, just as we teach them about all other <i>mitzvot</i>. Since children are weak, however, we cannot train them to fast. From the age of nine, we train them to fast for a few hours, depending on their strength. They should not fast the entire day (<i>Responsa Rema</i> <i>Mi-Fano</i> §111; see <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 554:23). When feeding children on Tisha Be-Av, one should give them only simple foods, in order to teach them to join with the community in mourning (MB 550:5). 
  Many people teach their children who have the appropriate age – around six years old – not to eat or drink on the night of the fast.
  Once children reach the age<i> </i>when they begin to understand the story of the destruction of the Temple and the concept of mourning over it – at about age six – we teach them not to wear shoes that people would normally wear when walking on rocky ground. We also teach them not to apply ointments or bathe for pleasure. Some are stringent with regard to wearing shoes even from the age of two or three. Even though children at this age do not understand the concept of mourning, the inclusion of even our children – if only to a certain extent – in our mourning nonetheless serves to express our anguish over the destruction of the Temple.28<i class="footnote">SA 616:1 rules that on Yom Kippur, minors must observe only the prohibition against wearing shoes, because doing so does not cause that much pain, while we may wash and anoint them. However, the reason for this leniency is that people used to wash and anoint young children in order to help them grow. Today, though, when we do not follow this practice, it seems that one may not wash and anoint minors just as we may not allow them to wear shoes. <i>Nit’ei Gavriel</i> 69:2, 73:3 rules this way as well. <i>Ḥokhmat Adam</i> 152:17 states that one does not need to train children on Tisha Be-Av, even with regard to wearing shoes, because we educate children to observe these laws only on Yom Kippur. On Tisha Be-Av and in cases of personal mourning, however, there is no need to do so if it entails even a small degree of pain. MA 551:38, however, asserts that we educate children to keep the laws of public mourning. MB 551:81 concurs, adding that there are two reasons why adults may not cut children’s hair during the Nine Days: 1) for educational purposes – accordingly, the prohibition starts at age six; and 2) to generate feelings of sorrow among the adults – in which case the prohibition starts even before then. (<i>Piskei Teshuvot</i> 554:15 concludes that, either way, everyone agrees that there is no need to be stringent before the age of two or three.)</i>
  Just as adults may not study Torah on Tisha Be-Av, because it brings one joy, and one may only study sad topics related to the destruction of the Temple and the laws of mourning (above, section 10), so too with regard to teaching children: adults may only teach children topics related to the destruction of the Temple and mourning. Some maintain that adults may not teach children even topics and laws related to the destruction of the Temple, because adults feel joy when they teach children. According to these authorities, the only way one may teach children Torah on Tisha Be-Av is by telling them the story of the Temple’s destruction (MB 554:2; see <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 554:8). Since these two opinions are equally represented, every person may choose the opinion he wants to follow. Everyone agrees, however, that a minor may learn, on his own, whatever an adult may learn.29<i class="footnote"><i>Baḥ</i>, <i>Taz</i>, and others assert that children who understand what they learn may study sorrowful topics. When the Sages stated that one may not teach children, they were referring to teaching them their regular course of study. MA maintains that an adult should not teach children even sad topics, but one may tell them stories about the destruction of the Temple.</i>
  
  
  
  
  
  Section 1
  
  Ḥanuka / The Enduring Holiday of Ḥanuka
  The Talmud describes the story of Ḥanuka, which occurred during the Second Temple era, in a brief passage:When the Greeks entered the Temple, they defiled all the oils therein. When the Hasmoneans prevailed and defeated them, they searched and found only one cruse of oil that was marked with the seal of the High Priest, but which contained sufficient for one day’s lighting only; yet a miracle was performed there and they lit [the <i>Menora</i>] for eight days with this [oil]. Another year these [days] were designated a holiday with [the recitation of] <i>Hallel</i> and thanksgiving. (<i>Shabbat</i> 21b)It is likewise forbidden to fast or deliver eulogies on these days (<i>Megilat Ta’anit</i> 9:2).
  The Sages established many holidays during the Second Temple era, to thank God and rejoice over the salvations He performed for Israel. These holidays are all mentioned in <i>Megilat Ta’anit</i>. Many of these holidays commemorate the victories of the Hasmoneans: 13 Adar was “Nicanor Day,” when the Hasmoneans defeated a large Greek army and killed their commander, Nicanor; 14 Sivan was the day they conquered Caesarea; 22 Elul, when the Hasmoneans killed the apostates who refused to repent; 23 Marḥeshvan, when the Hasmoneans destroyed the brothel that the Greeks had built near the Holy Temple; and 25 Marḥeshvan, when they conquered Samaria and began settling it.1<i class="footnote">Additionally: On 22 Shevat, because during the Hasmonean Revolt, the wicked Antiochus traveled to Jerusalem to destroy the city and annihilate its Jewish inhabitants. Upon hearing troubling reports of rebellion in the eastern part of his kingdom, however, he was forced to end the siege of Jerusalem on that day (in 167 BCE). He eventually died during these rebellions. On 3 Kislev, the Hasmoneans removed the idols that the Greek troops had placed in the Holy Temple. On 24 Av, the Hasmoneans reinstated Torah law as the official legal system, instead of Greek law. On 23 Iyar, Shimon ben Matityahu the Hasmonean conquered the Acra fortress that housed a Greek garrison even after the city was liberated. On 27 Iyar, the Hasmoneans (apparently during the reign of Yonatan ben Matityahu) banned the idolatrous images that hung upon the entrances of houses and stores. On 15-16 Sivan, the Hasmoneans conquered Beit She’an and drove out the gentiles who oppressed the Jews. The Sages also established holidays to commemorate the deaths of evil kings who persecuted them: King Yannai on 2 Shevat and King Herod on 7 Kislev. Many other dates are mentioned in <i>Megilat Ta’anit</i>.</i>
  However, after the destruction of the Second Temple, the Sages abolished <i>Megilat Ta’anit</i> (SA 573:1) because all of the wonderful things that happened on those days were no longer relevant and thus no longer constituted a reason to rejoice. One may even fast and deliver eulogies on these days. Only Ḥanuka remains of all those day, as the Sages explain, because of the unique miracle of the oil that it commemorates and the mitzva of lighting Ḥanuka candles that the Sages enacted to publicize the miracle. And since we already observe the mitzva of lighting the Ḥanuka candles, we also preserve the other aspects of the holiday: we thank God by inserting <i>Al Ha-nisim</i> into our prayers; we praise God for saving His people by reciting <i>Hallel</i>; and we refrain from fasting and eulogizing throughout the holiday (see RH 18b; Rashi and Ritva <i>ad loc.</i>).
  In order to understand better the significance of Ḥanuka and the miracle of the oil – the only remnants of all the holidays that existed during the Second Temple era – we must elaborate a bit on the events of those days and their meaning.
  
  Section 2
  
  Ḥanuka / The Greek Empire
  Over the course of hundreds of years, an advanced culture developed in Greece and accomplished a great deal in the realms of science, philosophy, literature, art, architecture, military strategy, and politics. Its power increased gradually. In defeating his adversaries, King Philip II of Macedon united the Greek city-states under his rule. He invited the great Greek philosopher and scientist Aristotle to tutor his son, Alexander III, later known as Alexander the Great. When Alexander ascended the throne, he began a campaign of conquests, and within three years (3426-3429/ 334-331 BCE), his army had conquered vast expanses of territory – Asia Minor, Eretz Yisrael, Egypt, and the entire mighty Persian Empire as far as India.
  After Alexander died, the generals of the Macedonian army began fighting over the throne. In the end, they divided the vast territory under their control into several Greek kingdoms.
  As a result of the conquests, Greek culture spread throughout the world, consuming all other cultures and forming a single Hellenistic civilization. The system of government, language, culture, and sporting competitions in every country were Hellenistic. The upper classes and the nobility of every land assimilated into Hellenistic culture imitated its ways.
  Judea was among the areas ruled by the Greeks, and there, too, Hellenism spread. The Jews, however, were different from all the other nations, and the process of Hellenization proceeded relatively slowly in Judea. Nonetheless, over the course of 160 years of Greek rule, the influence of the Hellenists grew increasingly stronger, mostly over the affluent. It reached the point where the High Priests, Jason and Menelaus, were leading supporters of Hellenization, working to increase Greek influence in Judea. Jason built a gymnasium near the Holy Temple, which caused the priests to prefer watching wrestling matches rather than performing their sacrificial duties in the Temple.2<i class="footnote">Alexander the Great died in 3437 (323 BCE). At first, Ptolemy I and Seleucus I fought Antigonus I, defeating him in the Battle of Aza in 3448 (312 BCE). The winners divided the spoils, with Ptolemy taking Egypt and Seleucus taking Syria and Babylonia. Later, the two fought each other over Eretz Yisrael, and the Ptolemaic dynasty prevailed, taking control of the Holy Land for over a hundred years, starting in 3458 (301 BCE). In the year 3562 (198 BCE), Antiochus III, a member of the Seleucid dynasty, conquered Eretz Yisrael, but his power waned toward the end of his life. He attempted to conquer the kingdom of Pergamon in Asia Minor, but the Romans intervened on their behalf and defeated Antiochus, who was forced to pay a steep war indemnity. His son Antiochus IV Epiphanes, the wicked king who enacted evil decrees against the Jews, took the reins of power after his father’s demise (3584-3596/ 176-164 BCE). (Most of the information in this and the following notes is taken from Dr. Mordechai Breuer’s <i>Divrei Ha-yamim Le-Yisrael U-le’umot Ha-olam</i>.)</i>
  
  Section 3
  
  Ḥanuka / Evil Decrees and Rebellion
  In the year 3591 from creation (169 BCE), around 160 years after the Greeks conquered Eretz Yisrael, Antiochus IV Epiphanes began oppressing the Jews. Under his rule, the Greeks plundered the holy vessels of the Temple, breached the walls of Jerusalem, murdered thousands of Jews, and enslaved many others. In 3593 (167 BCE), Antiochus decreed that the Jews must forsake the Torah and its <i>mitzvot</i> and worship idols. He made it a capital crime to perform <i>mitzvot</i>, abolished the sacrificial service in the Temple, and turned the Temple into a place of idolatry. Torah scrolls were torn and burned. Antiochus’ soldiers went from town to town forcing the Jews to eat pork and erect an altar for idol worship. They prohibited the practice of <i>brit mila</i>,<i> </i>and Jewish women who insisted on circumcising their sons were executed. As a result of these decrees, many pious Jews fled to the wilderness, caves, or other countries; and many were murdered in sanctification of God’s name.
  The intense pressure that the Greeks exerted against the Jews kindled a spark in their souls, and when the Greeks arrived in the village of Modi’in, with the intention of forcing Matityahu b. Yoḥanan the High Priest to worship idols, Matityahu rose up and killed the Greek officer and his Hellenized Jewish collaborators. The novelty of his action was that instead of dying in sanctification of God’s name, like the other pious Jews, he decided to kill the oppressor. By doing so, he and his sons raised the banner of rebellion against the Greeks and Hellenization.
  The war was difficult. Yehuda the Maccabee, the boldest of Matityahu’s sons, led the fighters. With courage and skill, the Hasmoneans overcame the Greek forces, and after two years of fighting they succeeded in conquering Jerusalem. On the 25th of Kislev, 3596 (165 BCE), they began purifying the Temple and restoring the sacrificial service to its original state. This is when the miracle of the oil took place.
  Later on, the Greeks returned to Eretz Yisrael in greater numbers, conquered Jerusalem, and put Hellenized Kohanim in charge of the Temple. However, in order to avoid increasing tensions with the Jews, they abolished the evil decrees and allowed the Jews to observe the Torah and the <i>mitzvot</i>. But this did not stop the rebellion; the Hasmoneans continued to fight against the Greeks and Hellenism. The war effort had ups and downs, but the Hasmonean brothers combined strength, diplomacy, and cunning to eventually gain political independence, decades later. Granted, the Jews lived under the aegis of the mighty empires of the ancient world – first the Greeks and then the Romans – but rule over Eretz Yisrael was by the Jews and for the Jews.3<i class="footnote">On the thirteenth of Adar, 3599 (161 BCE), Yehuda the Maccabee’s troops defeated the army of Greek general Nicanor; Nicanor was killed and the remnants of his troops retreated. This day was celebrated as “the Day of Nicanor” for generations. Immediately thereafter, the Greeks sent Bacchides at the head of a large army. Yehuda, unable to mobilize a greater number of fighters, stood against him with a mere 800 soldiers. Yehuda was killed in this battle (3600/ 160 BCE). Bacchides conquered the entire Eretz Yisrael and awarded the position of High Priest to Alcimus, a Hellenist, who executed sixty of Israel’s elder sages. Yonatan, Yehuda’s brother, assumed command of the remaining Hasmonean fighters, who had fled and gone into hiding. Over time, the Hasmoneans regained their strength and managed to harass the Greeks, but they were unable to reconquer Jerusalem. Then, a threat arose against King Demetrius’ rule, and in order to maintain his power he made a pact with the Hasmoneans, giving them Jerusalem and autonomy. Yonatan took advantage of the struggle for power in the Seleucid dynasty and obtained additional concessions from Demetrius’s rival. Thus, in the year 3608 (152 BCE), the Hellenist administrators of the Holy Temple were deposed and Yonatan began serving as High Priest. Diodotus Tryphon, one of the Greek rulers who opposed Yonatan’s increasing power in Jerusalem, lured him into meeting for a friendly conference and then murdered him (3618/ 142 BCE). Shimon inherited his brother’s command and made a treaty with Tryphon’s rival, in exchange for a tax exemption for the Jews of Judea. While the Greek kings were preoccupied with internal battles, Shimon cleansed Eretz Yisrael of the vestiges of Greek influence, conquered the fortress of Accra (23 Iyar, 3619/ 141 BCE, a date later established as a holiday), as well as additional cities surrounding Judea, and fortified its political independence. When Antiochus VII Sidetes defeated his enemies and no longer needed Shimon’s aid, he instigated a conspiracy against him, and indeed, Shimon’s son-in-law Ptolemy murdered Shimon, along with two of his sons (3625/ 135 BCE). With Antiochus’s help, Ptolemy tried to take control of Judea, but Yoḥanan Hyrcanus, Shimon’s faithful son, fought him. Then, Antiochus came to assist the murderous Ptolemy, pillaging Judea and bringing Jerusalem under heavy siege. However, Antiochus was forced to retreat because of revolts that sprang up against him elsewhere. He accepted Yoḥanan’s peace proposal, which stated that the Jews would pay a heavy tax to the Greeks in exchange for partial autonomy. Yoḥanan was appointed High Priest and <i>nasi</i>. Shortly thereafter, Antiochus’ army was crushed by the Parthians and Antiochus himself was killed. At this time, Yoḥanan began conquering additional territory in Eretz Yisrael, in order to expand Jewish settlement at the expense of the gentiles and to cleanse the land of idolatry. These conquests brought the Jews wealth and economic prosperity. Yoḥanan ruled Judea for 31 years (3625-3656/ 135-104 BCE), acting righteously most of his lifetime and strengthening the Sanhedrin. At the end of his life, however, he joined the Sadducees.</i>
  It seems quite evident that had the Greeks been more patient, Judea would have succumbed to Hellenism, just like the other nations did. But the hand of God, which conceals itself in the historical process, generated the conflict. Just as He hardened Pharaoh’s heart during the Exodus, so too, He hardened Antiochus’ heart, and in the process helped reveal the faith, self-sacrifice, and courage of the Jewish people.
  
  Section 4
  
  Ḥanuka / Crises in the Hasmonean Dynasty
  After the war against the Greeks ended in a military and political victory, the cultural struggle returned to the fore. We still needed to defend ourselves against the torrent of Hellenism that had already engulfed all of the surrounding cultures. Greek culture was very powerful. Its methods of scientific research were advanced; its military strategy was excellent; its system of government was efficient; its sculptures and architectural designs were impressive; its dramatic performances captivated; and its sporting events thrilled. This is why Greek culture succeeded in spreading so vigorously throughout the civilized world. Centuries later, when Rome had already become the major military power in the world, Greek culture remained the dominant cultural force.
  Although the Hasmonean revolt impeded the process of Hellenization, it did not stop it entirely. A few decades later, Hellenism once again struck deep roots among wealthy Jews and among those who were in close contact with the gentiles. The Hellenists of the Hasmonean era were known as Sadducees; they did not preach total assimilation, but they believed that it was possible to combine loyalty to the Written Torah and Greek culture within a Jewish national framework.
  One of the great tragedies of Jewish history is that the descendants of Matityahu, who sacrificed his life to fight Hellenism, were themselves drawn to Hellenism and persecuted the Sages of Israel, the defenders of our tradition. Matityahu’s great-grandson was King Yannai, who also served as High Priest. An evil man, Yannai believed that his death would gladden the Sages and their supporters. In order to spoil their joy, he commanded that immediately following his death a large number of Sages should be executed. After he died, however, his heirs, led by his wife Shlomtziyon, disobeyed his orders. The Sages declared the day of Yannai’s death a joyous day of thanksgiving, marking the demise of an evildoer and the salvation of the Sages.
  Eventually, the slaves of the Hasmoneans – foremost among them, Herod – overcame their masters, annihilated the entire Hasmonean line, and ruled in their stead. The Sages thus declared: “Anyone who claims to be from the Hasmonean dynasty is either a slave or a liar” (BB 3b).4<i class="footnote">The troubles began following the death of Yoḥanan Hyrcanus (3656/ 104 BCE). Yoḥanan’s heirs did not obey his last will; his oldest son, Yehuda Aristobulus, an ally of the Sadducees, acted like a Hellenist ruler, incarcerating his mother and brother and declaring himself king and High Priest. He died a year later, after which his brother Alexander Yannai reigned for 27 years. Yannai was a Sadducee who favored the Hellenists and fought against the Sages. Despite this, he continued to extend the borders of Israel. Alexander Yannai repented toward the end of his life, realizing that his ties with the Sadducees undermined Jewish nationalism. He therefore commanded that his righteous wife, Shlomtziyon, sister of Shimon b. Shetaḥ, inherit his throne. Shlomtziyon reigned for nine years (3684-3693/ 76-67 BCE). After her death, a bitter civil war broke out between her two sons, Hyrcanus and Aristobulus (who were educated by their father Yannai). In the year 3695 (65 BCE), the two brothers turned to the Roman commander Pompey, asking him to mediate between them. Two years later, Pompey and his army invaded Judea, abolished the Hasmonean kingdom, and stripped Judea of some of its territory. He allowed Hyrcanus to retain his position of High Priest and leader of the Jews in Judea, giving over the rest of Eretz Yisrael to autonomous gentile rule, subordinate to Rome. In the course of time, Antipater the Idumean, a loyalist to Hyrcanus, established ties with the Romans and became their trusted ally, eventually taking control of Judea. After he died, his son Herod continued in his ways. Since Herod helped Hyrcanus defeat his nephew Antigonus, Hyrcanus gave him his granddaughter Miriam’s hand in marriage. This enabled Herod to eventually claim the Hasmonean throne. In the year 3720 (40 BCE), the Parthians conquered Eretz Yisrael and Aristobulus’ son Antigonus seized control of Judea taking revenge on his uncle Hyrcanus. Herod fled to Rome, where he was officially appointed King of Judea. Armed with Roman troops, he returned to the Holy Land and reconquered it. Thus began his 36-year reign. He murdered his opponents and anyone else whom he perceived as a threat to his authority, including the members of the Hasmonean family, and even some of his own sons. When Herod died in 3756 (4 BCE), the Sages ordained the date of his death – the seventh of Kislev – as a holiday. Nevertheless, Rambam considered his kingdom genuine Jewish sovereignty, as he writes in MT, Laws of Ḥanuka 3:1: In the merit of the Hasmonean victory, “sovereignty returned to the Jewish people for over 200 years.” Rambam teaches us here that even Herod’s reign was better than the oppression that preceded the rebellion and the subjugation that followed the destruction of the Second Temple.</i>
  Based on this, we can understand the criticism that certain Sages leveled against the Hasmoneans, accusing them of failing to appoint a king from the tribe of Yehuda, as the Torah prescribes: “The scepter shall not depart from Yehuda” (Bereishit 49:10; see Ramban <i>ad loc</i>.). At first, the Hasmonean leaders were called <i>nesi’im</i> (chieftains), but they eventually crowned themselves as kings. They also reserved the position of High Priest for themselves. Clearly, their involvement in matters of state interfered with their priestly duties, blemishing the holy service, which was supposed to be performed in sanctity and purity, and strengthening the influence of Hellenism. From a political standpoint, as well, their kingdom was lacking, as it existed in the shadow of the mighty empires and, more often than not, under their aegis. This political weakness also strengthened Hellenism’s influence over Judea.
  
  Section 5
  
  Ḥanuka / Lasting Spiritual Accomplishments
  Despite all their shortcomings, the victories that the Hasmoneans achieved had great value. The political independence that they won, though limited, contributed to the prosperity of the Jewish population in Eretz Yisrael in every way. Previously, around forty percent of Judea’s produce was taken by the Greeks as a tax; now all of it remained in Eretz Yisrael, stimulating economic growth. By virtue of the victories, Jewish settlements sprung up throughout the country, Jews immigrated from the Diaspora, birthrates rose, and the Jewish nation, which had undergone destruction and exile, rehabilitated itself, to a large degree.
  Through the protection afforded by political independence, Eretz Yisrael became, once again, the national and spiritual center of the Jewish people. Houses of study grew and flourished, fully expressing the injunction of the Men of the Great Assembly: “Produce many disciples and make a fence for the Torah” (<i>Avot</i> 1:1). The spiritual foundations of the Oral Torah, which enabled Jewry to safeguard its faith and its Torah for 2,000 years of harsh exile, were laid in those days.
  For this reason, the miracle of the oil expresses Ḥanuka more than any other symbol. Although the Second Temple was destroyed and all the political achievements of the Hasmoneans were lost, the study of the Oral Torah, which developed and crystallized during that period, endured forever. The miracle of the oil manifested the eternal dimension of the Torah, its ability to illuminate the darkness supernaturally. By virtue of the Torah, we managed to survive the long, dark exile. The miracle of the oil showed that the Jewish people are unique, different from all other nations, and that it is impossible to subdue us or extinguish our faith.
  It was in the merit of the self-sacrifice of Matityahu and his sons that the deep foundations of the Torah and the uniqueness of the Jewish people were revealed. But the Hasmonean dynasty, with all its problems and complexities, was short-lived, and we do not commemorate it in a particularly celebratory manner.
  This explains the Sages’ statement (RH 18b) that the holiday of Ḥanuka endures because of the miracle of the oil and the rabbinic mitzva of lighting the candles. The miracle of the oil showed that the military victory over the Greeks did not benefit that generation alone, but all generations. Therefore, the Sages determined that we should continue observing Ḥanuka even though the other holidays mentioned in <i>Megilat Ta’anit</i> were abolished after the Temple was destroyed. Thus, in addition to the mitzva of lighting candles all eight nights of Ḥanuka, we recite <i>Al Ha-nisim</i> and <i>Hallel</i>, to thank and praise God for saving us and allowing us to defeat our enemies.5<i class="footnote">We express our thanks by reciting <i>Al Ha-nisim</i> in the <i>Amida</i> and in <i>Birkat Ha-mazon</i>, which emphasizes the victory over the Greeks, who wanted to make us forget the Torah and the <i>mitzvot</i>. God came to our aid and delivered our strong, wicked enemies into the hands of the righteous few. Afterward, the prayer relates that they purified the Temple and kindled lights. No mention is made of the miracle of the oil.Rambam further emphasizes the national-political victory:During the Second Temple era, the Greek kingdom issued decrees against the Jewish people, abolishing their religion and refusing to allow them to observe the Torah and its <i>mitzvot</i>. They did violence against their property and their daughters; they entered the Temple, wrought havoc within, and made the sacraments impure. The Jews suffered great difficulties from them, for they oppressed them greatly until the God of our ancestors had mercy upon them, delivered them from their hand, and saved them. The sons of the Hasmoneans, the High Priests, overpowered [the Greeks], killed them, and saved the Jews from their hand. They appointed a king from the priests, and sovereignty returned to Israel for over 200 years, until the destruction of the Second Temple. (MT, Laws of Ḥanuka 3:1)This means that the miracle of the oil symbolizes the triumph of faith and Torah over Hellenism. It is the basis for the fact that Ḥanuka is a perpetual holiday. However, we would not have been privileged to receive the everlasting mitzva of lighting the candles or the triumph of faith if not for the miracle of the military victory – the righteous defeating the wicked – and the other national achievements, as described in <i>Al Ha-nisim</i>. This is why we praise God specifically by reciting <i>Hallel</i>, since the Sages prescribed that we recite <i>Hallel</i> mainly to commemorate times when the Jewish people were delivered from bondage or saved from death. Hence, Rambam emphasizes the national aspects of Ḥanuka. This also explains why Rambam emphasizes the joy of Ḥanuka, as he writes later: “Accordingly, the Sages of that generation decreed that these eight days, beginning from the 25th of Kislev, be commemorated as days of joy and praise. Candles should be lit…” (<i>ibid. </i>3:3). (It may be that Rambam viewed the military victory as the primary miracle, contrary to what I wrote in the first section of this chapter, based on the opinion of several Rishonim.) For more on this issue and the following discussion, see the essay in <i>Orot </i>titled essay<i> </i>“<i>Le-mahalakh Ha-idei’ot</i>,” where Rav Kook explains that the Second Temple era prepared the Jews for the subsequent exile, by absorbing sacred vitality from the Temple and integrating it into the Oral Torah that accompanied the Jews into exile. See also the essay titled “<i>Ḥakham Adif Mi-navi</i>,” and <i>Orot Ha-Torah</i>, ch. 1.</i>
  Over the years, it became clear that the miracle was even greater than we originally thought. Not only did we manage to survive the torrent of Hellenism that inundated the world, but Judaism shattered – through a long and complicated process – most of the pagan foundations of Hellenism. The abstract belief in one God, ethical values, the aspiration to fix the world – all fundamental principles of the Torah – increasingly spread among the nations of the world, eventually becoming, through means both direct and indirect (i.e., via Christianity and Islam), the foundations of all the good and beneficial aspects of human culture.
  The longer our exile lasted, the longer and brighter the light of Israel and its Torah shone. It will continue to illuminate the world until we merit bringing new and pure oil from the olives of Eretz Yisrael, from which we will light the <i>Menora</i> of the Holy Temple, and the world will be filled with the knowledge of God, speedily in our time. Amen.
  
  Section 6
  
  Ḥanuka / The Oral Torah: The Light That Illuminates the Darkness
  It is no coincidence that the holiday of Ḥanuka falls out at a time of year when nights are longest and when the cold of winter spreads throughout the land. Moreover, since Ḥanuka flanks the new moon of Rosh Ḥodesh, there is barely any light to illuminate the long, dark, chilly night.
  Yet as the sun sets and darkness begins to envelop the land, and the long night casts its cold, ominous shadow, Jews go out with candles in their hands and light the Ḥanuka candles. These candles symbolize the mighty Jewish faith, which breaks through all forms of darkness. Even in the darkest times, when the mightiest empires ruled the world ruthlessly, we did not despair of the light of Torah and faith, and we continued learning and teaching. A small ray of our light has the power to disperse a great deal of their darkness.
  Ḥanuka is the celebration of the Oral Torah. First, this holiday was established by the Sages (the expounders of the Oral Torah), and second, the mitzva of lighting the candles was one of the first <i>mitzvot</i> the Sages enacted. But beyond these reasons, the holiday of Ḥanuka is a general expression of the essence of the Oral Torah. During the First Temple era, prophecy abounded among the Jewish people, and they studied the Written Torah primarily. After the Temple was destroyed and prophecy ceased, however, the time came for the Oral Torah to take precedence. The Oral Torah reveals the high stature of the Jewish people, who share in revealing the Torah’s light. The principles are set in the Written Torah, but the Sages of the Oral Torah paved the way for the realization of these principles. Granted, the light of the Written Torah shines brighter – it is compared in this regard to the midday sun – while the light of the Oral Torah is compared to that of the moon and the stars. However, the Oral Torah is able to descend to the hidden recesses of the soul and illuminate all dark corners of the world. The foundations for the methods of the Oral Torah were laid during the Second Temple era – including all enactments, safeguards, and customs. By virtue of the unique light of the Oral Torah, which, like the Ḥanuka candles, illuminates the darkness, we have managed to overcome all the difficulties of the exile.
  These ideas, which are hidden within Ḥanuka, seem to be the inner reason why Jews love and cherish it so much, to the point where almost every Jew, no matter how far removed from Torah observance, lights Ḥanuka candles. Moreover, everyone follows the custom of fulfilling this mitzva in the best possible way – <i>mehadrin min ha-mehadrin</i> (see below 12:2).
  
  Section 7
  
  Ḥanuka / Adding a New Candle on Each Day of Ḥanuka
  Everything in the world is fleeting and ultimately perishable. This is true of ideas and memories as well; they lose their strength and vitality over time. However, when it comes to lighting the Ḥanuka candles, we discover that faith in God never wanes. On the contrary, it continues to exist and even thrive, despite the hardships and surrounding darkness. The pure spirituality expressed in the Torah is eternal; therefore, it constantly increases. Other, more transient ideas, however, fade away and expire. Affectionately embracing this wondrous idea, the entire Jewish people fulfills the mitzva of lighting Ḥanuka candles in the most exemplary manner possible, <i>mehadrin min ha-mehadrin</i>, adding a candle each night until the final night when eight candles are lit.
  It is well known that the number eight alludes to the metaphysical, the supernatural. The world was created in seven days, and there are seven days in a week, so the number eight indicates that which lies beyond nature. For example, the purpose of <i>brit mila</i> is to rectify and elevate nature to a higher level, and therefore it is performed on the eighth day from birth. The Torah, as well, belongs to the eighth level, as it serves to elevate nature to a divine level. This is why the Torah was given after the seven-week <i>omer</i> period, which represents the wholeness of nature. After the seven weeks of the <i>omer</i>, we rise to a level above nature – the festival of Shavu’ot, when the Torah was given. Similarly, we complete the annual Torah-reading cycle on Shemini Atzeret (the eighth day from the beginning of Sukkot), which is also called Simḥat Torah (in Israel).
  Ḥanuka, too, belongs to the realm of the supernatural, as it reveals the lofty stature of the Oral Torah. Therefore, we light candles for eight nights, adding a new candle each night.6<i class="footnote">See Maharal’s <i>Tiferet Yisrael</i>, ch. 2, 25, and <i>Ner Mitzva</i> p. 23. The Greeks’ worldview stemmed from nature, and since there are different forces in nature, they believed in multiple gods. In addition, since nature has no values, only strength, beauty, and external wisdom, they yearned for these things. In contrast, Judaism is based on the belief in one God, who created nature but who Himself transcends it. The goal is to discover God’s oneness in the world, to reveal the image of God within man through morals, the Torah, and the <i>mitzvot</i>. The Greeks cannot coexist with us, because our belief in one God and our ethical values undermine the foundation of their worldview. Judaism, however, can coexist with Greek culture and use it as a tool for research, classification, and the revelation of Jewish concepts. For more on this notion, see <i>Bina Le-itim</i> 1:25-27.</i>
  
  Section 8
  
  Ḥanuka / <i>Al Ha-nisim</i>, <i>Hallel</i>, and Torah Reading
  The Sages instituted the holiday of Ḥanuka in order to thank and praise God for delivering Israel. For this purpose, they formulated the <i>Al Ha-nisim</i> prayer, which we insert in the <i>berakha</i> of thanksgiving in the <i>Amida</i>. We also recite it in <i>Birkat Ha-mazon</i>, in second <i>berakha </i>(<i>Nodeh Lekha</i>). We do not, however, mention Ḥanuka in the <i>berakha </i>of <i>Me-ein Shalosh </i>(recited after eating grain products or the special fruits of Eretz Yisrael, or after drinking wine or grape juice). If one forgot to recite <i>Al Ha-nisim</i> in the <i>Amida </i>or in <i>Birkat Ha-mazon</i>, he does not need to repeat it. If one remembers before concluding the <i>berakha</i> in which <i>Al Ha-nisim</i> is inserted, he should go back and recite it, unless he has already said God’s name at the conclusion of the <i>berakha</i> (SA 682:1). In such a case, though, it is proper to recite <i>Al Ha-nisim</i> at the end of the <i>Amida</i>, after all the <i>berakhot</i>, because one may add as many supplications and expressions of thanks as one desires at that point. Similarly, one who forgot to recite <i>Al Ha-nisim</i> in <i>Birkat Ha-mazon</i> should recite it after concluding the <i>berakhot</i>, together with the <i>Ha-Raḥaman</i> paragraphs, where one may recite as many additional prayers as he desires (Rema 682:1, MB <i>ad loc. </i>4).7<i class="footnote">Rabbeinu Tam maintains that if one did not yet step back at the end of the <i>Amida</i>, he returns to the <i>berakha</i> of <i>Modim</i> in order to recite <i>Al Ha-nisim</i>. The <i>halakha</i>, however, does not follow this opinion. Rather, once one says God’s name at the conclusion of the <i>berakha</i>, he no longer goes back to repeat the <i>berakha</i>; he should not even conclude the <i>berakha</i> with the words <i>lamdeini ḥukekha</i> (MB 294:7). Regarding <i>Birkat Ha-mazon</i>, the Gemara (<i>Shabbat</i> 24a) implies that reciting <i>Al Ha-nisim</i> is merely a custom, not an obligation. Rashba and Ritva agree. Rambam, on the other hand, seems to maintain that one must recite it, and <i>Or Zaru’a</i> states that the masses have accepted it as an obligation. Raavya maintains that one must eat meals with bread on Ḥanuka and therefore one must repeat <i>Birkat Ha-mazon</i> upon forgetting <i>Al Ha-nisim</i>. However, according to the <i>halakha</i>, if one did not recite <i>Al Ha-nisim</i>, he should not go back to recite it.</i>
  It is a mitzva to recite the full <i>Hallel</i>, with a <i>berakha</i>, on all eight days of Ḥanuka (<i>Arakhin</i> 10a). The <i>halakha</i> states that whenever the Jewish people are in dire straits, such as when they are enslaved or under the threat of death, they must recite <i>Hallel</i> when they are delivered (<i>Pesaḥim</i> 117a, <i>Megilat Ta’anit</i> 9:2). 
  The mitzva to recite the full <i>Hallel</i>, with a <i>berakha</i>, on all eight days of Ḥanuka attests to Ḥanuka’s prominence. After all, we recite the full <i>Hallel</i> on Pesaḥ only on the first day of the festival, while we recite it every day of Ḥanuka.8<i class="footnote">We recite <i>Hallel</i> on two different types of occasions: on festivals and in commemoration of miraculous salvation. The Gemara (<i>Arakhin</i> 10b) explains that, we recite the full <i>Hallel</i> all seven days of Sukkot because each day has distinct sacrificial offerings. On Pesaḥ, however, the same offerings are brought every day. The reason we recite <i>Hallel</i> on Ḥanuka is to commemorate the miraculous salvation, and we recite the full <i>Hallel</i> all eight days because the miracle increased in greatness every day. This is also why we light an additional candle every night (<i>Shibolei Ha-leket</i> §174, <i>Beit Yosef</i> §483). It is clear that the primary basis for reciting <i>Hallel</i> on Ḥanuka is the military victory, as the Gemara states in <i>Arakhin</i> and <i>Pesaḥim</i>, and as Rabbeinu Gershom posits. Nevertheless, it was the accompanying miracle of the oil that revealed the greatness of the victory. See above, 4:6, regarding whether reciting <i>Hallel</i> is mandated by Torah law or rabbinically.</i>
  Women are exempt from reciting <i>Hallel</i>, since it is a time-bound mitzva. Nonetheless, a woman who wants to recite <i>Hallel</i> on Ḥanuka on her own volition fulfills a mitzva in doing so. According to Ashkenazic custom, as well as the custom of some Sephardim, she should even recite a <i>berakha</i>, while according to many Sephardic <i>poskim</i> she should not recite a <i>berakha </i>(see <i>Peninei Halakha: Laws of Women’s Prayer</i> ch. 2 n. 10).
  The Sages also instituted a special Torah reading for Ḥanuka, which describes the offerings that the <i>nesi’im</i> brought to inaugurate the <i>Mishkan</i>. Each day we read about one <i>nasi</i>’s offerings, and on the eighth day we begin with the eighth <i>nasi</i> and read all the way through the section dealing with the <i>Menora</i>, at the beginning of <i>Parashat Be-ha’alotekha</i> (<i>Megilla</i> 30b, SA 684:1).
  
  Section 9
  
  Ḥanuka / The Prohibitions against Fasting, Delivering Eulogies, and Visiting Cemeteries
  The holiday of Ḥanuka is a time of joy, praise, and thanksgiving. Therefore, one may not fast or eulogize on Ḥanuka, even on the <i>yahrtzeit</i> of a parent – when many people customarily fast – that coincides with Ḥanuka. Similarly, a bride and groom who follow the custom of Ashkenazim and some Sephardim to fast on their wedding day do not do so on Ḥanuka.9<i class="footnote">When the Jewish people celebrated all the holidays mentioned in <i>Megilat Ta’anit</i>, they would refrain from fasting and eulogizing on the day before and the day after Ḥanuka as well. Nowadays, however, one should not be stringent on those two days, because even though Ḥanuka endures for all generations,<i> Megilat Ta’anit</i> as a whole was abolished. This is the opinion of <i>Tur</i> and SA 686:1. Others take a more stringent view and prohibit fasting on the day before Ḥanuka (<i>Ha-ma’or</i>, <i>Pri Ḥadash</i>, and <i>Baḥ</i>). MB states that, <i>le-khatḥila</i>, one should heed this viewpoint. See also <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 686:3-7.</i>
  Likewise, one may not deliver a eulogy on Ḥanuka at a funeral or at a memorial service at the end of the <i>shiva</i> or <i>shloshim</i> period. The only exception is a Torah scholar’s funeral, where one may eulogize in the presence of the body (<i>Shabbat</i> 21b; SA, Rema 670:1). The laws of mourning apply on Ḥanuka as on any other day (SA 696:4).
  Many people refrain from visiting cemeteries on Ḥanuka, whether on a <i>yahrtzeit</i> or at the conclusion of <i>shiva</i> or <i>shloshim</i>, because such visits are liable to elicit crying and mourning, which are forbidden on Ḥanuka. Instead, they should visit the cemetery either before or after Ḥanuka. Others, including Moroccan Jews and some Jews from other communities, visit cemeteries even on Ḥanuka. According to all customs, one may visit the graves of righteous people on Ḥanuka (<i>Ben Ish Ḥai</i>,<i> </i>Vayeshev 22; see also <i>Gesher Ha-ḥayim</i> 29:6).
  Sephardic custom is to recite <i>Tziduk Ha-din</i> on Ḥanuka (SA 420:2), while Ashkenazic custom is not to do so (Rema 420:2, 683:1). According to all customs, <i>Taḥanun</i> and <i>La-menatze’aḥ</i> are omitted on Ḥanuka. Likewise, mourners customarily do not lead prayers on Ḥanuka.10<i class="footnote">MB 683:1 and <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 683:5 state that a mourner may not lead <i>Shaḥarit</i> on Ḥanuka or Rosh Ḥodesh, but he may lead <i>Minḥa</i> or <i>Ma’ariv</i>. BHL §132, however, states that mourners do not lead the services on any day when <i>La-menatze’aḥ </i>is omitted. The source for this is Maharil §22. The prevalent custom is that mourners do not lead any service on Ḥanuka or Rosh Ḥodesh.</i>
  
  Section 10
  
  Ḥanuka / Festive Meals on Ḥanuka
  Ḥanuka was instituted as a holiday of praise and thanksgiving. Nonetheless, unlike Purim, there is no obligatory mitzva to partake in a festive meal. On Purim, we commemorate our enemies’ attempt to destroy our bodies by rejoicing physically, by eating and drinking. In the Ḥanuka story, however, the Jewish people experienced a spiritual victory. The Greeks enacted decrees only against Torah observance; one who complied and conducted himself like a Greek was safe. Therefore, the main idea of Ḥanuka relates to the spirit, so we thank and praise God for helping us preserve the Torah and the <i>mitzvot</i> (<i>Levush</i>).
  Even though one is not obligated to prepare festive meals on Ḥanuka, many <i>poskim</i> maintain that one fulfills a mitzva by partaking in festive meals, in order to rejoice over the salvation that God performed for the Jews “in those days, at this time.” Some say that the Sages enjoined us to give thanks and recite <i>Hallel</i> over the spiritual salvation, but it is still appropriate to eat festive meals in commemoration of the rededication of the Temple.
  In practice, we partake in festive meals on Ḥanuka, during which we share words of Torah and sing songs of praise to God. This way, the meals are considered <i>se’udot mitzva </i>according to all opinions. Moreover, by discussing Torah matters, the meals assume the special character of Ḥanuka, which is mainly spiritual joy, and through this the joy carries over to the meal.11<i class="footnote">MT, Laws of Ḥanuka 3:3, as well as Ritz Gi’at and other Rishonim, state that Ḥanuka is a time of “joy and praise,” and the way to express joy is through <i>se’udot mitzva</i>. Maharshal, <i>Baḥ</i>, and many others agree. Raavya goes even further, stating that one who forgets to recite <i>Al Ha-nisim</i> in <i>Birkat Ha-mazon</i> must repeat the prayer, implying that, in his view, one is obligated to eat a meal with bread on Ḥanuka (although the <i>halakha</i> does not follow his opinion). On the other hand, Maharam of Rothenburg §605 states that there is no mitzva to partake in festive meals on Ḥanuka, and SA 670:2 cites his opinion. Several Rishonim suggest that one should impart words of Torah at the meal, so that it should be considered a <i>se’udat mitzva</i> according to all opinions. Rema rules this way in practice.</i>
  There is a custom to eat dairy on Ḥanuka, in commemoration of the miracle that occurred through such foods. Yehudit, the daughter of Yoḥanan the High Priest, fed the enemy general dairy foods and killed him after he fell asleep, bringing salvation to the Jews. Even though this story happened before the events of Ḥanuka, Yehudit’s act of courage emboldened the Hasmoneans later on, giving them the strength to rebel against the Greeks. Therefore, her bravery is connected to the miracle of Ḥanuka. There is also a custom to eat foods fried in oil, like <i>sufganiyot</i> (fried doughnuts) and <i>latkes</i> (potato pancakes).12<i class="footnote">The custom of eating dairy is mentioned by Ran (<i>Shabbat</i> 21b), Rema 670:2, and other Rishonim and Aḥaronim. According to many authorities, the episode of Yehudit did not take place at the same time as the Maccabean revolt. <i>Ben Ish Ḥai</i>, Vayeshev 24 explains that since her story also involved a Greek king who tried to force the Jews to abandon their faith, the Sages appended the custom commemorating this miracle to the holiday of Ḥanuka. I added another explanation in the main text above. Another minor custom, which is mentioned in a few books, involves eating foods fried in oil. Rabbeinu Maimon, Rambam’s father, writes (in his commentary on Ḥanuka) that one should not treat any custom lightly, even a minor one like eating <i>sufganiyot</i>, for one should not denigrate the customs of our people.</i>
  
  Section 11
  
  Ḥanuka / The Prohibition on Women Doing Work
  Jewish women have preserved a special custom to refrain from working while the Ḥanuka candles are burning. Some women do not work the entire holiday, especially on the first and eighth days. In practice, though, the custom is to avoid work only while the candles are lit, and even then only during the first half-hour, which is the minimum time that the candles must be lit to fulfill the mitzva.
  Two reasons are given for this custom. First, so they do not use the light of the Ḥanuka candles accidentally. Since women were more likely to make this mistake, only they must refrain from work while the candles are lit. The second reason is based on the sanctity of Ḥanuka, when we recite <i>Hallel</i>, indicating that it is similar to <i>Ḥol Ha-mo’ed</i> and Rosh Ḥodesh. This sanctity is revealed when the candles are lit. Only women observe this custom because they have a special merit on Ḥanuka, since the courage of Yehudit and other women set the miracle in motion.
  The custom is that women refrain from forms of work that are prohibited on <i>Ḥol Ha-mo’ed</i>, like laundering, sewing, and the like. However, cooking and frying are permitted.13<i class="footnote"><i>Shibolei Ha-leket</i> and <i>Tur</i> 670:1 cite a custom that women do not work all eight days of Ḥanuka, and they conclude that one who has such a custom should not be lenient. <i>Beit Yosef</i>, however, states that since there is no prohibition to work on Ḥanuka, this custom is inappropriate. <i>Ḥakham Tzvi</i> §89 goes so far as to say that one may not remain idle all day long, since idleness leads one to sin. MB 670:5 concurs. MA states that some women refrain from working as long as the candles are burning in the synagogue, which is until midnight, while other women avoid working the entire first and eighth day. MB <i>ad loc.</i> 4 rules that women should only stop working for a half-hour. <i>Sefer Ḥasidim</i> §121 states that it would be appropriate for men to refrain from working as well, but this is not common practice. See also <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 670:9. According to the first reason stated in the main text, it would seem that cooking and frying should be prohibited during the first half-hour like all other forms of work. Nonetheless, we are lenient in this matter, perhaps because the primary idea is to treat certain acts as forbidden just as a reminder that one may not benefit from the light of the candles. Still, some maintain that a family that is stringent in practice should continue in its ways. See <i>Ben Ish Ḥai</i>, Vayeshev 27; <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 670:9. Also see <i>Peninei Halakha: Festivals</i> 11:7, which states that one may iron clothes on festivals for the purpose of wearing them during the festival; the same certainly applies to Ḥanuka.</i>
  Upon close examination, we find that there are often two reasons given for customs that apply specifically to women. The first is that women were generally less astute and are thus were more likely to use the light of the Ḥanuka candles mistakenly. The second is that they have a certain special virtue, and therefore the sanctity of the day manifests itself in them to a greater extent.14<i class="footnote">The Sages say that women must hear the <i>Megilla</i> on Purim, drink the four cups on Pesaḥ, and light the Ḥanuka candles, because “they too participated in that miracle” (<i>Megilla</i> 4a, <i>Pesaḥim</i> 108b, <i>Shabbat</i> 23a). <i>Tosafot</i> and many other Rishonim maintain that these <i>mitzvot</i> are primarily incumbent upon men, while women are also obligated because they too were saved from Egypt, Haman, and the Greeks. Rashi and Rashbam (<i>Pesaḥim</i> 108b) maintain that a woman’s obligation in these <i>mitzvot</i> stems from the fact that women played a major role in the miracles that took place. After all, the Gemara (<i>Sota</i> 11b) states that we were redeemed from Egypt by virtue of the righteous women of that generation, who had faith in God and encouraged their husbands to procreate despite the harsh decrees. The Purim miracle as well came about through Esther, and the Ḥanuka miracle was precipitated by Yehudit. From this perspective, these <i>mitzvot</i> are more pertinent to women than they are to men. Therefore, only they are meticulous and refrain from working while the candles are lit.See above, 1:7, regarding Rosh Ḥodesh, which is more significant to women than it is to men, because women were not involved in the sin of the Golden Calf, and they also donated toward the construction of the <i>Mishkan</i>. Perhaps this is also why women have a higher connection to Ḥanuka, because the Hasmoneans rededicated the Temple at that time, just as the Israelites completed the construction of the <i>Mishkan</i> in the wilderness. In addition, the element of the Oral Torah, which we mentioned above, is connected to the attribute of kingship (<i>malkhut</i>), which has a feminine aspect. See <i>Ben Ish Ḥai</i>, Vayeshev 27. See also <i>Peninei Halakha:</i> <i>Laws of Women’s Prayer</i> 6:2, regarding the <i>berakha </i>of <i>She-asani Ki-rtzono</i>; 7:1, regarding Torah study; and ch. 3, which discusses the respective virtues of both men and women and the ways in which these virtues are manifested.</i>
  
  
  
  
  
  Section 1
  
  Lighting the Ḥanuka Candles / The Mitzva to Light Ḥanuka Candles
  The Sages ordained lighting candles*<i class="footnote">* Editor’s note: We use the term “candles” for “<i>nerot</i>”<i> </i>because of convention and because, unlike the terms “lights” or “lamps,” candles most clearly denote lights produced by flames, not because the <i>nerot</i> must be made of wax or another solid flammable. See below, sections 7 and 8.</i> all eight days of Ḥanuka, which correspond to the days on which the Jewish people celebrated and praised God for helping them defeat the Greeks, liberate Jerusalem, and purify the Holy Temple. It was on those days that the oil in the Temple’s <i>Menora</i> burned miraculously.
  Even though lighting Ḥanuka candles is a rabbinic mitzva, we recite a <i>berakha</i> over it: “<i>Barukh ata Hashem Elokeinu Melekh ha-olam asher kideshanu be-mitzvotav ve-tzivanu lehadlik ner [shel] Ḥanuka</i>”<i> </i>(“Blessed are You, Lord our God, King of the universe, Who has sanctified us with His <i>mitzvot</i> and commanded us to light Ḥanuka candles”). One could seemingly ask: How can we say that God “commanded us” when the Written Torah does not contain such a commandment? The answer is that the Torah gives the Sages the authority to institute <i>mitzvot</i> within the guidelines of the Torah, as it says, “You shall act in accordance with the instructions (<i>ha-torah</i>) they have given you and the ruling handed down to you; you must not deviate from the verdict that they tell to you, either to the right or to the left” (Devarim 17:11). It also says, “Remember the days of old, consider the years of ages past; ask your father, he will inform you; your elders, they will tell you” (<i>ibid</i>. 32:7) (<i>Shabbat</i> 23a). Thus, in order to remember and publicize the miracle that God performed on our behalf during the Second Temple era, the Sages instituted a mitzva to light candles all eight days of Ḥanuka.
  Women are obligated in this mitzva just as men are. Even though it is a time-bound positive mitzva, from which women are usually exempt, they are nonetheless obligated because women were involved in the miracle (<i>Shabbat</i> 23a; however, it is customary for a married woman to fulfill her obligation through her husband’s lighting; see below n. 2, and above ch. 11 n. 14).
  The purpose of all the laws that the Sages instituted regarding where and when to light Ḥanuka candles is to publicize the miracle. Therefore, they required that one light the candles near the door or in front of a window facing a main thoroughfare, so that passersby can see the candles (as will be explained below, 13:1-3). They also determined that one should light the candles after <i>shki’a</i>, when the maximum number of people will see them. On one hand, darkness has already begun to descend, making the lights more visible. On the other hand, it is early enough that the streets are still filled with people coming home from work (we will elaborate below, 13:4). Publicizing the miracle, however, is not a prerequisite for fulfilling the mitzva. Even a Jew who lives alone in a deserted area must light the candles, in order to remind himself of the miracle.
  The value of this mitzva is so great that even a poor man who cannot afford to buy candles must panhandle or sell his clothes to buy Ḥanuka candles. The <i>halakha</i> does not demand that one beg or sell his clothes for the sake of other <i>mitzvot</i>, but since this mitzva involves publicizing the miracle, the obligation is greater. However, a poor person need not perform the mitzva <i>le-mehadrin</i>; it is sufficient for him to light one candle each night (SA 671:1; MB <i>ad loc. </i>3; AHS <i>ad loc. </i>3; see Rema 656:1; BHL <i>ad loc.</i>, s.v. “afilu”).
  
  Section 2
  
  Lighting the Ḥanuka Candles / The Number of Candles and the <i>Mehadrin min Ha-mehadrin</i> Practice
  The mitzva of lighting Ḥanuka candles is very beloved. In general, there are two levels of mitzva observance: fulfillment of the basic obligation and <i>mehadrin</i>, going beyond the basics to beautify the mitzva. When it comes to Ḥanuka candles, however, there are three levels: the basic obligation, <i>mehadrin</i>, and <i>mehadrin min ha-mehadrin</i>, the most beautiful way. Moreover, all of Israel fulfills this mitzva according to the practice of <i>mehadrin min ha-mehadrin</i>.
  Minimally, every household must light one candle every night of Ḥanuka on behalf of all household members. This candle enables them to remember and publicize the miracle of Ḥanuka. Those who go above and beyond this (<i>mehadrin</i>)<i> </i>light one candle for every adult member of the household. For example, if four adults live in the house, they light four candles every night of Ḥanuka, demonstrating that everyone has a share in the mitzva.
  Those who follow the custom of <i>mehadrin min ha-mehadrin</i> light a different number of candles each night of Ḥanuka. The Sages disputed the number of candles that one must light according to this custom. According to Beit Shammai, we light eight candles on the first night and subtract one candle every subsequent night, eventually lighting one candle on the last night. According to this viewpoint, the number of candles corresponds to the number of days remaining in the holiday of Ḥanuka. On the first night, we light eight candles because there are eight days left in the holiday, and on the last night we light one candle because there is only one day left. According to Beit Hillel, we light one candle on the first night and add a candle each subsequent night, eventually lighting eight candles on the last night. According to them, the number of candles corresponds to the number of days that have already passed – that is, every night we light candles according to the number of days the miracle lasted. This way, we demonstrate the magnitude of the miracle, because every additional day that the Hasmoneans lit the <i>Menora</i> in the Temple using the same small cruse of oil, the miracle increased. In addition, this method allows us to ascend in holiness, until we reach the pinnacle on the eighth night when we light eight candles (<i>Shabbat</i> 21b). All of Israel has accepted the custom of <i>mehadrin min ha-mehadrin</i>, according to Beit Hillel’s interpretation (SA<i> </i>671:2).
  What emerges, in practice, is that we light 36 candles over the course of the eight days of Ḥanuka. The prevalent custom, though, is to light an additional candle every night, to serve as a <i>shamash</i> (lit., “attendant”), so that if one needs to use the light of the candles, he may use the light of the <i>shamash</i>. After all, one may not derive benefit from the Ḥanuka candles. However, we separate the <i>shamash</i> from the other candles, because the main objective of the custom of <i>mehadrin min ha-mehadrin</i> is to make the number of candles recognizable and thus demonstrate the increasing magnitude of the miracle (we will elaborate below, sections 10-11).
  
  Section 3
  
  Lighting the Ḥanuka Candles / The Sephardic Custom
  There are different traditions regarding how to fulfill the custom of <i>mehadrin min ha-mehadrin</i> in practice. According to Sephardic tradition, the main way of beautifying the mitzva is to light the number of candles that corresponds to the current day of Ḥanuka. Even if there are many people living in one home, only one of them should light Ḥanuka candles, and he should light the number of candles that corresponds to the current day of the holiday. That is, he lights one candle on the first night, two on the second, and eight on the eighth. The reason for this is that the goal of the custom is to show how many days the miracle lasted, as this publicizes the miracle more. If everyone in the house were to light candles within the small space adjacent to the doorway, passersby would not be able to recognize which day it is, because everyone’s candles would appear conjoined and confuse the tally. Since according to this custom only one person lights, it is proper for the head of the household to light on behalf of everyone else.
  If the children ask to light candles, their parents may let them light their own Ḥanuka candles, as long as they are careful to create a separation between each individual menora. According to the custom of most Sephardim, children who light Ḥanuka candles do not recite a <i>berakha</i>, but R. Mordechai Eliyahu ruled that children under the age of bar mitzva may recite a <i>berakha</i>. R. Shalom Messas ruled that if someone over the age of bar mitzva wants to recite a <i>berakha</i>, he should have in mind not to fulfill his obligation through his father’s lighting and may then beautify the mitzva by lighting the candles with a <i>berakha</i> (<i>Yalkut Shemesh</i>, OḤ 192).
  
  Section 4
  
  Lighting the Ḥanuka Candles / The Ashkenazic Custom: Men, Women, and Children
  According to Ashkenazic custom, each member of a household must light his own candles in order to fulfill the custom of <i>mehadrin min ha-mehadrin</i>. That is, on the first night everyone lights one candle and on the eighth night everyone lights eight. We are not concerned that onlookers will not know how many candles are being lit on any given night, because we are careful to separate between the various menoras.1<i class="footnote">At first glance, if the custom of <i>mehadrin</i> is to light one candle for every member of the household each night, then the custom of <i>mehadrin min ha-mehadrin</i> requires one to light the number of candles corresponding to the current day of the holiday on behalf of each member of the household. This is Rambam’s opinion (MT, Laws of Ḥanuka 4:1-3), as well as the Ashkenazic custom. According to Rabbeinu Yitzḥak (<i>Tosafot</i>, <i>Shabbat</i> 21b), however, only one member of the house lights candles, since if everyone lights, onlookers will not know what day of Ḥanuka is being celebrated. This runs counter to the main objective of the custom of <i>mehadrin min ha-mehadrin</i>, which is to publicize the miracle based on the number of days it lasted. This is the Sephardic custom, as written in SA 671:22. (Ra’ah explains that doing it this way glorifies the miracle more than the custom of <i>mehadrin</i> does, because most households do not have that many members. Therefore, following this version of <i>mehadrin min ha-mehadrin </i>means that more candles will be lit. Furthermore, even if fewer candles will be lit this way, the mitzva is enhanced because people will come to know which day of Ḥanuka it is.) Many explain that the difference between the customs is based on where people used to light. Sephardim traditionally lit their candles near the entrance to their homes; therefore, if many members of the household would light there, onlookers would not be able to tell which day of Ḥanuka it was. Ashkenazim, on the other hand, were accustomed to lighting inside the house, so everyone was able to light their own candles. <i>Darkhei Moshe</i> 671:1 thus writes in the name of R. Avraham of Prague that, according to the custom of <i>mehadrin min ha-mehadrin</i>, everyone in the house must light his own candles when lighting indoors, even according to <i>Tosafot</i>.According to <i>Bi’ur Ha-Gra</i>, the main reason the Gemara gives for Beit Hillel’s opinion is that we “ascend in holiness,” so there is no need to know which day of Ḥanuka it is; the main thing is to increase the number of candles. Thus, the Vilna Gaon dismisses <i>Tosafot</i>’s reasoning, indicating that even when everyone lights at the entrance, one should light according to the number of members of the household and the current day of the holiday.Some infer from Rambam’s language that one person should light for everyone, but according to Ashkenazic custom, based on Maharil, everyone lights his own candles and recites his own <i>berakhot</i>. R. Naḥum Rabinovitch writes in <i>Melumdei Milḥama</i> (p. 232) that according to R. Yosef Qafiḥ’s edition of MT, it turns out that Ashkenazic custom is the same as Rambam’s opinion. <i>Taz</i> 677:1 and MA 677:9 explain that since the members of the household have no intention of fulfilling their obligation through the head of the household’s <i>berakhot</i>, they may recite the <i>berakhot</i> over their own candles. This implies that they would not be able to recite the <i>berakhot</i> otherwise, because one does not recite a <i>berakha</i> upon merely beautifying a mitzva. <i>Sefat Emet</i> (<i>Shabbat</i> 21b), however, postulates that from the very beginning, the Sages determined that those who follow the custom of <i>mehadrin min ha-mehadrin</i> should recite the <i>berakhot</i>, even though they have already fulfilled their minimal obligation. Another dispute involves one who lights a single candle, with a <i>berakha</i>, and later obtains enough candles to fulfill the mitzva according to the custom of <i>mehadrin</i>. Should he recite an additional <i>berakha</i> upon lighting the new candles or not? <i>Eliya Rabba</i> maintains that he should recite a <i>berakha</i>, but according to <i>Pri Ḥadash</i> §672 he should not recite a <i>berakha</i>; <i>Responsa R. Akiva Eger </i>2:13 seems to lean toward that opinion, based on the implication of <i>Taz</i> and MA.We must clarify whether the lighting of the head of a household absolves his family members of their obligation if they planned on lighting on their own but ended up not doing so. In my humble opinion, they have discharged their obligation, <i>be-di’avad</i>, because the minimal requirement to light one candle in the house was fulfilled. Therefore, whether they like it or not, the family members have fulfilled the mitzva at its simplest level. Their intention to refrain from discharging their obligation, in accordance with the words of <i>Taz</i> and MA, relates only to the effort to beautify the mitzva by lighting on their own with a <i>berakha</i>. Regarding the lighting itself, however, they discharge their obligation through the head of the household’s lighting. The matter still requires further study.</i>
  Children who have reached the age of education – approximately the age of six, when they begin to understand the story of the miracle and the mitzva to light candles – light with a <i>berakha</i>.
  The prevalent custom among married women is not to light Ḥanuka candles, because their husbands’ lighting it is considered like theirs, “one’s wife is like himself.” In many homes, young women and girls who have reached the age of education also do not light. Nevertheless, they may light with a <i>berakha</i> if they wish. It seems better to encourage young girls who have reached the age of education to light candles, at least until they become bat mitzva, as lighting Ḥanuka candles connects them to Torah and <i>mitzvot</i>. If they wish to continue lighting afterward, they should be commended. Even a woman whose husband lights candles may light her own candles, with a <i>berakha</i>, if she wishes, despite the custom to refrain from doing so.2<i class="footnote">Many Aḥaronim cite the reason that “one’s wife is like himself,” including MB 671:9, 675:9 and <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 671:16. Several reasons are given to explain why girls in some communities refrain from lighting. <i>Ḥatam Sofer</i> (<i>Shabbat</i> 21b) states that since people used to light outdoors, it was considered immodest for girls to go out and light. According to <i>Mishmeret Shalom</i> 48:2, it is improper for a daughter to light when her mother does not do so. Others explain that the reason minors light the candles is in order to train them to perform the <i>mitzvot </i>as adults, and since girls will not light when they grow older, because their husbands will light for them, they do not light when they are young either. (See <i>Mikra’ei Kodesh</i> [Frank] §14)It they wish, they may light with a <i>berakha</i>, as MB 675:9 states. After all, Ashkenazic custom permits women to recite <i>berakhot</i> even over <i>mitzvot</i> from which they are exempt. Certainly, then, they may recite a <i>berakha</i> over lighting the Ḥanuka candles, which they are obligated to do. And since some single women and widows live alone, there is room to say that young women should become used to lighting candles, with a <i>berakha</i>, in their parents’ home. According to the predominant Sephardic custom, in which only one person in each household lights, girls should not recite a <i>berakha</i> if they wish to light.</i>
  
  Section 5
  
  Lighting the Ḥanuka Candles / The <i>Berakhot</i> and <i>Ha-nerot Halalu</i>
  The Sages prescribed that we recite two <i>berakhot</i> before lighting the Ḥanuka candles, so that we focus on the two aspects of the mitzva. The first <i>berakha</i> relates to the mitzva itself: “…Who has sanctified us with His <i>mitzvot</i> and commanded us to light Ḥanuka candles.” The Ashkenazic formulation of this <i>berakha </i>concludes, “<i>lehadlik ner shel Ḥanuka</i>,” while Sephardim conclude, “<i>lehadlik ner Ḥanuka</i>.”3<i class="footnote">The text of the Gemara (<i>Shabbat</i> 23a) reads, “<i>lehadlik ner shel Ḥanuka</i>,” and this is how Rif and most Rishonim formulate the <i>berakha</i>. Ashkenazic custom follows this opinion, as MB 676:1 states. On the other hand, SA 676:1 states, “<i>lehadlik ner Ḥanuka</i>,” and Arizal and the Vilna Gaon concur. Sephardic Jews follow this custom.</i> The second <i>berakha</i> expresses our thanks to God for the miracles He performed on behalf of our ancestors when the story of Ḥanuka took place. The Sages enacted that we recite this <i>berakha</i> when we light the candles because the candles are supposed to remind us of the miracles and their meaning. We recite: “<i>Barukh ata Hashem Elokeinu Melekh ha-olam she-asa nisim la-avoteinu ba-yamim ha-hem ba-zeman ha-zeh</i>” (“Blessed are You, Lord our God, King of the universe, Who performed miracles for our ancestors in those days, at this time”). On the first day, we add the <i>berakha </i>of <i>She-heḥeyanu</i>, which expresses our thanks to God for giving us life and sustaining us for another year, giving us the privilege to once again reach the days of Ḥanuka and fulfill the mitzva of lighting the candles.4<i class="footnote">Some maintain that the <i>berakhot</i> of <i>She-asa Nisim </i>and <i>She-heḥeyanu</i> were instituted in connection with both the act of lighting the candles and with the day itself. Therefore, one who cannot light candles nonetheless recites these <i>berakhot</i> upon the day itself (Me’iri). Others maintain that these <i>berakhot</i> were instituted only in connection with the lighting, and one who does not light or see lit candles may not recite them (Rambam). The Aḥaronim debate this issue as well, and SHT 676:3 remains undecided. According to most Aḥaronim, however, one should not recite the <i>berakhot</i>, out of uncertainty.</i>
  Immediately following the <i>berakhot</i>, one begins lighting the candles, without talking between completing the <i>berakhot</i> and beginning to light. After the first candle is lit, it is customary to start reciting <i>Ha-nerot Halalu</i> (whose origin is <i>Sofrim</i> 20:6). While reciting this paragraph, one continues lighting the remaining candles. Even though more candles still need to be lit, reciting <i>Ha-nerot Halalu</i> does not constitute an interruption. As we already learned, the minimal obligation of the mitzva is fulfilled by lighting the first candle, while the purpose of the remaining candles is to beautify the mitzva. Even though, <i>le-khatḥila</i>, one should refrain from speaking until after all the candles are lit, since <i>Ha-nerot Halalu</i> explains the purpose of the mitzva, there is room to say that one should recite it specifically while fulfilling the mitzva. However, one who finds it difficult to recite <i>Ha-nerot Halalu</i> while lighting the candles may recite it afterward (see MB 676:8, <i>Mishbetzot Zahav</i> 676:5).
  Some people also recite <i>Le-shem Yiḥud</i> prior to the <i>berakhot</i> and <i>Ha-nerot Halalu</i>, in order to perform the mitzva more intently.
  One should light each candle well and wait until the flame takes firm hold onto the majority of the wick, not like those who rush to move onto the next candle before the previous one is properly lit (BHL 673:2, s.v. “hadlaka”).
  
  Section 6
  
  Lighting the Ḥanuka Candles / Family Participation in the Mitzva
  One should try to gather the entire family for candle lighting, so that everyone can hear the <i>berakhot</i>, answer “amen,” and witness the lighting. Besides the fact that this glorifies the mitzva and publicizes the miracle, it is necessary for those who are not reciting the <i>berakhot</i> themselves, like a woman who fulfills her obligation through her husband’s lighting or children who fulfill their obligation through the lighting of the head of the household. By hearing the <i>berakhot</i>, they take part in thanking God for the miracles He performed. According to Rambam and Rashi, if the family members do not hear the <i>berakhot</i>, they must look at the candles and recite the <i>berakha</i> of <i>She-asa Nisim</i>, despite the fact that they already discharged their obligation to light the candles through the head of the household’s lighting. Rashba and Ran, however, maintain that since these family members have already fulfilled the mitzva of lighting, even though they did not hear the <i>berakhot</i>, they do not have to recite the <i>berakha </i>of <i>She-asa Nisim</i> upon seeing the candles. Since the matter is under dispute, one should not recite the <i>berakha</i> (SA 676:3). <i>Le-khatḥila</i>, though, one who does not light and recite the <i>berakhot</i> himself should hear them from someone else and answer “amen,” in order to fulfill the mitzva according to all <i>poskim</i>.
  Therefore, one who discharges his obligation through someone else’s lighting, like a woman who fulfills her obligation through her husband’s lighting or children who fulfill their obligation through the lighting of the head of the household, must take part in a candle lighting ceremony, so that they can hear the <i>berakhot</i> and answer “amen.” And even if they cannot be home for the lighting, they should try to attend a lighting and hear the <i>berakhot </i>at a different house or at the synagogue, thereby fulfilling their obligation according to all opinions.5<i class="footnote">The Talmud states in <i>Shabbat</i> 23a, “One who sees the Ḥanuka candles must recite a <i>berakha</i>.” The Gemara explains that one who lights recites two <i>berakhot</i> – <i>Lehadlik </i>and <i>She-asa Nisim </i>– while one who merely sees candles recites one <i>berakha</i> – <i>She-asa Nisim</i>. On the first night, the <i>berakha </i>of <i>She-heḥeyanu</i> is added. The commentators disagree on what the phrase “one who sees the Ḥanuka candles” means. According to Rashi, Rambam, and <i>Mordechai</i>, one who has another person light on his behalf, but who fails to hear the <i>berakhot</i>, recites <i>She-asa Nisim</i> upon seeing the candles. This is because the mitzva has two components: 1) to light Ḥanuka candles at home, in order to publicize the miracle; and 2) to thank God for the miracle by seeing the candles. One who has another person light on his behalf at home has fulfilled the mitzva of lighting, but since he did not hear the <i>berakha </i>of <i>She-asa Nisim</i>, he has not fulfilled the mitzva of giving thanks. Therefore, he recites the <i>berakha</i> upon seeing Ḥanuka candles. For example, a woman who did not hear her husband recite the <i>berakhot</i> when he lit must recite <i>She-asa Nisim</i> when she comes home later and sees the candles. Similarly, a household member who was absent when the candles were lit recites the <i>berakha</i> of <i>She-asa Nisim</i> when he walks through the streets and sees Ḥanuka candles in the window of someone’s house. On the other hand, Rashba, Ran, and <i>Smag</i> maintain that only one who has not yet discharged his obligation – because he has no one to light on his behalf – recites <i>She-asa Nisim</i> upon seeing Ḥanuka candles.SA 676:3, MB <i>ad loc. </i>6, SHT <i>ad loc. </i>9-11, and <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> <i>ad loc. </i>24 rule that one should not recite a <i>berakha</i>, because the matter is uncertain. See SA 677:3 and <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> <i>ad loc. </i>23. Also see <i>Berur Halakha</i>, <i>Shabbat</i> 23a; <i>Beit Yosef</i> and <i>Baḥ</i> 676:3; MB <i>ad loc. </i>6; SHT <i>ad loc. </i>9. Even according to those who maintain that the head of the household completely exempts everyone of their obligation with his lighting, it is clear that it is preferable for him to perform the mitzva in the presence of the entire family. Therefore, he must gather his family together shortly before lighting the candles. This ruling is found in MA 672:5, <i>Ḥayei Adam</i> 154:20, MB 672:10, <i>Ben Ish Ḥai</i>, Year 1, <i>Hilkhot Ḥanuka </i>1 (Vayeshev), and other sources.</i>
  
  Section 7
  
  Lighting the Ḥanuka Candles / The Candles
  One may use any type of oil or wick for the Ḥanuka candles, including those that are unusable for Shabbat candles. This is because the purpose of Shabbat candles is to illuminate one’s home, and if they do not burn nicely, there is a concern that one may manipulate a candle to improve its light and thus desecrate Shabbat. Therefore, the Sages prohibited lighting Shabbat candles with oils and wicks that do not burn well. In contrast, one may not use the light of the Ḥanuka candles, so any type of oil or wick that can stay lit for half an hour may be used.
  The more beautifully the candle burns, the more beautiful the mitzva is, because the miracle is publicized more effectively. Therefore, many people light wax or paraffin candles, whose flame is strong and beautiful. Many Aḥaronim write that it is even better to light with olive oil, because its light is lucid and it also recalls the miracle of the oil.6<i class="footnote"><i>Shabbat</i> 21b, 23a; SA 673:1. <i>Shabbat</i> 23a states that the preferred way to perform the mitzva is with olive oil, but the Gemara implies that this is so only because its light is more lucid (see <i>Berur Halakha</i>). Therefore, some say that wax is just as good as, if not better than, olive oil, as <i>Darkhei Moshe</i> 673:1 cites. R. Avraham Yitzḥak Kook concurs in <i>Mitzvat Re’iyah</i> §673. However, Me’iri and <i>Kol Bo</i> state that olive oil has an advantage in that it reminds one of the miracle. Many Aḥaronim, including MB <i>ad loc. </i>4 and AHS <i>ad loc. </i>1, state likewise. R. Kook and his son R. Zvi Yehuda Kook followed this practice. (Regarding Maharal’s opinion, see <i>Maḥatzit Ha-shekel</i> <i>ad loc. </i>1, SHT <i>ad loc. </i>4, <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> <i>ad loc. </i>18, and <i>Yemei Hallel Ve-hoda’ah</i> 14:21-23.)</i>
  The Ḥanuka candles must contain enough fuel to last for half an hour, because the Sages prescribed that we light from the end of <i>shki’a</i> until people are no longer walking around in the marketplace, or about half an hour. And even when one lights indoors, the candles must be able to last for half an hour. If one has only a small amount of oil or a small candle, which will burn for only a few minutes, one should light it without reciting a <i>berakha</i>.7<i class="footnote">According to the first answer recorded in <i>Shabbat</i> 21b, the time to light is “from <i>shki’a </i>until the market empties of pedestrians.” According to the second answer, however, that is how long the candles must be lit. Rif, Rambam, and other Rishonim write that this is a duration of half an hour. SA 672:2, 675:2 rules accordingly. See MB 672:5. However, some Rishonim maintain that one may fulfill one’s obligation if one lights for a shorter period of time and using smaller candles, either because the <i>halakha</i> follows the first answer in the Gemara, or because even though the <i>halakha</i> follows the second answer, once people began lighting indoors there was no longer a need to light for half an hour, which is the amount of time it used to take for people to return from the marketplace (<i>Or Zaru’a, Smag</i>). Therefore, if one does not have enough oil, he should light without a <i>berakha</i> (BHL 672:2, s.v.<i> </i>“ka-zeh”). See <i>Berur Halakha</i>, <i>Shabbat</i> 21b, nn. 4:2, 5; <i>Torat Ha-mo’adim</i> 6:27, 31.</i>
  
  Section 8
  
  Lighting the Ḥanuka Candles / Electric Bulbs
  After electricity was discovered, the question was raised: Does one fulfill the mitzva of lighting Ḥanuka candles with electric bulbs? 
  In practice, most <i>poskim</i> maintain that one may not use electric bulbs, because they are not considered “candles,” which have wicks and are fueled by oil or wax. Furthermore, since they emit a very strong light, they may be considered “torches” (<i>avukot</i>), which have multiple flames, not candles (“<i>nerot</i>”) which have a single flame. R. Avraham Yitzḥak Kook writes that since electricity did not exist when the Sages instituted the mitzva, it is not one of the types of candles included in the rabbinic enactment that one can use to fulfill the mitzva (<i>Mitzvat Re’iyah</i>, OḤ 673).
  It is true that regarding Shabbat candles, most authorities maintain that in a time of need one can fulfill the mitzva, with a <i>berakha</i>, using electric lights, because the main purpose of Shabbat candles is to provide light. Ḥanuka candles, however, are meant to remind us of the miracle. Therefore, they must resemble the candles used in the Holy Temple, and since electric lights are not similar to candles, one does not fulfill his obligation by lighting them.
  <i>Be-di’avad</i>,<i> </i>if one does not have an acceptable candle, he may light electric bulbs, without reciting a <i>berakha</i>. By doing so, he affirms the miracle and, according to a few <i>poskim</i>, even fulfills the mitzva.8<i class="footnote">Some Aḥaronim maintain that it is possible to fulfill the mitzva of lighting Ḥanuka candles with electric lights. R. Yosef Messas ruled accordingly in <i>Responsa Mayim Ḥayim</i> §279. R. Shlomo Zalman Auerbach (<i>Halikhot Shlomo</i> 15:3) maintains that if there is no alternative, one may turn on a flashlight and recite a <i>berakha</i> over it (because its filament is similar to a wick). However, most <i>poskim</i> maintain that electric bulbs may not be used as Ḥanuka candles, though when there is no alternative one should light them without a <i>berakha</i>. See <i>Yabi’a Omer</i> 3:35, which summarizes the various opinions. The Aḥaronim discuss these distinctions. R. Avraham Yitzḥak Kook writes in <i>Mitzvat Re’iyah</i>, OḤ 673: “Since they did not exist when the Sages enacted the mitzva, one could say that they are not included in the list of ‘candles’ upon which the enactment took effect. We find a similar idea with regard to the rabbinic enactment of [<i>nida</i>] ‘stains,’ where we determine [the halakhic status of a bloodstain] based on [the size of] a louse of their time.” The distinction I presented between Shabbat candles and Ḥanuka candles is explained in <i>Responsa Har Tzvi</i>, OḤ 2:114, and elsewhere. See <i>Peninei Halakha</i>: <i>Shabbat</i> 1:4:5, which states that one may recite a <i>berakha</i> over an incandescent electric bulb on Shabbat in a time of need.</i>
  Some have a custom to place large, electric menoras, whose light can be seen from afar, in public areas. Even though this does not fulfill the rabbinic commandment to light Ḥanuka candles, there is merit to this custom, because it reminds the public of the miracle of Ḥanuka.
  
  Section 9
  
  Lighting the Ḥanuka Candles / Lighting Is the Mitzva
  The mitzva is fulfilled by the act of lighting the candles, not by having them lit. This is evident from the formulation of the <i>berakha</i>: “Who has sanctified us with His <i>mitzvot</i> and commanded us to light Ḥanuka candles.” Therefore, if one lights candles that can burn for half an hour and someone knocks them down by accident, causing them to go out before half an hour has passed, he does not need to rekindle them, because he fulfilled the mitzva when he lit the candles initially. Even if one lights inferior candles, such that there is some concern that they might go out, he has discharged his obligation, assuming that these candles usually last for half an hour. Nonetheless, the Aḥaronim rule that it is proper to be stringent and rekindle the candles, so that they may be lit for the half-hour period that the Sages prescribed (SA 673:2, MB <i>ad loc. </i>27).
  However, if one lights the candles in a place where they cannot burn for half an hour, like in a windy area, and the wind actually blows them out before they manage to burn for half an hour, he has not fulfilled his obligation, because at the moment he lit them they were not fit to last the required amount of time. Most <i>poskim</i> maintain that in such a case one must rekindle the candles with a <i>berakha</i>, but in practice one should rekindle them without a <i>berakha</i>, because the matter is uncertain, and the rule is that we are lenient in cases of uncertainty concerning <i>berakhot</i>.9<i class="footnote">One should not recite a <i>berakha</i> because he may have fulfilled his obligation with the first lighting, even though it did not last for half an hour, as we explained in n.8. Furthermore, sometimes it seems as if the candles will certainly blow out, when, in truth, it is not so certain. See SHT 673:30. Even if one extinguishes the candles deliberately, one should rekindle them without a <i>berakha</i>, because he may have already fulfilled the mitzva. Moreover, it is unclear whether extinguishing the candles nullifies the lighting that he performed properly. <i>Har Tzvi</i>, OḤ 2:114 states that if one lights in a place where, for external reasons, the candles are not expected to last half an hour, but they nonetheless do, he has discharged his obligation. This is why those who light in an aquarium fulfill the mitzva even though they close the box only after they light, because once the box is closed the candles can actually stay lit for half an hour.According to Maharshal and <i>Taz</i> (MB 673:26), if the candles accidentally go out late Friday afternoon before Shabbat, one must rekindle them, because they have not yet burned after <i>shki’a</i>. Most <i>poskim</i>, however, maintain that while one is not obligated to rekindle the candles in this situation, it is very proper to do so. After Shabbat begins, or after one accepts Shabbat upon himself, everyone agrees that one may not relight the candles.</i>
  As previously stated, the mitzva is fulfilled by lighting the candles, not by placing them in their proper place. Therefore, if a candle happened to have been lit while it was still daytime, and it is situated in a valid location for Ḥanuka candles, one has not fulfilled his obligation, since it was not lit for the sake of the mitzva. Even if one picks up the lit candle and then puts it back down with the intention to perform the mitzva, he has not fulfilled his obligation. Rather, he must extinguish it and rekindle it for the sake of the mitzva, and there is no need to pick it up and put it back down (<i>Shabbat</i> 23a, SA 675:1).
  One must light the candles where they will be placed. Even if the head of the household is ill and cannot get out of bed, one may not bring the candles to him so that he can light by his bedside, and then transfer the candles to their proper place. Rather, the head of the household may recite the <i>berakhot</i> while someone else lights for him in the proper location of the candles (<i>Ben Ish Ḥai</i>, Year 1, <i>Hilkhot Ḥanuka</i> 6 [Vayeshev]). If one places the candles on the windowsill, but forgets to move them close to the window before lighting, he may push them closer after the lighting, so that the passersby can see them more clearly.10<i class="footnote">If one moves the candles from inside to outside, or vice versa, after the lighting, he has not fulfilled his obligation, because an onlooker might think that he lit them for his own use (SA 675:11). Regarding nowadays, this requires further investigation. After all, people today do not use candles for light; therefore this concern no longer applies. In practice, though, one should not move the candles from place to place, even inside one’s home (MB <i>ad loc. </i>6). It seems, however, that one may move them slightly, when it is clear that one’s intention is to publicize the miracle more effectively. See SHT 674:4, <i>Yemei Ha-Ḥanuka</i> 6:33, <i>Hilkhot Ḥag Be-ḥag</i> ch. 9 n. 26.</i>
  
  Section 10
  
  Lighting the Ḥanuka Candles / The Prohibition of Benefiting from the Candles
  One may not benefit from the light of the Ḥanuka candles, whether for mundane purposes, like counting money, or sacred purposes, like studying Torah. This is because the candles are designated for the mitzva of lighting Ḥanuka candles, and just as one may not benefit from the candles of the <i>Menora</i> in the Temple, so too, one may not benefit from the Ḥanuka candles, which were instituted in commemoration of the miracle that occurred in connection with the <i>Menora</i>. Furthermore, the purpose of the candles is to publicize the miracle, and if one were to use their light, it would appear as if he lit them in order to illuminate the room, not in order to publicize the miracle (SA 673:1).11<i class="footnote">According to <i>Ha-ma’or</i> and <i>Itur</i>, one may use the light of the Ḥanuka candles for sacred purposes. However, Rambam, Ramban, Rashba, Rosh, and others prohibit this, and the <i>halakha</i> follows their opinion. Rosh permits one to use the candles temporarily for a mundane purpose, as long as it is not disgraceful, like counting money from afar. Most <i>poskim</i> disagree, as <i>Beit Yosef</i> and SA 673:1 state. BHL, s.v. “ve-yesh” states that perhaps one may use the candles temporarily for a sacred purpose, like studying Torah for a short period of time; SHT <i>ad loc. </i>11 adds that one may walk in a place where the light of a Ḥanuka candle helps prevent him from tripping. That is, he does not need to close his eyes in such a case, because that is not considered utilizing the light. See <i>Berur Halakha</i>, <i>Shabbat</i> 21b; MB 673:8.</i>
  One may not use leftover oil or candles that were not completely consumed, because they were designated for the mitzva the moment they were lit. Preferably, one should use them for Ḥanuka candles on the remaining days of the holiday, but if they are no longer fit for such use, or if they are left over after the eighth night, one should burn them (SA 677:4, MB <i>ad loc. </i>18). Alternatively, one may pour the extra oil down the drain and put the remaining wicks in the garbage. Candles left in their package and oil left in the bottle may be used for any purpose.
  If one begins lighting the candles and the <i>shamash</i> goes out, he may not rekindle it using one of the Ḥanuka candles, because the <i>shamash</i> is not considered to be designated for use in a mitzva, and one may not light a non-mitzva candle from a candle designated for the mitzva. If, however, one has used up all his matches, and if he does not relight the <i>shamash</i> he will not be able to continue lighting the rest of the candles, he should light the <i>shamash </i>from a Ḥanuka candle.12<i class="footnote">See <i>Shabbat</i> 22a; <i>Berur Halakha</i> <i>ad loc</i>.; SA 674:1. This issue has dfferent opinions and many details, but the prevalent custom is not to light even one Ḥanuka candle from another, as Rema, MB, and <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 674:8 state. In pressing circumstances, one may rely on the more lenient opinion.</i>
  Technically, one may benefit from the candles after they have burned for half an hour. However, it is customary to be stringent and refrain from deriving any benefit from them, even after half an hour passes, because even then the lights publicize the miracle, and if one were to use them, it would seem as if he is denigrating the mitzva. Furthermore, since he prepared the candles for the sake of a mitzva and did not plan on benefiting from them after half an hour passes, some say that the entire candle has been sanctified for the mitzva, and thus one may not use it for mundane purposes.13<i class="footnote">SA 672:2, MB <i>ad loc. </i>7-8. We take into account the opinions of both Maharshal, who is concerned that onlookers will think that he is benefiting from forbidden objects, and <i>Baḥ</i>, which permits one to derive benefit from the candles only if he stipulates that the sanctity will not rest upon the leftover oil or wax after half an hour. Also, see below 13:4, where I explain that it is preferable nowadays to light the candles for more than half an hour. Based on these ideas, I wrote in the main text simply that the remaining oil is forbidden, without differentiating between whether the candles already burned for half an hour or not. However, if one intends to extinguish the flames after half an hour and use the leftover oil or wax for mundane purposes, he may do so, as MB 677:18 explains.</i>
  
  Section 11
  
  Lighting the Ḥanuka Candles / The Menora and the <i>Shamash</i>
  It is proper to beautify the mitzva by using a beautiful menora (<i>ḥanukiya</i>, candelabrum), each according to his means. Some go above and beyond and buy a menora made of gold or silver. One who does not have a menora may stick candles onto a flat surface and light them. Similarly, one may take small glass cups, fill them with oil and wicks, and light them. One should not, however, light the candles in disgraceful vessels, like sooty earthenware (SA 673:3, MB <i>ad loc. </i>28, <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> <i>ad loc. </i>60-62).
  One should take care to leave space between the candles, so that each one can be seen separately, thus publicizing the miracle. In addition, if the candles are too close to one another, their flames may merge, which disqualifies them. Regarding wax candles, another concern arises: If they are too close, they will cause one another to melt before half an hour passes (SA 671:4 and commentaries <i>ad loc.</i>).
  Technically, one fulfills the mitzva even if he does not place the candles at the same height or in a straight line, as long as they are separate and a person standing close by can tell that they correspond to the days of Ḥanuka. Similarly, one fulfills the mitzva by placing candlesticks in a circle, since each candle stands on its own. Preferably, though, one should place them in a straight line, so that all onlookers can see the candles all together and discern their number, which corresponds to duration of the miracle (Rema 671:4, BHL s.v. “u-mutar”).
  In order to prevent people from violating the prohibition of benefiting from the Ḥanuka candles, the custom developed to light an additional candle to serve as a <i>shamash</i>. This way, if one needs light where the candles are burning, he will use the light of the <i>shamash</i>. Technically, one does not need to light a <i>shamash</i> in a room that has electric lights. Nonetheless, many people still light a <i>shamash</i> in order to emphasize the difference between the Ḥanuka candles, whose light we may not use, and the <i>shamash</i>, whose light we may use.
  However, in order to avoid miscounting the candles, we place the <i>shamash</i> at a different height or a distance from the other candles, to make it clear to all which are the Ḥanuka candles and which one is the <i>shamash</i>. The prevalent custom is to place it higher than the rest, so that if someone needs light, it will be clear that he is using the light of the <i>shamash</i> and not that of the other candles (SA and Rema 673:1, MB <i>ad loc. </i>20).14<i class="footnote">Regarding the <i>shamash</i>, see <i>Shabbat</i> 21b, <i>Berur Halakha</i> <i>ad loc.</i>,<i> </i>SA 671:5, and BHL <i>ad loc.</i>,<i> </i>s.v. “ve-tzarikh,” which indicate that it is worthwhile to distinguish between candles designated for the mitzva and optional candles.According SA and Rema 673:1, as well as most <i>poskim</i>,<i> </i>a single <i>shamash</i> permits one to use the light of all of the candles. However, some say that one may not use the light of the candles if one wants to actually look at something closely, because he is benefiting from the additional light generated by the Ḥanuka candles. <i>Pri Ḥadash</i> maintains that this is prohibited only if one needs a large amount of light. MB 673:15 rules – based on MA – that <i>le-khatḥila </i>one should not use the light of the candles and the <i>shamash</i> at all, because onlookers will think that he lit them for his own purposes. Also see MB 673:24, BHL <i>ad loc.</i>, s.v. “she-im” and “yihyeh,” <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 673:39.</i>
  
  Section 12
  
  Lighting the Ḥanuka Candles / Setting up the Candles and Lighting Them
  When setting up the menora, one is faced with several choices: Where, preferably, should the first candle be set up on the first night, the second on the second night, etc., and which candle should be lit first? Even though one fulfills the mitzva according to the custom of <i>mehadrin min ha-mehadrin</i> no matter how he lights, the ideal practice is as follows: On the first night, one sets up the candle on the right side of the menora (from the perspective of the person facing or lighting the menora), because the right side always takes precedence over the left. On the second night, one sets up the new candle to the left of the first one, and after reciting the <i>berakhot</i>, one lights the new candle first, followed by the one to its right. There are two reasons for this. 1) It is preferable to begin with the new candle, which symbolizes the increasing greatness of the miracle. 2) After lighting the leftmost candle, one will have to turn to his right in order to light the next candle, and the Sages teach that when one turns, it is preferable that one turn to the right (<i>Yoma</i> 15b). On each subsequent night, one adds a new candle to the left of the candles he lit on the previous nights and lights the new one first. Then, he turns to the right and lights the rest. When reciting the <i>berakhot</i>, it is proper to stand to the left of the menora so that the closest candle will be the one he lights first. This way, one avoids skipping over the other candles in order to light the new one (SA 676:5, MB <i>ad loc. </i>11).15<i class="footnote">This custom is cited in SA 676:5, <i>Darkhei Moshe</i> <i>ad loc. </i>2, <i>Sha’ar Ha-kavanot</i> of Arizal, <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> <i>ad loc. </i>31. The <i>halakha</i> that one should stand next to the new candle on the left is stated explicitly in <i>Ḥayei Adam</i> <i>ad loc. </i>154 and MB <i>ad loc. </i>11. I would add that by standing to the left of the candles, the person lighting avoids being considered one who turns to the left when lighting the first, leftmost candle, because he is simply lighting the candle closest to him; and from there, he turns to the right. There are two additional customs that we will mention. 1) Maharshal and the Vilna Gaon maintain that one should first light the candle closest to the doorpost (whether one placed the candles to the left of the doorway, as one should do, <i>le-khatḥila</i>, or to its right) and continue lighting the rest from there. They believe that one should start with this candle because it is the one that fulfills the main requirement of the mitzva, while the rest are lit in order to follow the custom of <i>mehadrin</i>. This, in their opinion, is more important than lighting from left to right. 2) <i>Taz</i>’s opinion is the inverse of the accepted opinion. He maintains that turning to the right means that one begins to light on the right side and then continues to the left. According to him, one lights the leftmost candle on the first night, because it is the closest to the left doorpost. MB and BHL <i>ad loc</i>. elaborate on these opinions and state that one fulfills his obligation no matter which way he lights.</i>
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">
  
  Section 13
  
  Lighting the Ḥanuka Candles / Prior to Lighting
  One may not begin to eat within half an hour before candle-lighting time, which is at <i>tzeit</i> (as we will explain below, 13:4). One may not even begin a light meal, since he might drag out the meal and forget to light candles. In addition, one may not drink alcoholic beverages, but one may eat as many fruits and vegetables as one desires. One may even eat bread or <i>mezonot</i> (grain-based foods aside from bread), as long as he eats less than a <i>keveitza </i>(an egg’s bulk; c. 50 ml).
  Likewise, one may not begin any type of work during the half-hour period before candle-lighting time that may drag on for a long time, nor should one go to sleep during that time. One may begin to eat, work, or sleep during this period if he asks a friend to remind him to light on time. Nevertheless, even if one begins these activities in a permissible fashion, i.e., more than half an hour before candle-lighting time, he must stop at <i>tzeit</i> and light the candles, so that he does not miss the time that the Sages enacted (MB 672:10; SHT <i>ad loc.</i>; <i>Peninei Halakha:</i> <i>Prayer</i> 25:9).
  One who is in the middle of work and cannot get home in time to light at <i>tzeit </i>may continue working until he is finished. However, he must take care not to eat until he fulfills the mitzva. In addition, if his work is the kind that can drag on for a long time, to the point where there is a concern that he will end up forgetting to light the candles, he may continue working only if he asks a friend to remind him to light when his work is done (see below 13:6, 9).
  One may not even study Torah once the time for lighting the Ḥanuka candles arrives. However, if a regular Torah lecture takes place at that time, and it would be difficult to reschedule it for another time, it is best to keep the lecture at its normal time and remind everyone at its conclusion to light Ḥanuka candles (see below ch. 13, n. 13).
  
  Section 14
  
  Lighting the Ḥanuka Candles / Lighting in the Synagogue
  It is customary to light Ḥanuka candles in the synagogue, reciting all of the <i>berakhot</i> there that we recite at home. Even though the Sages ordained only that one must light at home, the custom developed to light in the synagogue as well, in order to publicize the miracle further. The candles are customarily placed near the southern wall of the synagogue, similar to the location of the <i>Menora</i> in the Holy Temple. One does not discharge his obligation through this lighting, and even the person who actually recites the <i>berakhot</i> and lights the candles in the synagogue must light again, with the <i>berakhot</i>, at home (SA 671:7).16<i class="footnote">The main explanation the Rishonim provide for the custom to light in the synagogue is that it serves to publicize the miracle; see Me’iri (<i>Shabbat</i> 23b), <i>Manhig</i>, <i>Kol Bo</i>, and many others. Rivash §111 writes that when people began lighting indoors, they introduced the custom of lighting in the synagogue, in order to publicize the miracle. <i>Manhig</i> gives an additional reason: Since the miracle occurred in the Temple, the Sages wanted to publicize it in the synagogue, which is considered a miniature version of the Temple. According to these explanations, one does not fulfill his obligation through this lighting. <i>Orḥot Ḥayim</i>, however, explains that the custom is also to enable those who do not know how to perform the mitzva, or are not diligent about it, to fulfill their obligation. Some say that the purpose of this custom is to enable guests who are away from their homes to fulfill the mitzva. According to these explanations, it would seem that one can fulfill his obligation, under pressing circumstances, through the lighting in the synagogue. Rashi, Rambam, and <i>Mordechai</i> – cited above in n. 6 – maintain that if one fulfilled his obligation through the lighting performed in his home by someone else, in his absence, he has not fulfilled his obligation to thank God. According to this opinion, one may fulfill his obligation to give thanks by hearing the <i>berakha</i> of <i>She-asa Nisim</i> in the synagogue.Nevertheless, the <i>halakha</i> is that one who lights in the synagogue does not fulfill his obligation, because each person is obligated to light in his home. When one lights for one’s wife and children after having recited the <i>berakhot</i> in the synagogue, it is clear that he must recite all of the <i>berakhot</i> again at home. However, if the person who lights in the synagogue lives alone, he should recite only two <i>berakhot</i> on the first night, because some maintain that the <i>berakha </i>of <i>She-heḥeyanu</i> pertains to the day itself (see <i>Beit Yosef</i> 676:3, SHT <i>ad loc. </i>3), and he has already fulfilled his obligation with the <i>berakha</i> that he recited in the synagogue. Thus state MB 671:45 and <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 671:74. (<i>Yeḥaveh Da’at</i> 2:77 states that such a person should also refrain from repeating the <i>berakha</i> of <i>She-asa Nisim</i>. By contrast, <i>Igrot Moshe</i>, OḤ 1:190, states that he should repeat <i>She-heḥeyanu</i> as well.) Therefore, it is preferable, <i>le-khatḥila</i>, for one who is free of all these uncertain elements to light the candles in the synagogue, like one whose custom is to let his father light for him at home.</i>
  It is customary to light the candles between <i>Minḥa</i> and <i>Ma’ariv</i>, because that is when the largest number of people is in the synagogue and the miracle will be publicized most effectively. After <i>Ma’ariv</i>, however, people are in a rush to get home and light. In synagogues where they pray <i>Ma’ariv</i> late – significantly later than <i>tzeit</i> – they should light the candles before <i>Ma’ariv</i>.
  Most congregations pray <i>Minḥa</i> on Friday afternoon shortly before <i>shki’a</i>, making it impossible to light Ḥanuka candles after <i>Minḥa</i>, because that is when one must accept Shabbat. Therefore, people in such communities should light before <i>Minḥa</i>. Congregations that pray <i>Minḥa</i> a long time before <i>shki’a</i>, however, should light the candles after <i>Minḥa</i> and make sure to finish lighting at least five minutes before <i>shki’a</i>, so that they can accept Shabbat before <i>shki’a</i> and fulfill the mitzva to extend the sanctity of Shabbat into the mundane week (MB 671:47). On <i>Motza’ei Shabbat</i>, we light the candles in the synagogue after <i>Ma’ariv</i>, because before then Shabbat has not yet ended.
  Since the reason for lighting candles in the synagogue is to publicize the miracle, at least ten people must be present at the time of lighting. What should one do if ten people have yet to assemble, and it is not possible to delay the lighting – on Friday, for example, when there is a concern that the congregation will not manage to finish praying <i>Minḥa</i> on time? Some say that they may recite the <i>berakhot</i> and light the candles even though fewer than ten people will hear the <i>berakhot</i>, because ten people will certainly gather together afterward and see the candles (MA, MB 671:47, BHL <i>ad loc</i>.). Others maintain that they should light without a <i>berakha</i> (<i>Mor U-ketzi’a</i>, <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 671:72).17<i class="footnote"><i>Responsa Rav Pe’alim</i>, OḤ 2:62 states that if there are ten people present with the inclusion of women in the women’s section, one may recite the <i>berakhot</i> even according to those who require the presence of ten. <i>Torat Ha-mo’adim</i> 7:8 cites opinions that allow children to be included in the count as well, adding that it is preferable in such a case to ask a child to recite the <i>berakhot</i>.</i>
  
  Section 15
  
  Lighting the Ḥanuka Candles / Candle Lighting at Public Gatherings
  Many people glorify the miracle by lighting Ḥanuka candles wherever people gather, like at weddings, bar mitzvas, bat mitzvas, Ḥanuka parties, and lectures. But may one recite a <i>berakha</i> over the lighting at such an event? 
  Many contemporary rabbis maintain that one should not recite a <i>berakha</i>, because the <i>berakhot</i> are customarily recited only in synagogues, and we do not have the authority to invent new customs in other places. According to them, a <i>berakha</i> that one recites in places other than a synagogue is considered a <i>berakha</i> <i>le-vatala</i>. The reason we light specifically in synagogues is likely to commemorate the <i>Menora</i> that was lit in the Holy Temple, since synagogues are considered miniature versions of the Temple. Elsewhere, however, one may not light with a <i>berakha</i>. 
  Nevertheless, several <i>poskim</i> maintain that one may light Ḥanuka candles with a <i>berakha</i> wherever there is a public gathering. Since the reason we light in the synagogue is to publicize the miracle, one should light with a <i>berakha</i> wherever masses of people gather. It is preferable, though, to pray <i>Minḥa</i> and <i>Ma’ariv</i> – or even just <i>Ma’ariv</i> – in such a place, so that it will be considered a synagogue, to some degree. Then one certainly may recite a <i>berakha</i>, as the custom dictates.
  In practice, one who wishes to rely on the opinion that one may light with a <i>berakha</i> may do so. If the guests at the event include non-observant Jews, who may not have lit candles at home, it is especially important to light with a <i>berakha</i>, because only then will everyone stand up – to hear the <i>berakhot</i> – causing the miracle to be publicized in front of their eyes. They will also learn how to fulfill the mitzva properly. If possible, it is preferable to ask someone who is unaccustomed to performing <i>mitzvot</i> to recite the <i>berakhot</i> and light the candles. This way, it will become clear that the <i>mitzvot </i>belong to the entire Jewish people, observant Jews and non-observant Jews alike.18<i class="footnote">Those who maintain that one may not recite the <i>berakhot </i>include: <i>Minḥat Yitzḥak</i> 6:65; <i>Tzitz Eliezer</i> 15:30; <i>Divrei Yatziv</i>, OḤ 286; <i>Shevet Ha-Levi</i> 4:65; R. Shlomo Zalman Auerbach; and R. Yosef Shalom Elyashiv. On the other hand, R. Mordechai Eliyahu permits reciting the <i>berakhot</i>, on condition that they pray <i>Ma’ariv</i> there, and R. Shaul Yisraeli permits it even if they do not pray <i>Ma’ariv</i> there (<i>Mikra’ei Kodesh</i> [Harari] ch. 10, n. 24). <i>Yabi’a Omer</i> 7:57:6 concurs, adding that R. Yaakov Rosenthal also concurs in <i>Mishnat Yaakov</i>. <i>Az Nidberu</i> 5:37, 6:75 rules that one should recite a <i>berakha</i> when the lighting takes place outdoors.The reason I wrote in the main text that it is preferable to ask a non-observant Jew to light the candles is that even if the <i>halakha</i> follows the more stringent opinion, we can view his <i>berakha</i> as educational, similar to our practice of training minors to recite <i>berakhot</i>.</i>
  
  
  
  
  
  Section 1
  
  When and Where to Light Ḥanuka Candles / Where to Light
  The Sages state: “Ḥanuka candles should be placed at the doorway, outside the home. One who lives on an upper floor places them in the window facing the street. In times of danger, it is sufficient to place them on the table” (<i>Shabbat</i> 21b).
  In the past, most people lived in single-story homes. A doorway led either to the street or to an enclosed courtyard with an exit to the street. The Sages ordained that people should light at the exit to the street, in order to publicize the miracle of Ḥanuka. They added that the candles should be lit to the left of the entranceway. This way, people passing through are surrounded by <i>mitzvot</i>, with the mezuza on the right and the candles on the left (<i>Shabbat</i> 22a).
  The Sages further stated that ideally the menora should be placed no lower than three <i>tefaḥim</i> from the ground<i> </i>and no higher than ten <i>tefaḥim</i> from the ground (between 9 and 30 inches). The reason for this is that if it is placed higher than ten <i>tefaḥim</i>, people who see it would think it is meant to illuminate the entrance to the home, since when people used to light candles to illuminate their homes, they would place them in their entranceways at a height of above ten <i>tefaḥim</i>. However, if it is placed lower than three <i>tefaḥim</i>, which is very close to the ground, people would think that the candles were placed there only temporarily, and would soon be moved to an area that needs to be illuminated. Only when the menora is placed at a height between three and ten <i>tefaḥim</i> is it clear to all that it was lit to fulfill the mitzva, and in this way the miracle is publicized. In any case, <i>be-di’avad</i>, if one lights Ḥanuka candles lower than three <i>tefaḥim</i> or higher than ten <i>tefaḥim</i>, he has fulfilled his obligation. However, if one lights candles at the entrance to his home and places them higher than twenty <i>amot</i> (about 30 feet), he has not fulfilled his obligation. In such a case, the candles are so high that people are not likely to see them, as people do not normally look at things that are so high (<i>Shabbat</i> 21b; SA 671:6).
  Some people lived on upper floors and exited through the residence on the ground floor. They did not have their own doorway to the street, and had they lit at the entrance to the ground-floor residence, no one would realize that the candles were theirs. Therefore, the Sages instructed them to light in their upper-floor home, in a window facing the street.
  In times of danger, when Jews feared harassment from non-Jews, the Sages stated that one should light Ḥanuka candles on a table inside one’s home. The miracle would be publicized only to the individual and the members of his household.
  
  Section 2
  
  When and Where to Light Ḥanuka Candles / Private Homes
  The Sages’ enactment seems to indicate that in the past there was no concern that the wind would blow out the Ḥanuka candles that were lit at the entrance to the home. Homes were built close together, many cities and courtyards were enclosed by a wall, and there were no strong winds blowing between the homes. Therefore, evidently, it was possible to light candles outside entranceways and courtyards without worrying that the candles would blow out. Today, though, when one lights candles outside, the wind usually blows them out. The only way to protect the candles is to light them in a glass box, like an aquarium.
  However, the Sages never required people to buy glass boxes in order to fulfill the mitzva of lighting Ḥanuka candles. Therefore, one who does not wish to buy a glass box may light the candles inside his home. If he lights in a window facing the street, he beautifies the mitzva of publicizing the miracle to the same degree as one who lights in the entranceway, though he does not further beautify the mitzva by lighting on the left side of the entranceway and thus surrounding himself with <i>mitzvot</i> (the <i>mezuza</i> on the right and the candles on the left). Those who wish to beautify the mitzva to the greatest extent should buy a glass box and light outside the entranceway of the house on the left side. If several family members are lighting, as is the Ashkenazic custom (above, 12:3-4), they should make sure that every menora appears distinct, so that it is clear how many candles are lit on each day of Ḥanuka. Another possibility is for the other household members to light inside the home, at the window.1<i class="footnote"><i>She’elat Yaavetz</i> 1:149 states that it is preferable to light inside a glass box, and many Jerusalem residents have followed this practice. R. Zvi Pesaḥ Frank discusses this practice in <i>Mikra’ei Kodesh</i> §§16-17. However, even according to these authorities, there is no obligation to buy a glass box. AHS 671:24 states this explicitly, adding that lighting in a glass box makes the candles less visible (apparently glass at that time was not as transparent as it is today), and therefore it is customary to light inside, on the left side of the doorway.We have already seen in <i>Shabbat</i> 21b that when it was dangerous to light outside, people lit on a table inside. However, even when the danger subsided, people continued lighting inside, to the left of the doorway. Thus states Rema 671:7. <i>Or Zaru’a</i> expresses surprise that once the danger had passed people did not go back to lighting outside. <i>Itur</i> explains that once people began lighting inside, the custom remained even after the danger had passed. Some continue this practice to the present time (<i>Minḥat Yitzḥak</i> 6:66; <i>Yemei Ha-Ḥanuka</i> 3:2; <i>Piskei Teshuvot</i> 671 n. 11). See also <i>Torat Ha-mo’adim</i> 3:4 which states that this is the custom of most Sephardic communities. Nevertheless, the most straightforward understanding of the Gemara and the Rishonim is that it is preferable to light outside the doorway of the home, or in a window facing the street. Both these options are supported by the Gemara in <i>Shabbat</i> 21b, and they both serve to publicize the miracle more effectively.</i>
  In the past, many homes had walled courtyards, and people would exit to the street through a gate in the wall. In such a case, the courtyard was considered an extension of the home and the correct place to light was in the entranceway of the courtyard. In contrast, today’s front yards are not walled, and therefore the correct place to light is at the entranceway to the home itself.2<i class="footnote">The Rishonim disagree where one should light if he lives in a house with a front yard. According to Rashi, Ran, and others, he should light at the entranceway of the house. According to <i>Tosafot</i>, Rashba, and others, he should light at the entranceway of the yard. SA 671:5 rules in accordance with <i>Tosafot</i> without even mentioning Rashi’s position, to the surprise of AHS 671:20. (This topic is more complex than it seems; see <i>Berur Halakha</i> on <i>Shabbat</i> 21b and <i>Torat Ha-mo’adim</i> 3:2.) The accepted ruling in this case follows <i>Tosafot</i>’s position, as MB and BHL<i> </i>state. However, in practice, nowadays one should almost never light at the entranceway of the yard. There are a number of reasons for this: a) Today’s yards are usually not enclosed by a fence or gate. b) Some maintain that if an entranceway does not require a mezuza (such as if it does not have a lintel), one should not light there. (This is implied by Rabbeinu Yeruḥam, as cited in the end of <i>Darkhei Moshe</i> §671). c) Ḥazon Ish maintains that since today’s yards do not function as extensions of the home (as they are not used for laundering, cooking, and similar activities), one who lights Ḥanuka candles in the entranceway of such a courtyard has not fulfilled his obligation to light in his home. (See <i>Az Nidberu</i> 5:39.)Nevertheless, some contemporary <i>poskim</i> rule that one should light candles at the entranceway of one’s yard. In any case, since in practice everyone agrees that lighting in the entranceway of the house fulfills the obligation, there is no reason to court uncertainty by lighting at the entrance of the yard.The Sages state that if one’s home has two entrances on different sides, he should light at both entrances, so that household members are not suspected of neglecting the mitzva (<i>Shabbat</i> 23a; SA 671:8). However, as we saw in the previous note, nowadays many people light inside. Therefore, it is not necessary to light at both entrances, because there is no concern that neglecting to do so will arouse suspicion. A number of Rishonim write this, as do many Aḥaronim including Rema 671:8.</i>
  In some homes, the entranceway is not clearly visible to many people on the street, while lighting in the window would be more clearly visible from the street. Some maintain that, in such a case, it is still preferable to light in the entranceway, as doing so follows the Sages’ original enactment, so that one who enters the home will be surrounded by <i>mitzvot</i>. Others maintain that lighting in the window is preferable in this case, since the primary reason for the enactment is to publicize the miracle, and more people will see the candles if they are lit in the window. In practice, it seems that the mitzva is rendered more beautiful when one lights in the window. However, there is also an advantage to lighting in the entranceway.3<i class="footnote">If the entranceway of the home is on the side and not so visible from the street, it would seem preferable to light in a window facing the street because the rules concerning where to light revolve around the fundamental value of publicizing the miracle (SHT 671:30; <i>Igrot Moshe, </i>OḤ 4:125). Some maintain that lighting to the left of the doorway is still the best option, as being surrounded by <i>mitzvot</i> has kabbalistic significance. In my humble opinion, publicizing the miracle takes precedence. Even if the window facing the street is over ten <i>tefaḥim</i> high, it is still preferable to light there in order to publicize the miracle (see n. 5 below).</i>
  
  Section 3
  
  When and Where to Light Ḥanuka Candles / Apartment Buildings
  Nowadays, many people live in apartment buildings. The best place for them to light is in a window facing the street or on a porch facing the street, as this is the most effective way of publicizing the miracle. Those who light in the window must make sure that both household members and passersby can see the candles. Therefore, one should not use a menora that has a back that blocks the view of the candles from either side.4<i class="footnote">If the only menora in one’s possession has a back that blocks the candles from view on either side, one should place it perpendicular to the window, so that it will be visible from one side of the house and one side of the street.</i>
  Even when the window facing the street is higher than ten <i>tefaḥim</i> (c. 30 inches), one should still light there, because it is more important to publicize the miracle to passersby than to be meticulous about lighting the candles lower than ten <i>tefaḥim</i>.5<i class="footnote">R. Yosef Karo in SA 676:1 rules that it is a mitzva to place the candles lower than ten <i>tefaḥim</i>. However in his <i>Beit Yosef</i>, he acknowledges that according to Rif and Rambam this is not a mitzva. Nevertheless, according to Rabbeinu Ḥananel, Rosh, Ran, and most Rishonim it is indeed a mitzva (following the Gemara’s conclusion in <i>Shabbat</i> 21b). In any case, it is clear that <i>be-di’avad</i>, one who lights the candles higher than ten <i>tefaḥim</i> has fulfilled his obligation. MA 671:5 states that even if the window is higher than ten <i>tefaḥim</i>, he should still light there. Similarly, SHT 671:30 points out that the Gemara explicitly emphasizes the importance of publicizing the miracle. As the Sages stated, the mitzva of lighting Ḥanuka candles applies “until the Tarmodians have departed” (see section 6 below). This is why they enacted that one must light the candles outside the entranceway of the home.</i>
  Some maintain that it is better to light in the hallway right outside the apartment door, so that one who enters the home will be surrounded by <i>mitzvot</i> – the <i>mezuza</i> on the right and the Ḥanuka candles on the left. Although one who chooses to light this way certainly fulfills his obligation, it is nevertheless better to light in the window facing the street, to publicize the miracle.6<i class="footnote">Contemporary halakhic works contain lengthy discussions about the best way to light in apartment buildings. There are three primary positions, which I will briefly summarize here: a) One should light at the entrance to the building, as practiced by several contemporary authorities. Others disagree, maintaining that one who lights there has not fulfilled his obligation because they view this case as comparable to lighting in the entrance to an alleyway (<i>mavoi</i>), rather than the entrance to a courtyard (based on Ḥazon Ish). Furthermore, according to Rashi, even if this is considered the entrance to a courtyard, it may be that one does not fulfill his obligation by lighting there (see n. 2 above). b) One should light outside the door that opens to the hallway, so that people walking there will see the candles. Some light inside the doorway on the left side, as this has been a common practice for many generations (as mentioned in n. 1 above), in order to be surrounded by <i>mitzvot</i>. c) Some maintain that it is preferable to light in the window, as this publicizes the miracle most effectively. This accords with the simple meaning of the Sages’ statement: “One who lives on an upper floor places [the menora] in the window facing the street” (<i>Shabbat</i> 21b).In practice, one should not follow the first option, since some maintain that one cannot fulfill the obligation this way. All agree that one can fulfill his obligation by following the second or third option. It is best to light in the window, since publicizing the miracle is more important than beautifying the mitzva by lighting to the left of the doorway. This is the position of many authorities, including MA, SHT 671:30, and <i>Igrot Moshe,</i> OḤ 4:125. For those who follow Ashkenazic custom – that multiple family members light candles – it is preferable for one of them to light to the left of the doorway, thus beautifying the mitzva according to all the opinions.</i>
  Even if the apartment is on an upper floor and the window is higher than twenty <i>amot</i> (c. 30 feet), as long as passersby can see the candles through the window it would seem that it is preferable to light there in order to publicize the miracle. However, if one wishes, he may light in the hallway right outside the apartment door, as this publicizes the miracle somewhat as well. Even if he lights the candles inside his home, he has fulfilled his obligation.7<i class="footnote">If the window is higher than twenty <i>amot</i> (c. 30 feet) from the street, it would seem at first glance that there is no reason to light in the window. Since it is so high that people are not likely to see it, the miracle is not publicized, and thus one does not fulfill the obligation by lighting there. Rather, one should light to the left of the doorway. Several contemporary <i>poskim</i> rule this way. Nevertheless, all agree that one who lights at the window fulfills his obligation, since the menora is less than twenty <i>amot </i>high from the perspective of those inside the apartment. Thus, if one knows that passersby on the street do indeed see the candles in the window, it would seem that it is preferable to light there. This is implied by SHT 671:42 and stated explicitly by <i>Shevet Ha-Levi</i> 4:65. There are a few reasons for this preference: a) According to the opinion of R. Yoel cited in <i>Tur</i>, if the wall of the house starting from the ground reaches the candles, then one may light even above twenty <i>amot</i> (meaning that one who lives in a ground-floor apartment may light the candles at the top of the wall above him).<i> </i>If so, there is value to publicizing the miracle according to his opinion. b) <i>Pri Megadim</i> (end of <i>Mishbetzot</i> <i>Zahav</i> 671:105) states that even when one lights above twenty <i>amot</i>, passersby still notice the candles to some extent. (Thus, if one is already fulfilling the mitzva by the fact that the candles are lower than twenty <i>amot </i>for the household members, there is some additional value to publicizing the miracle – albeit slightly – to the outside world.) c) Some add another rationale: that residents in the other tall apartment buildings facing one’s own building can indeed see the candles that one lights in the window.Despite all this, when the window of one’s home is over twenty <i>amot</i> high, the opinion that gives preference to lighting in the hallway right outside the apartment door is more understandable. However, even if one lights inside the apartment he fulfills his obligation, as explained in n. 1.</i>
  
  Section 4
  
  When and Where to Light Ḥanuka Candles / The Proper Time and Duration of Lighting
  The Sages ordained that one must light the Ḥanuka candles when the miracle will be publicized most effectively. In the past, when there were no street lights, at nightfall the streets would fill with people returning home from their daily activities. Therefore, the Sages declared that the proper time to light the candles is “from sunset<i> </i>until the marketplace empties out” (<i>Shabbat</i> 21b).The Rishonim disagree whether “sunset”<i> </i>here refers to the beginning of sunset, meaning when the sun disappears from view, or to the end of sunset, meaning when the sunlight disappears from view as well and the stars become visible. On one hand, at the beginning of sunset the streets are more crowded. On the other hand, since there is still a relatively large amount of sunlight at that time, the candles are less visible. Therefore, it is better to wait until <i>tzeit</i> <i>ha-kokhavim</i> to light. Indeed, the widespread practice in Israel is to light at <i>tzeit</i>, which is<i> </i>about twenty minutes after <i>shki’a</i> in Israel.8<i class="footnote">The phrase used in <i>Shabbat</i> 21b to refer to sunset is <i>mi-shetishka ha-ḥama</i>. According to <i>Behag</i>, Rambam, and Maharam of Rothenburg, this means the beginning of <i>shki’a</i> (i.e., when the sun disappears below the horizon). Maharam explains that if we light when there is still sunlight visible, those who see the candles understand that they were lit in order to fulfill a mitzva, and the miracle is publicized. Ran and Rashba agree that the Gemara refers to the beginning of <i>shki’a</i>, but they follow the position of Rabbeinu Tam that it is referring to the “second sunset,” 58.5 minutes (the time it takes to walk three and a quarter <i>mil</i>) after sunset. According to Rabbeinu Tam, Rosh, <i>Terumat Ha-deshen</i>, <i>Tur</i>, and SA 672:1, as well as most Aḥaronim (MB <i>ad loc.</i> 1 and <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> <i>ad loc.</i> 2), the Gemara refers to the end of sunset, or <i>tzeit ha-kokhavim</i>. That time is debated as well. The Rishonim disagree how much time separates <i>shki’a</i> from <i>tzeit</i>. The Ge’onim maintain that the time between <i>shki’a </i>and <i>tzeit </i>is slightly longer than the time it takes to walk three quarters of a <i>mil</i>; according to Rabbeinu Tam, though, it is the time that it takes to walk four <i>mil</i>, which is 72 minutes. See SA 261:2 and the commentaries there, especially BHL. (Also see <i>Peninei Halakha</i>:<i> Shabbat</i> 1:2:1 and n. 1). In practice, the standard ruling here is in accordance with the Ge’onim.The vast majority of Aḥaronim maintain that the best time to light Ḥanuka candles is at the end of <i>shki’a</i>, when the stars are visible – in other words, <i>tzeit</i> <i>ha-kokhavim</i>. This is the position of <i>Baḥ</i>, MA, <i>Taz</i>, <i>Eliya Rabba</i>, <i>Ḥayei Adam</i>, <i>Ben Ish Ḥai</i>, and others. (The Prushim community in Jerusalem follow the Vilna Gaon, who writes in <i>Bi’ur Ha-Gra</i> 672:1 that one should light at sunset.) See <i>Peninei Halakha</i>: <i>Prayer</i> ch. 25 n. 3, where I point out that many consider <i>tzeit</i> to be about twenty minutes after <i>shki’a</i>. (Regarding <i>Keri’at Shema</i>, which is a Torah obligation, I recommend waiting thirty minutes. However, since lighting Ḥanuka candles is a rabbinic obligation, one need wait only twenty minutes from sunset. Some maintain that <i>tzeit</i> is about fifteen minutes after sunset.) A comparison of the positions of the Rishonim shows that twenty minutes is an intermediate position. Rambam maintains that one should light at sunset, Ran and Rashba maintain that one should light about 58 minutes after sunset, and Rabbeinu Tam maintains that one should light about 72 minutes after sunset. Accordingly, the view that one should light at <i>tzeit</i>, which in Israel is about twenty minutes after sunset, is the intermediate position. (If the candles remain lit until 52 minutes after <i>tzeit</i>, one meets the requirements of all the different positions.)</i>
  Another issue that arises, however, is that men are obligated to pray <i>Ma’ariv</i>, and many regularly do so immediately at <i>tzeit</i>. For these men, praying <i>Ma’ariv</i> takes precedence over lighting Ḥanuka candles, since the former is a more constant practice than the latter. Additionally, by praying <i>Ma’ariv </i>they also fulfill the Torah commandment to recite<i> </i>the <i>Shema</i> in the evening. After praying, they should return home quickly, in order to light as close as possible to <i>tzeit</i>. Those who usually pray <i>Ma’ariv</i> later should light candles at <i>tzeit</i> and pray at their usual time.9<i class="footnote">According to those who maintain that one should light at <i>tzeit</i>, <i>Ma’ariv</i> takes precedence. According to MB 672:1 and BHL <i>ad loc.</i>, if one prays <i>Ma’ariv</i> at <i>tzeit</i>, it is preferable to light the candles beforehand, in deference to the opinion that one should light at sunset. Furthermore, according to Rambam, one must light within half an hour after <i>shki’a</i>. If one waits to light until after praying <i>Ma’ariv</i> at <i>tzeit</i>, he will miss the opportunity to light at the proper time. Even those who maintain that one should light at <i>tzeit</i> agree that one may light a few minutes before then. Nevertheless, most Aḥaronim maintain that <i>tzeit</i> is the proper time to light, and thus praying <i>Ma’ariv</i> at <i>tzeit</i> takes precedence over lighting. They are not concerned about the opinion that one must light within half an hour after <i>shki’a</i>, since after <i>Ma’ariv</i> there are still people in the streets. Furthermore, as we saw in the previous note, the other opinion maintains that the ideal time to light is <i>tzeit</i>, not sunset<i> </i>(Ran, Rashba, Rabbeinu Tam, and others). We should add that many families sing Ḥanuka songs and give the children candy after lighting candles, in order to deepen their connection to the mitzva and the miracle of Ḥanuka. If their father were required to run to the synagogue immediately after lighting, it would diminish their enjoyment of the mitzva. If one always prays <i>Ma’ariv </i>late, there is no reason to change his practice on Ḥanuka. In fact, adhering to this practice will enable him to light precisely at <i>tzeit</i> (<i>Yeshu’ot Yaakov</i> 679:1).</i>
  Even though one fulfills one’s obligation as long as the Ḥanuka candles remain lit for half an hour, some say that nowadays, when people regularly walk through the streets well beyond <i>tzeit</i>, it is preferable to beautify the mitzva by lighting candles that will remain lit for two hours or more. They contend that this is a commendable practice because the more people that see the candles, the more the miracle will be publicized.10<i class="footnote">The candles must be lit “from sunset until the marketplace empties out.” The Rishonim explain that this means about half an hour, and this is the ruling of SA 672:2. <i>Otzar Ha-Ge’onim</i> (<i>Shabbat</i>, <i>Teshuvot</i> §65) states that it means an hour or half an hour. Perhaps in different areas the Tarmodians would leave the market at different times.</i>
  
  Section 5
  
  When and Where to Light Ḥanuka Candles / Friday Evening and Saturday Night
  As we have seen, the Sages ordained that one must light the Ḥanuka candles after sunset.<i> </i>If people were to light earlier, the sunlight would render the candles less visible. However, on Friday evening, obviously one may not light candles after sunset, since Shabbat begins at sunset, and on Shabbat one may not light a fire. In addition, one should not light immediately before sunset because of the mitzva of <i>tosefet Shabbat</i>, which dictates that we begin Shabbat a bit early in order to extend the sanctity of Shabbat into the mundane week. In practice, most Israeli communities accept Shabbat about twenty minutes before sunset, and, accordingly, this is the Shabbat candle-lighting time that appears on Israeli calendars. On Shabbat Ḥanuka, one must light the Ḥanuka candles before lighting the Shabbat candles.11<i class="footnote">The custom in Jerusalem is normally to light Shabbat candles forty minutes before sunset. However, on Shabbat Ḥanuka, many Jerusalemites light only twenty minutes before sunset, so that they can light Ḥanuka candles closer to sunset (<i>Lu’aḥ Eretz Yisrael</i>). Others insist on lighting Shabbat candles at their regular time and simply light the Ḥanuka candles beforehand (see <i>Igrot Moshe</i>, OḤ 4:62).</i>
  Although we light Ḥanuka candles before sunset on Friday, the primary time for publicizing the miracle is at night. Therefore, one must make sure that there is sufficient wax or oil for the candles to remain lit until half an hour after <i>tzeit</i>.
  It is preferable to pray <i>Minḥa</i> with a <i>minyan</i> before lighting the Ḥanuka candles, because <i>Minḥa</i> relates to the outgoing day, whereas the candles are part of the upcoming day. However, one should not skip <i>Minḥa</i> with a <i>minyan</i> to this end (SA 679:1; MB <i>ad loc</i>. 2; <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 671:79).
  On <i>Motza’ei Shabbat</i>, one must first pray <i>Ma’ariv</i> and then light candles. Many people also make <i>havdala</i> before lighting, because <i>havdala</i> concludes Shabbat, whereas the candles belong to the upcoming day (<i>Taz</i> 681:1; AHS 681:2; <i>Ben Ish Ḥai</i>, Year 1, <i>Hilkhot Ḥanuka</i> 21<i> </i>[Vayeshev]). Others light Ḥanuka candles before <i>havdala</i>, in order to light as soon as possible after <i>tzeit</i>. Additionally, one should delay <i>havdala</i> as much as possible in order to extend the sanctity of Shabbat to some extent. Nevertheless, in order for lighting candles to be permissible before <i>havdala</i>, one must first recite either <i>Ata Ḥonantanu</i> during the <i>Amida</i> of <i>Ma’ariv</i> or the phrase “<i>barukh ha-mavdil bein kodesh le-ḥol</i>” (“blessed is the One Who distinguishes between the sacred and the mundane”) (SA and Rema 681:1). In practice, both customs are halakhically valid (BHL <i>ad loc</i>.), and each person may choose his own custom.
  
  Section 6
  
  When and Where to Light Ḥanuka Candles / Delaying Candle-Lighting When Necessary
  As we have seen, in the time of the Sages people generally returned home at nightfall. Therefore, the Sages stated that the mitzva to light Ḥanuka candles extends “from sunset<i> </i>until the marketplace empties out.” The expression “until the marketplace empties out” refers to the time when the poor people who would collect leftover food from the market stalls would return to their homes (<i>Shabbat</i> 21b). This was about half an hour after lighting time (Rif).
  Nowadays, when there is electric lighting and most people continue working for several hours after dark, the best time to light is still the time that the Sages ordained – from <i>tzeit</i> until half an hour afterward. 
  However, if one finds it difficult to return home by <i>tzeit</i>, he may light later. One should try to return home as soon as possible, in order to light close to the ideal time ordained by the Sages. Specifically, one should make an effort not to light later than 9 PM. Until then, it is standard for people to come home from work, so this period of the evening is still considered “until the marketplace empties out” (see n. 13 below). One should make sure not to eat a meal, meaning a <i>keveitza </i>of bread or <i>mezonot</i>, until after lighting (MB 672:10 and 431:6; above 12:13).
  In some synagogues, a regular Torah class takes place following <i>Ma’ariv</i>, and if people leave to light candles after <i>Ma’ariv</i>, the class will be canceled. In such a case, it is preferable to hold the class as usual, and the attendees should light Ḥanuka candles afterward, because the mitzva of Torah study takes precedence over the value of lighting candles at the ideal time (see n. 13).
  
  Section 7
  
  When and Where to Light Ḥanuka Candles / Waiting for a Family Member
  In many families, the question arises as to the appropriate procedure when one’s spouse cannot make it home from work by <i>tzeit</i>. Is it better to light at <i>tzeit</i> or to wait for his or her return?
  Technically, it is not necessary for both spouses to be present for candle-lighting. When either one of them lights candles in their home, they have both fulfilled their obligation. Therefore, it would seem preferable for one to light at <i>tzeit</i>. Nevertheless, in practice it is preferable in most cases to wait for the spouse to return home. In general, there are three primary considerations that would lead us to delay candle-lighting until both spouses are home.
  First, if the husband will not hear the <i>berakhot </i>of candle-lighting at the synagogue or elsewhere, although he will have fulfilled the obligation to light through his wife’s lighting, some maintain that as long as he has not heard the <i>berakha</i> of <i>She-asa Nisim</i>, he has not fulfilled his duty to thank God. Therefore, if there is nowhere else for him to hear the <i>berakhot</i>, it is preferable to wait for him. (The same is true if the wife is not home at <i>tzeit</i>, and the husband is waiting.)
  Second, the husband or wife may feel insulted or upset if the candles were lit without them. 
  Third, there may be a concern that the connection of the absent spouse to the mitzva will be weakened. This consideration is pertinent when one spouse regularly comes home late from work. If one will not be present for candle-lighting on all or most of the days of the holiday, one’s connection to the mitzva is liable to be weakened.
  This third consideration is particularly significant for families that follow the Sephardic custom (above, 12:3), according to which only one member of each household lights. When there is concern that if the parents do not wait for their children to return home for lighting, the children’s connection to the mitzva may weaken, the parents should wait for them.
  Thus, the only case in which it is preferable to light the candles at <i>tzeit</i> is if the delayed husband or wife will be able to hear the <i>berakhot</i> elsewhere and if this delay is an isolated occurrence and will therefore not cause marital discord or weaken the absent spouse’s bond to the mitzva. In all other cases, it is better to wait for both spouses – and in the case of Sephardim, for all members of the household – to be home. However, even then, candle-lighting should not be delayed past 9 PM. Members of the household should not eat a proper meal from half an hour before <i>tzeit</i> until after they have fulfilled the mitzva of candle-lighting (as explained above, 12:10).12<i class="footnote">See n. 13. The baseline <i>halakha</i> is explained in <i>Baḥ</i> 675:2 and 677:3, as well as <i>Yeḥaveh Da’at</i> 3:51. However, there are three considerations that should be taken into account: a) If the household member arriving late will not hear the <i>berakhot</i> over the candles, it is questionable whether he has fulfilled his obligation of thanking God. According to Rashi, Rambam, <i>Mordechai</i>, and others, in order to fulfill his obligation completely he must recite the <i>berakha</i> of <i>She-asa Nisim</i> over candles that he sees in the street. However, in practice, he should not make this <i>berakha</i>, because of the principle that one does not recite a <i>berakha</i> if it is uncertain whether it is needed (as explained above, ch. 12 n. 4). It would seem that it is more important to fulfill the obligation along with the <i>berakhot</i>, according to all opinions, rather than to light on time, at <i>tzeit</i>. b) If not waiting would adversely affect marital harmony, it is better to wait until the husband or wife returns home. c) Publicizing the miracle is a fundamental part of the mitzva, and first and foremost one must publicize the mitzva for one’s family members. In my humble opinion, it is preferable to go above and beyond in publicizing the miracle for the family, rather than in lighting at <i>tzeit</i>. It is well known that many great Ḥasidic rabbis light late in order to inculcate the value of this mitzva in people’s hearts. We can learn from them that it is proper to delay candle-lighting for an educational reason. Therefore, I wrote in the main text that if the delay is a one-time event, the wife may light on time in the absence of her husband or vice versa. However, if it is a regular occurrence, she should wait to light with her husband. Otherwise, his connection to the mitzva will likely be weakened. For those who follow Ashkenazic custom (see 12:4), the first consideration can be addressed if the wife lights on time, and her husband has in mind not to fulfill his obligation through her lighting. Later, when he gets home, he can light with the <i>berakhot</i>. (The same applies if the wife is not home at <i>tzeit</i>, and the husband is waiting.) However, if this will lead to hurt feelings, or if the family’s relationship to the mitzva will suffer, it is better that they all light together when the spouse arrives.</i>
  
  Section 8
  
  When and Where to Light Ḥanuka Candles / Lighting Before <i>Shki’a </i>or Late at Night in Pressing Circumstances
  One who was unable to light Ḥanuka candles by 9 PM may light all night until dawn. However, he should recite the <i>berakhot </i>only if it is very likely that someone on the street will see his candles, or if someone at home, such as his wife or children, will see them. If, however, his family members have gone to sleep and would be upset if he were to wake them, and if it is unlikely that anyone will see his candles from the street, he should light without <i>berakhot</i>.13<i class="footnote"><i>Shabbat</i> 21b states that the time for candle-lighting is “until the marketplace empties out.” The Rishonim explain that this is half an hour after candle-lighting time. They disagree about whether one may light later than this. MT, Laws of Ḥanuka 4:5 states that there is no mitzva to light later (and <i>Behag</i> and others rule likewise). Others maintain that the Gemara is describing the ideal time; <i>be-di’avad</i>, however, one may light all night, even though one publicizes the miracle less when lighting late at night (Rashba, Rabbeinu Yeruḥam, and others). Some suggest that the dispute hinges on a debate between the two explanations given in the Gemara. Since the mitzva is rabbinic, the <i>halakha</i> follows the lenient opinion. Thus, <i>be-di’avad</i>, one may light all night (Raavya in the name of Rabbeinu Tam; this seems to be the opinion of Rosh as well; SA 672:2). Many Rishonim maintain that even the stringent opinion would agree that when people light inside and the miracle is publicized for the family members whenever the lighting takes place, one may light all night long, even after the marketplace has emptied out. This is the opinion of <i>Tosafot</i>, Rashba, Ran, Rosh, <i>Sefer Ha-teruma</i>, and many others. Rema 672:2 agrees as well. Nevertheless, Rema adds that it is preferable to light at the time the Sages instituted. In a time of need, one may light later in accordance with the vast majority of <i>poskim</i>, as I wrote in the previous section and in n. 12.SA implies that one who lights late may recite the <i>berakhot</i> all night. This is surprising, as it seemingly would have been proper to take into consideration Rambam’s position that one may not light late, and rule that one should not recite the <i>berakhot </i>due to uncertainty. However, there are several uncertainties at play in this case: a) perhaps the <i>halakha</i> follows the second explanation in the Gemara, and even <i>le-khatḥila</i> one may light all night; b) perhaps even according to the first explanation, <i>be-di’avad</i> the <i>berakhot</i> may be recited all night; c) perhaps when lighting inside, it is acceptable to light all night. Additionally, the custom in the past was to recite the <i>berakhot</i> even when lighting late. Indeed, according to <i>Pri Ḥadash</i>, <i>Ḥemed Moshe</i>, and others, <i>be-di’avad</i>, even if no one else will see the candles, one recites the <i>berakhot </i>when lighting. This is because they maintain that, <i>be-di’avad</i>, one may light all night. They claim further that lighting late at night is similar to the case of a person who lives in an isolated area, in which all agree that he may light with the <i>berakhot</i> at the beginning of the night, because that is the time the Sages ordained for lighting. This is the view of <i>Igrot Moshe</i>, OḤ 4:105:7 (SHT 672:17 states that one does not need to object if people rely on this leniency). However, in practice many Aḥaronim maintain that once the marketplace has emptied out, one may make the <i>berakhot</i> only if the miracle will actually be publicized to others. MA 672:6 rules accordingly, as does MB <i>ad loc.</i> 11. The plural phrase “members of the household” implies that there must be at least two additional people there (<i>Ben Ish Ḥai</i>, Year 1, <i>Hilkhot Ḥanuka </i>7 [Vayeshev]). However, according to AHS 672:7, as long as there is one additional person, even a child who only partially understands, one may recite the <i>berakhot</i>. This is what I wrote in the main text, as it is the intermediate position.An additional strong rationale for permitting lighting late appears in the newer edition of Ritva, which states that the law follows local norms. If so, now that we have electric lights, the appropriate time to light extends later than it once did. This can be explained in one of two ways. The first approach is that the time when “the marketplace empties out” refers to when people return home latest from work. This seems to be the opinion of <i>Shiltei Giborim</i>. Nowadays, this is about 9 PM. The second approach is that everything depends upon publicizing the miracle, so if people are still out on the streets late at night, the marketplace has not yet emptied out, and one may still light candles with the <i>berakhot</i>. This seems to be the opinion of Maharshal (<i>Responsa</i> <i>Maharshal</i> §85), who writes that one may publicize the miracle until midnight. <i>Sefat Emet</i> states this as well. In practice, as I wrote at the end of section 7, in a time of need one may delay the lighting until 9 PM, but no later. Since that is when people who work late are coming home, this approach fits best with the idea of the marketplace emptying out. Furthermore, since people sometimes delay dinner until then, there is no great concern that they will forget to light. It should be emphasized that for purpose of making a living, which is considered a great need, it is proper to delay lighting, but for other purposes it is not. In my humble opinion, since people are still returning from work at that time, one may light candles with the <i>berakhot</i> then, even if no one else will see the candles. In a time of need, if one wants to delay lighting later than 9 PM but while there are still people in the street next to his home, he has an opinion to rely upon, but, in my opinion, this should not be done except in pressing circumstances.</i>
  If one did not light all night, he has lost out on the mitzva of that day. Nevertheless, the next day he should light just like anyone else (Rema 672:2).
  Even though, as we have seen, on Friday we light the Ḥanuka candles before <i>shki’a</i>, on a regular weekday one should not light before <i>shki’a</i>. Only when there is no alternative may one light candles as early as <i>plag ha-minḥa</i>. For example, if one needs to leave home before <i>shki’a</i>, there is no one at home who can light on his behalf, and he will return very late at night when no one will be around to see the candles, since he has no alternative, he may light the candles as early as <i>plag ha-minḥa</i> (about forty minutes in Israel) before sunset. According to most <i>poskim</i>, he should even recite the <i>berakhot</i> when he lights. If one needs to leave home even earlier, in pressing circumstances he may light as early as an hour before <i>shki’a</i>, but he should light without the <i>berakhot </i>in such a case.14<i class="footnote">According to Rambam, one may not light candles before <i>shki’a</i>. <i>Orḥot Ḥayim</i> maintains that in pressing circumstances one may light as early as <i>plag ha-minḥa</i>. This position is cited in SA 672:1. Most Aḥaronim, including MB <i>ad loc</i>. 3, permit reciting the <i>berakhot</i> as well. Others, including <i>Torat Ha-mo’adim</i> 4:2, argue that one should not recite the <i>berakhot</i>. <i>Mikra’ei Kodesh </i>(Harari)<i>:</i> <i>Hilkhot Ḥanuka</i> 4:4-5 states in the name of R. Mordechai Eliyahu that one should recite the <i>berakhot</i>.The <i>poskim</i> disagree how to calculate <i>plag ha-minḥa</i>. Some calculate it based on the understanding that the day ends at <i>shki’a</i> (Vilna Gaon), while others calculate it based on the understanding that the day ends at <i>tzeit </i>(<i>Terumat Ha-deshen</i>); both positions are cited in MB 233:4. MB 672:3<i> </i>states that for the purpose of calculating <i>plag ha-minḥa</i>, the day ends at <i>tzeit</i>. (See <i>Peninei</i> <i>Halakha</i>:<i> Prayer</i> ch. 24 n. 9 and ch. 25 n. 3; see also the end of <i>Igrot</i> <i>Moshe</i> OḤ 4:62, which explains that the two “halves” of the day are not equal in duration.)<i> </i>Since at Ḥanuka time in Israel the length of a seasonal hour is about 51 minutes, and <i>plag</i> <i>ha</i>-<i>minḥa</i> is thus 63 minutes before <i>shki’a</i>, I wrote in the main text that in pressing circumstances one may light forty minutes before <i>shki’a</i>. If one must leave home earlier than this, he may light up to 63 minutes before <i>shki’a</i>, following the position that we calculate <i>plag ha-minḥa</i> based on <i>shki’a</i>. However, he should not recite the <i>berakhot</i>, because of a double uncertainty: perhaps the law follows Rambam and one may not light before <i>shki’a</i> at all; and perhaps the law follows <i>Terumat</i> <i>Ha</i>-<i>deshen</i>,<i> </i>and we calculate <i>plag</i> <i>ha</i>-<i>minḥa</i> based on <i>tzeit</i> rather than <i>shki’a</i>.</i>
  
  Section 9
  
  When and Where to Light Ḥanuka Candles / Guests
  When a family is visiting friends or relatives at candle-lighting time, then even though they are eating dinner at their hosts’ home, it is not considered their home for the purpose of candle-lighting, so they cannot fulfill their obligation to light Ḥanuka candles there. When possible, it is best if one member of the family goes home to light at <i>tzeit</i> and fulfills the obligation for the whole family. Additionally, the remaining family members who do not return home should make sure to hear the <i>berakhot</i> and see the candles at their hosts’ home in order to participate in thanking God for the miracle. If the family is far from home and no one is able to return home to light, they should wait to light with the <i>berakhot</i> until they get home. If they wish to eat before then, they should agree to remind one another of the need to light when they return home.15<i class="footnote">See MB 677:12 and BHL s.v. “bamakom.” However, <i>Kinyan Torah</i> 5:72 maintains that visiting family members may not eat at their hosts’ home before lighting candles. Therefore, if they want to eat there, they should fulfill their obligation through the host’s candle-lighting even if they will not be sleeping there (<i>Piskei</i> <i>Teshuvot</i> ch. 677 n. 29). According to R. Mordechai Eliyahu, if they leave home before <i>plag</i> <i>ha-minḥa</i> and will be returning home after the streets have emptied out, they may fulfill their obligation through the host’s lighting (<i>Mikra’ei Kodesh</i> [Harari] 9:21). However, according to most <i>poskim</i>, if they will not be sleeping at their hosts’ home, it is not considered their home for the purpose of candle-lighting. This is why I wrote in the main text that they should make a point of reminding one another to light when they get home, and then make sure to do so. If they do this, they may eat, as explained in <i>Peninei Halakha</i>:<i> Prayer</i> 25:9 regarding <i>Keri’at Shema</i> and <i>Ma’ariv</i>.Another suggestion is for the visiting family members to ask a neighbor to light for them in their home. According to most Aḥaronim, the neighbor should light without the <i>berakhot</i>, because the family members are not present. Some maintain that it is best that the neighbor light for them at the proper time (<i>Ner Ish U-veito</i> 8:1), while others maintain that it is best for them to light for themselves with the <i>berakhot</i> when they return home (<i>Shevet Ha-Levi</i> 4:66).</i>
  However, if the family is planning to both eat and sleep at their hosts’ home, then it is considered their temporary home and they can fulfill their obligation through the hosts’ lighting. They should make sure to buy a share in the candles by paying their hosts the value of at least a <i>pruta </i>(a token amount of money) toward the cost. Alternatively, the host can give them a share in the candles as a gift, which the guests can acquire by lifting the candles.
  According to Ashkenazic custom, in order to fulfill the mitzva in the manner of <i>mehadrin min ha-mehadrin</i>, every family member should light. Thus, even when they are guests in their hosts’ home, each guest should light his own candles with the <i>berakhot</i>.
  If the hosts have given their guests a separate residence for their visit, according to all customs the guests should light Ḥanuka candles there with the <i>berakhot</i>. They should try to light where passersby will be able to see the candles, in order to publicize the miracle more effectively.16<i class="footnote">When sleeping over, guests need to pay at least the value of a <i>pruta </i>toward the cost of the candles or acquire a share in them by lifting them, as explained in MB 677:3 and SHT <i>ad loc.</i> 9. However, according to opinion of <i>Ginat Veradim</i>, if the guests are dependent on their hosts during their visit, they do not need to pay toward the cost of the candles. Others disagree, apparently including MB 677:4. Some maintain that even a married person visiting his parents must acquire a share in the candles. This is implied by <i>Pri Ḥadash</i>. Therefore I wrote in the main text that, as a rule, guests should acquire a share in the candles.<i>Mikra’ei Kodesh </i>(Harari) 9:17 states in the name of R. Mordechai Eliyahu that if the guests are provided with a separate residence, according to Sephardic custom they must light there with the <i>berakhot</i>. It is proper for Ashkenazim as well to light in the separate apartment in such a case. Even though Rema 677:1 states that it is preferable to light where one eats, nevertheless the accepted ruling is that if a residence has been set aside for them, it is preferable for them to light there, just as it is preferable to light in a dormitory room or hotel room (sections 13-14 below; this is the law regarding Shabbat candles as well). The preference for lighting where one sleeps is even stronger if lighting there will allow one to publicize the miracle more effectively.</i>
  
  Section 10
  
  When and Where to Light Ḥanuka Candles / Guests on Shabbat Ḥanuka
  When a family goes away for Shabbat, the hosts’ home is considered their home on that Shabbat. Thus, the guests should buy a share in the host’s candles for a <i>pruta</i>, which allows them to fulfill their obligation through the host’s lighting. According to the Ashkenazic custom, it is still preferable for the guests to light their own candles with the <i>berakhot</i>. If the family is staying in a separate residence, according to all customs it is proper for them to light there with the <i>berakhot</i>.
  On Saturday night,<i> </i>if the guests plan to return home quickly, it is best for them to wait to light candles at home. If they plan to get home so late that people will no longer be walking on the streets, it is preferable that they fulfill the mitzva the same way they did on Friday, either through their host’s lighting or in the separate residence. If they are not returning home immediately but will still arrive home before it is too late, they may choose where to light. From the perspective of the previous day, their place is in their hosts’ home; but from the perspective of the upcoming day, their place is in their own home. Therefore, they may choose where they wish to light.17<i class="footnote">If on Friday of Ḥanuka, a guest can light in his own home just before Shabbat begins, and then walk to his hosts’ home, he may light at his own home. However, he should make sure to light after <i>plag ha-minḥa</i> (at most forty minutes before <i>shki’a</i>; see n. 14 above). After Shabbat, <i>Ḥovat Ha-dar</i> ch. 1 n. 65 states that one should return home to light. In contrast, <i>Halikhot Shlomo </i>14:19 states that if one is planning to remain at his hosts’ home for an additional half-hour after they light, it is preferable that he light there.If a wedding takes place on Ḥanuka after <i>shki’a</i>, the bride and groom should each light in their previous homes before the wedding. If they get married before <i>shki’a</i>, some maintain that they should light in their new home after the wedding. Others maintain that if they will arrive at their new home late at night, or if they will be staying in a hotel for the night, they should light in the hall, which, after all, they have rented.</i>
  
  Section 11
  
  When and Where to Light Ḥanuka Candles / A Married Person Who Is Away from Home
  If a married man goes alone on Ḥanuka to visit friends or family while his wife remains at home, his wife must light the candles, and this exempts him from lighting. Nevertheless, even though he fulfills his obligation to light, some maintain that he does not fulfill his obligation to publicize the miracle and to see the candles. Therefore, he should hear the <i>berakhot</i> and see the candles in his hosts’ home or in the synagogue in order to participate in thanking God for the miracle (as explained above, ch 12 n. 6).
  If the married guest wishes to light candles himself, according to Ashkenazic custom he may do so with the <i>berakhot</i>, but he should try to light before his wife lights at home. According to Sephardic custom, he should not light.18<i class="footnote">We have seen that according to Ashkenazic custom, if a woman wants to light her own candles in addition to those of her husband, she may do so with the <i>berakhot</i>, as explained in MB 675:9 and above, ch. 12 n. 2. However, some maintain that this is only on condition that both spouses are home; then, according to the Ashkenazic interpretation of <i>mehadrin min ha-mehadrin</i>, every member of the household may light his own candles with the <i>berakhot</i>. In contrast, if the husband is not home and he is fulfilling his obligation through his wife’s lighting, he cannot fulfill the custom of <i>mehadrin min ha-mehadrin</i> by lighting on his own at a different location. (<i>Mishbetzot Zahav</i> 677:1 makes a similar point, and it is also implied in <i>Responsa Maharshal</i> §85.) Alternatively, <i>Eliya Rabba</i> and <i>Shlah</i> suggest that a guest can light but should not recite his own <i>berakhot</i>. Rather, he should hear the <i>berakhot</i> from his host and respond “Amen.” Afterward, relying on these <i>berakhot</i>, he should light his own candles. However, Rema and most Ashkenazic <i>poskim</i> maintain that the guest may light with the <i>berakhot</i> even though his wife is lighting for him at home. Several Aḥaronim write that he should try to light before his wife does. All of this is cited in MB 677:16. According to Sephardic custom, the guest’s obligation is fulfilled, his intentions notwithstanding, through his wife’s lighting. He may not recite the <i>berakhot</i>, and furthermore, there is no reason for him to light at all, as the Sephardic custom maintains that the mitzva is not beautified when all family members light (<i>Birkei Yosef</i> §677 and <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 677:25). In contrast, if his wife is also away from home, the connection to their home is broken, and he must light candles himself; even if his wife is lighting elsewhere, he does not fulfill his obligation through her lighting. If the husband is in a different country, according to <i>Kinyan Torah</i> 4:82 and <i>Mishneh Halakhot</i> 6:119, he still fulfills his obligation through his wife’s lighting at home. In contrast, <i>Minḥat Yitzḥak</i> 7:46 rules that he does not fulfill his obligation through his wife’s lighting in such a case. This seems to be the <i>halakha </i>in practice. Therefore, according to Ashkenazic custom, if one is a guest in a different country, even if his hosts are lighting candles, he should light on his own with the <i>berakhot</i>. According to Sephardic custom, he should buy a share of the candles from his host by paying him the value of a <i>pruta</i>; if he is alone, he should light with the <i>berakhot</i>.</i>
  If he is staying in a hotel or in an empty apartment, even if his wife is lighting candles at home, he should light where he is. According to Ashkenazic custom, he should recite the <i>berakhot</i>; according to Sephardic custom, if he is in Israel he should not recite the <i>berakhot</i>, while if he is abroad he should recite them.19<i class="footnote">According to <i>Mordechai</i>, <i>Orḥot Ḥayim</i>, and R. Yitzḥak Aboab as cited in SA 673:3, if a Jew is in a place where no candles are being lit, he must light with the <i>berakhot</i>. This is because there are two aspects to the obligation of lighting Ḥanuka candles: the personal obligation to light and the obligation that candles be lit in one’s location. If no one is lighting candles in one’s location, then even though his personal obligation has been fulfilled through his wife’s lighting, the obligation on his location requires him to light with the <i>berakhot</i>. However, according to Sephardic custom he should not recite the <i>berakhot</i>. This is because some maintain that one fulfills his obligation completely with his wife’s lighting, and we refrain from reciting <i>berakhot</i> in cases of uncertainty (<i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 677:23). In contrast, according to Ashkenazic custom he certainly must light with the <i>berakhot</i>. This is because even when one’s host is lighting, many light on their own with the <i>berakhot</i>, as described in the previous note. Here the case for doing so is even stronger, since some maintain that he is obligated to light.</i>
  A married soldier on reserve duty does not need to light candles, as his wife is lighting on behalf of both of them at home. He should hear the <i>berakhot</i> from a different soldier who is lighting. If no one on the base is lighting, he should light in the mess hall with the <i>berakhot</i>. Even if he follows Sephardic custom, in this case it is a mitzva to light candles for the rest of the unmarried soldiers. If everyone at the base is observant, married, and has someone lighting at home on his behalf, the above does not apply. Nevertheless, in such a case, if there are ten people present, they should light candles at the base’s synagogue with the <i>berakhot</i>.
  The law that a married man fulfills his obligation through his wife’s lighting applies as long as she remains at home. However, if she is a guest elsewhere (for example, in her parents’ home), her husband is once again obligated to light. In such a case, according to all customs he must light where he is with the <i>berakhot</i>.
  Similarly, if a woman is away and her husband is lighting at home, she fulfills her obligation through his lighting. She should try to be present when her hosts light candles at their home. If she is alone in a hotel, she should light candles herself. According to Ashkenazic custom, she should recite the <i>berakhot</i>; according to Sephardic custom, she should not.
  
  Section 12
  
  When and Where to Light Ḥanuka Candles / Unmarried People who Live Alone
  As a rule, the laws of candle-lighting for independent, unmarried people are the same as those for a family unit (section 9 above). Therefore, if an unmarried person has his own home, regardless of whether it is owned or rented, he must light candles there. If he is visiting friends at candle-lighting time but will return home to sleep, he cannot fulfill his obligation at his hosts’ home. Rather, he must return home to light. (See sections 6-8 above for the proper times to light candles, <i>le-khatḥila</i> and <i>be-di’avad</i>.)
  If an unmarried person will be staying for the night as well, his status depends on where he is sleeping. If he will be sleeping in the hosts’ home, he should pay the host the value of a <i>pruta </i>toward the cost of the candles (or the host may give him a share in the candles as a gift) and he can fulfill his obligation through the host’s lighting. According to Ashkenazic custom, it is better if he lights his own candles with the <i>berakhot</i>, thus fulfilling the custom of <i>mehadrin min ha-mehadrin</i>. If the unmarried guest was given a separate residence for sleeping, according to all customs he should light there with the <i>berakhot</i>.20<i class="footnote">See <i>Shabbat</i> 23a; SA 677:1. According to Ashkenazic custom, every member of the household lights his own candles, in order to beautify the mitzva. In contrast, according to Sephardic custom (above 12:3), only one person lights in each household. According to <i>Ginat Veradim</i> (cited in <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 677:3), as long as the guests are completely dependent on their hosts, there is no need to pay the value of a <i>pruta </i>toward the cost of the candles, because we can assume the hosts give them a share in the candles as a gift. However, according to many Aḥaronim, including MB 677:1, the guests should still contribute the value of a <i>pruta </i>or otherwise acquire a share in the candles. The only case in which they do not need to do so is if they are permanently dependent on the host, as is the case with live-in workers. Even if the guest is one of the homeowner’s children, and thus there is good reason to claim that he is considered a part of the family, since the guest is an independent adult, it is proper for him to pay toward the cost of the candles and meet the requirements of the more stringent position on the matter.</i>
  
  Section 13
  
  When and Where to Light Ḥanuka Candles / Yeshiva Students, Soldiers, and College Students
  A yeshiva student who sleeps in his dormitory room and eats in a cafeteria must light in his room, because he resides there for an extended period and the room is set aside for him. If the dormitory room has a window facing the street, he should light in the window to publicize the miracle. If there is no window facing the street, he should light inside his room, preferably to the left of the doorway, so that the <i>mezuza</i> will be on the right and the Ḥanuka candles on the left.21<i class="footnote">Yeshiva students must light on their own because they are independent. Even if we claim that they are considered dependent on their parents or on the yeshiva, according to the Ashkenazic version of the custom of <i>mehadrin min ha-mehadrin</i>, each individual must light independently in order to beautify the mitzva. The students fulfill their obligation by lighting in any place in the yeshiva, whether it is in their dormitory rooms or in the cafeteria, just as they would fulfill their obligation by lighting in any place in their homes (<i>Halikhot Shlomo</i> 14:8). The question is: where is it preferable for them to light? According to most <i>poskim</i>, it is preferable for them to light in their rooms, although Rema 677:1 states that in general it is preferable to light where one eats. Ḥazon Ish agrees that it is preferable to light in the cafeteria. Nevertheless, according to most <i>poskim</i>, it is preferable for them to light in their dormitory rooms. The cafeteria is a communal area like a restaurant, while the dormitory room is designated for personal use. <i>Poskim</i> who rule this way include <i>Minḥat Yitzḥak</i> 7:48, <i>Shevet Ha-Levi</i> 3:89, and <i>Az Nidberu</i> 5:38. This was also the custom at Yeshivat Mercaz HaRav when I studied there. (Some of the students were stringent and would eat the main meal of each day of Ḥanuka in their dormitory rooms, such that all opinions would agree that this is the proper place to light) According to <i>Igrot Moshe</i>, OḤ 4:70:3, <i>Halikhot Shlomo</i> 14:8, and R. Mordechai Eliyahu, it is preferable to light in a window or on a porch facing the street. According to my teacher and master, R. Shaul Yisraeli, it is best to light in the hall to the left of the doorway, because the hall is comparable to a public area. In any case, even if one lights on a table in one’s dormitory room, one fulfills his obligation.</i>
  An uncertainty arises regarding Sephardic students. According to Sephardic custom, the way to beautify the mitzva is for the head of the household to light for the entire household. Furthermore, according to many <i>poskim</i>, the true home of a yeshiva student is his parents’ home, even though he lives at the yeshiva. His parents’ home is where he returns regularly, and where he goes when he is sick. Therefore, even when he is at the yeshiva, he fulfills his obligation to light through his father’s lighting at home.
  On the other hand, some maintain that since the student lives in the yeshiva most of the year, he is considered an independent person with his own home, and thus he must light candles in the yeshiva with the <i>berakhot</i>. Following Sephardic custom, one student should light for himself and all his roommates. The roommates who do not light must either pay the value of a <i>pruta </i>toward the cost of the candles or acquire a share in them.22<i class="footnote">The Sephardic custom: The rationale of the position that a yeshiva student fulfills his obligation through his father’s lighting is explained in the main text. Since he has already fulfilled his obligation when his father lit, according to Sephardic custom he may not light candles with the <i>berakhot</i> at the yeshiva. This is similar to the law that we discussed in n. 18 regarding a married man whose wife is lighting for him at home. This is the opinion of R. Ovadia Yosef, R. Mordechai Eliyahu, R. Shaul Yisraeli, R. Shlomo Zalman Auerbach, and many others. <i>Yeḥaveh Da’at</i> 6:43 and <i>Torat Ha-mo’adim</i> 2:4 present two additional rationales for why Sephardic yeshiva students may not light independently. First, even if students are not considered dependent on their parents, the entire yeshiva is considered one family, all of whose members are dependent on the <i>rosh yeshiva</i>. Second, every student fulfills his obligation through the lighting that takes place in the <i>beit midrash</i>. Unlike the lighting that takes place in the synagogue (which does not fulfill one’s personal obligation), the <i>beit midrash</i> is considered the home of the students. This is the reason that students may eat and drink in the <i>beit midrash</i> throughout the year. Following this reasoning, there is no need for a yeshiva student to light in his dormitory room. Nevertheless, R. Eliyahu maintains that one student should light in each room without reciting the <i>berakhot</i>. If an Ashkenazic student is lighting there with the <i>berakhot</i>, his Sephardic roommates should contribute to the cost of the candles. There is also a debate about a student whose parents are abroad. R. Eliyahu ruled that in such a case, the student should light with the <i>berakhot</i>, because he is not considered dependent upon them, whereas <i>Yeḥaveh Da’at</i> and <i>Halikhot Shlomo</i> 14:12 state that he does not need to light (perhaps because he fulfills his obligation through the lighting in the <i>beit midrash</i>).In contrast, R. Shalom Messas and R. Avraham Shapira maintain that even Sephardic students must light candles in the yeshiva. In each dormitory room, at least one person must light and recite the <i>berakhot</i>, while everyone else may contribute to the cost of the candles (see above, 12:3). This opinion is described in <i>Hilkhot Ḥag Be-ḥag</i> 4:4, and is cited in <i>Yemei Hallel Ve-hoda’ah </i>36:1 in the name of R. Yosef Shalom Elyashiv. It fits with the simple meaning of the statement in <i>Shabbat</i> 21a that R. Zeira was obligated to light candles himself before he was married. According to this opinion, the candles lit in the <i>beit midrash</i> are not enough for a student to fulfill his obligation through them, because that lighting is similar to the lighting in the synagogue, which is not done to fulfill any obligation. One could argue that this issue should depend upon the attitude of the yeshiva. If the yeshiva sees itself as responsible for all of its students’ needs, then all the students are considered one family whose members fulfill their obligation through the lighting in the <i>beit midrash</i>. On the other hand, most yeshivas consider their students responsible for themselves, while the yeshiva simply helps them by providing room and board. In such a case, the students’ dorm rooms are considered their homes, and it is there that they must light. This is especially applicable when the <i>beit midrash</i> and the dormitory rooms are located in separate buildings. Then the students should certainly not rely on the lighting in the <i>beit midrash</i>. In my humble opinion, when young men and women are studying in institutes of higher education where the students are generally over the age of eighteen, the students are considered independent, and even according to Sephardic practice they must light themselves with the <i>berakhot</i>. The same applies to soldiers, as described in <i>Shabbat U-mo’ed Be-Tzahal</i>, p. 336. Nevertheless, it would seem that even according to this position, when a Sephardic student returns home he is not viewed as a guest, but rather as one who is completely dependent on his parents. Accordingly, he fulfills his obligation through his father’s lighting, and is not even required to contribute the value of a <i>pruta </i>to the cost of the candles, as explained in MB 677:1 and <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 677:3. Students who live at home but stay overnight at their yeshiva on Ḥanuka are considered dependent on their parents, and according to Sephardic custom do not need to light in their dormitory room.It is uncertain whether the student who lights the candles in the <i>beit midrash</i> needs to light again in his room. However, if he lights first in his room, he may certainly light in the <i>beit midrash</i> with the <i>berakhot</i>. In our yeshiva, we make a point of appointing a Sephardic student, who normally relies on the lighting of his parents or roommate, to light in the <i>beit midrash</i>, thus giving him an opportunity to recite the <i>berakhot</i>.</i>
  The laws that apply to a yeshiva student also apply to soldiers and college students. According to the custom of all Ashkenazim and some Sephardim, a soldier or a college student should light in his room with the <i>berakhot</i>. The custom of most Sephardim is that such a person relies on his parents’ lighting. If no one else is lighting in the dorm room, he should light without a <i>berakha</i>. 
  The same pertains to female students studying at seminaries or universities, who live in a dormitory or in a rented apartment. The custom of all Ashkenazim and some Sephardim is to light with the <i>berakhot</i>, and the custom of most Sephardim is to rely on their parents’ lighting. If no one else is lighting in the dormitory room, they should light without the <i>berakhot</i>.23<i class="footnote">On one hand, unmarried women are more likely to be dependent on their parents than unmarried men are. On the other hand, young women who study in universities often support themselves, and thus are considered more independent than others. Therefore, they may be compared to yeshiva students. The more independent they are, the more reasonable it is to say that they must light in their apartment with the <i>berakhot</i>, even according to Sephardic custom.</i>
  
  Section 14
  
  When and Where to Light Ḥanuka Candles / Hotels
  People staying in a hotel must light Ḥanuka candles. Let us briefly review what we explained in the previous sections. Whole families and independent unmarried people must light with the <i>berakhot</i>. If one’s spouse is lighting at home, or if one is dependent on one’s parents who are lighting at home, then according to Sephardic custom one should light without the <i>berakhot</i>, while according to Ashkenazic custom one should light with the <i>berakhot</i>.
  It is best to light in one’s hotel room, as this room is set aside for personal use, as opposed to the dining room, which is for communal use. If the hotel room has a window facing the street, one should light there. Someone should remain in the room for at least half an hour after one lights, so the candles are not left unattended and a fire is not caused as a result. If, after half an hour, one wants to leave the room, one should put out any candles that are still lit. If the hotel management does not permit guests to light candles in their rooms, then since there is no alternative one should light in the dining room.24<i class="footnote">The preference for lighting in one’s hotel room is recorded in SA 677:1. While Rema maintains that it is generally preferable to light where one eats, in this case the hotel room is much more of a personal space than the dining room, as explained above in n. 21. Nevertheless, some maintain that the dining room is the preferred option.For those lighting in the dining room, it would seem that even for those who follow Sephardic custom, each family should light separately, as the families are not sharing their food with one another. According to <i>Pri Ḥadash</i>, the families may not join together in the same lighting. This opinion notwithstanding, it would seem that if they do join together in the same lighting, they fulfill their obligation, in accordance with <i>Levush</i> (see BHL 677:1, s.v. “imo”).</i>
  
  Section 15
  
  When and Where to Light Ḥanuka Candles / Hospital Patients
  A patient in a hospital is still obligated to light Ḥanuka candles. However, if he is married, he fulfills his obligation through his spouse’s lighting at home. Likewise, if he is young and lives with his parents, he fulfills his obligation through his parents’ lighting at home. 
  According to Ashkenazic custom, even though one has fulfilled his obligation through his family members’ lighting, if he wishes to beautify the mitzva he may light in his hospital room with the <i>berakhot</i>, as explained above (section 11). According to the custom of most Sephardim, he should not light candles (notes 19 and 22; above 12:3).
  One who lights candles in a hospital should preferably light in his room, which is designated for him specifically. If he lights in the cafeteria, he fulfills his obligation, as it is considered his home to some degree while he is hospitalized.
  A patient who is exempt from lighting because someone is lighting for them at home should still try to see Ḥanuka candles and hear the <i>berakhot</i>, because some maintain that even though someone is lighting for him at home, which allows him to fulfill the mitzva of lighting candles, nevertheless he has not fulfilled the mitzva of thanking God for the miracle (above 12:6 and n. 5). Therefore, he should find someone who is lighting with the <i>berakhot</i> (whether out of strict halakhic obligation or Ashkenazic custom) and listen to his <i>berakhot</i> with the intention of fulfilling the obligation to recite the <i>berakha </i>of <i>She-asa Nisim</i>. On the first night of Ḥanuka, he should have in mind to fulfill the obligation of <i>She-heḥeyanu</i> as well.
  
  Section 16
  
  When and Where to Light Ḥanuka Candles / Fields and Vehicles
  The <i>poskim</i> disagree about whether the obligation to light Ḥanuka candles is limited to the home. Some argue that the Sages ordained that only one who has a home must light candles. Therefore, one who lives on the street cannot fulfill the mitzva. Similarly, one who is hiking or camping and intends to sleep in a field, or a soldier who is living in a tent that is too small to qualify as a house (about two square meters), cannot fulfill the mitzva. Others maintain that even one who does not have a home must light candles wherever he is.
  Since there is uncertainty in these cases, one who does not have a home should light without the <i>berakhot</i>. For example, one who is hiking or camping on Ḥanuka and sleeps in a field or by the road should light candles without the <i>berakhot</i>. Similarly, a soldier sleeping in a trench or a small tent should light without the <i>berakhot</i>. However, if a hiker or soldier is sleeping in a large tent, he should light with the <i>berakhot</i> at the tent’s entrance, as the tent is considered a home.
  One who is traveling through the night on a train, a plane, or a ship with cabins should light with the <i>berakhot</i>. Even though he is in transit, the inside of the train, plane, or ship is considered a home for the purpose of lighting Ḥanuka candles. However, sometimes safety considerations do not allow for lighting candles. If those in charge allow one passenger to light one candle for everyone, all the passengers have fulfilled their obligation.25<i class="footnote">According to <i>Responsa Maharsham</i> 4:146, the obligation depends upon having a home. This is also the position of <i>Mikra’ei Kodesh</i> (Frank) §18. In contrast, <i>Responsa</i> <i>Beit She’arim</i> §362 states that the mitzva does not depend upon having a home. <i>Tzitz Eliezer</i> 15:29 and <i>Az Nidberu</i> 7:63 rule this way as well. Therefore, a soldier who is in a trench or a small tent should light without the <i>berakhot</i> (<i>Shabbat U-mo’ed Be-Tzahal</i>,<i> </i>pp. 332-333). This also applies to one who is sleeping in the streets or fields. The status of one who is sleeping on a train is based on Maharsham <i>loc. cit.</i>, as well as AHS 677:5. We already learned above in section 11 that according to Sephardic custom, if one’s spouse is lighting for him at home or if one is dependent on his parents, he must light without the <i>berakhot</i>. According to Ashkenazic custom, one may light with the <i>berakhot</i>.If lighting even one candle in an airplane is dangerous, it is proper for the airline to light electric candles (without the <i>berakhot</i>) to publicize the miracle. However, the passengers do not fulfill their obligation through this lighting.</i>
  
  
  
  
  
  Section 1
  
  The Month of Adar / When Adar Arrives We Increase Our Joy
  The Sages said, “When Av arrives we curtail [our] joy, and when Adar arrives we increase [our] joy” (<i>Ta’anit</i> 29a). In saying this, the Sages teach us that nothing happens by chance and that every season has its own character and nature. If both Temples were destroyed on the ninth of Av, it is a sign that the beginning of Av is naturally predisposed to calamity. And if the miracle of Purim occurred in the middle of Adar, it is a sign that this month has the capacity to transform bad into good. We feel ordinary joy over the good that exists in the world, but our joy is not complete, because there is still evil and pain in the world. However, when even the bad turns into good, our joy increases and becomes complete. This is what happened on Purim: God turned the bad into good and saved His people, Israel. This teaches us that everything that happens in the world – even the bad – will eventually become good. The greater our faith and our commitment to Torah, the closer we bring the ultimate redemption, when all evil will turn into good, and when joy will abound in the world. Since the month of Adar has the unique character of transforming bad into good, “when Adar arrives we increase [our] joy.”
  The Sages further recommend (<i>ibid</i>. 29b) that a Jew who has a legal dispute or business deal to settle with a non-Jew should avoid him during the month of Av, because that month portends misfortune. Instead, he should try to make himself available for litigation or a business deal during Adar, when the Jewish people experiences good fortune.
  
  Section 2
  
  The Month of Adar / The Four <i>Parshiyot</i>
  The Sages instituted the public reading of four Torah passages (<i>parshiyot</i>)<i> </i>in addition to the weekly Torah portion: <i>Parashat Shekalim</i>, <i>Parashat Zakhor</i>, <i>Parashat Para</i>, and <i>Parashat Ha-ḥodesh</i>. We read each of the latter three <i>parshiyot </i>on a Shabbat during the month of Adar, while <i>Parashat Shekalim </i>is usually read on the Shabbat before Adar begins.1<i class="footnote">The schedule for reading the Four <i>Parshiyot </i>includes at least one Shabbat in Adar when none of the four are read. The Sages provided a mnemonic device to help us remember which one to skip: z<i>a</i>tu, bu, d<i>a</i>d, ubyu. That is, if the first of Adar falls on Shabbat (represented by the Hebrew letter zayin, which also corresponds to the number seven), we do not read any of the Four <i>Parshiyot</i> on the Shabbat that coincides with the fifteenth (tet-vav, which corresponds to fifteen) of the month: Hence, z-tv, or “<i>zatu</i>,” means 7-15, indicating that when the month starts on the 7th day of the week, we do not read a special <i>parsha</i> on the 15th. If the first of Adar falls on a Monday (bet, corresponding to the second day of the week), no special <i>parsha</i> is read on the sixth (v<i>av</i>) of the month, hence “<i>bu</i>.”<i> </i>When this happens, we read <i>Parashat Shekalim</i> at the end of the month of Shevat. If the first of Adar falls on a Wednesday (dalet, corresponding to the fourth day of the week), no special <i>parsha </i>is read on the fourth (dalet) of the month. Thus, “<i>dad.</i>”<i> </i>And if the first of Adar falls on a Friday (vav, corresponding to the sixth day of the week), no special parsha is read on the second (bet) or sixteenth (yud-vav) of the month. Hence, “<i>ubyu</i>.”</i>
  On these <i>Shabbatot</i>, we take out two Torah scrolls from the ark. First, we read the weekly <i>parsha</i> from the first scroll, dividing it into seven <i>aliyot</i> as on any other Shabbat. Then, we read the special <i>parsha</i> as <i>maftir</i> (the concluding <i>aliya</i> that precedes the <i>haftara</i>) from the second scroll. Since the <i>haftara</i>, which is a section from the Prophets, must relate to the content of the <i>maftir</i>, the <i>haftarot</i> of these weeks all deal with themes connected to the special <i>parsha</i> that was read from the second scroll, not to the weekly portion that was read from the first.
  The first of the four <i>parshiyot</i> is <i>Parashat Shekalim</i> (Shemot 28:9-15). This <i>parsha </i>was instituted to remind every Jew to contribute the yearly half-shekel, which was used to purchase communal offerings. Since it was necessary to begin purchasing the offerings with the new funds in Nisan, the Sages instituted the reading of <i>Parashat Shekalim</i> a month earlier, to remind everyone to make his donation. Even though the Temple is in ruins today, and we do not have the privilege of bringing sacrifices, we read <i>Parashat Shekalim</i> in commemoration of the Temple (see MB 685:1, <i>Mikra’ei Kodesh</i> §3).
  The second <i>parsha</i> is <i>Parashat Zakhor</i> (Devarim 25:17-19). This reading fulfills the Torah commandment to remember what the Amalekites did to us. The Sages ordained that we read this <i>parsha</i> before Purim in order to juxtapose the mitzva of remembering Amalek to Purim, when we celebrate the fulfillment of that mitzva through the elimination of Haman, who was a descendant of Amalek.
  The third <i>parsha </i>is <i>Parashat Para</i> (Bamidbar 19:1-22), which instructs one how to purify himself from ritual impurity, so that he may enter the Temple and bring offerings. The Sages instituted that it be read as the month of Nisan approaches, so that one can prepare and purify himself for the upcoming Pesaḥ offering. Even though we do not bring this offering nowadays, we read <i>Parashat Para</i> in commemoration of the Temple.
  The fourth <i>parsha</i> is <i>Parashat Ha-ḥodesh</i> (Shemot 12:1-20), which mentions the sanctification of the new moon and the <i>mitzvot</i> of Pesaḥ. The reading of his <i>parsha </i>was instituted for just before the beginning of Nisan, because Nisan is the first month of the year in the Torah’s accounting and because it alerts us to start preparing for Pesaḥ and all its <i>mitzvot</i>.
  When Rosh Ḥodesh Adar or Rosh Ḥodesh Nisan coincides with Shabbat, we remove three Torah scrolls from the ark. We read the weekly portion from the first scroll, the section that deals with Rosh Ḥodesh (Bamidbar 28:9-15) from the second scroll, and the special <i>parsha</i> – <i>Parashat Shekalim</i> on Rosh Ḥodesh Adar and <i>Parashat Ha-ḥodesh</i> on Rosh Ḥodesh Nisan – from the third scroll.
  According to most <i>poskim</i>, the mitzva of reading <i>Parashat Zakhor</i> is mandated by Torah law. Therefore, people are more meticulous about reading <i>Parashat Zakhor </i>than they are regarding all other readings, as we will explain below (14:6). Some maintain that reading <i>Parashat Para</i> also fulfills a Torah commandment, which is why people are customarily more meticulous with regard to that <i>parsha </i>as well.2<i class="footnote">The institution of the four <i>parshiyot</i> chronologically precedes the institution of the weekly <i>parsha </i>reading. Although the reading of the Torah every Shabbat, Monday, and Thursday was instituted in the time of Moshe, the division of the Torah into 54 portions, to allow it to be read in its entirety over the course of a year, took place much later. In the time of the Amora’im, the Jewish community in Babylonia followed this practice, but the Jews of Eretz Yisrael would complete the Torah every three years instead of every year. However, the institution of the Four <i>Parshiyot</i> and the special readings for the holidays are mentioned already in the Mishna and the Talmud (<i>Megilla</i> 29a-30b).Reading <i>Parashat Zakhor</i> is a Torah commandment, as we will explain below, in section 6. Some maintain that <i>Parashat Para</i> is also a Torah commandment, as SA 146:2, 685:7 states. Most authorities consider it a rabbinic enactment: see MB 146:13, 685:15; <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 685:28. <i>Le-khatḥila</i>, <i>Parashat Para</i> is treated as stringently as <i>Parashat Zakhor</i>.</i>
  
  Section 3
  
  The Month of Adar / Leap Years and the Added Month of Adar
  It is well known that the Jewish months are fixed by the lunar cycle, whereas years follow the solar cycle, because Pesaḥ must always be in the springtime, as the Torah says, “Observe the month of Aviv (spring) and offer a Pesaḥ sacrifice to the Lord your God, for it was in the month of Aviv, at night, that the Lord your God freed you from Egypt” (Devarim 16:1). In order to keep the lunar months in sync with the solar year, leap years, in which an extra month is intercalated, must be declared occasionally. This means that some years have thirteen months. The only month that may be intercalated is the second Adar, meaning that Nisan is postponed to ensure that it coincides with spring. In the past, a <i>beit din</i> would decide on leap years based on agricultural concerns and astronomical calculations. Today, however, since we do not have a court with the power to declare months and years, the Sages established a fixed cycle of nineteen years, of which twelve are ordinary years and seven are leap years.3<i class="footnote">Twelve lunar months add up to 354 days (plus 8 hours, 48 minutes, and about 40 seconds). A solar year, on the other hand, contains 365 days (plus 5 hours, 55 minutes, and about 25 seconds). The following years in the nineteen-year cycle are leap years: 3, 6, 8, 11, 14, 17, 19. The year 5777 (2016-17) begins a new nineteen-year cycle.</i>
  In a leap year, we celebrate Purim during Adar II, in order to juxtapose the joy of the Purim redemption with the redemption from Egypt. We also read the Four <i>Parshiyot</i> during this month, because <i>Parashat Shekalim</i>, <i>Parashat Para</i>, and <i>Parashat Ha-ḥodesh</i> were instituted as a preparation for the month of Nisan, and <i>Parashat Zakhor</i> must be read immediately before Purim, which we celebrate in Adar II (see <i>Megilla</i> 6b).
  Nonetheless, the Adar I still has a certain degree of festiveness. Therefore, we do not fast, eulogize, or recite <i>Taḥanun</i> on the fourteenth and fifteenth of Adar I. It is also proper to enhance the meal that one eats on the fourteenth of Adar I, which is called Purim Katan (“Small Purim”) (SA, Rema 697:1). 
  Moreover, the Sages statement about increasing joy when Adar arrives implies that Adar I ushers in joy (observance of a bar mitzva or <i>yahrzeit </i>is discussed in the footnote).4<i class="footnote">The Mishna states, “There is no difference between Adar I and Adar II except the [<i>mitzvot </i>of] reading the <i>megilla</i> and giving gifts to the poor” (<i>Megilla </i>6b). The Gemara adds the Four <i>Parshiyot</i> to this list. This implies that the two months are equal with regard to rejoicing. One can also infer this from MA and the Vilna Gaon on OḤ 568:7. MB 697:4 states that one need not enhance his meal on the fifteenth of Adar I in walled cities, but <i>Minḥat Yitzḥak</i> 10:58 states that one should enhance his meal on that day in Jerusalem.Bar Mitzva: Since Adar II is the primary month of the two, one who was born in Adar on an ordinary year becomes a bar mitzva in Adar II, if that year happens to be a leap year. If, however, he was born in Adar I of a leap year and his bar mitzva falls out on a leap year as well, he marks the occasion in Adar I.Yahrzeit: According to Sephardic custom, one who has a <i>yahrzeit</i> in the month of Adar observes it, in a leap year, during Adar II, as that is the primary Adar with regard to Purim and the Four <i>Parshiyot</i>. According to Ashkenazic custom, however, it is observed during Adar I, to avoid postponing the mitzva. According to this approach, Adar II is the primary month only with regard to Purim and the Four <i>Parshiyot</i>, not for other matters. Moreover, since Adar II is more joyous, as it is the month in which we celebrate Purim, it is more appropriate to remember the dead in Adar I. Some Ashkenazim are stringent and observe the <i>yahrzeit</i> twice (SA, Rema 568:7, MB <i>ad loc. </i>41). An Ashkenazic Jew who adopted a custom to fast in honor of a <i>yahrzeit</i> in both months of Adar should continue his practice. Similarly, MA and MB <i>ad loc. </i>42 state that one who took an explicit oath to fast on a <i>yahrzeit</i> that falls out in the month of Adar must fast on both months of Adar during a leap year. But if a person died in a leap year, the family should observe the <i>yahrzeit</i> on subsequent leap years in the same month of Adar in which he died.</i>
  
  Section 4
  
  The Month of Adar / The Three <i>Mitzvot</i> Concerning the Obliteration of Amalek
  Three <i>mitzvot</i> in the Torah relate to Amalek. The first is a positive commandment to remember what Amalek did to us, as the Torah says: “Remember what Amalek did to you on your journey, as you left Egypt” (Devarim 25:17). The second is a negative commandment not to forget what Amalek did to us, as the Torah says: “Do not forget” (<i>ibid</i>. 19). The third is a positive commandment to eradicate Amalek’s offspring from the world, as the Torah says: “Therefore, when the Lord your God grants you safety from all your enemies around you, in the land that the Lord your God is giving you as a hereditary portion, you shall blot out the memory of Amalek from under heaven” (<i>ibid</i>.).
  Amalek symbolizes the root of evil in the world. Indeed, Amalek introduced the concept of Jew- hatred to the world. The Jewish people face a difficult struggle in this world. The idealistic, faith-based message that God assigned to Israel incites all the evildoers of the world to rise up and fight against the Jews. No other nation has been persecuted as the Jews have, from the destruction of the Temple, through the Crusades, the Inquisition, and the Khmelnytsky Massacres of 1648-9, and culminating in the terrible Holocaust that ravaged our nation. Amalek started it all.
  Right after we left Egypt, even before we had a chance to coalesce and organize ourselves, Amalek attacked us, without any provocation or reason. Who did they attack? Slaves on their way to freedom after a prolonged period of servitude. Amalek is the nation whose very existence expresses hatred of Israel and, by extension, hatred of the Torah and the divine idea of repairing the world through kindness and truth. This is why the verse says, “‘Hand upon the throne (<i>kes</i>)<i> </i>of the Lord (<i>Kah</i>)!’ The Lord will be at war with Amalek throughout the ages” (Shemot 17:16). Rashi comments, noting that the verse uses shortened versions for two words – <i>kes </i>instead of <i>kisei</i> and <i>Kah</i> instead of the full Tetragrammaton – “The Holy One, blessed be He, swore that His name and His throne will not be complete until the name of Amalek is utterly blotted out.”
  A Jew is naturally kind and compassionate, and many <i>mitzvot</i> in the Torah further cultivate these traits within him. He would naturally be inclined to forgive Amalek. But the Torah commands us to remember what Amalek did and obliterate it. This way, we will remember that there is evil in the world, and that we must fight this evil to the bitter end, without compromise. Only then will we be able to perfect the world.
  
  Section 5
  
  The Month of Adar / The Mitzva to Wipe Out Amalek
  The mitzva to destroy Amalek is primarily incumbent upon the people of Israel as a whole. Indeed, the Sages taught that the people of Israel were commanded to fulfill three <i>mitzvot</i> upon entering Eretz Yisrael: first, to appoint a king; then to wipe out the descendants of Amalek; and then to build the Holy Temple (<i>San</i>. 20b).
  Indeed, after the people of Israel became coalesced as a nation in its land, appointed a king in Shaul, and his kingdom stabilized, the prophet Shmuel approached him, saying: I am the one the Lord sent to anoint you king over His people Israel. Therefore, listen to the Lord’s command! “Thus said the Lord of Hosts: I am exacting the penalty for what Amalek did to Israel, for the assault he made upon them on the road, on their way up from Egypt.” Now go, attack Amalek, and proscribe all that belongs to him. Spare no one, but kill alike men and women, infants and sucklings, oxen and sheep, camels and asses!” (1 Shmuel 15:1-3)
  However, King Shaul did not fulfill the mitzva properly. He had pity on King Agag of Amalek and on the best of the sheep and cattle. As a result, God took the kingdom away from Shaul and gave it to David. Nevertheless, the damage that was already done was devastating. Because of Shaul’s weakness and compassion, many Amalekites survived and continued harassing Israel. A few years later, a band of Amalekites attacked Tziklag, where the families of David and his men lived, burning down the city and taking all the women and children captive. With God’s help, David and his men managed to rescue the captives and vanquish the marauders. But since David was not yet king and did not have the army of Israel at his disposal, he was unable to eradicate them. According to 1 Samuel 30:17, “four hundred young men…mounted camels and got away.” Apparently, other groups of Amalekites survived elsewhere as well. Even after David became king and continued to fight against the Amalekites, he was unable to destroy them all, because they were scattered throughout the land. The Sages also relate that because Shaul delayed killing Agag, Agag’s line was preserved, eventually resulting in the birth of Haman the Agagite, who attempted to wipe out the Jewish people (<i>Megilla</i> 13a).
  Even though the mitzva to eradicate Amalek is primarily incumbent upon the Jewish people as a whole, every individual Jew is commanded to fulfill it, as well. Therefore, if a Jew meets an Amalekite, and has the ability to kill him, but refrains from doing so, he has neglected this mitzva (<i>Sefer Ha-ḥinukh</i> §604). The descendants of Amalek are currently unknown, but if one would ascertain that a particular person is an Amalekite, and that person follows their ways, it would be a mitzva to kill him.5<i class="footnote"><i>Responsa Kol Mevaser</i> 2:42 derives from Rambam, Ramban (Shemot 17:16), and <i>Sefer Ha-ḥinukh</i> §604 that the mitzva of eradicating Amalek is primarily incumbent upon the king and the Jewish people as a whole, but that an individual who is able to kill an Amalekite must do so.I asserted that some Amalekites remained after Shaul neglected to kill Agag. This is clear from BB 21a-b, which relates that David’s general Yoav erred in killing only the men of Amalek but not the women, because his school teacher had taught him an incorrect interpretation of the relevant verses. This incident took place during the war mentioned in 1 Melakhim 11:15-16, which was fought mainly against Edom, i.e., the descendants of Esav. Since the Amalekites represented only a small part of the descendants of Esav, this implies that there were groups of Amalekites within the Edomites, and it was concerning those Amalekites that Yoav erred. This explanation is cited in <i>Responsa Kol Mevaser</i> 2:42.</i>
  
  Section 6
  
  The Month of Adar / <i>Parashat Zakhor</i>
  The Sages instituted the reading of <i>Parashat Zakhor</i> once a year in order to fulfill the Torah commandment to remember and not forget the evil deeds of Amalek. One is viewed as having forgotten about Amalek only if a year goes by without remembering it. Therefore, we discharge our obligation by mentioning the matter once a year. We read <i>Parashat Zakhor</i> on the Shabbat before Purim in order to juxtapose remembering Amalek to the destruction of his descendant Haman.
  According to Torah law, one must express this remembrance verbally. There is no need, however, for every individual to read <i>Parashat Zakhor</i> from a Torah scroll; rather, everyone fulfills the mitzva by hearing another person read the verses from the Torah.
  According to some of the greatest Rishonim, the Torah commands us to read <i>Parashat Zakhor</i> from the Torah scroll itself. Therefore, it is proper to read it from an exceptionally beautiful Torah scroll, and the reader must try to read the passage as meticulously as possible.
  Preferably, everyone should hear <i>Parashat Zakhor</i> read according to his family’s accepted traditions of cantillation and pronunciation. Technically, however, members of all Jewish communities can discharge their obligation by hearing it read according to any version accepted among the Jewish people, whether it is Sephardic, Ashkenazic, or Yemenite.6<i class="footnote">It is clear that mistakes have crept into the Hebrew pronunciation systems of some Jewish communities, as all of Israel had a common pronunciation before we were exiled. Nonetheless, one fulfills his obligation to hear <i>Parashat Zakhor</i> even through an inaccurate pronunciation. As long as a large Jewish community accepts and agrees upon a certain pronunciation system, it is valid. Even regarding the mitzva of <i>ḥalitza</i>, where the improper recitation of certain Hebrew verses by the man or woman renders the ceremony invalid, we do not require them to enunciate the verses according to all the different pronunciation schemes, and the woman is permitted to remarry (<i>Igrot Moshe</i>, OḤ 3:5). Certainly, then, there is no obligation to read <i>Parashat Zakhor</i> according to all the different pronunciations. R. Shlomo Zalman Auerbach concurs (<i>Halikhot Shlomo</i> 18:1), deriving this from the laws of oaths (<i>nedarim</i>), where an inaccurate wording is still considered a full-fledged expression. Still, many people are meticulous in this regard and read <i>Parashat Zakhor</i> several different ways. In the community of Har Bracha, we first read <i>Parashat Zakhor</i> according to the standard Modern Hebrew pronunciation. Then, only after the <i>berakha</i> following the reading is recited, those who want to read it using different pronunciations may come forth and do so. By allowing the variant readings only after the <i>berakha</i> is recited, we show that everyone has already fulfilled his obligation through the regular pronunciation.</i>
  One who finds himself in a place where there is no <i>minyan</i> should read <i>Parashat Zakhor</i> from a Torah scroll without a <i>minyan</i>. If no Torah scroll is available, he should read it from a <i>ḥumash</i> or a <i>siddur</i>.7<i class="footnote">One must mention Amalek verbally. After all, the Sages understood that the mitzva not to forget what Amalek did to us commands us to remember internally (<i>Megilla</i> 18a). Thus, when the Torah commands us to remember, it means through verbalization. The <i>poskim</i> dispute what exactly the Torah obligation entails. Rambam and Ramban imply that reading from a Torah scroll is a rabbinic enactment, and that by Torah law one fulfills the mitzva by reading from a <i>ḥumash</i> or through any other means of commemoration. (<i>Marḥeshet</i> 1:22 states, based on Ramban’s commentary on the end of <i>Parashat Ki Tetzei</i>, that reading the <i>megilla</i> on Purim also fulfills the mitzva of remembering Amalek.) On the other hand, according to <i>Tosafot</i>, Rashba (<i>Ber.</i> 13a), Rosh, and <i>Eshkol</i>, one is obligated by Torah law to hear <i>Parashat Zakhor</i> read from a Torah scroll. SA 146:3 rules in accordance with this opinion. Therefore, we bring a Torah scroll to a sick person or a prison inmate in order to read <i>Parashat Zakhor</i> for him, an action that we do not take for any other reading (MB 135:46; see also BHL <i>ad loc</i>.).If the scroll from which <i>Parashat Zakhor</i> was read is later found to be invalid, there is no need to reread the <i>parsha</i> from a different scroll (<i>Halikhot Shlomo</i> 18:4), because, according to several <i>poskim</i>, one fulfills the mitzva without a Torah scroll, and others maintain that a Torah scroll is required, but that one fulfills his obligation with an invalid Torah scroll. It stands to reason that if the defect in the scroll is found on that same Shabbat, the congregation should reread <i>Parashat Zakhor</i> from a valid scroll, since the Sages instituted the reading on that particular day.<i>Terumat Ha-deshen</i> §108 infers from Rosh that according to Torah law, the mitzva to read <i>Parashat</i> <i>Zakhor</i> can only be fulfilled by reading the passage from a Torah scroll in the presence of ten men. Several Aḥaronim explain that by remembering what the Amalekites did to us, we become aroused to wage war against them, and since war is a communal obligation, <i>Parashat Zakhor</i> must be read with the congregation (<i>Keren Ora</i>, Maharam Schick). It seems to me that even <i>Terumat Ha-deshen</i> agrees that in the absence of a congregation there is still a mitzva to read it individually. SHT 685:5 expresses puzzlement about <i>Terumat Ha-deshen</i>’s viewpoint and states that all other Rishonim maintain that a <i>minyan</i> is required only rabbinically. In practice, if one finds himself in a place where there is no <i>minyan</i>, he should read <i>Parashat Zakhor</i> privately from a Torah scroll. If no scroll is available, he should read it from a <i>ḥumash</i>, as we already learned that one fulfills his Torah obligation even without a Torah scroll according to some <i>poskim</i> (see <i>Responsa Binyan Shlomo</i> §54, <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 685:35).According to MA, one who fails to hear <i>Parashat Zakhor</i> on Shabbat can, <i>be-di’avad</i>, discharge his obligation by hearing the Torah reading on Purim, which recounts the story of Amalek’s attack (Shemot 17:8-16). MB 685:16 questions this, because that section only mentions the narrative of the war against Amalek, not the commandment to remember and eradicate it. Some authorities suggest that he should wait until later in the year when the congregation reads <i>Parashat Ki Tetzei</i>, which contains <i>Parashat Zakhor</i> at the end, and ask the reader to have in mind to absolve him of his obligation to remember Amalek. Both the reader and listener must have in mind to fulfill the mitzva (<i>Mikra’ei Kodesh</i> [Frank], <i>Purim</i> 6). In my humble opinion, however, it is best for him to read <i>Parashat Zakhor</i> privately, from a Torah scroll, as soon as possible, lest he forget it altogether. This way, he will fulfill his obligation according to the vast majority of <i>poskim</i>. Then, if he remembers, he can act scrupulously and try to fulfill the mitzva through the readings of Purim and <i>Ki Tetzei</i>.The Aḥaronim dispute the reason for this mitzva. According to <i>Keren Ora</i>, it is in order to destroy Amalek. Therefore, once Amalek is wiped out, there is no longer any mitzva. <i>Melekhet Shlomo</i> maintains that the mitzva to remember Amalek will remain in effect even after it is destroyed, because of the principles of faith that it contains.</i>
  <i>Mitzvot</i> require <i>kavana </i>(focused intent); therefore, one must have in mind to fulfill the mitzva of remembering Amalek’s deeds when reading or hearing <i>Parashat Zakhor</i>. It is a good practice for the <i>gabbai</i> or reader to announce this before commencing the reading.8<i class="footnote">The Rishonim disagree about whether or not <i>mitzvot</i> require <i>kavana</i>. SA 60:4 rules that <i>mitzvot </i>indeed require <i>kavana</i>. <i>Be-di’avad</i>, one discharges his obligation even if he did not have explicit <i>kavana</i>, as long as he knows that the purpose of reading <i>Parashat Zakhor</i> is to fulfill the mitzva of remembering Amalek, as this is considered latent <i>kavana</i>. One who does not know why we read <i>Parashat Zakhor</i>, however, does not discharge his obligation by simply hearing the passage read, according to the position that <i>mitzvot </i>require <i>kavana </i>(<i>Ḥayei Adam</i>, MB 60:10). One who fails to hear all the words still fulfills the mitzva, as long as he hears the main point – the injunction to remember what Amalek did to us (<i>Halikhot Shlomo</i> 18:1).</i>
  
  Section 7
  
  The Month of Adar / Are Women Obligated to Hear <i>Parashat Zakhor</i>?
  According to most <i>poskim</i>, women are not obligated in the mitzva of remembering Amalek, because this mitzva is connected to the mitzva of annihilating Amalek. Since women are not commanded to wage war, they do not need to remember what Amalek did to us (<i>Sefer Ha-ḥinukh</i> §603). Others claim that the mitzva to wage war applies to women as well, as they must assist the soldiers. Therefore, they too are obligated to remember Amalek. And even though the Sages established a fixed time for reading <i>Parashat Zakhor</i> – the Shabbat before Purim – it has no set time according to Torah law. In light of this, it is a mitzva that is independent of time, and thus women are obligated to perform it (<i>Minḥat Ḥinukh</i> <i>ad loc</i>.).
  In practice, women are exempt from hearing <i>Parashat Zakhor</i>. <i>Le-khatḥila</i>, however, it is best for women to hear <i>Parashat Zakhor</i>, and many women do so in practice. A woman who finds it difficult to attend the services, but nevertheless wants to fulfill the mitzva, should read the passage herself from a <i>ḥumash</i>. After all, many authorities maintain that this fulfills the Torah commandment to remember Amalek. If there is a Torah lecture for women in the synagogue, it is permissible to take out a Torah scroll and read <i>Parashat Zakhor</i> for them. Even though no <i>minyan</i> is present, hearing <i>Parashat Zakhor</i> from a valid Torah scroll enhances the mitzva.9<i class="footnote">Reading <i>Parashat Zakhor</i> is not considered a time-bound mitzva because one can fulfill it by remembering Amalek once, and according to the Torah there is no set time for its performance. However, many <i>poskim</i> maintain that women are exempt because they do not go to war (<i>Sefer Ha-ḥinukh</i> §603). <i>Torat Ḥesed</i> §37 states that according to the view that the Torah does not require a yearly reading of <i>Parashat Zakhor</i> and that one can discharge his obligation through any form of remembrance, even once every few years, <i>Parashat Zakhor</i> is only a rabbinic mitzva, and consequently incumbent on men alone. <i>Avnei Nezer</i>, OḤ 509 and <i>Marḥeshet</i> 1:22 also maintain that women are exempt. Some authorities maintain that women are obligated in this mitzva, because even women must take part in a <i>milḥemet mitzva</i> – a mandatory war (<i>Minḥat Ḥinukh</i>). Radbaz (on MT, Laws of Kings 7:4) explains that women must supply the soldiers with food and water. <i>Responsa Binyan Tziyon</i> 2:8 adds that something positive will surely result from women remembering Amalek, just as when Yael killed Sisera, Esther put Haman to death, and Yehudit killed the Greek general.Therefore, <i>le-khatḥila</i>,<i> </i>women should hear <i>Parashat Zakhor</i> with a <i>minyan</i>. If that is impossible, someone should read it for them from a Torah scroll, without a <i>minyan</i>. If that, too, is unfeasible, they should read it to themselves from a <i>ḥumash</i>. While some Aḥaronim write that we do not take out a Torah scroll for the sake of women (<i>Responsa Kinyan Torah</i> 7:53; <i>Halikhot Beitah</i> 9:8), it is unclear what the problem is with this, since technically one may take out a Torah scroll in order to study from it. Some communities, therefore, have a custom to take out a Torah scroll and read <i>Parashat Zakhor</i> just for women.</i>
  
  Section 8
  
  The Month of Adar / Can an Amalekite Save Himself or Convert to Judaism?
  Even though the Torah commands us to wipe out the descendants of Amalek, if an Amalekite agrees to observe the seven Noahide laws, he no longer has the status of an Amalekite, and one may not kill him. The seven Noahide laws are the prohibitions against idolatry, forbidden sexual relations, murder, theft, blasphemy, and eating the limbs of a live animal; and the obligation to set up a court system that will adjudicate all interpersonal disputes justly.
  Moreover, even if the Amalekites do not volunteer to observe the seven Noahide laws, we are commanded to offer them peace before waging war against them. That is, we offer them the opportunity to adopt the seven Noahide laws and to agree to be subservient to, and pay tribute to, the Jewish people. If they accept these conditions of peace, we do not wage war against them. If they refuse, however, we fight them until they are eradicated. Even if they reconsider afterward and beg for peace, we do not accept; once the war has begun, we fight them until they are eradicated (MT, Laws of Kings 6:1-4; <i>Kesef Mishneh ad loc.</i>).
  The <i>poskim</i> disagree about whether an Amalekite who wants to convert to Judaism may be accepted. Rambam (MT, Laws of Prohibited Sexual Relations 12:17) maintains that an Amalekite may convert. Accordingly, the Sages state that descendants of Haman, who was himself of Amalekite stock, taught Torah in Bnei Brak (<i>Gittin</i> 57b, <i>San</i>. 96b). Thus, our forebears accepted converts from the descendants of Amalek.
  Others assert that we do not accept Amalekite converts. This is the view of R. Eliezer, cited in the <i>Mekhilta</i> (end of <i>Parashat Beshalaḥ</i>), who relates that God swore by His Throne of Glory that an Amalekite who comes to convert should not be accepted. According to this position, Haman’s descendants were only allowed to teach Torah in Bnei Brak – as the Sages attest – as the result of an error: A rabbinical court accepted a convert without knowing that he is a descendant of Amalek. Alternatively, an Amalekite descendant of the wicked Haman raped a Jewish woman, and those Torah teachers from Bnei Brak descended from her son, who was considered Jewish (<i>Resisei Laila</i> 38:5).10<i class="footnote">Rambam maintains that we may accept converts from Amalek. According to him, the <i>halakha</i> does not follow R. Eliezer’s opinion in the <i>Mekhilta</i> (end of <i>Parashat Beshalaḥ</i>) because another opinion – that of R. Elazar Ha-Moda’i – is cited there as well, and because the Gemara’s account of Haman’s descendants runs counter to R. Eliezer’s view. So writes Ḥida (<i>Ya’ir Ozen</i>, <i>Gimel</i>:1). <i>Ḥazon Ish</i> (YD 157:5) states that R. Eliezer’s prohibition on accepting an Amalekite convert only applies during wartime. According to <i>Avnei Nezer</i>, OḤ 508, we may grant an Amalekite the status of <i>ger toshav</i> (a “resident alien,” a non-Jew who lives in Israel and adopts the seven Noahide laws), who is subservient to the Jewish people, but he may not become a regular convert.Others maintain that we do not accept the conversion of Amalekites, interpreting the statement that Haman’s descendants taught Torah in Bnei Brak in various ways. Some explain that the lineage of a non-Jew is determined by the father, and these teachers descended from Haman through a daughter (Mahari Engel, <i>Gilyonei Ha-Shas</i>, <i>Gittin</i> 57b; Maharsham 3:272). </i>
  Others explain that, <i>le-khatḥila</i>, we do not accept Amalekite converts, but if they are accepted by accident, their conversion is valid (<i>Yeshu’ot Malko</i>, <i>Likutim</i> 15). Others maintain that the conversion is valid only if the mistake is discovered several generations later, but if a convert’s Amalekite origin is revealed immediately, the conversion is invalidated (<i>Shvut Yehuda</i> on the <i>Mekhilta</i>). Others maintain that the teachers descended from an Amalekite who assimilated into another nation and converted afterward. In such a case, it is impossible to know that he is from Amalek, and thus we accept him. Later on, it was revealed through divine inspiration that these teachers were descendants of Haman, but their conversion was still valid (R. Ḥayim Palachi, <i>Einei Kol Ḥai</i>, <i>San.</i> 96b). It is also possible that an Amalekite can divest himself of the status of Amalek by accepting the seven Noahide laws, and then, at a later stage, convert (suggested by Ḥida, <i>Petaḥ Einayim</i>, <i>San.</i> 96b). According to <i>Reponsa Kol Mevaser</i> 2:42, we may accept an Amalekite convert; the <i>Mekhilta</i> only prohibits such a convert from marrying into the Jewish people.
  
  Section 9
  
  The Month of Adar / Ta’anit Esther
  The custom of all Jewry, since the geonic period, is to fast on the thirteenth of Adar in commemoration of the fasts that Esther observed before approaching King Aḥashverosh to annul the decree against the Jewish people (Esther 4:16) and the fast that the Jews observed on the thirteenth of Adar of that year. The wicked Haman decreed that on the thirteenth of Adar, all Jews – young and old, children and women – be destroyed, massacred, and exterminated on a single day, and that their possessions be plundered. Because of the miracle of Purim, the hanging of Haman, and the rise of Mordechai and Esther, King Aḥashverosh issued a second letter allowing the Jews to defend themselves and kill their enemies on that same day. The original decree, however, was not rescinded, because a decree that was written and signed by the king could not be annulled. Therefore, the enemies of Israel also had permission to kill the Jews. In other words, the kingdom established the thirteenth of Adar as the day on which those who hated the Jewish people were permitted to kill them, but the Jews were also permitted to fight for their lives and kill their enemies as well. And even though Mordechai was already second in command to the king, the Jews were still in grave danger and in need of divine mercy to help them overcome and kill their enemies. Therefore, the Jews who could not fight stirred themselves to repentance and fasted that day, as is Israel’s practice in times of hardship. Indeed, there is no greater penitence than penitence that is achieved through fasting, as fasting purifies a person’s material side and returns his spirituality to its natural, central place.
  In commemoration of that fast, the Jewish people fast on the thirteenth of Adar every year. We still have enemies who want to destroy us and we still need to fast and repent every year anew.11<i class="footnote">The Rishonim ask how a fast could be established on the eve of Purim, as <i>Megilat Ta’anit</i> states explicitly that we do not fast or deliver eulogies on the day before a rabbinic holiday. <i>Tosafot</i> answer that since <i>Megilat Ta’anit</i> was repealed, the laws of the day before the holidays mentioned therein were also repealed. <i>Ha-ma’or</i> explains that we view the laws of Purim as if they were mandated by the Torah, which needs no reinforcement, and thus one may fast before Purim. Rosh and Ran point out that since the Book of Esther 9:31 alludes to this fast – “the matters of the fasts with their cries” – one may fast prior to the holiday. <i>Beit Yosef</i> §686 elaborates on this.</i>
  In general, the laws of Ta’anit Esther (the Fast of Esther) are more lenient than those of the other minor fasts, because the other fasts were instituted by the Sages, whereas Ta’anit Esther was established by Jewish custom. In practice, though, there is almost no difference between them.12<i class="footnote">Since Ta’anit Esther is based on custom, we are more lenient in cases of uncertainty. Thus, a woman is exempt from fasting on Ta’anit Esther for 24 months after giving birth. Even though the <i>poskim</i> dispute this law when it comes to the other minor fasts – most of them taking a more stringent approach, as explained above, 7:8 – there is room to rule leniently regarding Ta’anit Esther.A bride and groom during the seven-day period of joy after their wedding, as well as the main participants in a <i>brit mila</i>, must observe the other minor fasts but are exempt from fasting on Ta’anit Esther. This is stated in SHT 686:16, <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 686:16, 28, and <i>Yeḥaveh Da’at</i> 2:78. (According to the Vilna Gaon, they are exempt from all the minor fasts.) Rema 686:2 maintains that the main participants in a <i>brit</i> must fast on Ta’anit Esther, and many follow this ruling. With regard to a bride and groom, however, it is customary to be lenient.Rema 686:2 states that those who have severe eye pain need not fast on Ta’anit Esther, but they should make up the fast on a different day. Most Aḥaronim explain that even though those who suffer from eye pain are not considered truly sick, they may postpone their fast to a different day because they are in pain. This is not the case regarding the other minor fasts, on which one must fast even if he is in pain. In practice, it is difficult to distinguish between illness and pain. <i>Mikra’ei Kodesh</i> (Harari) ch. 3 n. 25 rules similarly, quoting R. Shaul Yisraeli and R. Mordechai Eliyahu, that those who suffer from eye pain have the same status as a sick person: They do not need to fast on Ta’anit Esther, nor do they need to make up the missed fast on a later date. Another difference, on the minor fasts, it is proper to be stringent and refrain from washing in warm water and playing music, as a sign of mourning over the Temple’s destruction (see above 7:2 and n. 3). On Ta’anit Esther, however, there is no reason to adopt this stringency.</i>
  The laws regarding the prayers and Torah reading at <i>Shaḥarit</i> and <i>Minḥa</i> on Ta’anit Esther are the same as on all the minor fasts. The only difference is that we omit <i>Taḥanun</i> at <i>Minḥa</i>, since it is the day before Purim (MB 131:33). In addition, those who follow Ashkenazic custom and usually recite <i>Avinu Malkeinu</i> on fast days at both <i>Shaḥarit</i> and <i>Minḥa</i> do not do so at <i>Minḥa </i>on Ta’anit Esther. When the thirteenth of Adar coincides with Shabbat, we fast on the Thursday prior, and since the fast is not on the eve of Purim, we pray <i>Minḥa</i> as on all other fasts.
  
  Section 10
  
  The Month of Adar / Commemoration of the Half-Shekel
  People customarily give charity in the month of Adar in commemoration of the half-shekel that each individual would donate to the Temple, in Adar, to fund public offerings. The best time to give this charity is immediately before <i>Minḥa</i> on Ta’anit Esther, so that the charity can combine with the fast to help one achieve atonement (MB 694:4, <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 694:25).
  Some have a custom to give a coin worth half of the local currency unit, while others give three such coins, corresponding to the three times the word <i>teruma</i> (“donation”) appears in <i>Parashat Shekalim</i> (Rema 694:1). Thus, according to this custom, one should donate three half-shekels if in Israel, and $1.50 if in the US.
  Some customarily give the equivalent of the original half-shekel, which is the value of approximately ten grams of pure silver (<i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 694:20). All of these customs are valid, and the more charity one gives, the more commendable he is.
  Some maintain that this custom applies only to men above the age of twenty, because only they were obligated in the original mitzva to give the half-shekel for public offerings (Rema). Others maintain that boys above the age of thirteen must observe this custom as well (<i>Tosafot Yom Tov</i>). A third opinion maintains that one should give a donation in commemoration of the half-shekel for young children as well (<i>Eliya Rabba</i>, MB 694:5). Still others maintain that even women should give the half-shekel donation (<i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 694:27). The most prevalent custom today is to donate at least one half-shekel for every member of the house, even for an unborn child.
  One should not use money that was designated for <i>ma’aser kesafim</i> (the tithe of one tenth of one’s income that is set aside for charity) for this donation, since one may not fulfill an obligatory mitzva or custom from tithes. However, if one has always donated the commemorative half-shekel according to the most expensive custom and is now pressed for funds, making it difficult to observe his custom without relying on <i>ma’aser kesafim</i> money, he may donate from his own funds according to the more lenient opinion – that is, a half-shekel per male above the age of twenty – and make up the rest with <i>ma’aser kesafim</i> money.
  
  
  
  
  
  Section 1
  
  Purim and Reading the <i>Megilla</i> / The Miracle of Purim
  The joy of Purim expresses the eternal sanctity of the Jewish people. Even though this sanctity is sometimes hidden by our sins, it never disappears. Jews, even when they sin, are still called God’s children, and nevertheless God directs the world and arranges events for their benefit, in order to save and redeem them.
  At the time of the Purim story, the Jewish people was in dire straits. The First Temple had been destroyed, and Israel had been exiled from its land. While Cyrus’s edict permitting the Jews to return to their land had already been declared, only a small minority actually did so. The Persian Empire ruled the world, and the large Jewish population living throughout the empire made an effort to assimilate and behave as the gentiles did, to the point where many were willing to bow down to an idol. In the capital city of Shushan, many Jews partook in Aḥashverosh’s feast and looked on as the Persians brought out the Temple vessels, which our enemies had pillaged at the time of the Temple’s destruction, and used them for mundane purposes. Yet they still enjoyed this wicked man’s feast. It seemed as though the great vision for which the nation of Israel was chosen was steadily vanishing; there would no longer be hope for a return to Zion. The Jewish people would no longer bring the word of God to the world.
  Then, a great accusation arose in heaven against Israel. Despite the fact that God chose Israel from among all the other nations, gave them His Torah, and manifested His presence in their midst, they were acting like the gentiles, bowing to an idol, and failing to go up to their land to build the Holy Temple. Therefore, the wicked Haman, a descendant of Amalek, arose and instigated the Persian Empire to enact a terrible decree against the Jews, the likes of which had never been seen before: “To destroy, massacre, and exterminate all the Jews, young and old, children and women, on a single day, on the thirteenth day of the twelfth month – that is, the month of Adar – and to plunder their possessions” (Esther 3:13).
  Incidentally, some Jews claimed against Mordechai that he was the cause of the evil decree: By refusing to bow to the wicked Haman, he stirred his wrath against all the Jews (<i>ibid</i>. 3:2-6).
  Ultimately it became clear that God controls events and had even already prepared the solution to the problem in advance, by arranging for Aḥashverosh to marry Esther. Thus, Mordechai and Esther were able to thwart Haman’s plan. Everything was reversed: Instead of Israel’s enemies carrying out their evil scheme, the Jews were able to kill their enemies, even hanging Haman and his sons on the very tree that he had prepared for Mordechai. The people of Israel experienced a great salvation; their prestige grew among the nations; and they mustered the strength to ascend to Eretz Yisrael, settle it, and build the Second Temple.1<i class="footnote">It emerges from <i>Megilla</i> 11b-12a that the Purim story happened after Cyrus’s edict but before the Jews were permitted to build the Temple. Furthermore, the evil decree was issued because they bowed down to an idol and derived pleasure from the wicked king’s feast. Many claim that Darius was the son of Aḥashverosh and Esther, and that thanks to Esther’s influence, Darius allowed the Second Temple to be completed after the enemies of the Jews disrupted its construction.</i>
  
  Section 2
  
  Purim and Reading the <i>Megilla</i> / Accepting the Torah Anew
  If we delve deeper, we will see that Haman’s decree actually stirred the singular quality, the <i>segula</i>, of the Jewish people. The decree made it clear that the Jewish people were willing to make great sacrifices in order to hold onto their faith. After all, they could have assimilated among the gentiles and saved themselves from annihilation. Nevertheless, they did not try to escape their Jewish destiny. On the contrary, the decree inspired them to repent and strengthen their faith and commitment to the Torah and the <i>mitzvot</i>.
  The events of Purim were so momentous that the Sages stated that Israel accepted the Torah anew at the time of Aḥashverosh. In a certain sense, their renewed commitment at that time was greater than their original acceptance of the Torah on Mount Sinai. When the Torah was first given, Israel was forced to accept it, as it says, “They took their places at the foot of the mountain” (Shemot 19:17). The Sages comment (<i>Shabbat</i> 88a):This teaches that the Holy One, blessed be He, overturned the mountain upon them like a cask, and said to them, “If you accept the Torah – good; if not – here shall be your burial.” R. Aḥa b. Yaakov said, “This furnishes a strong protest against the Torah” (since they accepted the Torah under duress, they are not obligated to uphold it). Rava said, “Even so, they re-accepted it at the time of Aḥashverosh, as it says, ‘The Jews upheld and accepted upon themselves” (Esther 9:27) – that is, they confirmed what they had accepted long before.”
  Many commentators explain that God “overturned the mountain upon them like a cask” in a symbolic, spiritual sense. After all the great miracles of the Exodus from Egypt, the splitting of the sea, and the awesome revelations at Mount Sinai, it was impossible for the Jews not to accept the Torah. However, the question still remained: Would the Jews stay connected to God and His Torah even afterward, when they become detached from those miracles and wonders? Indeed, there were ups and downs, until the events of Purim took place. That is when it became clear that the people of Israel’s connection to their faith and to the Torah were absolute. The terrible decree made it clear that the price of belief might be unbearable, but the Jews still chose to adhere to their faith, repent, and pray to God, without any coercion. Not only did they return to observe the 613 <i>mitzvot</i>, they even instituted additional <i>mitzvot</i> after they were saved: the <i>mitzvot</i> of Purim.
  Thus, we were privileged to build the Second Temple, and a door was opened for the advancement of the study of the Oral Torah, which was the main spiritual enterprise of the Second Temple era.
  
  Section 3
  
  Purim and Reading the <i>Megilla</i> / Establishing Purim as a Permanent Holiday
  Even though the joy over the salvation was great, it was initially unclear how the event should be marked. Esther wrote to the Sages, “Write an account of me for future generations,” that is, write down the Purim story and include it as one of the holy books of the <i>Tanakh</i>. Esther further requested, “Establish me for future generations,” that is, establish the days of Purim for future generations as days of joy and reading the <i>Megilla</i>. At first, the Sages were unsure about this, both because it might arouse feelings of vengefulness among the nations of the world to see Israel rejoicing over their downfall, and also because they were uncertain whether it was appropriate to add to the Torah another description of Israel’s war against Amalek. In the end, they found scriptural allusions indicating that there are grounds to write about the battle of Amalek once again. Thus, the Men of the Great Assembly composed <i>Megilat Esther</i> (the Scroll of Esther) through divine inspiration and established Purim as a holiday for future generations (<i>Megilla</i> 2a, 7a; BB 15a).
  The Men of the Great Assembly (<i>Anshei Knesset Ha-gedola</i>) constituted the supreme <i>beit din </i>that functioned at the beginning of the Second Temple period. It was comprised of 120 elders, among them prophets and sages such as Ḥagai, Zekharia, Malakhi, Daniel, Ḥanania, Mishael, Azaria, Ezra the Scribe, Neḥemia b. Ḥakhalia, Mordechai (the same Mordechai that appears in <i>Megilat Esther</i>), and Zerubavel b. She’altiel. Ezra the Scribe was the most prominent of all, so much so that the Men of the Great Assembly are sometimes called “The <i>Beit Din</i> of Ezra the Scribe.” They were the great <i>beit din </i>that established the first major enactments that are considered rabbinic <i>mitzvot</i>, and they were the impetus for the continued activity of the Sages of the Oral Torah.
  The Purim miracle is considered the last miracle that was allowed to be recorded in the Tanakh, as the Sages state, “Esther is the end of all the miracles” (<i>Yoma </i>29a). Thus, in effect, the writing of <i>Megilat Esther</i> concludes the Tanakh.
  Purim is the link that connects the Written Torah and the Oral Torah. This is reflected in the status of its <i>mitzvot</i>, which are considered <i>divrei kabbala</i>, an intermediate category between Torah commandments and rabbinic ones. On the one hand, they are not on the level of <i>mitzvot</i> that are written in the Pentateuch. On the other hand, they are not considered rabbinic <i>mitzvot</i>, since <i>Megilat Esther</i> is included in Scripture. The Rishonim disagree about how one should behave if an uncertainty arises regarding the laws of Purim: Does the <i>halakha</i> demand that one be stringent, as in cases of Torah commandments, or lenient, as in cases of rabbinic enactments?2<i class="footnote">Most Rishonim and Aḥaronim agree that the four special <i>mitzvot</i> of Purim have the status of <i>divrei kabbala</i>, which refers to laws that are derived from the words of the Prophets or the Writings, a category in between Torah law and rabbinic law. They only dispute the <i>halakha</i> in cases of uncertainty. At first glance, the fact that the <i>Megilla</i> is read on both the 14th and 15th where there is uncertainty about whether that location was walled at the time of Yehoshua bin Nun indicates that one must be stringent in cases of uncertainty, as we are with regard to Torah commandments. This appears to be the position of Rambam and SA 688:4, 696:7. According to Ramban, Rashba, and Ritva, however, we follow this practice only as a pious custom, not as an obligation, demonstrating that the status of these <i>mitzvot</i> is like that of rabbinic commandments. Several Aḥaronim are inclined toward stringentcy (<i>Turei Even</i>, MB 692:16, <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 692:39). Another discussion is rooted in the same question: Does reading the <i>Megilla</i> override Torah<i> </i>commandments? Most authorities, including Rema 687:2, maintain that reading the <i>Megilla </i>does not override such <i>mitzvot</i>, but <i>Taz</i> rules that it does.</i>
  One must perform seven <i>mitzvot</i> on Purim. Four of them are unique to Purim: 1) reading the <i>Megilla</i>; 2) <i>mishlo’aḥ manot </i>(sending gifts of food to a friend); 3) <i>matanot la-evyonim </i>(giving gifts to the poor); and 4) participating in a festive meal. The remaining three are rabbinic commandments that parallel rabbinic obligations on other holidays: 1) reading the Torah (for men); 2) commemorating the day by reciting <i>Al Ha-nisim</i> in our prayers and in <i>Birkat Ha-mazon</i>; and 3) refraining from fasting and delivering eulogies.
  
  Section 4
  
  Purim and Reading the <i>Megilla</i> / Walled and Unwalled Cities
  There is a unique <i>halakha</i> pertaining to Purim: it has two dates. In most places, Purim is celebrated on the fourteenth of Adar, while in cities that were surrounded by a wall at the time of Yehoshua bin Nun, and in Aḥashverosh’s capital city of Shushan, it is celebrated on the fifteenth.
  In order to understand the reason for this distinction, we must first recall the order of events. Haman’s decree stated that on the thirteenth of Adar all the enemies of Israel could destroy, massacre, and exterminate all the Jews throughout the world. This decree was not abolished even after Mordechai and Esther’s amazing rise to power, because by law any decree written in the king’s name and sealed with the king’s signet could not be revoked. Therefore, the only thing they could do was to issue an additional edict, also sealed with the king’s signet, allowing the Jews to defend themselves and kill their enemies.
  Until the thirteenth of Adar, it was unclear how matters would develop. Granted, the Jews had permission to defend themselves without interference from the Persian army, but who knew if they would succeed in defeating their enemies? Then, on the thirteenth of Adar, fear of the Jews fell upon the people of the land, and the Jews were able to defeat their enemies. On the next day, the fourteenth of Adar, the Jews rested from battle, making it a day of feasting and joy. In the capital city of Shushan, however, there were so many enemies of Israel that the Jews were unable to kill them all in one day. Therefore, Queen Esther came before King Aḥashverosh and asked him to grant the Jews permission to take revenge against their enemies for one more day. Once he agreed to Esther’s request, the Jews of Shushan continued eradicating their enemies on the fourteenth of Adar and rested on the fifteenth, making it a day of feasting and joy.
  Since the first Purim was celebrated on two separate days, the Sages perpetuated this feature with their enactment. Therefore, in most places, Purim is celebrated on the fourteenth of Adar, whereas in Shushan, where the miracle was greater because all the events of the <i>Megilla</i> occurred there, and because the Jews took revenge against their enemies there for two days, Purim is celebrated on the fifteenth. The Sages also enacted that in all prominent cities like Shushan, Purim should be celebrated on the fifteenth, and the indicator of a city’s prominence is having a wall, like Shushan did.
  At that time, however,<i> </i>Eretz Yisrael was in ruins, and if they had based their observance of the enactment on the state of cities at that time period, there would not be one city in all of Eretz Yisrael whose residents would celebrate Purim on the fifteenth of Adar, because none of them was walled at the time. Therefore, in honor of Eretz Yisrael, the Sages decided that in all cities that were surrounded by a wall at the time of Yehoshua bin Nun, Purim would be celebrated on the fifteenth of Adar, even if they were currently in ruins, while in all other cities, Purim would be celebrated on the fourteenth. The only exception is Shushan, as even though the city was established after Yehoshua’s time, Purim is celebrated there on the fifteenth, since the miracle occurred there.
  Today, Jerusalem is the only city in which Purim is celebrated on the fifteenth of Adar, because it is the only place about which we have a clear tradition that it was surrounded by a wall at the time of Yehoshua bin Nun. Regarding some cities it is uncertain whether or not they were walled at that time. There is even uncertainty about Shushan’s exact location. We will elaborate on these laws in chapter 17.3<i class="footnote">See <i>Beit Yosef</i> 688:1; the main idea is based on Ran, and many <i>poskim</i> concur, including MB. The author of <i>Beit Yosef</i> himself explains that the main purpose of the distinction between the fourteenth of Adar and the fifteenth of Adar is to honor Eretz Yisrael and mention it on Purim. See Maharal’s <i>Or Ḥadash</i> 9:11-16 for a discussion on the prominence of walled cities.Rav Kook explains, in <i>Mitzvat Re’iyah</i>, OḤ 688:1, that the Sages instituted two days of Purim in order to differentiate between Torah commandments, whose times are fixed for everyone, and rabbinic laws, which can have two times, depending on one’s location. Perhaps this is also why they established different levels of embellishment (<i>mehadrin</i>) with regard to lighting the Ḥanuka candles. And since we find that the Torah distinguishes between walled and unwalled cities (Vayikra 25:29; <i>Kelim</i> 1:7), the Sages made this same distinction on Purim. Furthermore, since all Torah laws relating to walled cities apply only in Eretz Yisrael, they established Purim according to when these laws began to take effect, namely, when the Israelites entered the land at the time of Yehoshua bin Nun. See <i>Mitzvat Re’iyah</i>, <i>loc. cit.</i>, where R. Kook<i> </i>elaborates on the matter.</i>
  
  Section 5
  
  Purim and Reading the <i>Megilla</i> / Reading the <i>Megilla</i> and Publicizing the Miracle
  Everyone is obligated in the mitzva of reading the <i>Megilla</i>: men, women, and converts. One who hears someone else read the <i>Megilla </i>discharges his obligation, as long as the reader is obligated in the mitzva. However, if one hears it from a minor, who is not required to observe <i>mitzvot</i>, he has not fulfilled his obligation (SA 689:1-2).
  The main purpose of reading the <i>Megilla</i> is to publicize the miracle and demonstrate that God rules and oversees the world, directing everything for the best. Even the worst troubles eventually turn around for the good. This understanding strengthens people’s faith in God and stimulates them to do more to reveal His name and rectify the world.
  Reading the <i>Megilla</i> in public, to broadcast the miracle, is so important that even the Kohanim working in the Temple would delay the daily <i>Tamid</i> offering in the morning in order to hear the <i>Megilla</i> with the congregation; only afterward would they offer the <i>Tamid</i>. Similarly, Torah scholars who are occupied by the study of Torah, even if they can read the <i>Megilla</i> with a <i>minyan</i> in their study hall, should nevertheless interrupt their studies in order to go to a synagogue and hear the <i>Megilla</i> together with the masses (<i>Megilla</i> 3a).
  Therefore, the members of a synagogue that usually hosts several <i>minyanim</i> every day should try to gather together on Purim and hear the <i>Megilla</i> with a large number of people. However, one who generally prays in a small synagogue need not change his fixed practice in order to hear the <i>Megilla</i> in a large synagogue, provided that there will be a <i>minyan </i>at the reading he attends (SA 687:2, <i>Ḥayei Adam</i>, MB <i>ad loc. </i>7, SHT <i>ad loc. </i>8, 10).
  Only as a last resort – if one is unable to hear the <i>Megilla</i> read in a <i>minyan</i> – may one fulfill the mitzva in private, with a <i>berakha</i> (SA and Rema 690:18).4<i class="footnote">When several people, but not enough to form a <i>minyan</i>, need to fulfill the mitzva it is preferable for each one to read on his own since, <i>le-khatḥila</i>, reading the <i>Megilla</i> is like prayer: when there is a <i>minyan</i>, the <i>ḥazan</i> prays on the congregation’s behalf, but one individual cannot fulfill the obligation on behalf of another individual. <i>Be-di’avad</i>, however, an individual may read the <i>Megilla </i>on another person’s behalf (SA 689:5, MB <i>ad loc. </i>15). If only one person knows how to read the <i>Megilla</i> with the proper cantillation, it is preferable for him to read on behalf of others, even if there is no <i>minyan</i>.The Talmud records a dispute in <i>Megilla</i> 5a: Rav maintains that when <i>Megilat Esther</i> is read in its proper time, even an individual may read it, while R. Asi maintains that a <i>minyan</i> is required even if it is read in its proper time. The Rishonim differ over how to interpret this dispute. According to Rabbeinu Tam, the dispute concerns a <i>le-khatḥila </i>situation, and the <i>halakha</i> follows Rav’s opinion. Therefore, even <i>le-khatḥila</i>,<i> </i>an individual may read the <i>Megilla</i>, in its proper time (though it is clearly preferable to read it with a large group of people). According to <i>Behag</i>, the dispute concerns a <i>be-di’avad</i> situation, and the <i>halakha</i> follows R. Asi’s opinion. Therefore, an individual should not read the <i>Megilla</i>. Those who take <i>Behag</i>’s opinion into consideration<i> </i>maintain that an individual reading the <i>Megilla </i>should not recite a <i>berakha</i> (<i>Mordechai</i>, quoting Rabbeinu Gershom, is in this vein, as is Mahari Weil). Many Rishonim maintain that, <i>le-khatḥila</i>, one should read the <i>Megilla</i> with a <i>minyan</i>, but that this is not absolutely necessary in order to fulfill the mitzva. The reason for this is that either the <i>halakha</i> follows R. Asi’s opinion, though even he would agree that, <i>be-di’avad</i>, an individual may read the <i>Megilla</i>;<i> </i>or the <i>halakha</i> follows Rav’s opinion, and even he would agree that, <i>le-khatḥila</i>, one should read the <i>Megilla </i>with a <i>minyan</i>. Rosh and Raavad follow this position, and it is codified in SA 690:18. The vast majority of Aḥaronim agree that one who reads the <i>Megilla </i>individually should recite the <i>berakha</i>. <i>Orḥot Ḥayim</i> quotes Raavad as saying that if the <i>Megilla</i> was read in front of ten men in a certain place, an individual in that place may read it alone <i>le-khatḥila</i>, as the miracle has already been publicized. Rema 690:18 concurs. MB <i>ad loc. </i>64 states that some rule stringently and require an individual to search for ten men, <i>le-khatḥila</i>, even in this situation. See below, n. 8, regarding whether a woman may read the <i>Megilla </i>on behalf of other women and whether she may recite the <i>berakha</i> for other women in doing so. Also see n. 17, on the issue of whether a <i>minyan</i> is required for the <i>berakha</i> of “<i>Ha-rav et riveinu.</i>” (According to <i>Ben Ish Ḥai</i>, one recites the <i>berakha</i> even without a <i>minyan</i>, but the prevalent custom is not to recite it. If ten women are present, one should recite the <i>berakha</i>.)According to Rif, Rashba, and Ramban, one should not read the <i>Megilla</i> without a <i>minyan </i>when it is not the proper time for reading it (11-13 Adar). Rashi and <i>Ha-ma’or</i>, however, maintain that one may read the <i>Megilla </i>and recite the <i>berakha</i>, <i>be-di’avad</i>, without a <i>minyan</i>. In practice, SHT 690:61 states that if one reads the <i>Megilla </i>without a <i>minyan </i>when it is not the proper time, one should not recite the <i>berakha</i>.</i>
  
  Section 6
  
  Purim and Reading the <i>Megilla</i> / When to Read the <i>Megilla</i>
  One must read the <i>Megilla</i> at night and again during the day, to commemorate the fact that the Jews cried out to God in their time of need during the day and at night (<i>Megilla</i> 4a; Rashi <i>ad loc.</i>).
  The nighttime <i>Megilla</i> reading may take place at any point during the night – from <i>tzeit</i> to <i>alot ha-shaḥar</i> – while the daytime reading may take place an time during the day – from sunrise (and <i>be-di’avad</i>, from <i>alot ha-shaḥar</i>) until <i>shki’a</i>. However, the zealous perform <i>mitzvot</i> promptly, reading the <i>Megilla</i> at night immediately after <i>Ma’ariv</i> and during the day immediately after <i>Shaḥarit</i> (SA 687:1, 693:1, 693:4).
  One may not eat or sleep before reading the <i>Megilla</i> at night. Studying Torah, however, is permissible. One who finds it difficult to extend Ta’anit Esther until after the <i>Megilla</i> reading may drink beforehand, on condition that he avoids intoxicating drinks. Similarly, one who is very hungry may eat a snack before <i>Megilla</i> reading. That is, he may eat as much fruit as he wants and up to an egg’s volume (<i>kebeitza</i>)<i> </i>of grain-based (<i>mezonot</i>) foods (SA 232:3, MB <i>ad loc. </i>35; Rema 692:4, MA <i>ad loc. </i>7, MB <i>ad loc. </i>14-15).
  The same laws apply to the daytime reading. However, since this reading takes place immediately after <i>Shaḥarit</i>, one must also be careful about all the prohibitions that apply prior to <i>Shaḥarit</i>, which are more stringent. Nonetheless, one who already prayed <i>Shaḥarit</i> and has yet to hear the <i>Megilla</i> should not eat before fulfilling the mitzva. Under pressing circumstances, however, one may eat a snack before hearing the <i>Megilla</i>. Likewise, a woman may not eat before hearing the <i>Megilla</i>. If she is very hungry, she may eat a snack, but not a full meal (MB 692:15-16; in a time of very great need, she may ask someone to remind her to hear the <i>Megilla</i>, and then she may eat a full meal before the reading).
  Some of the greatest Rishonim maintain that the mitzva of reading the <i>Megilla</i> and publicizing the miracle is primarily fulfilled during the day, like all the other <i>mitzvot</i> of Purim. Therefore, one must be more meticulous about the daytime reading and make an even greater effort to read it in the presence of a large group of people, or at least a <i>minyan</i>.5<i class="footnote">See <i>Megilla</i> 4a and <i>Berur Halakha ad loc</i>. <i>Tosafot</i> and Rosh <i>ad loc. </i>state that the mitzva of reading the <i>Megilla </i>and publicizing the miracle is primarily fulfilled during the day. According to Ran, the villagers who read earlier – on the “day of assembly,” i.e., the Monday or Thursday before Purim – do not have to read the <i>Megilla</i> at night at all. Rashba and Ritva maintain that the enactment was for the villagers to read the <i>Megilla </i>on the day of assembly with a <i>minyan</i>, while they would read it at night in their hometowns without a <i>minyan</i>. The only point of disagreement between Rashba and Ritva is which night the villagers would read the <i>Megilla</i>: Rashba maintains that they would read it on the night before the day of assembly, whereas Ritva maintains that they would read it on the night of Purim itself. <i>Noda Bi-Yehuda</i> 1:41 and <i>Turei Even</i>, <i>Megilla</i> 4a state that the law of the daytime reading is <i>mi-divrei kabbala</i>, while the nighttime reading is merely a rabbinic decree. <i>Yabi’a Omer</i>, OḤ 1:43:13 suggests that <i>Ohel Mo’ed</i>, <i>Or Zaru’a</i>, and Ran share this opinion. However, according to <i>Roke’aḥ</i>, Rashba, and Ritva, the nighttime reading is also <i>mi-divrei kabbala</i> (though a <i>minyan</i> is not required at night, because the miracle is publicized primarily during the day). Rambam and SA seemingly maintain that there is no difference between the nighttime and daytime obligations.</i>
  
  Section 7
  
  Purim and Reading the <i>Megilla</i> / Women and <i>Megilla</i> Reading
  According to Rashi and Rambam, women and men are equally obligated in the mitzva to read the <i>Megilla</i>, and a woman may read the <i>Megilla</i> for her family. In contrast, <i>Behag</i> and Rabbeinu Ḥananel maintain that a woman’s obligation differs from that of a man: Men must read the <i>Megilla</i>, whereas women must hear it. Therefore, a man does not fulfill his obligation with his wife’s reading. <i>Responsa Avnei Nezer</i> (OḤ 511) explains that this difference stems from the fact that women must hear the <i>Megilla</i> only in order to publicize the miracle, and therefore their obligation is only in hearing the <i>Megilla </i>and not reading it. In contrast, men are commanded to publicize the miracle and also to remember Amalek to wipe him out ultimately. Therefore, men are commanded to read the <i>Megilla</i>.6<i class="footnote"><i>Turei Even</i> (<i>Megilla</i> 4a) states that a man’s obligation to read the <i>Megilla </i>is rooted in divine inspiration (of the <i>Megilla </i>itself) and is a time-bound positive mitzva and thus applies only to men. Women, on the other hand, are obligated because of the rationale that “they too participated in that miracle,” a rationale that is solely rabbinic. Therefore, according to <i>Behag</i> and Rabbeinu Ḥananel, a man cannot fulfill his obligation with a woman’s reading. Raavya and <i>Roke’aḥ</i> concur, and this also seems to be the opinion of <i>Tosafot</i> and Ran. <i>Mordechai</i> states that according to this position, women recite a different formulation of the <i>berakha</i>’s ending: <i>lishmo’a megilla </i>(“to hear the <i>Megilla</i>”). However, Rashi, Rambam, <i>Nimukei Yosef</i>, <i>Or Zaru’a</i>, Ri’az, Me’iri, and others maintain that a woman’s obligation is identical to that of a man. Therefore, a woman can read on a man’s behalf, and she recites the same <i>berakha</i> that men do.Some maintain that women and men have the same obligation, but women cannot read on behalf of men for a different reason. <i>Smag</i> states that it is because reading the <i>Megilla</i> is like reading the Torah. MA 689:5 explains that this means the Sages determined that women should not read the <i>Megilla</i> out of respect for the congregation, and that they cannot even read on an individual man’s behalf, so as not to make any distinctions. According to <i>Kol Bo</i>, women should not read the <i>Megilla </i>for men because a woman’s voice is considered <i>erva</i>. Those who maintain that women may read on behalf of men may have been referring to relatives, about whose voices one need not be so concerned. Alternatively, a woman could read for a man without the cantillation. Another possibility is that, technically, we are not concerned that a woman’s voice is <i>erva</i> in the context of mitzva observance.</i>
  Since the Rishonim are evenly split on this issue, most Aḥaronim rule that a woman may not read the <i>Megilla </i>on a man’s behalf except in pressing circumstances, when it is not possible for the man to read for himself or hear it from another man. In that case, at least he will fulfill the mitzva according to the opinion that a woman can read on a man’s behalf.7<i class="footnote">Some Aḥaronim interpret SA 689:1-2 to mean that a woman can read on a man’s behalf, and that this is indeed the <i>halakha</i> (<i>Birkei Yosef</i> 271:1, <i>Ma’amar Mordechai</i> 689:2). <i>Ḥazon Ovadia</i>, <i>Purim</i>, p. 59 states that even though the <i>halakha</i> follows the more lenient opinion, one should only rely on it under pressing circumstances. Most Aḥaronim, however, maintain that a woman should not read on a man’s behalf. Thus state <i>Levush</i>, <i>Eliya Rabba</i> 689:2, <i>Pri Ḥadash</i> 689:1, <i>Erekh Ha-shulḥan</i> 689:3, <i>Ḥikrei Lev</i>, and <i>Derekh Ha-ḥayim</i>. Some maintain that this is also SA’s position (<i>Pri Megadim</i>, <i>Eshel Avraham</i> 689:4; also see <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 689:14).</i>
  A woman may read on behalf of other women. Some say that a woman cannot fulfill the obligation on behalf of many women, since <i>Megilla</i> reading has a status similar to Torah reading, and just as a woman does not read from the Torah, so too she does not read the <i>Megilla</i> for many women. Some <i>poskim </i>say that when the <i>Megilla</i> is read for women, no <i>berakha</i> is recited (<i>Ben Ish Ḥai</i>, Year 1, <i>Hilkhot Purim </i>1 [Tetzaveh]; <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 689:19). However, halakhic practice follows the overwhelming majority of <i>poskim</i> who maintain that a woman may read on behalf of other women, reciting the same <i>berakha</i> a man recites. And if the group is comprised of ten women, the reader recites the <i>berakha</i> of “<i>Ha-rav et riveinu</i>” after the <i>Megilla</i>. However, <i>le-khatḥila</i>, it is preferable that women hear the <i>Megilla</i> read by a man, to satisfy all opinions. Ideally, women should hear the <i>Megilla</i> in the synagogue with men, as the more people there are, the more the miracle is publicized.
  When a man reads the <i>Megilla</i> for women, the prevalent custom is for the reader to recite the <i>berakha</i> for everyone; and if ten women are present, he recites the <i>berakha</i> of “<i>Ha-rav et riveinu</i>” after the reading. Others follow the custom that one woman recites the <i>berakha</i> for all the women. Both customs are valid.8<i class="footnote"><i>Korban Netanel</i> (on Rosh, <i>Megilla</i> 1:4, n. 40) innovatively suggests that a woman may not read on behalf of many women. This is cited in SHT 689:15. However, it seems that the intent is to be stringent <i>le-khatḥila</i>, because SHT 689:16 states that the dominant opinion is that women and men have an equal obligation. <i>Halikhot Beitah</i> (<i>Petaḥ Ha-bayit</i> 25; also cited in <i>Halikhot Shlomo </i>ch. 19 n. 4) states that R. Shlomo Zalman Auerbach questions <i>Korban Netanel</i>’s explanation and concludes that halakhic practice follows R. Yeḥiel Mikhel Tikochinsky, who rules in <i>Lu’aḥ</i> <i>Eretz Yisrael</i> that a woman may read on behalf of many women. The reason for the opinion that no <i>berakha</i> is recited on a reading for women is concern for the position that no <i>berakha</i> is recited when reading for an individual (above n. 4), and women collectively are considered like an individual (<i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 689:19). The opinion of most <i>poskim</i> is that there is no need to be concerned for this at all; as is written in <i>Yabi’a Omer</i>, OḤ 1:44. However, it seems obvious that it is a mitzva for women to hear the <i>Megilla</i> among a multitude of people; they are simply not obligated to the same degree that men are, for the same reason that women are exempt from time-bound positive commandments and from prayer in a <i>minyan</i>.According to Rema 689:2, when a woman recites the <i>berakha</i>, she should recite “<i>lishmo’a Megilla</i>.” So state <i>Levush</i>, <i>Baḥ</i>, and MB 692:11. However, most <i>poskim</i> maintain that a woman recites the same <i>berakha</i> that a man does: “<i>al mikra megilla</i>”<i> </i>(“concerning the reading of the <i>Megilla</i>”). First of all, half of the <i>poskim</i> maintain, like Rashi and Rambam, that women and men have the same obligation. Second, even according to <i>Behag</i> and Rabbeinu Ḥananel, who maintain that a woman is obligated only to hear the <i>Megilla</i>, nonetheless, Rabbeinu Tam maintains that women may optionally fulfill <i>mitzvot</i> from which they are technically exempt and may recite <i>berakhot</i> over them, just like men do. Indeed, this is the Ashkenazic practice. Therefore, it may be that no distinction needs to be made between the formulation of the <i>berakha</i> for men and the formulation of the <i>berakha </i>for women. Most Sephardim follow this custom, and <i>Pri Ḥadash</i> and the Vilna Gaon concur.The Talmud states in RH 29a, “Even though one has already discharged his obligation, he may absolve others of theirs.” That is, even if one has already performed a mitzva and recited a <i>berakha</i> over it, he may still recite a <i>berakha</i> on behalf of one who has not yet fulfilled his obligation. According to <i>Behag</i> and Rambam, this holds true only when the one who still needs to fulfill the mitzva does not know how to recite the <i>berakha</i>. If he knows how to recite the <i>berakha</i>, however, he must do so himself. <i>Or Zaru’a</i> and Ran, on the other hand, maintain that one may recite a <i>berakha</i> even on behalf of someone who knows how to do so himself. The answer to the question whether it is better for one of the women to recite the <i>berakha</i> as opposed to the male reader depends on this dispute. BHL 273:4 explains that the dispute concerns only the <i>le-khatḥila</i> case. Simply stated, it is preferable for one of the women to recite the <i>berakha</i> on behalf of all the rest, as this allows the women to fulfill their obligation according to all the opinions. <i>Lu’aḥ Eretz Yisrael</i> and <i>Halikhot Shlomo</i> 19:3 advocate this solution. In many communities, however, the reader recites the <i>berakha</i>, as MB states in 585:5 regarding <i>shofar</i> blowing and in 692:10 on the issue of women reading the <i>Megilla</i>. <i>Minḥat Yitzḥak</i> 3:54:38 states – based on a <i>halakha</i> in SA 689:5 and based on what we explained in n. 4, above – that if there are fewer than ten women, it is better for each one to recite her own <i>berakha</i>.The issue of reciting the <i>berakha</i> of “<i>Ha-rav et riveinu</i>” when there are ten women is discussed below, n. 17.</i>
  
  Section 8
  
  Purim and Reading the <i>Megilla</i> / Minors
  It is a mitzva to train children to perform <i>mitzvot</i>, and from the moment a boy or girl reaches the stage at which he or she understands the <i>Megilla</i> and can listen to it as <i>halakha</i> requires, one must train them to do so. This does not depend on a child’s age, but on his personal development. Since the <i>Megilla</i> reading is quite long, most children reach the stage at which they can listen to the entire <i>Megilla</i> properly after the age of nine.
  It is a good practice to bring younger children – from age five or six – to the synagogue to hear the <i>Megilla</i>. Even though they have not yet reached the age of education in the mitzva of <i>Megilla</i> reading, as they cannot listen to the entire <i>Megilla </i>meticulously, it is still good to bring them, because they understand the main gist of the story. However, one should not bring small children to the synagogue if they are liable to disrupt the reading and make it difficult for others to hear the <i>Megilla</i>. One must take care not to try to go beyond the letter of the law in educating his children at the expense of the other synagogue attendees, who might suffer because of his children’s disruptions.9<i class="footnote">SA 689:1 explains that children must hear the <i>Megilla</i> because of the laws of educating one’s children. SA 689:6 states that it is good to bring children to the synagogue. <i>Levush</i> and <i>Sidur Yaavetz</i> seem to maintain that this refers to children who understand the main gist of the <i>Megilla</i>, even if they are unable to fulfill the mitzva properly. For example, they cannot fill in on their own the words that they failed to hear from the reader. And even though BHL interprets SA’s statement differently, there seems to be no practical difference between SA’s ruling and what I wrote.</i>
  In order to stimulate joy and grab the children’s attention, there is a custom for the congregation to read aloud four verses that essentially signal the beginning and end of the miracle. Afterward, the reader reads these verses again from the scroll (Rema 690:17; MB 689:16; based on <i>Mordechai</i> and <i>Levush</i>). (The verses are: “A Jewish man” [Esther 2:5]; “Mordechai left” [<i>ibid. </i>8:15]; “The Jews” [<i>ibid. </i>8:16]; and “For Mordechai” [<i>ibid. </i>10:3].)
  It seems that the purpose of the custom to “beat” Haman with noisemakers is, likewise, to excite the children during the <i>Megilla</i> reading. However, one must be careful not to lend undue importance to this custom and not to make noise when the reader continues to read the <i>Megilla</i> (SA 690:17; also see MB <i>ad loc. </i>59 and BHL).
  
  Section 9
  
  Purim and Reading the <i>Megilla</i> / The <i>Megilla</i>
  <i>Megilat Esther</i> is considered holy writ; therefore, it must be written in the way a Torah scroll is written, in black ink on parchment. If it is written using something other than ink, or on paper, it is invalid, and one who reads from it has not fulfilled his obligation. The hide from which the parchment is made must be tanned for the sake of writing a <i>Megilla</i>. The individual sheets of parchment must be sewn together with threads made of sinews. One must etch out the lines using a stylus before commencing to write on the parchment, so that the words come out straight. Furthermore, it must be written by hand, and the scribe must be mindful of the sanctity of the <i>Megilla</i>.10<i class="footnote">A <i>Megilla</i> has the same status as a Torah scroll, as is clear from the Mishna and Gemara in <i>Megilla</i> 17a and 19a. One may write a <i>megilla</i> on a <i>gevil </i>(roll of parchment) or on <i>klaf </i>(split parchment), but it is customary to write it on <i>klaf</i>. According to Rambam, one does not need to tan the hide for the sake of the mitzva, but Rosh and most <i>poskim</i> rule that one must tan the hide for the sake of the mitzva (<i>Beit Yosef</i> and SA 691:1). The Aḥaronim debate whether a woman may write a <i>Megilla</i>. <i>Birkei Yosef</i>, <i>Mateh Yehuda</i>, and <i>Pri Megadim</i> posit that since a woman must read the <i>Megilla</i>, she may write one. R. Akiva Eger, <i>Avnei Nezer</i>, and others maintain that she is invalidated from writing a <i>megilla</i>, just as she is invalidated from writing a Torah scroll. <i>Lishkat Ha-sofer</i> 28:7 (by R. Shlomo Ganzfried, author of <i>Kitzur </i>SA) brings a support for those who permit women to write a <i>Megilla</i> from the verse “Then Esther wrote” (Esther 9:29), the source from which <i>Megilla</i> 19a derives the law that a <i>Megilla</i> must be written like a Torah scroll. He concludes that <i>le-khatḥila</i>, one should use a <i>Megilla</i> that was written by a man, in order to satisfy all opinions. <i>Be-di’avad</i>, however, when the only available <i>Megilla</i> was written by a woman, one may read from it and even recite the <i>berakhot</i> over it.</i>
  When writing a Torah scroll, we make sure that all of its letters are written according to their exact configurations, that no letters touch each other, and, of course, that no letters are omitted or added unnecessarily. A scribe should likewise be careful about all these things when writing a <i>Megilla</i>. <i>Be-di’avad</i>, however, there is a difference between a Torah scroll and <i>Megilat Esther</i>: one may not recite the <i>berakha</i> over reading the Torah if the scroll contains a mistake in even one letter, but one may read from, and recite a <i>berakha </i>over, a <i>Megilla </i>that is missing some of its letters, if a perfectly kosher scroll is unavailable. For example, if a scribe mistakenly omitted several letters from a <i>Megilla</i>, or wrote them incorrectly – or if he originally wrote the scroll properly, but some of its letters faded over time – one may still use it to perform the mitzva, as long as the main part of it is written properly. The reason for this is that the <i>Megilla</i> is called a “letter,” indicating that its purpose is to tell the story from a written document, but it does not need to be as precise as a Torah scroll must be. We learn from here that one fulfills his obligation as long as the essentials of the <i>Megilla</i> are written properly, and on condition that one fills in the missing words by reading them from a printed <i>Megilla</i> or by reciting them by heart.11<i class="footnote">The rule is that one fulfills his obligation, <i>be-di’avad</i>, if he reads from a <i>Megilla</i> of which at least half is written properly, provided that no part of the story is entirely missing and that the beginning and end are intact (SA 690:3).Some maintain that if some of the words are written in a different language, the <i>Megilla</i> is invalid, because it is like a document that is self-evidently counterfeit. <i>Mateh Yehuda</i> and R. Shlomo Kluger maintain that a <i>Megilla</i> is disqualified from use if letters are missing or added in a way that changes the meaning of a verse, because it, too, is like a self-evidently counterfeit document. In practice, though, most authorities maintain that mistakes do not invalidate a <i>Megilla</i> any more than erased letters do, as explained in MB 691:6, 14. See also BHL 690:8, regarding the alternative opinion, and Ritva.One should not write vowels, cantillation marks, or <i>berakhot</i> in the <i>Megilla</i>, but <i>be-di’avad</i>, when no other scroll is available, one may read from such a <i>Megilla</i> and even recite a <i>berakha</i> over it (SA 691:9). A Torah scroll, however, is invalidated if vowels and cantillation marks are written inside (SA,<i> </i>YD 274:7). There is a stringency regarding the public reading of the <i>Megilla</i>: If one reads from a <i>Megilla</i> that is written together with other books of the Writings (<i>Ketuvim</i>), one does not fulfill his obligation. This is because the miracle is not publicized this way, as it looks like one is merely reading from the Writings. An individual, however, discharges his obligation when reading from such a <i>Megilla</i> (SA 691:8).Some rule very leniently and allow one to read from an invalid <i>Megilla</i> (like the ones children use, which open like a scroll) with a <i>berakha</i>, if no kosher <i>Megilla</i> is available (<i>Roke’aḥ</i>, <i>Orḥot Ḥayim</i>). According to most <i>poskim</i>, however, under no condition may one recite a <i>berakha</i> on such a <i>Megilla</i>. Nonetheless, it is proper to read from it without a <i>berakha</i> (SA 691:10). MB <i>ad loc. </i>26 adds that even if the only <i>Megilla </i>one has is a printed book, he should still read from it, so as to remember the story.</i>
  Technically, one may write a translation of the <i>Megilla</i>, with ink on parchment, for someone who does not understand Hebrew, and by reading this translation, he can fulfill his obligation to read the <i>Megilla</i>. For example, one who knows only English may acquire an English translation of the <i>Megilla</i>, written in ink on parchment, and read from it (SA 690:8-11). We do not follow this ruling in practice, however, since we do not know how to translate the words precisely. Rather, one fulfills his obligation by hearing the <i>Megilla</i> in Hebrew even if he does not understand it, as long as he has the intention to fulfill the mitzva of <i>Megilla</i> reading (SA 690:8, MB <i>ad loc. </i>32, AHS <i>ad loc. </i>15).
  
  Section 10
  
  Purim and Reading the <i>Megilla</i> / The Mitzva of Reading the <i>Megilla </i>and the Status of One who Missed a Word
  To fulfill the mitzva of reading the <i>Megilla</i>, one must read it from a kosher <i>megilla</i> that was written in ink on parchment. If one recites it by heart or reads it from a printed book, he has not discharged his obligation (SA 690:3). If one reads most of the <i>Megilla </i>from a kosher scroll and the rest from a book or from memory, he has fulfilled his obligation, as long as he recites the entire <i>Megilla</i> without missing a word.
  However, if the reader skips a word, or makes a mistake in one of the words that changes the meaning of the word, he has not discharged his obligation according to most <i>poskim</i>, and he must read the <i>Megilla</i> again properly.12<i class="footnote">Rashba and Ran maintain that one does not fulfill his obligation if he misses a word. Ri’az states that if the missing word does not affect the meaning of the verse, he has fulfilled his obligation. If one reads a word incorrectly, in a way that changes its meaning – like if he reads “<i>nafal</i>” (“fell”) instead of “<i>nofel</i>” (“was falling”) – Rashba, Ran, and <i>Orḥot Ḥayim</i> maintain that he has not fulfilled his obligation, while it seems from <i>Tur</i> and SA 690:14 that some maintain that he has fulfilled his obligation. This might be Rambam’s opinion. AHS 690:20 states that if, <i>be-di’avad</i>, the listeners did not instruct the reader to read the word again, he has still fulfilled his obligation. In practice, most <i>poskim</i> maintain that he has not fulfilled his obligation in either case, and thus he must read the word again; so state MB 690:5 and BHL 690:14. Everyone agrees that one must reread it if he missed a word that affects the meaning of the verse.In my humble opinion, if the reader made a mistake that affects the meaning of the verse but most people do not understand the difference in meaning, he does not have to read the word again, <i>be-di’avad</i>, because the listeners did not misunderstand the meaning.Some have a custom to read certain words twice because their correct reading is uncertain. For example: <i>ke-omram</i>/<i>be-omram</i> (Esther 3:4); <i>laharog</i>/<i>ve-laharog</i> (<i>ibid. </i>8:11); <i>bi-fneihem</i>/<i>li-fneihem</i> (<i>ibid. </i>9:2). One fulfills the mitzva even without following this practice.</i>
  Even when the reader reads all the words properly, a listener does not discharge his obligation if he fails to hear one of the words. This is the most important practical <i>halakha</i> of <i>Megilla</i> reading, because people sometimes fail to hear all of the words, due to the excess noise caused by the presence of children in the synagogue. This problem becomes especially acute after Haman’s name is read, as the reader sometimes continues reading before the children finish making noise, causing those who sit in the back of the synagogue to miss a word, thus forfeiting the entire reading.
  If one missed a word while hearing the <i>Megilla </i>reading, the solution is to read the missed word or words immediately from the printed <i>Megilla</i> one is using. If, in the meantime, the reader continues to read ahead, one should continue reading until he catches up with the reader. Even though the printed book in front of him is not a kosher <i>Megilla</i>, he may use it to fill in the missing words, <i>be-di’avad</i>,<i> </i>since he hears most of the <i>Megilla</i> from a kosher scroll. However, when listening to the <i>Megilla</i> from the reader, one should not read along with him from a printed version.13<i class="footnote">Those who go above and beyond purchase a kosher <i>megilla</i>, from which they can read in order to fill in any words they may miss. This way, they fulfill the mitzva in the best possible manner (MB 689:19). However, if one does not know how to pronounce the words properly, he does more harm than good by reading from his own <i>megilla</i>. After all, we already learned that a mistake that affects the meaning of a word invalidates the reading. SA 690:4 and MB <i>ad loc. </i>13 explain why a listener should not read along with the reader from a printed <i>megilla</i>.</i>
  
  Section 11
  
  Purim and Reading the <i>Megilla</i> / The Laws of Reading the <i>Megilla</i>
  When not in use, the <i>Megilla</i> is rolled up from the end of the scroll to the beginning. However, since <i>Megilat Esther</i> is referred to as a “letter,” it is customary to prepare the scroll for reading in public by spreading it out and folding it over, leaf over leaf, in order to publicize the miracle. When the reading is completed, the <i>Megilla</i> is rolled up again from end to beginning, making sure that it is not left open out of respect for the <i>Megilla</i>. Only after the <i>Megilla</i> is rolled up does the <i>ḥazan</i> recite the <i>berakha</i> of “<i>Ha-rav et riveinu</i>” (SA 690:17, MB <i>ad loc. </i>55-56, <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> <i>ad loc. </i>102-105).
  One may sit or stand while fulfilling the mitzva of reading the <i>Megilla</i>. The only one who must stand is the reader, out of respect for the congregation (SA 690:1). Most Jews have a custom to stand for the <i>berakhot</i> (MB 690:1; <i>Ben Ish Ḥai</i>, Year 1, <i>Hilkhot Purim </i>4 [Tetzaveh]; see also <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 690:2).
  The <i>Megilla</i> should be read with its cantillation, but if no one knows how to read it with the cantillation, it may be read without the cantillation, <i>be-di’avad</i> (<i>Sha’arei Teshuva</i> 690:1).
  One must read the <i>Megilla</i> in order. If one reads it out of order, he does not fulfill his obligation. For example, if one misses a word or a verse during the reading, he should not say, “I will continue listening to the <i>Megilla</i> until the end, and I will make up what I missed afterward.” Rather, he must immediately fill in what he missed, catch up to the reader, and continue listening to the reading, in the proper order, until the end of the <i>Megilla</i>.14<i class="footnote">If one comes late to the synagogue and finds that the congregation has already begun reading the <i>Megilla</i>, he should not say, “I will hear the <i>Megilla</i> and make up the first few verses afterward,” as that constitutes reading the <i>Megilla </i>out of order. Rather, if he is concerned that he will not be able to hear it again later, he should quickly recite the <i>berakhot</i>, begin reading from a printed <i>megilla</i> until he catches up to the reader, and hear the rest from him. This solution is only effective on the condition that he hears most of the <i>Megilla</i> from the reader. If, however, he is concerned that by the time he finds the text of the <i>berakhot</i> and recites them, the reader will advance to such an extent that he will not be able to catch up to him before midway through the <i>Megilla</i> – and afterward he will not be able to fulfill the mitzva any other way – it is better that he skip the <i>berakhot</i>. This way, he will have enough time to catch up to the reader before the halfway mark and fulfill the mitzva (see BHL 690:3, s.v. “ve-davka”).</i>
  One who dozes off while listening to the <i>Megilla</i> does not discharge his obligation, as he certainly fails to hear some words (SA 690:12). As we learned above (section 9), one who hears the <i>Megilla</i> fulfills his obligation even if he does not understand Hebrew.
  <i>Le-khatḥila</i>, one should read the <i>Megilla</i> continuously, but <i>be-di’avad</i>, if one interrupted the reading in the middle – remaining silent or even speaking – he has not forfeited what he already read and may continue reading from where he left off (SA 690:5; also see MB <i>ad loc. </i>18 and SA<i> </i>§65).
  Many <i>poskim</i> maintain that one who hears the <i>Megilla</i> through an electric device, like a telephone, radio, or loudspeaker, does not fulfill his obligation. The reason for this is that such devices receive a person’s voice as electronic signals and transform it back into a new voice. Therefore, it is like hearing a recording of the <i>Megilla</i> reading, which is invalid. <i>Le-khatḥila</i>, one should heed this opinion.15<i class="footnote">See <i>Peninei Halakha</i>: <i>Berakhot</i> 12:10, which cites a dispute among the <i>poskim</i> regarding this issue. Rav Kook (<i>Oraḥ Mishpat</i> §48) and <i>Mikra’ei Kodesh</i> (Frank) §11 maintain that one who hears the <i>Megilla </i>through an electric device discharges his obligation. <i>Igrot Moshe</i>, OḤ 2:108, 4:91:4 inclines this way as well. On the other hand, <i>Mishpetei Uziel</i>, <i>Minḥat Shlomo</i> 1:9, and <i>Yeḥaveh Da’at</i> 3:54 maintain that one does not fulfill his obligation in this way. <i>Le-khatḥila</i>, one should avoid using electronic devices to discharge his obligation, but if there is no alternative, one should rely on the more lenient authorities and fulfill the mitzva at least according to their opinion.</i>
  
  Section 12
  
  Purim and Reading the <i>Megilla</i> / The <i>Berakhot</i> and the Order of the Reading
  We recite three <i>berakhot</i> before the nighttime reading: “Who has sanctified us with His <i>mitzvot</i> and commanded us concerning the reading of the <i>Megilla</i>” (“<i>asher kideshanu be-mitzvotav ve-tzivanu al mikra megilla</i>”); “Who performed miracles for our ancestors in those days, at this time” (“<i>she-asa nisim la-avoteinu ba-yamim ha-hem ba-zeman ha-zeh</i>”); and “Who has given us life, sustained us, and brought us to this time” (“<i>she-heḥeyanu</i> <i>ve-kiyemanu ve-higi’anu la-zeman ha-zeh</i>”).
  The <i>berakhot</i> prepare us for the mitzva, focusing the reader and the listeners on fulfilling the mitzva and understanding its purpose: to remember and publicize the miracle that God performed for our ancestors. Nevertheless, one who reads the <i>Megilla </i>without reciting a <i>berakha</i> fulfills his obligation, as long as he intends to fulfill the mitzva (SA 690:14).16<i class="footnote">The Rishonim disagree about whether or not<i> mitzvot</i> require <i>kavana</i>. SA 60:4, 690:13-14 rules that in practice, <i>mitzvot</i> indeed require <i>kavana</i>. Many Aḥaronim maintain that this applies to rabbinic <i>mitzvot</i> as well, meaning that one does not discharge his obligation if he does not intend to fulfill the mitzva. <i>Le-khatḥila</i>, one should express this <i>kavana </i>clearly in one’s mind. However, even if one does not have explicit <i>kavana</i>, he is still viewed as having <i>kavana </i>if he would answer the question, “Why did you read the <i>Megilla</i>?” by saying, “To fulfill the mitzva” (MB 60:10). Therefore, one who comes to the synagogue for <i>Megilla</i> reading or recites a <i>berakha</i> before reading the <i>Megilla</i> clearly has <i>kavana</i> and discharges his obligation. Only one who stays at home and overhears the reading from the synagogue does not discharge his obligation unless he explicitly intends to fulfill the mitzva.</i>
  There are varying customs regarding the recitation<i> </i>of <i>She-heḥeyanu</i> during the day. According to Sephardic custom, one does not recite <i>She-heḥeyanu </i>during the day because the <i>She-heḥeyanu</i> recited at night covers the entire day. According to Ashkenazic custom, one must repeat the <i>berakha</i> prior to the daytime reading, because that reading is an independent mitzva. Moreover, the daytime reading is the more important reading of the two; therefore, its <i>berakhot</i> cannot be covered by the <i>berakhot </i>recited at the nighttime reading (SA 692:1).
  When reciting <i>She-heḥeyanu</i> before the <i>Megilla</i> reading, it is proper to have in mind that the <i>berakha</i> also applies to the other <i>mitzvot</i> of the day: <i>mishlo’aḥ manot</i>, <i>matanot la-evyonim</i>, and the festive meal. Sephardim have these <i>mitzvot </i>in mind at night, while Ashkenazim do so during the day (MB 692:1).
  After the <i>Megilla </i>is read and the scroll is rolled back to the beginning, common custom is to recite “<i>Ha-rav et riveinu</i>,” a <i>berakha</i> of praise and thanksgiving. According to most <i>poskim</i>, this <i>berakha</i> is recited only when the <i>Megilla</i> is read in the presence of ten men or women. If fewer than ten people are present, however, we do not recite the <i>berakha</i>.17<i class="footnote">In contrast to the <i>berakhot</i> we recite before the reading, “<i>Ha-rav et riveinu</i>” is not obligatory. Rather, it is a <i>berakha</i> of praise and thanksgiving that depends on one’s custom, as the Mishna states, “In a place where it is customary to recite the <i>berakha</i>, one should recite it, and in a place where it is customary not to recite the <i>berakha</i>, one should not recite it” (<i>Megilla</i> 21a). Nowadays, everyone recites it. <i>Orḥot Ḥayim</i> quotes the Yerushalmi as saying that one recites it only in a <i>minyan</i>, and <i>Beit Yosef</i> and Rema 692:1 codify this. However, Rashi, Maharam, and Radbaz maintain that even an individual recites it. <i>Ben Ish Ḥai</i>, Year 1, <i>Hilkhot Purim </i>13 (Tetzaveh) concurs, and those who follow the rulings of <i>Ben Ish Ḥai</i> act accordingly. BHL 692:2 and <i>Yabi’a Omer</i>, OḤ 8:56 state that one should not recite the <i>berakha</i> unless a <i>minyan</i> is present, because it is a case of uncertainty. (This decision is especially logical in light of the ruling of <i>Behag</i> and Mahari Weil that an individual omits even the first three <i>berakhot</i>.) The prevalent custom is not to recite it when reading the <i>Megilla</i> alone, but one should not rebuke those who want to recite it. It is uncertain whether women count toward the ten (Rema 690:18). <i>Pri Ḥadash</i> and <i>Pri Megadim</i> state that this uncertainty relates only to the question of whether women can be counted together with men, but a <i>minyan</i> of ten women certainly recites the <i>berakha</i>. Although some have a custom not to recite it, the <i>halakha</i> follows those who maintain that it should be recited in the presence of ten women, as <i>Mikra’ei Kodesh</i> (Frank), <i>Purim</i> 35 and <i>Yabi’a Omer</i>, OḤ 8:56:4 state. It seems that, in practice, women can also be counted together with men, <i>be-di’avad</i>, since many authorities maintain that even one person may recite this <i>berakha</i>.</i>
  
  Section 13
  
  Purim and Reading the <i>Megilla</i> / Taking Revenge on Haman and His Ten Sons
  The execution of Haman and his ten sons is an integral part of the <i>Megilla</i>, for it confirms that justice was done and the wicked people who rose up against the nation of Israel were punished and put to death. Anyone who rises up against Israel, God’s nation, is in effect rebelling against God, Creator and Sustainer of the world, and – according to strict justice – deserves total annihilation. Several laws demonstrate the special significance of killing Haman and his sons.
  First, the passage describing the execution of Haman’s ten sons is written in the <i>Megilla </i>in the format of a song. However, this format is unlike the format that appears in other biblical songs, such as the Song at the Sea, where the words and spaces are interwoven. The execution of Haman’s sons, in contrast, is written in a straight and organized fashion. On every line, one word is written on each of the two ends, with a space left in the middle. Thus, the names of the ten sons are written on the right side and the Hebrew word <i>et</i>, which connects the names, is written repeatedly on the left side (<i>Megilla</i> 16b, SA 691:3). The explanation is as follows. The purpose of all other songs is to convey the extent of the salvation that Israel experienced; therefore, they are written in a spacious and expansive format. The song describing the execution of Haman’s sons, however, expresses the joy we feel over the fact that they were utterly destroyed and that strict justice was meted out; therefore, it is written in a closed, linear style (Maharal, <i>Or Ḥadash</i> 9:10).
  One must make an effort to read all the names in a single breath, to demonstrate that their souls departed from their bodies simultaneously. If one fails to do this, he has nonetheless fulfilled his obligation,<i> be-di’avad</i>. The letter <i>vav</i> in the name Vaizata is written higher than the other letters, to teach that Haman’s sons were all hanged together (<i>Megilla</i> 16b; SA 690:15, 691:4). The point is that the foundation of Israel’s faith is the existence of one God. The Amalekites oppose this belief and hate the Jews. Thus, when they are eliminated, God’s oneness is revealed to the world. Therefore, when Haman’s sons were punished, they died as one, since their deaths confirmed our belief in God’s oneness (Maharal, <i>loc</i>.<i> cit.</i>).
  After the <i>Megilla</i> reading, one must recite, “Cursed is Haman, blessed is Mordechai; cursed is Zeresh, blessed is Esther; cursed are all the wicked people, blessed are all the righteous people; and Ḥarvona, too, is remembered for good (<i>y. Megilla</i> 3:7; SA 690:16).
  In the time of the Rishonim, a custom began to spread among both the children and the adults, to bang on a surface when Haman’s name is read. Apparently, they wanted to express their hatred for wicked people and their joy over their downfall. Even though there is no source for this practice, Rema writes, “One should not abolish or deride any custom, for it was not established for naught” (690:17). However, some Rishonim disregard the custom, and some Aḥaronim even oppose it, because the noise is liable to prevent the listeners from fulfilling their obligation to read the <i>Megilla</i> (as explained above in section 10). In practice, one may continue following the custom of “beating” Haman, as long as it is assured that everyone can hear the entire <i>Megilla</i> properly.18<i class="footnote">This custom is more prevalent in Ashkenazic communities. However, Maharil did not follow it. In our community of Har Bracha, we conduct two <i>minyanim</i> on Purim night. In the main <i>minyan</i>,<i> </i>the congregants stomp once with their feet each time “Haman” is read, causing almost no delays. At the yeshiva, the students “beat” Haman extensively. During the day, the entire community reads the <i>Megilla</i> together with the yeshiva students, and people bang minimally. (See above, n. 5, where we cited authorities who maintain that the requirement to read the <i>Megilla</i> in front of a multitude of people applies primarily to the daytime reading.)</i>
  
  Section 14
  
  Purim and Reading the <i>Megilla</i> / <i>Al Ha-nisim</i>, Torah Reading, Eulogies, and <i>Taḥanun</i>
  The Sages formulated the <i>Al Ha-nisim</i> prayer so that we may thank God for the salvation He performed for the Jewish people at the time of Purim. We recite it in the <i>berakha</i> of thanksgiving in the <i>Amida</i> and in the <i>berakha</i> of <i>Nodeh Lekha</i> (“We thank You”) in <i>Birkat Ha-mazon</i>. We do not mention Purim in the <i>berakha </i>of <i>Me-ein Shalosh </i>(“<i>Al Ha-miḥya</i>”).
  If one forgets to recite <i>Al Ha-nisim</i> in the <i>Amida</i> or in <i>Birkat Ha-mazon</i>, he nonetheless fulfills his obligation. If, however, he remembers before concluding the <i>berakha</i> in which <i>Al Ha-nisim</i> is inserted, he should go back and recite it, unless he already said God’s name at the end of the <i>berakha</i>. In such a situation, it is proper to recite <i>Al Ha-nisim</i> at the end of the <i>Amida</i>, after the <i>berakhot</i> are completed, because one may add unlimited prayers of supplication and thanksgiving at that point. Similarly, one who forgets to recite <i>Al Ha-nisim</i> in <i>Birkat Ha-mazon</i> should recite it toward the end of the prayer, together with the <i>Ha-Raḥaman</i> passages, where one may add as many prayers of thanksgiving as he likes (Rema 682:1, MB <i>ad loc. </i>4).19<i class="footnote">The laws of <i>Al Ha-nisim</i> in the <i>Amida</i> are the same for Purim and Ḥanuka, as SA and Rema 693:2, 682:1 elucidate. This point is explained above, 11:8. There is, however, a difference regarding <i>Birkat Ha-mazon</i>. On Ḥanuka, the practice of reciting <i>Al Ha-nisim</i> in <i>Birkat Ha-mazon</i> is based on custom, while reciting it on Purim is obligatory. Some maintain that one who forgets to recite <i>Al Ha-nisim</i> at the daytime Purim meal must repeat <i>Birkat Ha-mazon</i>, since one must eat bread at the Purim meal (Maharshal, <i>Shlah</i>, <i>Taz</i>). Others maintain that one does not need to repeat <i>Birkat Ha-mazon</i>, since one does not need to eat bread at the meal (<i>Terumat Ha-deshen</i>, MA, <i>Eliya Rabba</i>). Still others maintain that even though one must eat bread at the meal, the law of <i>Al Ha-nisim</i> at the meal is no more stringent than that of <i>Al Ha-nisim</i> in the <i>Amida</i>, upon whose omission one does not need to repeat the <i>Amida </i>(AHS 695:7, 12). MB 695:15 concludes that one should not repeat <i>Birkat Ha-mazon</i> because we rule leniently in cases of uncertainty regarding <i>berakhot</i>.</i>
  One who begins his meal on Purim but continues eating long into the night must recite <i>Al Ha-nisim</i> in <i>Birkat Ha-mazon</i>, because the beginning of the meal determines when the meal took place (SA 695:3; see MB <i>ad loc. </i>16).
  The Sages enacted that three people are called to the Torah on Purim to read the section beginning with “Amalek came” (Shemot 17:8-16). Even though one of Ezra’s enactments was that no less than ten verses may be read in a public Torah reading, we read nine on Purim because the entire account of Amalek’s attack on Israel contains only nine verses. Some have a custom to read the last verse twice in order to arrive at a total of ten verses (SA 693:4), while others do not (Rema <i>ad loc</i>.).
  This <i>halakha</i> is highly suggestive. As long as Amalek’s name has yet to be blotted out, God’s name is not yet fully revealed. Therefore, when we read the section of “Amalek came,” we read only nine verses.
  Even though the Jews experienced a great salvation on Purim, the Sages did not institute the recitation of <i>Hallel</i> on that day. The Talmud (<i>Megilla</i> 14a) provides three reasons for this. R. Yitzḥak explains that we do not recite <i>Hallel</i> for a miracle that occurred outside the Land of Israel. According to Rava, it is omitted because we remained subjugated to Aḥashverosh even after the miracle occurred, and <i>Hallel</i> can be said only over a salvation that brings us freedom. R. Naḥman maintains that the <i>Megilla</i> reading is considered like <i>Hallel</i>; therefore, there was no need to enact the recitation of <i>Hallel</i>.20<i class="footnote">Me’iri and <i>Manhig</i> state that, according to the opinion that the <i>Megilla</i> reading is in place of <i>Hallel</i>, one who cannot obtain a <i>Megilla</i> from which to read on Purim must recite <i>Hallel</i> instead. MT, Laws of <i>Megilla</i> and Ḥanuka 3:6, also seems to maintain that this reason is the primary one. However, some authorities write that the other answers are primary. Therefore, one who does not have a <i>Megilla</i> should, <i>le-khatḥila</i>, recite <i>Hallel</i> without a <i>berakha</i>, in order to satisfy all the opinions.</i>
  One may not deliver eulogies or fast on the fourteenth and fifteenth of Adar, whether one lives in a walled or unwalled city. The only time one may deliver a eulogy is at the funeral of a Torah scholar, provided that the body is present (SA OḤ 696:3, YD 401:5).
  We omit <i>Taḥanun</i> and <i>La-menatze’aḥ</i> from our prayers on both days of Purim (SA 693:3). We also omit <i>Taḥanun</i> from <i>Minḥa</i> on Ta’anit Esther, if it immediately precedes Purim (MB 131:33).
  It is customary to wear Shabbat/Yom Tov clothing on Purim, both at night and during the day (Rema 695:2, <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 695:13).
  
  Section 15
  
  Purim and Reading the <i>Megilla</i> / Working on Purim
  The Sages did not originally establish Purim as a holiday on which work is prohibited. Over time, however, the Jewish people developed a custom to refrain from work on Purim, out of respect for the sanctity of the day, and the custom is binding. The Sages go so far as to say that anyone who works on Purim will never see any blessing from it (<i>Beit Yosef</i>, SA, Rema 696:1).
  Therefore, one may not go about his regular work on Purim. If, however, refraining from work would cause him or his employer a great loss, he may work on Purim. In addition, a poor person who has nothing to eat may work on Purim (SHT 696:2-3).
  One may do joyous work on Purim, like preparing a new home for a son who will soon be married and planting decorative trees in one’s yard. In addition, one may do mitzva-related work, like writing down novel Torah insights. One may also do easy work, like writing a letter. All of this is permitted provided that it does not ruin one’s joy or prevent one from performing the <i>mitzvot</i> of Purim (SA 696:1, MB <i>ad loc. </i>6).
  One may cut one’s nails on Purim, because this is an easy task, while one may not wash clothes by hand, sew, or cut one’s hair (<i>Ben Ish Ḥai</i>, <i>Hilkhot Purim</i> 21 [Tetzaveh]). However, if they are needed on Purim, one may do arduous tasks, including washing clothes by hand, sewing, and cutting one’s hair (Rema 696:1).
  Technically, one may engage in commerce on Purim, because successful transactions can bring one joy. However, it is proper to be stringent in this matter, because such endeavors can drag on and take away from the joy of Purim. Therefore, it is proper to open only stores that sell Purim necessities (MB 696:3, AHS 696:2, <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 696:5).
  The custom of refraining from work on Purim takes effect only during the day. It is true that some Aḥaronim rule stringently and prohibit work at night, as well. However, the very fact that there is a debate regarding working at night shows clearly that there is no accepted custom prohibiting work at night. Therefore, one may work on the night of Purim (see BHL 696:1).
  Residents of unwalled cities may work on the Purim observed by residents of walled cities, and residents of walled cities may work on the Purim observed by residents of unwalled cities (SA 696:2).
  
  
  
  
  
  Section 1
  
  The <i>Mitzvot</i> of Joy and Kindness / Joy and Kindness
  On Purim, we are commanded: “To observe them as days of feasting and joy, of sending gifts (<i>mishlo’aḥ manot</i>) to one another, and presents to the poor (<i>matanot la-evyonim</i>)” (Esther 9:22).
  The mitzva to rejoice on Purim is quite unique, as it finds expression even in the physical aspects of life. Just as Haman’s decree targeted our soul and body alike, so too our joy over our salvation should be both spiritual and physical. Therefore, in addition to the mitzva of reading the <i>Megilla</i>, which gives expression to man’s spiritual side, there is a mitzva to prepare a festive and joyous meal (<i>se’uda</i>). During this meal, an emphasis is placed on drinking wine to the point where one loses his mental capacity to a certain degree. This expresses the notion that the Jewish people are holy and that even in a state of diminished mental capacity, they remain connected and close to God.
  This joy must be accompanied by a heightened sense of love and unity among Jews. This is true joy, as it expresses a broadening of life and its spread through the love of all people. However, one who eats and drinks for their own sake is considered narrow and limited, preoccupied only with gratifying his own desires; such a person will never attain genuine joy. Thus, we are commanded to send gifts of food, <i>mishlo’aḥ manot</i>, to one another.
  We should not content ourselves with increasing love among friends; rather, we must also care about the destitute, who are unable to rejoice fully. Therefore, we are commanded to give gifts to the poor, <i>matanot la-evyonim</i>, so that they too can take part in the joy of Purim. Anyone who disregards the pain of the destitute – even if he thinks that he is enjoying himself with his friends – is in reality engaged in debauchery, ignoring the realities of life. He flees thoughts about the suffering in this world so that he can have some fleeting happiness. But the harsh reality will not disappear when he drinks wine and becomes intoxicated. Therefore, deep down, he knows that he does not deserve to be happy, and he will remain miserable. However, if one makes sure to bring joy to the poor and unfortunate, his life has value, and he can truly and rightfully rejoice. This is why we were commanded to give gifts to the poor on Purim.
  
  Section 2
  
  The <i>Mitzvot</i> of Joy and Kindness / Jewish Unity on Purim
  Purim is a special day for displaying Jewish unity. Haman’s decree was aimed at the entire Jewish people, with no distinction between righteous and wicked, poor and rich. One can learn from the ambitions of Israel’s enemies – to kill every single Jew – that the unique properties of Israel inhere in every Jew. God saved us all, and in so doing, transformed our grief into joy. Therefore, the joyous celebration of Purim must include every Jew. Accordingly, we are commanded to give <i>mishlo’aḥ manot </i>and <i>matanot la-evyonim</i>.
  Moreover, the disunity of the Jewish people at the time enabled Haman to denounce them before King Aḥashverosh: “There is a certain people, scattered and dispersed among the other peoples in all the provinces of your realm…. If it please Your Majesty, let an edict be drawn for their destruction” (Esther 3:8-9). Similarly, Haman's decree was foiled by Jewish solidarity, as Esther said to Mordechai, “Go, assemble all the Jews who live in Shushan, and fast in my behalf; do not eat or drink for three days, night or day” (<i>ibid</i>. 4:16). In this way, Esther succeeded in nullifying the decree.
  Indeed, Jewish unity is a precondition for receiving the Torah, as it says in reference to the giving of the Torah, “Israel encamped (<i>vayiḥan</i>) there in front of the mountain” (Shemot 19:2). Noting the verse’s use of the singular verb <i>vayiḥan</i>,<i> </i>the Sages explain that Israel encamped there “like one man with one heart” (Rashi). They did this “so that they would love each other, and thereby receive the Torah” (<i>Mekhilta</i> <i>ad loc</i>.). Only then did God say, “Behold, the time has come for Me to give the Torah to My children” (<i>Vayikra Rabba</i> 9:9). Just as a Torah scroll that is missing a single letter is entirely invalid, so too, if one of the 600,000 Jews who stood at Mount Sinai when the Torah was given would have been missing, we would not have been privileged to receive the Torah. The same is true of Purim. As a result of the harsh decree that unified the Jewish people, we were redeemed and were even privileged to accept the Torah anew, as the Sages relate that Israel accepted the Torah anew in the time of Aḥashverosh, out of love (<i>Shabbat</i> 88a). The same is true each and every year: We are able to receive the Torah anew, joyously, because of the unity that is revealed on Purim.
  
  Section 3
  
  The <i>Mitzvot</i> of Joy and Kindness / <i>Matanot La-evyonim</i>
  It is a mitzva for each and every Jew to give <i>matanot la-evyonim</i> on Purim. In order to fulfill this mitzva, one must give a minimum of two gifts – one each to two poor people – but it is praiseworthy to give more. The gift may be money or a food item, but not clothing or books, as some say that the gifts must be items that one can enjoy at the Purim <i>se’uda</i>. As such, one should give food items or money that can be used to purchase food. While the gift must be something that can contribute to the Purim feast, the poor person may do with the gift as he pleases. He is not obligated to use the gift specifically as part of his Purim feast (SA 694:1,<i> </i>Rema <i>ad loc. </i>2,<i> </i>MB <i>ad loc. </i>2).
  Each gift must be worth the amount of money that could be used to purchase ordinary foods that would satiate a person eating a small, simple meal – for example, a sandwich. To discharge one’s obligation, one can give an amount of money that would purchase about three slices of bread for each gift (in Israel, this is about one shekel). This amount of bread is approximately equivalent to the volume of three eggs, which is enough to minimally satisfy a person. However, giving more <i>matanot la-evyonim</i> is praiseworthy (see below, section 8).
  One may not count <i>matanot la-evyonim</i> toward the <i>ma’aser kesafim</i> he owes, as one may not fulfill this obligation with money that he is anyway required to give to charity. However, one may set aside the minimum amount of money per gift and then add to and increase the sum with <i>ma’aser kesafim </i>money.
  An <i>evyon </i>is defined by <i>halakha </i>as a poor person who has insufficient funds for his family’s essential needs, as defined by the time and place in which he lives. There were times when a person who had bread to eat and two sets of clothes to wear was not considered poor, whereas today even one who has four sets of clothes and bread and cheese to eat is still considered poor.
  One may give <i>matanot la-evyonim</i> even to a poor child, on condition that he is sufficiently intelligent not to lose the money. If one gives the equivalent of two gifts to a poor couple, he fulfills his obligation to give a minimum of two gifts. Similarly, if one gives the equivalent of two gifts to a widow and her young son who is dependent on her, he fulfills his obligation. However, one who gives two gifts to a single poor person does not fulfill his obligation, even if he gives the gifts one after the other, because one must give to two poor people.1<i class="footnote"><i>Maḥzik Berakha</i> states in the name of <i>Zera Yaakov</i> §11 that the value of each gift must be equivalent to the price of three eggs’ bulk of a food item, as this is the size of a minimal meal. It is preferable, however, for the value of the gift to be great enough to purchase a simple meal, such as a roll with a spread, a serving of falafel, or the like. In any case, one discharges his obligation with three eggs’ bulk worth of bread. MB 694:2 cites Ritva as saying that even a single <i>pruta</i> is considered a sufficient gift. The value of a <i>pruta</i> today is approximately three Israeli agorot or one US cent. However, since this is a case of uncertainty concerning <i>divrei kabbala</i>, one should be stringent. Besides, nowadays one cannot buy anything with a <i>pruta</i>, and perhaps even Ritva would agree that one does not fulfill his obligation today with a gift of a <i>pruta</i>. (<i>Sma</i> ḤM<i> </i>88:2<i> </i>is similarly uncertain whether one can betroth a woman nowadays with a <i>pruta. Shakh</i> YD<i> </i>294:16 states similarly regarding <i>neta reva’i </i>[the redemption of fourth-year produce].) Therefore, one must give a sum of money that is large enough for the recipient to purchase something.</i>
  If one does not know two poor people, or if he is embarrassed to give them gifts, he should give his <i>matanot</i> <i>la-evyonim </i>to a reputable <i>gabbai tzedaka</i> (charity fund manager) to distribute to the poor on his behalf. The <i>gabbai</i> must attempt to give these gifts to the poor in a way that will enhance their joy at the Purim meal.2<i class="footnote">In the past, <i>gabba’ei tzedaka</i> would purchase calves and slaughter them for the poor people’s Purim meal. They were not permitted to purchase fewer calves in order to leave money over for the other needs of the poor. Rather, they would prepare an abundant amount of food for the Purim meal, and if there was extra money left over, they would direct it toward the other needs of the poor after Purim (BM 78b; SA 694:2).</i>
  
  Section 4
  
  The <i>Mitzvot</i> of Joy and Kindness / <i>Mishlo’aḥ Manot</i>
  Every person must send two gifts of food to a friend on Purim, in order to increase love between them. Increasing love between Jews is part of the essence of Purim, as it was on Purim that the Jewish people’s holiness was revealed. This holiness is expressed in the fact that they cling to God and His Torah, and a spark of this holiness exists in every Jew. Therefore, it is proper to actively express the love between Jews on Purim (see above, section 2).
  These gifts must consist of food items in order to enhance the joy of Purim, as it is known that when a person eats good, tasty foods that he received from a friend, the love between them becomes strengthened. Another reason for <i>mishlo’aḥ manot</i> is that some people are not actually poor – they have the ability to purchase basic provisions for the Purim meal – yet are unable to buy foods for a more respectable Purim meal. By sending <i>mishlo’aḥ manot</i>, we can provide them with good food for the Purim meal in an honorable fashion.
  The law is that one discharges his obligation by sending two portions of food to one person. The Sages enacted that one must send at least two portions so that the gift will be an expression of love. After all, a single portion of food can help a friend avoid hunger, but when one sends two portions, it means that he wants his friend to enjoy a variety of foods as well. One who gives more <i>mishloḥei manot</i> in order to increase feelings of love, brotherhood, peace, and friendship between oneself and one’s friends is praiseworthy.3<i class="footnote">The main reason for <i>mishlo’aḥ manot </i>is to increase love and brotherhood among Jews, as that is the main focus of the day. So writes Maharal in <i>Or Ḥadash</i> 9:22 and R. Shlomo Alkabetz in <i>Manot Ha-Levi</i>. <i>Terumat Ha-deshen</i> §111 states that <i>mishlo’aḥ manot </i>are for the Purim <i>se’uda</i> and to help those who are in need.<i>Responsa Binyan Tziyon</i> §44 states that, <i>le-khatḥila</i>, one should send <i>mishlo’aḥ manot </i>via a <i>shali’aḥ </i>(proxy), but many <i>poskim</i> do not mention this. Rema 695:4 writes that if one sends <i>mishlo’aḥ manot </i>to his friend and the friend refuses to accept it, one nevertheless fulfills his obligation, as he has still expressed his love just by sending the <i>mishlo’aḥ manot</i>. However, <i>Pri Ḥadash</i> and <i>Ḥatam Sofer </i>disagree. Most Aḥaronim are stringent on the matter.</i>
  
  Section 5
  
  The <i>Mitzvot</i> of Joy and Kindness / Types of Foods for <i>Mishlo’aḥ Manot</i>
  The two food portions must be different from each other. For example, one may send bread and meat, meat and rice, fish and eggs, or cake and apples. One may also send two portions of meat with different flavors, like cooked meat and roasted meat, or two cooked meats taken from different parts of the animal, such that their taste and shape differ. Similarly, one may send two types of cake, provided that they look and taste different from each other.
  One who sends his friend a garment or a book does not fulfill his obligation. Even though these items surely bring joy and express love, the portions must consist of food items. However, once one fulfills his obligation with two food portions, he may add additional gifts, if he desires, in order to increase the level of love and brotherhood.
  One who sends a live fowl to his friend does not fulfill his obligation, because it is not edible as is; it must first be slaughtered, cut, salted, and cooked. Some maintain that even if one sends raw, uncooked meat, he does not fulfill his obligation. Rather, one must send food portions that are ready to be eaten. One may send canned foods, because one can easily open the can and eat its contents.
  Most <i>poskim</i> maintain that a bottle of a noteworthy drink, such as wine, beer, or a tasty juice, is considered a suitable food portion. Therefore, one may fulfill his obligation by sending two such drinks. However, some rule stringently and maintain that a drink is not considered a food portion. Even though the <i>halakha</i> follows the majority of <i>poskim</i>, one who wishes to discharge his obligation according to all viewpoints should send at least one <i>mishlo’aḥ manot </i>containing two portions of food.
  Each portion must contain an amount of food worthy of being served to a guest in a respectable manner (AHS 695:15). Thus, a single plum, for example, is not a large enough portion with which to honor a guest. Therefore, a person who wants one of his portions to consist of plums must combine a few plums together in order for them to be considered a food portion.
  Some maintain that the volume of each portion must be equivalent to approximately three eggs’ volume. Others add that the portions must be significant according to the status of the giver and the recipient. That is, if they are wealthy, the portions must be distinguished and enjoyable according to their prestige. If, however, they do not view the portions as significant, they fail to fulfill their obligation. <i>Le-khatḥila</i>, one should take care to ensure that each food portion contains a volume equivalent to at least three eggs and that it should be significant and respectable in the eyes of both the sender and the recipient.4<i class="footnote">According to MA, quoting Maharil, the portion must be ready to eat. Therefore, one does not discharge his obligation with raw meat. <i>Pri Ḥadash</i>, however, rules that one may send raw meat. MB 695:19 cites both opinions. One certainly does not fulfill his obligation by sending non-food items, as the portions must be of a kind that causes their recipient to rejoice by eating them on Purim. According to <i>Halakhot Ketanot </i>2:163, however, one may fulfill his obligation with money or clothing, if the clothing can be sold immediately and the proceeds used to purchase food items. As indicated above, most <i>poskim</i> disagree with this.Even though the portions are meant to be eaten at the Purim meal, and it would seemingly be preferable to send foods that are appropriate for the meal, many have the custom to send cakes and various types of sweets. So state <i>Sheyarei Knesset Ha-gedola</i>, Ḥida, and R. Ḥayim Palachi. The reason for this is that these foods bring joy and can be kept for a long time. In contrast, if one sends meat, it may be superfluous and difficult to preserve.Most <i>poskim</i> maintain that a drink is considered a portion of food for this purpose, including <i>Terumat Ha-deshen</i> §111, <i>Taz</i> 695:4, <i>Levush</i>, <i>Pri Ḥadash</i>, and MB 695:19. AHS 695:14 concurs, stating that one may discharge his obligation with two drinks. According to Rabbeinu Ḥananel, however, one does not fulfill one’s obligation with a drink.<i>Ben Ish Ḥai</i> (<i>Tetzaveh</i> 16) states that one must place the two food portions in two separate vessels, but most <i>poskim</i> do not mention this. The only thing that seems to be required is that the food be recognizable as two portions. However, the need for two separate vessels is more understandable according to the opinion that one fulfills his obligation with two portions of a single type of food. <i>Tzitz Eliezer</i> 14:65 follows this approach, stating that the minimum <i>shi’ur</i> for each portion is the volume of approximately three eggs, and one may fulfill his obligation by giving two such portions of one type of food. In such a case, though, the giver would need to separate the two portions. However, according to AHS 695:14 and <i>Eshel Avraham</i> (Buczacz), one does not fulfill his obligation with only one type of food. This is also the opinion of <i>Mikra’ei Kodesh</i> (Frank) §38.AHS 695:15 states that one does not discharge his obligation with a <i>kezayit </i>of food or with a <i>revi’it </i>of drinks. Rather, each portion must be of a respectable size. <i>Eshel Avraham</i> (Buczacz) concurs, while Maharsha rules leniently that one may send less. Nevertheless, the simple understanding is that one should be stringent and ensure that the portions are fit for serving. Furthermore, we already learned that some maintain that each portion must be the size of three eggs (<i>Tzitz Eliezer</i> 14:65). According to Ritva and <i>Ḥayei Adam</i> 155:31, the portions must be respectable in the eyes of the giver and the recipient.</i>
  
  Section 6
  
  The <i>Mitzvot</i> of Joy and Kindness / Who Is Obligated in <i>Mishlo’aḥ Manot </i>and <i>Matanot La-evyonim</i>?
  Every Jew is obligated in <i>mishlo’aḥ manot </i>and <i>matanot la-evyonim</i>. Even though women are ordinarily exempt from positive time-bound<i> mitzvot</i>, they must fulfill the <i>mitzvot </i>of Purim, since they too participated in the miracle. For reasons of modesty, one should take care that women send <i>mishlo’aḥ manot </i>only to women and men send only to men. However, one does not need to be particular about this when it comes to <i>matanot la-evyonim</i>, as giving charity does not engender excessive familiarity (Rema 695:4 mentions concern for an accidental betrothal through <i>mishlo’aḥ manot</i>).
  Even a married woman must fulfill these <i>mitzvot</i>. Therefore, a married couple must send two <i>mishloḥei manot</i> – one from the husband and one from the wife – and each <i>mishlo’aḥ manot </i>must contain at least two portions of food. Even though the main objective of sending <i>mishlo’aḥ manot </i>is to foster friendship between the sender and the recipient, it seems that it is unnecessary to specify explicitly that one <i>mishlo’aḥ manot</i> is from the husband and the other is from the wife. This does not detract from the goal of fostering friendship, because it is clear that the <i>mishlo’aḥ manot </i>are from both of them, since they are a married couple. The friendship engendered will thus extend to both of them.
  For <i>matanot la-evyonim</i>, a married couple must give the equivalent of four gifts – two from the husband and two from the wife. It is unnecessary for the wife to give her gifts in person; her husband can distribute them on her behalf. A man may also give these four gifts to two poor people, each one receiving one gift from him and one gift from her. The custom today is to give the equivalent of four gifts to a <i>gabbai tzedaka</i>, who then distributes them to two poor people on the couple’s behalf.
  Children who have reached the age at which they are obligated to observe <i>mitzvot</i> are obligated in <i>mishlo’aḥ manot</i> and <i>matanot la-evyonim</i>, even though they are still dependent on their parents for support. Since the purpose of <i>mishlo’aḥ manot</i> is to increase love among Jews, the child must send them explicitly in his or her name. Regarding <i>matanot la-evyonim</i>, however, the parents may give on their child’s behalf.
  It is proper to train children who have reached the age of <i>ḥinukh</i> to observe these <i>mitzvot</i>. Some do so by sending them to deliver the <i>mishlo’aḥ manot</i>. Others even give their children food items of their own, so that they can then send to their friends. Regarding <i>matanot la-evyonim</i>, some parents give their children money to give to poor people, while others give money to the poor themselves on behalf of their children. In such a case, the parents educate their children to observe <i>mitzvot </i>by telling them what they did.5<i class="footnote">The obligation of women in these <i>mitzvot </i>is explained in Rema 695:4. However, <i>Pri Ḥadash</i> states that they are exempt, since it says in regard to <i>mishlo’aḥ manot</i>, “<i>ish le-re’ehu” </i>(lit. “a man to his friend”). The Vilna Gaon seems to concur, but the vast majority of <i>poskim</i> maintain that women are obligated in these <i>mitzvot</i>, because they too participated in the miracle of Purim. So states <i>Sha’arei Teshuva</i> 695:9 in the name of <i>Responsa Shvut Yaakov</i> 1:45 and <i>She’eilat Yaavetz</i> 1:108. MA 695:12 notes his observation that married women are not careful in their observance of these <i>mitzvot</i>, perhaps because of the principle that one’s wife is considered like himself. He concludes, however, that women should be stringent in this regard. <i>Eliya Rabba</i>, MB 695:25, <i>Ḥayei Adam</i> 155:33, and AHS 695:18 all concur.<i>Eshel Avraham</i> (Buczacz) states that children are exempt from <i>matanot la-evyonim</i>, because they have no money of their own; we educate them only in the mitzva of <i>mishlo’aḥ manot</i>. <i>Pri Megadim</i> and <i>Siddur Beit Yaakov</i>, however, maintain that one must also educate children in the mitzva of <i>matanot la-evyonim</i>.A mourner, even during <i>shiva</i>, is obligated in all the <i>mitzvot</i> of Purim, including <i>mishlo’aḥ manot</i>. According to Sephardic custom, one may send <i>mishlo’aḥ manot </i>to a mourner. According to Ashkenazic custom, however, one must not send <i>mishlo’aḥ manot </i>to a mourner during the entire year of mourning for a parent or during the <i>shloshim </i>period for other relatives. When one member of a couple is in mourning, one may send <i>mishlo’aḥ manot </i>to that person’s spouse.</i>
  A poor person who is supported by charity is still obligated in <i>mishlo’aḥ manot </i>and <i>matanot la-evyonim</i>. If he has only enough food for his own Purim meal, he should trade with a friend, meaning that each one should give the other the contents of his meal. This way, they both fulfill the mitzva of <i>mishlo’aḥ manot</i>. They should do the same thing regarding <i>matanot la-evyonim</i> (SA 695:4, MB 694:1-2).
  
  Section 7
  
  The <i>Mitzvot</i> of Joy and Kindness / The Proper Time for <i>Matanot La-evyonim </i>and <i>Mishlo’aḥ Manot</i>
  One must send <i>mishlo’aḥ manot </i>and give <i>matanot la-evyonim </i>on Purim day, as it says, “To observe them as <i>days</i> of feasting and joy, and as an occasion for sending gifts to one another and presents to the poor” (Esther 9:22). If one gives these gifts on the night of Purim, he does not fulfill his obligation.6<i class="footnote"><i>Megilla</i> 7b explains that one does not discharge his obligation to feast on Purim by eating at night, since the verse says, “To make them <i>days</i> of feasting and joy,” and since the <i>mitzvot</i> of <i>mishlo’aḥ manot</i> and <i>matanot la-evyonim</i> appear in the same verse, the same rule applies to both <i>mitzvot</i>. Rosh, Rashba, Rema 695:4, Vilna Gaon, and MB 695:22 concur. It goes without saying that if one gives these gifts before Purim, he does not discharge his obligation.</i>
  If one cannot find poor people to receive <i>matanot la-evyonim</i> on Purim, he should set aside his gifts and save them until he finds poor people. Thus, he fulfills the mitzva by the very act of setting the gifts aside. Similarly, a <i>gabbai tzedaka</i> who does not manage, on Purim, to distribute all the funds he collected should distribute them to the poor after Purim (SA 694:4).
  However, the mitzva of <i>mishlo’aḥ manot</i> applies only on the day of Purim itself, as that is when there is a mitzva to increase love and happiness between friends. Therefore, if one is alone on Purim and has no one to receive his <i>mishlo’aḥ manot</i>, he cannot compensate for the mitzva after Purim. But now that we have telephones and internet, one may call a friend or write an e-mail and ask him to send <i>mishlo’aḥ manot </i>on his behalf on Purim, thus fulfilling one’s obligation.
  One who is concerned that he will not find poor people on Purim may give money to the <i>gabbai tzedaka</i> before Purim, but the giver must stipulate that he maintains ownership over the money until Purim. Then, the <i>gabbai</i> acts as his <i>shali’aḥ </i>and gives the money to two poor people on Purim day on his behalf. Similarly, one who will be alone on Purim may prepare <i>mishlo’aḥ manot</i> in advance, leave them with a friend, and appoint him as his <i>shali’aḥ </i>to give them to another friend on Purim, on his behalf.7<i class="footnote">MA 694:1 quotes <i>Ha-ma’or</i> as saying that one must not give <i>matanot la-evyonim</i> before Purim, lest the recipients consume them before the holiday. This implies that if the poor people eat the food purchased with such gifts on Purim, the giver discharges his obligation. <i>Pri Megadim</i> <i>ad loc</i>. comes to the same conclusion. However, <i>Maḥatzit Ha-shekel</i> seems to maintain that one must give the gifts specifically on the day of Purim, and BHL 694:1 cites this opinion. Furthermore, there is uncertainty about what the law is in a case in which one sends <i>mishlo’aḥ manot </i>before Purim but they reach the recipient on Purim: <i>Yad Aharon</i> states that one fulfills one’s obligation in such a case, but <i>Torah Lishma </i>§188 maintains that one does not fulfill one’s obligation, because one must increase love on the day of Purim specifically. AHS 695:16 rules according to the latter opinion with regard to both <i>mishlo’aḥ manot</i> and <i>matanot la-evyonim</i>. There is further uncertainty in a case where one gives the gifts before Purim, telling the recipient that they are merely a deposit until the day of Purim. Mahari Algazi maintains that such a person fulfills his obligation, whereas <i>Devar Eliyahu</i> §69 maintains that he does not fulfill his obligation, because both types of gifts must be given on the day of Purim. If, however, one sends these items via a <i>shali’aḥ </i>on Purim, he discharges his obligations according to all opinions.</i>
  
  Section 8
  
  The <i>Mitzvot</i> of Joy and Kindness / Between <i>Mishlo’aḥ Manot</i> and <i>Matanot La-evyonim</i>
  The mitzva of <i>mishlo’aḥ manot</i> is designed to increase love and harmony between fellow Jews. Therefore, one who sends <i>mishlo’aḥ manot </i>to his friend anonymously does not fulfill his obligation. <i>Matanot la-evyonim</i>, on the other hand, is like charity and is designed to help the poor in the best possible manner. Therefore, when possible, it is preferable to give <i>matanot la-evyonim</i> anonymously.
  One can fulfill the <i>mitzvot</i> of <i>mishlo’aḥ manot </i>or <i>matanot la-evyonim </i>by inviting one’s friend to the Purim meal. If one wants this meal to count as <i>mishlo’aḥ manot</i>, he should place two portions of food in front of his friend, simultaneously, and tell him that this is his <i>mishlo’aḥ manot</i> (<i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 695:42).
  If he wants to fulfill the mitzva of <i>matanot la-evyonim</i> through this meal, it is preferable not to state this outright to the poor person, so that he receives the gift in a more respectable manner, with love and joy. Indeed, this is a very beautiful way to fulfill the mitzva. Similarly, one can anonymously give gifts to the poor in the form of <i>mishlo’aḥ manot</i> containing good and useful food, such that the poor person will not be embarrassed and will even think that the <i>mishlo’aḥ manot </i>was given to him out of love, not due to his poverty.8<i class="footnote"><i>Ketav Sofer</i>, OḤ 141:4, states, based on Rema, that one who sends <i>mishlo’aḥ manot </i>anonymously does not fulfill his obligation. AHS 696:3 seems to concur with this view. It is worth adding that one who wishes to give <i>matanot la-evyonim </i>by sending food should find a way to send it anonymously, because if the poor person knows the sender’s identity, he will presumably want to reciprocate by sending his own <i>mishlo’aḥ manot </i>in return. Then, the poor person will not gain anything from the food sent to him. Nevertheless, if this actually occurs, the sender fulfills his obligation, <i>be-di’avad</i>, as we explained above, at the end of section 6, despite the fact that his good intention to help the poor person did not come to fruition.According to some Aḥaronim, one cannot give both <i>mishlo’aḥ manot</i> and <i>matanot la-evyonim</i> to the same person.</i>
  Rambam writes:It is preferable for one so spend more liberally on his gifts to the poor than with his festive meal and with sending portions to his friends, for there is no greater or more glorious joy than gladdening the hearts of the poor, the orphans, the widows, and the converts. One who gladdens the hearts of these unfortunate people resembles the Divine Presence, as it says: “Reviving the spirits of the lowly, reviving the hearts of the contrite” (Yeshayahu 57:15). (MT, Laws of <i>Megilla</i> 2:17)
  In other words, technically, everyone may decide how to prioritize his expenditures – in <i>mishlo’aḥ manot </i>and the <i>se’uda </i>or in <i>matanot la-evyonim</i>. However, one who wants to fulfill the mitzva according to the guidance of our Sages should, <i>le-khatḥila</i>, give precedence to spending more on <i>matanot la-evyonim</i>. Thus, one should calculate how much he will spend on <i>mishlo’aḥ manot </i>and the Purim meal and give more than that to the poor. One who gives <i>ma’aser kesafim </i>each month to the poor or to Torah students may include <i>ma’aser kesafim </i>in this calculation. Therefore, if, together with <i>ma’aser kesafim</i>, one gives more to the poor than he expends on <i>mishlo’aḥ manot</i> and the Purim meal, he has beautified the mitzva in accordance with the guidance of the Sages, and he will, consequently, be privileged to experience the “great and glorious joy” that Rambam mentioned.
  
  Section 9
  
  The <i>Mitzvot</i> of Joy and Kindness / The Mitzva to Rejoice and Eat a <i>Se’uda</i>
  We are commanded to observe Purim as a day of feasting and joy. Even though the mitzva of rejoicing continues throughout the night and day of Purim, it reaches its climax at the <i>se’uda</i>, the<i> </i>festive meal. The proper way to express joy is through a large meal, during which the participants drink a good deal; conversely, the proper and most joyful way to drink is in context of a <i>se’uda</i>. Therefore, everyone is obligated to participate in one set meal on Purim, for feasting and joy. This meal must be conducted during the day; if one holds the meal at night, he does not discharge his obligation, as it says, “To observe them as <i>days</i> of feasting and joy” (Esther 9:22, <i>Megilla</i> 7b).
  Even though the obligation is to conduct one festive meal during the day, there is nevertheless a mitzva to conduct a meal on the night of Purim, serving foods that bring joy, and to eat and drink a little more than usual. Some have a custom to eat seeds and legumes on the night of Purim, to commemorate the food that Daniel, his colleagues, and Esther ate in the king’s palace. All of the cooked foods were prohibited to them, so they ate seeds and legumes in order not to defile themselves by eating prohibited foods.
  There is a mitzva to increase one’s joy throughout the night and day of Purim. The more one rejoices, the more he enhances the mitzva. Thus, the Jewish people have a custom to sing, dance, get together with friends, study Torah, eat good food, and drink beverages that make one happy throughout the holiday of Purim.9<i class="footnote">The mitzva to eat a <i>se’uda </i>is elaborated upon in <i>Megilla</i> 7b. By eating a meal, one fulfills the injunction of the verse, “To observe them as days of feasting and joy” (Esther 9:22). While it is true that the Sages derive from here that one may not fast or deliver eulogies on Purim (<i>Megilla</i> 5b), there is certainly also a mitzva to rejoice actively, which one accomplishes by partaking in a joyous meal. So explains <i>Shibolei Ha-leket</i> §201. (Some maintain that the festive meal is a rabbinic mitzva; <i>Binyan Shlomo</i> §58 discusses this.) The mitzva includes eating meat and drinking wine, which is why SA 696:7 rules that even an <i>onen</i> (a mourner whose deceased relative has not yet been buried) must observe it.According to Rambam (MT, Laws of <i>Megilla</i> 2:14), Rashba, and Ritva (<i>Megilla</i> 4a), the mitzva of eating and drinking is only during the day, as the verse in Esther says “days.” MA 695:6 cites <i>Kol Bo</i> as stating that some have a custom not to eat meat at night, so as not to mistakenly think that this counts as the Purim meal. On the other hand, Raavya maintains that one must have a meal with meat and wine at night, just as it is a mitzva to read the <i>Megilla</i> at night in addition to the main reading of the day. The only difference is that the main, more dignified meal must take place during the day. <i>Baḥ</i> concurs. <i>Tosafot</i> (<i>Megilla</i> 4a) also seem to agree that there is a mitzva to have a festive meal at night as well. Rema 695:1 rules similarly in the name of Mahari Brin, as do MB <i>ad loc. </i>3, <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 695:4. Either way, it is clear, according to the simple understanding of the issue, that one enhances the mitzva by engaging in all types of joyous activities throughout the day, as is customary.</i>
  One must ideally prepare meat for the main <i>se’uda</i> during the day, because most people agree that eating meat makes one happy. One who has difficulty eating meat should try to eat poultry, as poultry brings people joy as well. If one cannot obtain poultry or does not like it, he should prepare other tasty foods and rejoice in eating them while drinking wine.
  One must formalize the meal (<i>kove’a se’uda</i>) with bread, because according to some of the greatest <i>poskim</i>, a meal without bread is not considered a significant meal.10<i class="footnote">It is a mitzva to make an elaborate Purim meal, as Rambam, <i>Tur</i>, and Rema state. It seems that according to these authorities, the meal should be even more elaborate than a Yom Tov meal. The term “joy” includes eating meat and drinking wine, as the Sages state in <i>Pesaḥim</i> 109a regarding Yom Tov. Even though the obligation to eat meat on Yom Tov used to relate specifically to the meat of a peace offering (<i>shelamim</i>), there is nonetheless a mitzva to eat meat on Yom Tov even after the destruction of the Temple, since doing so makes one happy, as SAH 529:7 and BHL 529:2 explain. See <i>Yeḥaveh Da’at</i> 6:33. Eating chicken also brings joy, as the Gemara and <i>Tosafot</i> in <i>Beitza</i> 10b indicate.The <i>poskim</i> disagree about whether one must eat bread at the Purim meal. According to Me’iri, Raavya, Maharshal, and <i>Mor U-ketzi’a</i>, one must eat bread, just as it is a mitzva to rejoice on Yom Tov and to eat bread at the meals. <i>Terumat Ha-deshen</i> and MA 695:9 maintain that one does not need to eat bread. They explain that the obligation to eat bread on Yom Tov is not based on the obligation to rejoice, but on the concept of honoring Yom Tov, which the Torah calls, “sacred occasions” (Vayikra 23:4). They similarly disagree about one who forgot to recite <i>Al Ha-nisim</i> in <i>Birkat Ha-mazon</i> (see above ch. 15 n. 19). Nevertheless, MB 695:12 states that one should not repeat <i>Birkat Ha-mazon</i>, since we are lenient in cases of uncertainty about <i>berakhot</i>, and AHS 695:7, 12 rules, on the one hand, that it is a mitzva to eat bread at the Purim meal, but on the other hand, one who forgets <i>Al Ha-nisim</i> does not need to repeat <i>Birkat Ha-mazon</i>, as the obligation to recite <i>Al Ha-nisim </i>in <i>Birkat Ha-mazon</i> cannot be more stringent than the obligation to recite it in the <i>Amida</i>. See <i>Yeḥaveh Da’at</i> 6:89.</i>
  It is a mitzva to eat the meal together with others – family members or friends – in order to enhance its joy. After all, one who eats alone cannot rejoice properly (<i>Shlah</i>; MB 695:9).
  There is a mitzva to engage somewhat in feasting and joy on the second day of Purim as well, as it says, “<i>days</i> of feasting and joy.” In other words, residents of Jerusalem should rejoice somewhat on the fourteenth of Adar, and people who live elsewhere should do the same on the fifteenth (Rema 695:2).
  
  Section 10
  
  The <i>Mitzvot</i> of Joy and Kindness / The Mitzva to Drink
  The mitzva to rejoice on Purim is very unique. It is even greater than the mitzva to rejoice on the festivals (Sukkot, Pesaḥ, and Shavu’ot), about which it says, “You shall rejoice in your festival” (Devarim 16:14). Since most people enjoy drinking wine, it is a mitzva to drink wine on the festivals; however, there is no mitzva to drink a lot (SA 529:1-3). Regarding Purim, however, there is an explicit mitzva to drink a lot. Moreover, the essence of Purim is that it should be “days of feasting<i> </i>(<i>mishteh</i>,<i> </i>lit. ‘drinking’) and joy” (Esther 9:22). Therefore, the Sages said, “A person is obligated to get drunk on Purim until he does not know the difference between ‘Cursed is Haman’ and ‘Blessed is Mordechai’” (<i>Megilla</i> 7b).
  There are many opinions regarding the parameters of this mitzva, and they can be divided into two main categories. Some take the words of the Sages literally, meaning that one must get so drunk that he actually cannot differentiate between “Cursed is Haman” and “Blessed is Mordechai” (Rif, Rosh). That is, he should reach a state of simple joy, in which there is no distinction between different levels. In the eyes of one who has reached such a state, “Cursed is Haman” is the same as “Blessed is Mordechai,” since everything is good and everything is for the good. This is the nature of drunk people: They cannot perceive details; everything seems the same to them. However, if one knows that he is liable to do prohibited or disgusting things while he is in a state of drunkenness, he must refrain from reaching such a state. Rather, he should drink heavily until he falls asleep as a result, and while he sleeps he will not be able to differentiate between “Cursed is Haman” and “Blessed is Mordechai”—that is, between good and evil.
  Others maintain that the mitzva is to drink more than usual, until one becomes tipsy, but one should not become so drunk that he is liable to act unbecomingly. The reasoning behind this viewpoint is that the <i>halakha</i> does not follow the talmudic opinion that one must drink “until he does not know” (Rabbeinu Ephraim). Alternatively, we accept that opinion, but we interpret it to mean that one should drink until he cannot pronounce his words properly, and when he has to repeat the phrase “Cursed is Haman and blessed is Mordechai” several times, he will occasionally stumble (<i>Tosafot</i>, Ran).
  In practice, each person must choose for himself the way that will best allow him to drink and rejoice for the sake of heaven. Since people’s natures are different from one another, there are varying opinions as to how one should drink and rejoice.11<i class="footnote">There are three levels of intoxication: tipsy, drunk, and as drunk as Lot. 1) An tipsy person is one who drinks wine until he feels somewhat happy and disoriented, but is still capable of standing respectfully before a king. Such a person may not recite the <i>Amida</i> until the effects of the wine dissipate, but if he nonetheless prays, his prayer is valid. 2) A drunk person is one who drinks so much that he cannot stand before a king because he is incapable of acting respectfully. If he recites the <i>Amida</i>, he does not discharge his obligation, because his prayer is an abomination. Nevertheless, he may recite <i>Birkhot Ha-nehenin </i>(<i>berakhot</i> recited upon deriving pleasure from something) even in his state of drunkenness. 3) A person who is as drunk as Lot is one who drinks so much that he does not know what is happening to him. He is like a <i>shoteh</i> (a mentally impaired person), who is exempt from all <i>mitzvot</i>. See <i>Peninei Halakha</i>: <i>Prayer</i> 5:11.We can now apply these levels to the mitzva of drinking on Purim. Rif and Rosh cite Rava’s statement that “a person is obligated to get drunk (<i>livesumei</i>) on Purim until he does not know…” implying that they understand the mitzva according to its simple meaning. The Aramaic word <i>livesumei </i>means to get drunk, as Rashi explains (<i>Megilla</i> 7b). Apparently, this relates to the second category mentioned above – that of a drunk person. In contrast, a person who is as drunk as Lot cannot discern anything, let alone the difference between “Cursed is Haman” and “Blessed is Mordechai.” However, even within the category of a drunk person, there are different levels: 1) one who cannot stand before a king and speak properly; 2) “until he does not know,” which is as I explained in the main text: He cannot discern details, but instead shows an indiscriminate perspective. As the Sages state, “One who puts his eye on his cup (i.e., is drunk), the whole world appears to him like a plain” (<i>Yoma</i> 75a). Such a person forgets his troubles, and everything is for the good in his eyes – both “Cursed is Haman” and “Blessed is Mordechai.” Such a drunk person is liable to disgrace himself. Many authorities maintain that the mitzva to get drunk on Purim refers to this level of drunkenness, and <i>Taz</i> and the Vilna Gaon seem to agree. Ḥakham Zvi and many other great scholars adopted this approach in practice. Raavya 2:564 states that it is a <i>mitzva</i> to get drunk “until he does not know,” but one is not obligated to do so. Apparently, his reasoning is that it is possible to fulfill the mitzva of drinking without reaching this level of drunkenness. From the words of Rif and Rosh, however, it seems that it is obligatory. Even though the Talmud relates that Rabba slaughtered R. Zeira because he was so drunk, implying that it is bad to drink in excess, the fact that Rabba invited R. Zeira to join in his Purim feast again the next year and that R. Zeira was apprehensive about going implies that the mitzva is indeed to get drunk “until he does not know,” in the literal sense (<i>Eshkol</i>, <i>Pri Ḥadash</i>).MT, Laws of <i>Megilla</i> 2:15 states, “One should drink wine until he gets drunk and falls asleep in his drunkenness.” This, in essence, is an intermediate opinion. On the one hand, one must reach the level of “until he does not know,” but he should not do so while awake, because that would mean he is very drunk. Rather, he should fall asleep as a result of his drunkenness. Mahari Brin concurs with this opinion, and it is cited in Rema 695:2.Others maintain that one does not need to get so drunk, because drunkenness is shameful and liable to bring one to commit serious transgressions. So states <i>Orḥot Ḥayim</i>. Similarly, Me’iri states: “We are not commanded to get drunk and degrade ourselves in the process of rejoicing, for the type of joy we are commanded to achieve is not one of debauchery and folly, but one of pleasure that leads to loving God and thanking Him for the miracles He performed on our behalf.” <i>Ha-ma’or</i> states in the name of Rabbeinu Ephraim that the fact that the Gemara related the story of Rabba slaughtering R. Zeira implies that the <i>halakha</i> does not require us to drink “until he does not know.” However, it is clear that even these opinions agree that one must drink enough to become tipsy to the point that it would be forbidden to pray. This is clearly indicated from the discussion concerning the timing of the meal, which the <i>poskim</i> determine should take place a significant amount of time before the time of prayer, since one may not pray immediately after the meal. Furthermore, it is a mitzva to drink more on Purim than one does on Yom Tov, since Purim is a day of <i>mishteh</i>. It is a mitzva to drink on Yom Tov in order to rejoice, and it seems that one must drink at least a <i>revi’it</i> measure (<i>Torah Or</i> 99:3). And since one becomes tipsy after drinking only a <i>revi’it</i>, it follows that on Purim one must drink until he nears the level of drunkenness.<i>Tosafot</i> and Ran explain that one must drink enough to occasionally stumble on the words “Cursed is Haman and blessed is Mordechai.” <i>Abudraham</i> explains that there was once a song that required the audience to respond accurately – sometimes “Cursed is Haman” and sometimes “Blessed is Mordechai”; people who were intoxicated would often get confused. <i>Aguda</i> and Rabbeinu Yeruḥam explain that the numerical value of both phrases is the same, and when people drink they find it hard to calculate the numbers. <i>Nimukei Yosef</i> explains that one must drink and joke around until he makes himself appear as if he does not know the difference between Haman and Mordechai. According to these opinions as well, the mitzva is to become tipsy, not drunk. They maintain that the <i>halakha</i> follows Rava, that one must drink “until he does not know,” but that this does not mean getting totally drunk. <i>Shlah</i> and <i>Responsa Rema Mi-Fano</i> maintain a similar position. Upon examining these opinions, we find that the mitzva is to become tipsy or even slightly drunk. This fits with the opinion of <i>Baḥ</i>, which accepts the position of Rabbeinu Ephraim in practice, but states, “One should become tipsy or even drunk to the point that he cannot speak before a king, but he should retain his faculties.” <i>Yad Ephraim</i> also is in this vein, but maintains that Rava’s statement was not rejected. Rather, he meant that one should get drunk <i>until</i> “he does not know,” without actually reaching that extreme level of drunkenness (“<i>ad ve-lo ad bi-khlal</i>”). <i>Sefat Emet</i> and R. Yisrael Salanter also write along these lines, explaining that one must drink all day long, with the goal of being happy, but if he reaches the state of “he does not know,” he becomes exempt from the mitzva of drinking and does not need to continue.</i>
  
  Section 11
  
  The <i>Mitzvot</i> of Joy and Kindness / Laws of Drinking
  One fulfills his obligation to drink on Purim with any intoxicating beverage. However, it is preferable to drink wine, because the miracle came about through wine. If one derives greater joy from drinking other beverages, he should drink mostly what he likes best, as, fundamentally, the mitzva is to rejoice. But if he enjoys drinking wine even a little bit, it is best to begin by drinking wine, in commemoration of the miracle.12<i class="footnote">See <i>Mikra’ei Kodesh</i> (Frank) §44, which cites sources indicating that one must drink wine specifically. However, it seems that in practice, this requirement is only <i>le-khatḥila</i>. After all, the mitzva mentioned in the verse and in the writings of the Rishonim is that “A person is obligated to get drunk on Purim until he does not know,” with no mention of wine whatsoever. The main thing is to rejoice through drinking.</i>
  It is a mitzva even for women to drink a lot of wine that brings joy on Purim. However, they must be careful not to get drunk, because drunkenness is more degrading for women than it is for men, and it constitutes a breach of the mitzva of <i>tzni’ut</i> (modesty), for which women are praised.13<i class="footnote">See <i>Ketubot</i> 65a, which indicates that wine and drunkenness are more degrading for women than they are for men. Perhaps this is why the Sages say in <i>Pesaḥim</i> 109a, regarding the mitzva of rejoicing on the festivals, that people should rejoice through what is appropriate for them: men through wine and women through nice clothing. This implies that women cannot rejoice through wine, because drunkenness is degrading for them. See <i>Peninei Halakha</i>: <i>Pesaḥ</i> 16:7 and n. 3, regarding the Four Cups. Nevertheless, it is a mitzva for women to drink a small amount, without getting drunk.</i>
  If one knows that drinking a lot of wine causes him to cry and become depressed, or causes headaches, it is preferable for him to fulfill the mitzva by drinking just a little more than usual. This is because the main objective of the mitzva is to be happy, and if drinking makes one sad, he undermines the mitzva. If, however, he cries out of joy – for example, if he is happy to cry about important things, like the present state of the Jewish people, the rebuilding of the Holy Temple, or his own unrepentant spiritual state – he may fulfill the mitzva by drinking “until he does not know.”
  If one knows that when he gets drunk he goes wild and hurts others, or he ends up wallowing in his own vomit and degrading himself in public, he should not get drunk. Rather, he should fulfill the mitzva by drinking more than usual. Such a person need not bemoan the fact that he cannot control himself when drunk. Even though the Sages state that “When wine enters, a secret comes out” (<i>Eruvin</i> 65a), and thus his actions while drunk seemingly show that he has a deep-seated inclination toward violence and rowdiness, nevertheless, the Sages also say, “The reward is proportionate to the exertion” (<i>Avot</i> 5:23). Since he actually manages to curb his impulses in the course of daily life, it is clear that he continually makes great improvements.14<i class="footnote"><i>Ḥayei Adam</i>, quoted in BHL 665:2, s.v. “ad,” states that one should not reach a state of drunkenness in which he sins. It is true that I write later on in the name of Rav Kook that, when it comes to missing prayers, we apply the rule “One who is engaged in performing a mitzva is exempt from performing another mitzva.” Nevertheless, all agree that one may not cause oneself to sin. It is true that Rav Kook writes in <i>Mitzvat Re’iyah</i> (Omissions §695) that the performance of a mitzva protects one from harm, proving this from a statement of Rashba; nevertheless, it seems that everyone agrees that one who knows from experience that getting drunk leads him to sin or degradation should not get drunk. It is also obvious that one who feels sad when he drinks heavily should not drink, as Purim is supposed to be a day of feasting and joy. However, if he cries for good things, and enjoys doing so, he may get drunk, and it is even a mitzva to do so. A proof for this is found in <i>Shibolei Ha-leket</i> §93, which cites an aggadic teaching that R. Akiva used to cry on Shabbat, saying that it gave him pleasure. This is quoted in <i>Beit Yosef</i> and Rema, OḤ 288:2, and in MB <i>ad loc</i>.<i> </i>4.</i>
  In order to fulfill the mitzva properly, one must understand that alcohol reaches the height of its influence around twenty minutes after it is ingested. This delay causes some people to make a mistake: When five minutes pass after drinking a cup of wine or hard liquor, and they do not feel any significant change, they think that they need to drink another cup. And when, even then, they feel that they have not fulfilled the mitzva, they drink another cup, and – just to be sure – one more. Then, all of a sudden, the first cup starts taking effect, and then the second, the third, and the fourth. All at once they become very drunk, behave like animals, and begin to vomit, causing much shame and degradation. Therefore, one must know how to drink and rejoice, waiting at least a half-hour between drinks and incorporating one’s drinking into the meal. This way, people will be able to rejoice properly throughout Purim.
  
  Section 12
  
  The <i>Mitzvot</i> of Joy and Kindness / The Meaning of the Mitzva of Drinking
  It is reasonable to ask: Both in Tanakh and in rabbinic literature (<i>Bamidbar Rabba</i> ch. 10, <i>Vayikra Rabba</i> 12:1), it is made clear that drunkenness is disgraceful and liable to bring one to sin. Why, then, are we commanded to get drunk on Purim? The reason is that all the miracles that God performed for the Jewish people on Purim happened through wine. Vashti was removed from her reign at the wine feast, and Esther then took her place. Haman’s demise occurred at a wine feast as well. We must therefore conclude that although drunkenness is generally disgraceful, one cannot ignore its positive aspects. Through wine, simple joy is made manifest and unconstrained material happiness, filled with strength and vitality, is expressed. Throughout the year, the disrepute and rowdiness that associated with drunkenness overshadow its positive aspects, and thus drunkenness causes many problems. On Purim, however, when we drink and rejoice over God’s salvation, in commemoration of the miracles He performed through drinking – the positive aspects of drinking are expressed.
  There is a deeper reason as well. On Purim, the eternal sanctity of Israel is revealed, and it becomes clear that everything God does to the Jewish people is for the good. Even things that initially seem bad eventually turn out to be for our benefit. Drinking wine for the sake of a mitzva shows that even the material aspect of Israel is holy at its core. Even though the body and its senses seem to impede the service of God, this is reversed on the sublime plane of Purim, when these physical elements greatly enhance our service of God, with joy and vitality.
  Let us delve even deeper. In general, Torah and intellect must guide our lives, and when one follows this path, he is happy, but his happiness is limited by his perception. However, on the lofty level of faith that we reach on Purim, we recognize that God runs the world for the good. Even if His ways are sometimes incomprehensible to us, we disregard our own perceptions and happily accept God’s governing of the world. This is the level of “until he does not know”: cleaving to God Who is beyond human comprehension. This is connected in its entirety to faith through self-sacrifice. With such sublime faith – the faith of the people of Israel – we achieve boundless joy.15<i class="footnote">The simple explanation is quoted in <i>Eliya Rabba</i> and BHL 695:2. See also <i>Mitzvat Re’iyah</i> (omissions §695). It is no coincidence that there is another, deeper explanation, as that is the property of good wine – it reveals secrets. At first there is one interpretation, and through this interpretation another is revealed. These three explanations correspond to the three levels of drinking: 1) tipsy; 2) drunk; and 3) very drunk – “until he does not know,” according to its simple meaning. See <i>Torah Or</i> by R. Shneur Zalman of Liadi, “<i>Ḥayav Inish Li-besumei</i>,” pp. 98a-100b, especially 99c-d. In the merit of their natural humility, women can attain all of this by drinking only a small amount of alcohol.</i>
  
  Section 13
  
  The <i>Mitzvot</i> of Joy and Kindness / When to Eat the Festive Meal
  Most Jews begin the Purim meal in the afternoon, after praying <i>Minḥa</i>. During the morning hours, they are busy sending <i>mishlo’aḥ manot</i> to one another and giving <i>matanot la-evyonim</i>, going out of their way to express love and friendship toward family and friends. When afternoon arrives, it is proper to pray <i>Minḥa</i> before starting the meal; otherwise there is reason to be concerned that people will not be able to pray <i>Minḥa</i> due to drunkenness.
  Some people start the meal very late, just before <i>shki’a</i>, eating most of the meal after dark. Many authorities question this practice, as the mitzva is to eat the meal on Purim, and at <i>tzeit ha-kokhavim </i>the next day already begins. Some answer this objection by pointing out that everything follows the beginning, and since these people start the meal on Purim, its continuation at night is still considered part of the Purim meal. The same rule applies to <i>Birkat Ha-mazon</i>. If one starts the meal during the day and finishes it late at night, he nonetheless recites <i>Al Ha-nisim</i> in <i>Birkat Ha-mazon</i>. Furthermore, it is appropriate to rejoice on the night immediately following the fourteenth of Adar as well, because that is when Purim begins in walled cities. <i>Le-khatḥila</i>, however, it is proper to start the meal when there is plenty of time left in the day. Then, if the meal carries over into the night, no harm is done, because the main part of the meal was eaten during the day.
  Some say that it is preferable to perform the mitzva as early as possible and eat the meal in the morning. This way, whoever gets drunk can become sober by <i>Minḥa</i> time. The prevalent custom, however, is to conduct the meal in the afternoon.16<i class="footnote">The explanation behind the custom to start the meal just before <i>shki’a</i> is cited in <i>Terumat Ha-deshen</i> §140. The author and his mentors, however, used to eat the meal in the morning. <i>Shlah</i> encouraged people to eat the meal specifically in the morning. This was also the custom of the Vilna Gaon, and Rashash followed this practice as well, for kabbalistic reasons (<i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 695:23). Rema 695:2 states, based on Maharil, that it is better to eat the meal after praying <i>Minḥa</i> at the earliest time (<i>Minḥa gedola</i>). This is the standard recommendation, which many people follow. Still, others start the meal just before evening, and even some Aḥaronim followed this practice. If the following night is the fifteenth of Adar, there is a mitzva to rejoice on both days in any case (Rema 695:2, MB <i>ad loc. </i>16). Nevertheless, even in Jerusalem, some extend the meal into the following night, based on the rationale that everything follows the beginning of the meal. Moreover, according to Ran, the prohibition of “<i>ve-lo ya’avor </i>(lit. ‘and it shall not pass’)” (Esther 9:27) does not apply to the active <i>mitzvot</i> of Purim, only to the reading of the <i>Megilla</i>. This is why we eat the meal on Sunday, the sixteenth of Adar, on a Triple Purim (see below 17:5). Therefore, one may extend the meal into the night.</i>
  It is praiseworthy to study some Torah before beginning the <i>se’uda</i>, as it is written, “The Jews enjoyed light and gladness, joy and honor” (Esther 8:16); the Sages expound, “‘Light’ refers to Torah.” Through Torah study, one can attain consummate joy (Rema 695:2).
  According to many authorities, one who knows that he may not be able to pray <i>Minḥa</i> or <i>Ma’ariv</i> if he gets drunk should not get drunk (<i>Ḥayei Adam</i>, BHL). However, R. Avraham Yitzḥak Kook writes that one who drinks on Purim is engaged in performing a mitzva, and the rule is that one who is engaged in performing a mitzva is exempt from performing another mitzva (<i>Oraḥ Mishpat</i>, omissions §7).
  
  Section 14
  
  The <i>Mitzvot</i> of Joy and Kindness / Can a Drunk or Tipsy Person Recite <i>Berakhot</i> and Pray <i>Ma’ariv</i>?
  A tipsy person is one who is under the influence of alcohol and finds it difficult to concentrate or focus his thoughts, but would still be capable of speaking before a king. A drunk person is one who has drunk so much that he would be incapable of speaking properly before a king.
  Individuals in both of these states may recite <i>Birkhot Ha-nehenin</i>. Even though, <i>le-khatḥila</i>, a drunk person should not recite <i>berakhot</i>, he may recite <i>berakhot </i>that must be recited at a specific point in time. Therefore, on Purim, a drunk person may recite all <i>Birkhot Ha-nehenin</i>, <i>Birkat Ha-mazon</i>, and <i>Asher Yatzar</i>.
  The law regarding prayer is more stringent. One who is tipsy or drunk after finishing the meal must wait to pray <i>Ma’ariv</i> until he is sober and able to pray with a clear mind. If doing so will cause him to miss praying with a <i>minyan</i>, then if he is merely tipsy, he should pray – from a <i>siddur</i> – with the <i>minyan</i>, because the prayer of a tipsy person is acceptable, <i>be-di’avad</i>. If, however, he is truly drunk, he should not pray with the <i>minyan</i>, because the prayer of a drunk person is invalid and considered an abomination.
  If one feels very tired, and there is concern that he will fall asleep and miss praying entirely if he does not pray immediately, the law is as follows. One who is merely tipsy should recite the entire prayer, but one who is drunk should read the <i>Shema</i> without its accompanying <i>berakhot</i> and skip the <i>Amida</i>. This way, he at least discharges his Torah obligation to read the <i>Shema</i>. Furthermore, even if he is overcome by sleep before he manages to pray, he is not viewed as having sinned, because he became drunk for the sake of heaven, and one who is engaged in performing a mitzva is exempt from performing another mitzva. In such a case, he should make up the prayer he missed the next morning by reciting an additional <i>Amida</i> prayer after the <i>Amida</i> for <i>Shaḥarit</i>.
  It seems that if one is unsure whether he is considered tipsy or drunk, he may be lenient on Purim and recite the <i>Amida</i>, since on Purim even the king accepts the drunkards with good spirits, because that is the mitzva of the day.17<i class="footnote">See SA and Rema §99, and MB <i>ad loc.</i>, regarding tipsiness and drunkenness. Also see <i>Peninei Halakha</i>: <i>Prayer</i> 5:11 regarding the same issue, and <i>ibid. </i>18:8-10 regarding the laws of making up missed prayers.The allowance for an intoxicated person to pray when time is running out is explained in <i>Yam shel Shlomo</i>, quoted in MB 99:3, 17. Rema rules leniently as well regarding one who drank a <i>revi’it</i> of wine, either because today’s wines are weaker than those of the past or because today we use <i>siddurim </i>when we pray. In my humble opinion, one may certainly be lenient on Purim regarding this issue, because becoming intoxicated is part of the mitzva of the day.</i>
  
  Section 15
  
  The <i>Mitzvot</i> of Joy and Kindness / Scheduling the <i>Se’uda</i> when Purim is on Friday
  When Purim falls out on Friday, it is customary, <i>le-khatḥila</i>,<i> </i>to begin the meal before the afternoon, in honor of Shabbat. One who was not able to begin the meal before the afternoon should try to begin the meal at least three hours before <i>shki’a</i>. <i>Be-di’avad</i>, however, one may begin eating any time before <i>shki’a</i>. Either way, if one begins the meal close to Shabbat, he should try to limit what he eats, in order to eat the Friday night meal with a good appetite.
  Alternatively, there is a custom to combine the Purim meal with the first Shabbat meal on Friday night. Some great Torah authorities follow this custom, while others recommend doing so only <i>be-di’avad</i>. In order to follow this custom, one must pray <i>Minḥa</i> and then begin the meal while it is still Purim. Then, around a half-hour before <i>shki’a</i>, one should accept Shabbat by lighting the Shabbat candles, place a covering over the bread, and recite <i>kiddush</i> over wine. Since one has already recited the <i>berakha</i> over wine (<i>Ha-gafen</i>) during the Purim meal, one should omit that <i>berakha</i> in <i>kiddush</i>. After <i>kiddush</i>, one continues the meal, making sure to eat a <i>keveitza</i> of bread, or at least a <i>kezayit</i>, for the Shabbat meal. At the end of the meal, one recites <i>Retzei Ve-haḥalitzenu</i> in <i>Birkat Ha-mazon</i>, adding <i>Al Ha-nisim</i> in the <i>Ha-Raḥaman</i> (“May the Merciful One”) section at the end of the prayer. After the meal, one prays <i>Ma’ariv</i>.18<i class="footnote"><i>Responsa</i> <i>Maharil </i>§56 states that when Purim falls out on Friday one may begin the meal before <i>Minḥa ketana</i> (about three hours before the end of the day). Rema 695:2 states that one should eat the meal in the morning. MB <i>ad loc. </i>10 states that, <i>le-khatḥila</i>, one should eat the meal before midday, but <i>be-di’avad</i>, one may begin to eat any time before <i>shki’a</i> (see MB 529:8).The source of the custom of combining the meals (called “<i>pores mapa u-mekadesh</i>,” literally, “place a cover and recite <i>kiddush</i>,” after a key element of the practice)<i> </i>is <i>Pesaḥim</i> 100a, and it is explained in SA 271:4. Me’iri followed this practice, <i>le-khatḥila</i>, when Purim would fall out on Friday (Me’iri, <i>Ketubot</i> 7a). Some Aḥaronim followed this practice as well. <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 271:22 states in the name of Arizal that, <i>le-khatḥila</i>, this should not be done, because one must make <i>kiddush</i> after praying <i>Ma’ariv</i>. According to Me’iri and MA 695:9, one should recite both <i>Retzei</i> and <i>Al Ha-nisim</i> at their regular places. However, MB 695:15 states, based on <i>Ḥayei Adam</i>, that one should not recite <i>Al Ha-nisim</i>. I suggested above that one should recite <i>Al Ha-nisim </i>in the <i>Ha-raḥaman</i> section because it does not affect one’s fulfillment of the mitzva of <i>Birkat Ha-mazon </i>if it is recited there.</i>
  
  Section 16
  
  The <i>Mitzvot</i> of Joy and Kindness / Costumes and the Prohibition of <i>Lo Yilbash</i>
  Many people customarily wear masks and costumes on Purim. Even though there is no source for this in the writings of the Sages, and the Aḥaronim did not write that one must wear costumes, various reasons have been given for the custom. The first reason is that it increases our joy, as a person with an unusual appearance can be amusing and entertaining. Another reason is that when one departs from his normal attire, he is able to let loose, rejoice, and display his love for his friends. Another reason is that having different modes of dress causes disunity among the Jewish people, and changing our external appearances on Purim breaks down the barriers between us and increases unity. Another reason is that by wearing costumes, we become aware of the degree to which we are influenced by external elements, and as a result, we can focus more on the internal elements that are revealed on Purim. Finally, costumes allude to the fact that even when the Jews look like gentiles on the outside, they remain Jews deep down, as the Purim story made clear.
  Mahari Mintz writes that the custom in the homes of great and pious individuals in Germany was to dress up on Purim; men even wore women’s clothing and women wore men’s clothing (<i>Responsa</i> §16). He comments that one should not think poorly of them, since there is certainly no concern that this is prohibited. After all, the prohibition of <i>lo yilbash </i>(the prohibition against cross-dressing) refers only to wearing the clothing of the opposite gender for purpose of adultery and licentiousness. However, when this is done for the sake of rejoicing, it is not prohibited. Rema (696:8) writes that this is the accepted practice.
  Most <i>poskim</i>, however, maintain that a man may not dress up as a woman, and a woman may not dress up as a man (<i>Baḥ</i> YD 182; <i>Taz</i> YD 182:4). Based on this, many Aḥaronim write that one should censure those who wear the clothing of the opposite sex. This is the correct practice. Some maintain that if a person changes only one article of clothing, and that person’s sex remains recognizable based on the other garments, one should not denounce him (<i>Pri Megadim</i>).19<i class="footnote">According to <i>Baḥ</i>, one may be lenient only when there is a real need to wear a garment of the opposite sex. For example, a man may wear a woman’s raincoat if he has no other way to protect himself from the rain, because his sole intention is to protect himself. <i>Taz</i> concurs. <i>Yad Ha-ketana</i> rules stringently, stating that one may not wear clothes of the opposite gender under any circumstances, even if there is a real need. See <i>Yabi’a Omer</i> YD 6:14. Rema 696:8 states that one may rely on the lenient opinions and dress up on Purim. <i>Knesset Ha-gedola</i> and <i>Shlah</i> warn that one should distance himself from this custom. <i>Birkei Yosef</i> and <i>Yeḥaveh Da’at</i> 5:50 concur.</i>
  
  
  
  
  
  Section 1
  
  Walled and Unwalled Cities / What Is a Walled City?
  As we already learned (15:4), the Sages established two separate times for celebrating Purim. Most places celebrate on the fourteenth of Adar, whereas Shushan, along with cities that were surrounded by walls at the time of Yehoshua bin Nun, celebrate on the fifteenth of Adar.
  It makes no difference whether the city is located in Eretz Yisrael or outside of it; any city that had a wall at the time of Yehoshua is considered a walled city, even if its wall was subsequently destroyed. Shushan, where the miracle actually took place, is the only exception; it is considered a walled city even though the city had not yet been built at the time of Yehoshua bin Nun (SA 688:1).1<i class="footnote"><i>Megilla</i> 3b states that a walled city is a city that was surrounded by a wall before its houses were built, or whose houses were built with the intention of surrounding the city afterward with a wall. If, however, the residents built the city without any expressed intent to build a wall and afterward surrounded it with a wall, it is not considered a walled city (SA 688:1). The Gemara continues: “A city in which there are not ten <i>batlanim</i> is reckoned as a village.” According to <i>She’iltot</i> and Ramban, this principle can be applied to Purim. Rambam, <i>Tosafot</i>, Rosh, and many other Rishonim maintain that this law was stated in reference to the other laws of a walled city, but regarding Purim, a place does not need to have ten <i>batlanim</i> in order to be considered a city. SA 688:1 rules according to this opinion. See MB <i>ad loc.</i> 2. What are <i>batlanim</i>? Rashi writes that they are ten people who do not work and are sustained by the community so that they can always be available to pray in the synagogue. <i>Itur</i>, Rambam, <i>Nimukei Yosef,</i> and others concur. According to Ramban, Rashba, and Ritva, however, they do not have to remain unemployed; they simply need to attend the synagogue services in the morning and the evening on a consistent basis.</i>
  When the Men of the Great Assembly instituted the holiday of Purim, many large cities, especially in Eretz Yisrael, had a tradition that they had been surrounded by a wall at the time of Yehoshua bin Nun. The residents of these cities, therefore, celebrated Purim on the fifteenth of Adar. Over the centuries, however, these cities have been destroyed, and the traditions regarding their status have been lost. Some modern cities, like Lod, have the same name as cities that were known to have been surrounded by a wall at the time of Yehoshua bin Nun. The problem is that we do not know with certainty whether the modern city is located exactly where the city stood in Yehoshua’s time, or perhaps it is simply named after the ancient city but is actually situated somewhere else nearby. Some ancient cities became devoid of Jews, and we do not know whether they existed at the time of Yehoshua, because the traditions regarding their status were lost. There are other cities, such as Hebron, that we know existed at the time, though we do not know if they had a wall. There is only one city concerning which there is a clear tradition that it was surrounded by a wall at the time of Yehoshua bin Nun: our holy and glorious city of Jerusalem. Jerusalem is the only place where Purim is celebrated nowadays on the fifteenth of Adar. We will first elaborate on the laws of Jerusalem and then discuss the laws of the various uncertain places.2<i class="footnote"><i>Responsa Divrei Yosef</i> (Schwartz) §2 states that Jerusalem is the only place about which we are certain that it was surrounded by a wall. Take Hebron, for example: According to Radbaz 2:681, it was not surrounded by a wall (see <i>Teḥumin</i>, vol. 1. pp. 122-123), whereas Ḥida writes that the Jews there had a custom to read the <i>Megilla</i> on the fifteenth as well (<i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 688:17). Regarding Lod, <i>Megilla</i> 4a states clearly that it is a walled city. However, it is uncertain whether modern Lod is located exactly where the ancient city of Lod stood. Therefore, we treat it as an uncertainty. This is how R. Ovadia Yosef rules in <i>Yabi’a Omer</i> 7:60. As for Tiberias, <i>Megilla</i> 5b explains that it has an uncertain status because one side of the city was not walled; it bordered on the sea. In general, even if we would discover a city that has remnants of an ancient wall from the time of Yehoshua bin Nun, it would still be unclear whether the city was built with the intention of surrounding it with a wall, as that is the only way a city can be considered walled. R. Shaul Yisraeli suggested that if the walls of an ancient city are buried beneath the ground and the houses of the modern city are built above the height of the walls, the modern city is not considered walled (cited in <i>Teḥumin</i> vol. 1, p. 126). See the same source for a lengthy discussion concerning the town of Beit El, which is located around a kilometer away from the excavations of the ancient city of Beit El. On p. 128, R. Sraya Deblitzky states, based on <i>Igrot Ha-Re’iyah</i> §423, that one should not determine <i>halakha</i> based on archeological evidence. See p. 130, which cites the ruling of my father and teacher, R. Zalman Melamed, that residents of Beit El should celebrate Purim only on the fourteenth of Adar.</i>
  
  Section 2
  
  Walled and Unwalled Cities / Jerusalem and Its Environs
  The Sages said: “A walled city and all that adjoins it (<i>samukh</i>) and all that is visible with it (<i>nir’eh imo</i>)<i> </i>are reckoned as a walled city” (<i>Megilla</i> 3b). Therefore, not only do the residents of the Old City of Jerusalem celebrate Purim on the fifteenth of Adar, but so do the residents of all the neighborhoods adjacent to the Old City. Even though the city has expanded greatly over the years, each and every neighborhood takes on the status of the Old City and reads the <i>Megilla</i> on the fifteenth, since each one is adjacent to the one next to it.
  While the neighborhoods of Jerusalem were still being built, a question arose regarding the status of neighborhoods that were originally built far away from the rest of the city. Most recently, this question came up regarding the neighborhoods of Ramot and Har Nof. Some authorities maintain that only neighborhoods to which there is a continuous stretch of houses from the Old City are considered part of Jerusalem. If, however, there is a gap of 141 and one third <i>amot</i> (67.8 meters) between the two areas, they are considered separate locations. Accordingly, these authorities ruled that residents of Ramot and Har Nof must read the <i>megilla</i> on the fourteenth.
  Others maintain that all neighborhoods that are considered part of the Jerusalem municipality for tax purposes – and all the more so if they are surrounded by the same <i>eruv</i> – take on the status of Jerusalem and read the <i>Megilla</i> exclusively on the fifteenth. Thus, they ruled that residents of Har Nof and Ramot must read the <i>Megilla</i> on the fifteenth. The former Chief Rabbis of Jerusalem, R. Shalom Messas and R. Yitzḥak Kulitz, ruled in this manner, and this is the prevalent custom. All of these rulings were decided, over time, as Jerusalem expanded. With the help of God, Builder of Jerusalem, the city will continue to be built up, and even the furthest neighborhoods eventually become adjacent and linked to the rest of the city, until it becomes clear to all that they are considered part of Jerusalem.3<i class="footnote"><i>Megilla</i> 3b states that if a place is “adjoining, even if it is not visible” or “visible, even if it is not adjoining,” then it is considered part of the walled city. Rashi, Rabbeinu Ḥananel, Raavan, <i>Or Zaru’a</i>, Rashba, Me’iri, and Ritva explain that if a place is not visible from an adjacent walled city, it is considered part of the city as long as it is within a <i>mil</i> (912 meters) of the city. But if the place is visible from the walled city, it is considered part of the city even if it is more than a <i>mil</i> away. They ask: Is the place still considered part of the walled city if it can be seen from the city, but is very far from it? Me’iri explains that the Gemara refers to a place that is subordinate to the city and considered part of the same district. Similarly, Ritva writes that this law applies only when residents of the surrounding villages participate in the affairs of the city.In contrast, Rambam maintains that even a place from which a walled city can be seen is not considered part of the city if it is more than a <i>mil</i> away. The only distinction is that when the city is visible, we measure the <i>mil</i> as the crow flies, and when it is not visible, we measure it by a straight, terrestrial line (Maharitatz §120). Alternatively, when the city is visible, we measure a <i>mil</i>; and when it is not visible, the nearby place takes on the status of the walled city only if it truly adjacent – on the outskirts of the city (Maharam Alashkar). That is, if there is a distance of 70 and two thirds <i>amot</i> between the two places, and the walled city is not visible, they are considered separate places. And if there are two neighborhoods, the distance is doubled – 141 and one third <i>amot</i>. Ran, <i>Roke’aḥ</i>, and <i>Ohel Mo’ed</i> concur. The Aḥaronim disagree about the opinion of SA 688:2. According to MA and others, SA agrees with Rashi and most Rishonim. <i>Pri Ḥadash</i> and others claim that SA concurs with Rambam.The reason that places adjacent to or within view of a walled city take on the status of the city is that they are subordinate to and reliant on it. This can be inferred from the words of Ritva, who writes that residents of these places come to take refuge within the city’s walls in times of danger. <i>Turei Even</i> 3:2 and <i>Ḥatam Sofer</i>, OḤ 193 explain that the reason is in order not to separate between people who live close to each other.Practically speaking, MB 688:6 and SHT <i>ad loc.</i> 7 maintain that the first opinion is the primary one. <i>Yabi’a Omer</i> 7:58-59 states that one should take the second opinion into consideration as well, especially since residents of walled cities can satisfy their obligation, <i>be-di’avad</i>, by reading the <i>Megilla</i> on the fourteenth.How exactly do we measure the distance between a walled city and a place that can be seen from it? Some maintain that we measure only from areas that are actually walled (<i>Yabi’a Omer</i> 7:59:1), while others maintain that the measurement begins from the edges of the expanded city. Another dispute concerns whether the residents of the place need to be able to see all – or at least most of – the walled city (this appears to be Me’iri’s position, and R. Ḥayim Palachi writes this explicitly), or if it is sufficient for them to be able to see a small part of the city (Maharil Diskin, <i>Mikra’ei Kodesh </i>[Frank] §24)?In practice, the former Chief Rabbis of Jerusalem, R. Shalom Messas (<i>Shemesh U-magen</i> 1:51-52, 2:16-17) and R. Yitzḥak Kulitz, maintained that all neighborhoods that are part of Jerusalem for the purposes of paying municipal taxes read the <i>Megilla</i> exclusively on the fifteenth. They ruled this way even for the residents of Ramot and Har Nof. R. Shlomo Zalman Auerbach concurs. Moreover, in his opinion, the outlying areas would read the <i>Megilla</i> on the fifteenth even if they were separate entities for tax purposes, because there is an <i>eruv</i> that connects these neighborhoods to the city of Jerusalem (<i>Halikhot Shlomo</i> 20:8-9). These authorities also relied on the majority opinion of the Rishonim, who maintain that “adjacent and visible” is measured from the farthest outskirts of the expanded city. <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 688:10 suggests a novel idea: that the definition of a <i>mil</i> is the amount of time it takes to travel a <i>mil</i>; R. Messas mentions this suggestion as additional support for his ruling. My teachers, R. Avraham Shapiro, R. Mordechai Eliyahu, and R. Shaul Yisraeli, also endorsed, in practice, the halakhic determination that all neighborhoods of Jerusalem should read the <i>Megilla</i> on the fifteenth, with a <i>berakha</i> (<i>Mikra’ei Kodesh</i> [Harari] 5:11 and n. 43).In contrast, several great authorities maintain that the rule is as follows: Any neighborhood within a <i>mil</i> of the wall itself reads on the fifteenth, even if the entire area in between is empty. However, when measuring from a point in the expanded city, an empty area of 141 and a third <i>amot</i> constitutes a gap between Jerusalem and that neighborhood, and thus its residents must read on the fourteenth, with a <i>berakha</i>. This is the opinion of <i>Yabi’a Omer</i> 7:58 and <i>Or Le-Tziyon</i> 1:45. <i>Ḥazon Ish</i> 153:2-3 and <i>Mikra’ei Kodesh</i> (Frank) §23 also rule similarly, but they ruled that the residents of Giv’at Sha’ul should read the <i>Megilla</i> on the fifteenth, despite the fact that hundreds of meters of undeveloped land separated between that neighborhood and the rest of the city at the time. Apparently, they ruled this way because the residents of Giv’at Shaul were dependent on the city for all their affairs. <i>Minḥat Yitzḥak</i> 8:62 ruled that the residents of Ramot should read the <i>Megilla</i> on the fourteenth. The same is reported in the name of R. Yosef Shalom Elyashiv. Several years later, however, when Ramot expanded, R. Elyashiv changed his ruling and instructed residents of Ramot to read the <i>Megilla </i>on the fifteenth (even though there is an undeveloped area of more than 141 and a third <i>amot</i> between it and the main part of the city).A bigger question arose regarding Mevaseret Yerushalayim, which is, indeed, connected to Jerusalem by the <i>eruv</i>, but is its own municipality. According to the second opinion stated above, its residents certainly must read the <i>Megilla</i> on the fourteenth, and some actually do so. According to the first opinion, however, they should read it on the fifteenth, because from some parts of Mevaseret, one can see the outskirts of expanded Jerusalem. In addition, its residents are dependent on Jerusalem to a degree, and, as already mentioned, the two cities are joined by an <i>eruv</i>. R. Messas ruled in accordance with this opinion, and R. Uri Cohen, head of the Meretz Kollel there, implemented this ruling in practice. See <i>Oraḥ Mishpat</i> §146, which states similarly regarding Bayit Vegan in 1920. (Bayit Vegan in those days was like Mevaseret Yerushalayim today.)From 1948 to 1967, the Old City of Jerusalem was under Jordanian occupation. Because of this, the question arose: Should those residing in neighborhoods adjacent to the Old City celebrate Purim on the fifteenth, even though the area within the walls itself is bereft of Jews? <i>Masat Moshe</i> 2:3 and <i>Birkei Yosef</i> state that in such a situation, the <i>Megilla</i> is read on the fourteenth. The Vilna Gaon maintains, based on the Yerushalmi, that it is read on the fifteenth. Rashba and Ritva concur, and this was the practice in Jerusalem in those days. The proponents of this viewpoint suggest another rationale: Ancient Jerusalem was larger than the area known today as the Old City. R. Zvi Pesaḥ Frank accepted this in practice, recording his ruling in both <i>Har Tzvi</i> 2:131 and <i>Mikra’ei Kodesh</i> §25. It is worth adding that the whole reason Jews came to the new side of Jerusalem was in order to draw closer to the holy ancient Jerusalem. For this reason, all neighborhoods of Jerusalem are subordinate to it in all matters.</i>
  
  Section 3
  
  Walled and Unwalled Cities / Uncertain Places
  There is uncertainty about when to celebrate Purim in the following cities: Tiberias, Hebron, Shechem, Jaffa, Lod, Gaza, Tzefat, Akko, and Haifa. Some add the following cities to the list: Beit She’an, Jericho, Beersheba, Ramla. In addition, the following cities outside the Land of Israel have uncertain status: Tyre, Sidon, Damascus, Izmir, and Baghdad.4<i class="footnote">See <i>Mikra’ei Kodesh</i> (Harari) 5:11 (pp. 101-107), which specifies the uncertainty and outlines the custom of each city. There are two possible reasons for uncertainty: 1) whether the city had a wall at the time of Yehoshua bin Nun (and even if it did, perhaps the wall was erected after the houses were built); 2) whether the city is currently located in the same place as in ancient times. Some cities are uncertain for both reasons, while others are uncertain for only one reason. The cities enumerated in the first list were more likely surrounded by a wall, while for those in the second list this were less likely. Consequently, fewer people customarily read the <i>Megilla</i> on the fifteenth in those places.</i>
  The Rishonim disagree about how residents of cities of uncertain status should conduct themselves on Purim. All agree that the <i>Megilla</i> must be read on the fourteenth of Adar, with a <i>berakha</i>, in these cities, since even a resident of Jerusalem fulfills his obligation, <i>be-di’avad</i>, if he reads the <i>Megilla </i>on the fourteenth, when most of the world reads it. Therefore, in places of uncertain status, the <i>Megilla </i>must be read, <i>le-khatḥila</i>, on the fourteenth, with a <i>berakha</i>. The question is whether residents of these places must read it on the fifteenth as well.
  Some maintain that residents of uncertain places celebrate Purim exclusively on the fourteenth, with no obligation whatsoever to read the <i>Megilla</i> on the fifteenth. Only those who wish to follow a pious custom read it on the fifteenth without a <i>berakha</i> (Ramban, Rashba, Ran, Ritva).
  Others maintain that in places of uncertain status, the <i>Megilla</i> must be read on the fifteenth as well, without a <i>berakha</i>, so that the uncertainty surrounding these cities is not forgotten. An additional reason is to enhance the honor of Eretz Yisrael. Nevertheless, the <i>berakha</i> is omitted because of the uncertainty of the matter (MT, Laws of <i>Megilla </i>1:11, Me’iri, <i>Shibolei Ha-leket</i>, SA 688:4). The <i>poskim</i> debate the matter of the other <i>mitzvot</i> of Purim – <i>mishlo’aḥ manot</i>,<i> matanot la-evyonim</i>,<i> </i>and <i>se’uda</i>. Some maintain that residents of uncertain cities observe these <i>mitzvot</i> only on the first day, which is Purim for most of the world (<i>Pri Ḥadash</i>). Others maintain that they must perform these <i>mitzvot</i> on the second day as well (Ri’az).5<i class="footnote"><i>Megilla</i> 5b relates that the <i>amora </i>Ḥizkiya read the <i>Megilla</i> in Tiberias on both the fourteenth and the fifteenth, because although the city was walled on three sides, the fourth side bordered on the sea, and thus it was uncertain whether the city was considered walled. In addition, R. Asi read the <i>Megilla</i> in Hutzal on both the fourteenth and the fifteenth, because it was uncertain whether it was walled at the time of Yehoshua bin Nun.According to Ramban, Rashba, Ran, and Ritva, based on the Ge’onim, those who live in cities of uncertain status read the <i>Megilla</i> exclusively on the fourteenth, with a <i>berakha</i>. Technically, they do not need to read the <i>Megilla</i> at all, because we are lenient in cases of uncertainty about a rabbinic law. However, in order to avoid canceling the mitzva altogether for such people, the Sages established that they read it on the fourteenth, like the majority of the world. Ḥizkiya and R. Asi were merely following a pious custom by reading it on the fifteenth as well. In contrast to the Rishonim mentioned above, Rambam, <i>Shibolei Ha-leket</i>, Me’iri, and SA 688:4 maintain that <i>halakha</i> requires residents of cities of uncertain status to read the <i>Megilla</i> on both days – on the first day with a <i>berakha</i> and on the second day without a <i>berakha</i>. (According to Ri’az, they recite a <i>berakha</i> on both days, while according to R. Yeḥiel, they omit the <i>berakha</i> both days.)Seemingly, one could ask: How can these people recite a <i>berakha</i> over the <i>Megilla</i> reading on the fourteenth when it is uncertain if their city is considered unwalled? The answer is that the Yerushalmi (<i>y. Megilla</i> 1:1, 1:3, 2:3) states that, <i>be-di’avad,</i> a resident of a walled city who reads the <i>Megilla</i> on the fourteenth fulfills his obligation. It is true that <i>Pri Ḥadash</i> §688 and several other Aḥaronim state that the Bavli disagrees with this, and according to them, a resident of a walled city who reads the <i>Megilla </i>on the fourteenth does not fulfill his obligation. Nonetheless, <i>Pri Megadim</i>, <i>Mishbetzot Zahav</i> 688:2 and other Aḥaronim maintain that the Bavli agrees with the Yerushalmi. In addition, Vilna Gaon 688:4 explains that this is the basis for the opinion of Rambam and SA. This is also how the position of Ramban and Rashba is explained. Therefore, residents of uncertain cities read the <i>Megilla</i> on the fourteenth, with a <i>berakha</i>.Rashba, Ritva, and the Vilna Gaon write that the practice of reading the <i>Megilla</i> on both days in uncertain cities applies only in Eretz Yisrael. Others disagree; see MA 688:4. <i>Ben Ish Ḥai</i> (<i>Tetzaveh</i> 14) states that in Baghdad the custom was to read the <i>Megilla</i> on both days.According to Ri’az and MA 688:5, when there is uncertainty regarding a city’s status, its residents observe all the <i>mitzvot</i> of Purim on both days. <i>Pri Ḥadash</i> and <i>Mateh Yehuda</i> maintain that reading the <i>Megilla</i> is the only mitzva that is performed on both days. <i>Binyan Shlomo</i> explains that the mitzva of reading the <i>Megilla</i> was instituted by the prophets, while the other <i>mitzvot</i> were rabbinically mandated, which is why we are more lenient regarding the other <i>mitzvot </i>when there is an uncertainty. (See MB 688:10, which sides with MA, whereas BHL§695 agrees with <i>Pri Ḥadash</i>. Perhaps the distinction is that he rules leniently when it comes to <i>mitzvot</i> that require monetary outlay.) <i>Igeret Ha-Purim</i> states that the custom in Hebron and Tiberias is only to read the <i>Megilla</i> on the fifteenth, not to observe the other <i>mitzvot</i>. The author of <i>Ben Ish Ḥai</i> observed all of the <i>mitzvot</i> on both days. The Aḥaronim disagree about whether there is Torah reading (<i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 688:25). Regarding <i>Al Ha-nisim</i>, MB 693:6 states that one should recite it on the second day as well, while <i>Kaf Ha-ḥayim</i> 688:23 states, based on R. Ḥayim Vital, that one should not recite it.</i> People who live adjacent to cities of uncertain status observe Purim exclusively on the fourteenth, as only those who live adjacent to a city that reads the <i>Megilla</i> on the fifteenth with certainty take on its status, not those who live adjacent to a city of uncertain status. However, some authorities rule stringently, stating that even in places that are near a city of uncertain status, the <i>Megilla</i> should be read on the fifteenth as well.6<i class="footnote">According to <i>Birkei Yosef</i> 688:9, cited in BHL 688:2, people who live near a city of uncertain status read the <i>Megilla</i> only on the fourteenth. <i>Pe’at Ha-shulḥan</i> 3:15 states that the villages near Tzefat read it on both days. <i>Ḥazon Ish</i> 153:3 concurs; for this reason, Ḥazon Ish required the residents of Bnei Brak, which is close to Jaffa, to read the <i>Megilla</i> on the fifteenth. However, we already learned that, according to many Rishonim, technically, one does not need to read the <i>Megilla </i>on the fifteenth even in places of uncertain status. Therefore, in a nearby village, there are two uncertainties (<i>sfek sfeika</i>), and so we rule leniently. In addition, perhaps one could claim that this strengthens the opinion that even in the city of uncertain status itself the <i>Megilla </i>should be read only on the fourteenth. After all, one of the explanations given for why a place adjacent to a walled city takes on the status of the city is that we want to avoid separating between people who live as neighbors (<i>Turei Even</i> and <i>Ḥatam Sofer</i>, as cited above in n. 3). If residents of a place adjacent to a city of uncertain status would celebrate Purim only on the fourteenth, while the residents of the city itself celebrate on the fifteenth as well, they will be divided. Therefore, it is proper for residents of the uncertain place to follow the practice of those who live adjacent to them and observe only the fourteenth, especially since most Rishonim (based on the Ge’onim) espouse this opinion.</i>
  In practice, most uncertain places today rely on the lenient opinion and celebrate Purim exclusively on the fourteenth. Only in places where the likelihood that it was truly a walled city is greater, like in Tiberias and Hebron, do many people customarily read the <i>Megilla</i> on the fifteenth as well. Some even fulfill Purim’s other <i>mitzvot</i> on the fifteenth as well in these cities.
  
  Section 4
  
  Walled and Unwalled Cities / Traveling between Walled and Unwalled Cities
  Since Purim is celebrated in unwalled cities on the fourteenth and in walled cities (today, only in Jerusalem) on the fifteenth, many questions arise regarding one who travels from an unwalled city to Jerusalem, or vice versa. When should such a person observe the holiday of Purim? The general rule is that a person’s obligation is determined by his location on the day of Purim, not by his permanent residence throughout the year, because one who stays in an unwalled city for even one day is nonetheless considered a resident of an unwalled city with respect to the laws of Purim. The determining moment is <i>alot ha-shaḥar </i>(dawn) – on the fourteenth for unwalled cities, and on the fifteenth for walled cities – because that is when the obligation of the daytime <i>Megilla</i> reading begins.
  A resident of Jerusalem who wants to celebrate Purim on the fourteenth must enter an unwalled city on or before the night of the fourteenth and remain there until after <i>alot ha-shaḥar</i>. This way, he is considered a resident of an unwalled city according to all opinions. Then, even if he returns to Jerusalem early in the morning, before managing to read the <i>Megilla</i>, he remains obligated to read the <i>Megilla</i> on that day – the fourteenth – in Jerusalem. In such a case, he should appoint someone who is staying in an unwalled city to be his <i>shali’aḥ</i> to give <i>matanot la-evyonim </i>and <i>mishlo’aḥ manot </i>on his behalf. If, on the other hand, a resident of Jerusalem enters an unwalled city on the night of the fourteenth with intention to return to Jerusalem before <i>alot ha-shaḥar</i> of the fourteenth, or if he first enters the unwalled city after <i>alot ha-shaḥar</i> of the fourteenth, and he returns later on to Jerusalem, he is still considered a resident of Jerusalem, because the determining time is <i>alot ha-shaḥar</i> of the fourteenth.
  If a resident of an unwalled city celebrates Purim on the fourteenth and wants to celebrate the holiday again on the fifteenth, in Jerusalem, he must come to Jerusalem on the night of the fifteenth and stay there until after <i>alot ha-shaḥar</i> of the fifteenth. This way, he is considered a resident of Jerusalem for the day and must fulfill all the <i>mitzvot</i> of Purim on the fifteenth. However, he should try to hear the <i>berakhot</i> for the <i>Megilla</i> from someone else – and if he reads the <i>Megilla</i> for himself, he should omit the <i>berakhot</i> altogether – because some authorities maintain that one who already observed Purim on the fourteenth does not need to observe it a second time (based on Rosh). Even though he is halakhically required to observe Purim on the fifteenth as well, when it comes to reciting the <i>berakhot</i>, we take into account the opinion of those who rule that he is exempt and therefore omit the <i>berakhot</i>. One who is going to be in Jerusalem from the night of the fourteenth all the way through the day of the fifteenth must observe Purim only in Jerusalem, and he may recite the <i>berakhot</i> over the <i>Megilla</i> on the fifteenth according to all opinions.
  The Rishonim debate the case of a resident of Jerusalem who traveled to an unwalled city on the night of the fourteenth and planned to return to Jerusalem before <i>alot ha-shaḥar</i>,<i> </i>but was delayed and did not manage to return in time. Some authorities maintain that his status is determined by his intentions, and thus he is exempt from observing Purim on the fourteenth (Rif, Ramban). Others maintain that we consider only his actions, and thus he must observe Purim on the fourteenth (Rashi, <i>Ha-ma’or</i>). Within the opinion that his status is determined by his intentions, some maintain that his status is determined by his intention at the time that he traveled to that location (<i>Mishna Berura</i>), and others maintain that his status is determined by his intention when Purim begins. In practice, in both cases one should observe the <i>mitzvot</i> of Purim without reciting <i>berakhot</i>. If added uncertainties arise, one should consult a competent rabbi.7<i class="footnote">This issue is very detailed and complicated. Therefore, I wrote this section in a way that is suitable for everyone, summarizing the disputes very briefly. See <i>Torat Ha-mo’adim</i> 6:9-10, which rules that the law generally follows one’s location, and <i>Hilkhot Ḥag Be-ḥag</i> ch. 9, which rules that the law generally follows one’s intentions. There are many more distinctions regarding this issue; see <i>ibid. </i>and <i>Piskei Teshuvot</i> 688:9-10, which expands upon the topic in great detail.The determining time is <i>alot ha-shaḥar</i> because that is when the obligation for the daytime <i>Megilla</i> reading – which is the primary reading – begins. Several <i>poskim</i> write that <i>halakha</i> actually implies that in order to become obligated, one must stay there long enough after <i>alot ha-shaḥar </i>to be able to read the <i>Megilla</i>, which is approximately half an hour (see SHT 688:17).I wrote in the main text that the determining time is <i>alot ha-shaḥar</i> of the fourteenth and of the fifteenth, as that is the opinion of Rashi, Ramban, Ritva, Ri’az, SA, and others. Rosh, however, maintains that <i>alot ha-shaḥar </i>of the fourteenth is the only determinant. Accordingly, one can never obligate himself to observe two Purims. In consideration of his opinion, one does not recite the <i>berakhot</i> over the <i>Megilla</i> reading on the second day. Furthermore, according to most <i>poskim</i>, based on the Yerushalmi, it turns out that one who will be in Jerusalem on the fourteenth and in Tel Aviv on the fifteenth is exempt from observing Purim altogether. According to Rosh, however, since he knows on the night of the fourteenth that he does not intend to be in Jerusalem on the fifteenth, he must observe Purim on the fourteenth, and some say on the fifteenth as well.</i>
  
  Section 5
  
  Walled and Unwalled Cities / <i>Purim Ha-meshulash</i>
  The fifteenth of Adar, when Purim is celebrated in walled cities, sometimes coincides with Shabbat. The fourteenth of Adar never coincides with Shabbat. When the fifteenth falls out on Shabbat, Purim in that year is called <i>Purim Ha-meshulash </i>(“Triple Purim”), because its <i>mitzvot</i> are divided over three days. Why don’t we celebrate Purim on Shabbat? The Sages prohibited us from reading the <i>Megilla</i> on Shabbat for fear that one may carry it through a public domain. It is also inappropriate to conduct the <i>se’uda </i>on Shabbat, because it says, “To observe them as (lit. ‘to <i>make</i> them’) days of feasting and joy” (Esther 9:22), which means that the meal must be <i>made</i> for the sake of Purim, not Shabbat. (The date of Purim depends on an act of the <i>beit din</i>, which sanctifies the new month, while Shabbat is set and established from the time the world was created.)
  Therefore, residents of walled cities read the <i>Megilla</i> on Friday. They also give <i>matanot la-evyonim</i> on that day, because poor people anticipate receiving money at the time of the <i>Megilla</i> reading and will be distressed if people neglect to give them gifts on that day. One should try to read the <i>Megilla</i> with a <i>minyan</i>, because some maintain that this reading is not conducted in its proper time, in which case it must be read in a group of ten Jews, men or women (MB 690:61). Nonetheless, the <i>Megilla</i> should be read on Friday, with the <i>berakhot</i>, even when no <i>minyan</i> is available (<i>Tzitz Eliezer</i> 13:73, <i>Yabi’a Omer</i> 6:46).
  On Shabbat, which is the day of Purim in walled cities, residents of these cities recite <i>Al Ha-nisim</i> in the prayer services and in <i>Birkat Ha-mazon</i>. They also read the special Torah reading for Purim. That is, they take out two Torah scrolls; they read the weekly Torah portion from the first scroll and the portion for Purim – “Amalek came” (Shemot 17:8-16) – from the second scroll.
  On Sunday, they eat the festive Purim meal and send <i>mishlo’aḥ manot</i> to one another, since <i>mishlo’aḥ manot</i> is connected to the meal.
  The reason we read the <i>Megilla</i> before Shabbat but postpone the <i>se’uda</i> until after Shabbat is because we must publicize the miracle, by reading the <i>Megilla</i>, no later than the day on which the miracle occurred, as it says, “<i>ve-lo ya’avor </i>(lit. ‘and it shall not pass’)” (Esther 9:27). On the other hand, we may partake in the <i>se’uda</i> only once the day of the miracle has arrived, which is Shabbat. And since it is inappropriate to make such a meal on Shabbat, we postpone it until after Shabbat.
  It is best to eat more meat and drink more wine than usual even on Shabbat, because some authorities maintain that the <i>se’uda </i>is supposed to be eaten on Shabbat. If possible, it is also good to send <i>mishlo’aḥ manot </i>privately on Shabbat, on condition that there is an <i>eruv</i> in one’s location.8<i class="footnote">Ran derives from the Yerushalmi (<i>y. Megilla</i> 1:4) that we postpone the Purim meal until Sunday, and SA 688:6 rules accordingly. Radbaz, MA, <i>Noda Bi-Yehuda</i>, and others also agree. However, Ralbaḥ claims that the Bavli disagrees with the Yerushalmi and maintains that one should conduct the Purim meal on Shabbat. Therefore, it is proper to consume more meat and wine than usual at one’s Shabbat meal.According to many <i>poskim</i>, a resident of an unwalled city who comes to Jerusalem on Friday does not need to observe the <i>mitzvot</i> of <i>Purim Ha-meshulash</i>, because he has already fulfilled his obligation. Others maintain that it is better for him to observe the <i>mitzvot</i> of <i>Purim Ha-meshulash</i>.</i>