Four astronauts embarked on a journey to the International Space Station on Sunday, where they will be responsible for supervising the arrival of two new rocketships throughout their six-month tenure.
SpaceX's Crew-8 blasts off to the International Space Station tonight at 10:53 PM EST! The mission carries 4 astronauts for a 6-month stay, conducting science and keeping humans in space.
Read Now: https://t.co/1WfDS6PuFB#iss #spacex #nasa #spacexcrew8 #spacexlaunch — M31Global News (@M31globalnews) March 4, 2024
The Falcon rocket from SpaceX successfully launched from Kennedy Space Center with NASA astronauts Matthew Dominick, Michael Barratt, and Jeanette Epps, as well as Russian cosmonaut Alexander Grebenkin on board.
The orbiting lab is expected to be reached by the astronauts on Tuesday. They will be replacing a crew from the United States, Denmark, Japan, and Russia, who have been stationed there since August.
On Sunday night, there was nearly a delay once again. An insignificant fissure in the seal of the SpaceX capsule's hatch led to a sudden surge of last-minute evaluations, however, it was confirmed to be secure for the entirety of the mission.
The recent team's half-year residency involves the delivery of two spacecrafts commissioned by NASA. Boeing's upcoming Starliner capsule, carrying test pilots, is scheduled to arrive in late April. Following that, Sierra Space's Dream Chaser, a small shuttle, is expected to arrive a month or two later. Its purpose is to transport cargo to the station, although it will not be carrying passengers at this time.
Meanwhile, Elon Musk recently announced his plans to transfer one million people to Mars. In a recent article on X.com, Musk declared, "We are devising an all-encompassing strategy to ferry a million individuals to the crimson planet."
Musk emphasized the significance of overcoming the "single-planet Great Filter" during his discussion on X, presenting his ambitious plan. He envisions Mars as a vital backup option, essential for ensuring the continuity of civilization in case Earth becomes unsustainable.
As per Musk's perspective, the successful surpassing of the "single-planet Great Filter" occurs when Mars can sustain itself independently, without relying on supply ships from Earth.
Musk foresees that future journeys to Mars will become as ordinary as domestic flights, with SpaceX's Starship playing a crucial role in this groundbreaking venture.
When questioned about the launch of Starship to the Red Planet, Musk responded by stating, "Eventually, a trip to Mars will be as commonplace as a flight across the country."


A BRIGHTEST SUPERMOONS HAVE APPEARED AFTER A DECADES
The full moon on November 14, 2016, is a SUPER MOONS—that is, a full moon that occurs when it is at its closest point, or perigee, to Earth in its orbit.Since the full moon is at its perigee, it is at its biggest and brightest and is about 25 percent brighter than when it is at the farthest point, or apogee. This supermoon is the brightest since 1948, and it will not be as bright again until November 25, 2034. Usually a supermoon is a full moon that occurs on the same day as perigee. This supermoon will become full just two hours from perigee. The year 2016 has been an unusual time for supermoons, since the last three full moons of the year will be supermoons.
The concept of the supermoon came from 20th-century American astrology, in which it was originally defined as either a new or full moon that occurred within 10 percent of perigee and was seen as a portent of disasters. However, in a strange cultural quirk, the term escaped astrology into the mainstream to become an excuse to look at a really bright full moon.
|picture of the supermoon astrological view|


The moon is a harsh and unforgiving place, with extreme temperatures that can range from boiling to bone-chilling cold. The dark side of the moon, which is the side that always faces away from Earth, is particularly cold. However, how cold is the dark side of the moon? Here is an answer.
The average temperature on the dark side of the moon is around -208 degrees Fahrenheit (-130 degrees Celsius). However, temperatures can drop even lower in some places, reaching as cold as -424 degrees Fahrenheit (-253 degrees Celsius).
There are a few reasons why the dark side of the moon is so cold. First, the moon has no atmosphere, which means that there is nothing to trap heat from the sun.
Second, the dark side of the moon receives no direct sunlight, so it is constantly in the shade. Third, the moon’s surface is covered in fine dust that reflects heat into space.
In addition, the cold temperatures on the dark side of the moon make it a challenging place to live. However, some organisms have adapted to these extreme conditions, such as tardigrades, which are also known as water bears.
Tardigrades can survive temperatures as low as -458 degrees Fahrenheit (-272 degrees Celsius), making them one of the most resilient organisms on Earth.
Also, the cold temperatures on the dark side of the moon have implications for future space exploration. If humans ever want to live on the moon, they will need to find ways to protect themselves from the cold. This could involve developing new materials that can insulate against the cold or creating artificial atmospheres that can trap heat.
The cold side of the moon is a fascinating and mysterious place. As we learn more about it, we may discover even more amazing things about this harsh and unforgiving world.
How Cold Is the Light Side of the Moon
The light side of the moon can get as cold as -280 degrees Fahrenheit (-173 degrees Celsius) at night. This is because the moon has no atmosphere, so there is no air to trap heat. The sun’s rays can heat the surface of the moon during the day, but at night, the heat quickly radiates away into space.
The coldest temperature ever recorded on the moon was -243.1 degrees Celsius (-408.4 degrees Fahrenheit) in the crater Malapert. This crater is located on the far side of the moon, where it is even colder than on the near side.
Also, the light side of the moon can get very hot during the day. The average temperature on the sunlit surface of the moon is about 107 degrees Celsius (224.6 degrees Fahrenheit). However, the temperature can get as high as 260 degrees Fahrenheit (127 degrees Celsius) in some areas.
Furthermore, the extreme temperature swings on the moon are caused by the lack of atmosphere. Without an atmosphere, there is no air to trap heat, so the temperature can vary greatly depending on whether the sun is shining or not. This makes the moon a very harsh environment for life.
How Cold Is the Moon?
The temperature on the Moon can vary greatly, depending on the time of day, the location, and the season.
- Daytime temperatures near the lunar equator can reach a boiling 250 degrees Fahrenheit (120° C, 400 K).
- Nighttime temperatures get to a chilly -208 degrees Fahrenheit (-130° C, 140 K).
- The Moon’s poles are even colder. In certain spots near the moon’s poles, temperatures can drop even further, reaching -424° F (- 253°C or 20 K).
The reason for these dramatic temperature extremes is that the Moon has no atmosphere to insulate heat. During the day, the Sun’s rays directly heat the lunar surface, but at night, there is nothing to trap the heat, and it quickly radiates away into space.
The coldest temperature ever recorded on the Moon was -253°C (-424°F) in the permanently shadowed crater Hermite. This is the coldest temperature ever recorded in the solar system.
Also, the Moon’s temperature varies with the season. During the lunar summer, the Sun’s rays are more direct, and the temperatures are higher. During the lunar winter, the Sun’s rays are more oblique, and the temperatures are lower.
In addition, the temperature on the Moon varies with the location. The lunar equator receives more sunlight than the lunar poles, so the temperatures are generally higher at the equator.
The temperature on the Moon is an important factor for any future human exploration of the Moon. Astronauts will need to be prepared for extreme temperature changes, and they will need to wear protective clothing to stay warm at night.
Is the Dark Side of the Moon Always Dark?
The term “dark side of the moon” is a misnomer. The moon is tidally locked to the Earth, which means that it rotates on its axis at the same rate that it orbits the Earth. This means that the same side of the moon is always facing us, while the other side is always facing away.
That’s why the side that we never see is sometimes called the “far side” of the moon, but it is not actually any darker than the side that we do see.
Furthermore, the moon’s surface experiences two weeks of sunlight followed by two weeks of darkness. So, the far side of the moon is not always dark. However, it is dark to us, because we can never see it.
The term “dark side of the moon” is often used to refer to the unknown or mysterious side of the moon. This is because the far side of the moon was not explored until the 1950s, and it is still relatively unexplored today. The far side of the moon is also home to some of the most extreme terrain on the moon, including the South Pole–Aitken basin, which is the largest impact crater in the Solar System.
So, the answer to your question is no, the dark side of the moon is not always dark. It is only dark to us because we can never see it. However, the far side of the moon does experience two weeks of darkness followed by two weeks of sunlight, just like the side that we do see.
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How Hot Is the Dark Side of the Moon?
The “dark side” of the moon is not dark. It gets just as much sunlight as the “light side” of the moon. The term “dark side” refers to the fact that the far side of the moon is always facing away from Earth.
The temperature on the moon varies greatly depending on the time of day and the location. The far side of the moon can get as hot as 260 degrees Fahrenheit (127 degrees Celsius) during the day, and as cold as -297 degrees Fahrenheit (-183 degrees Celsius) during the night.
Meanwhile, the reason for the extreme temperature fluctuations is that the moon has no atmosphere. This means that there is no air to trap heat, so the surface of the moon can heat up very quickly during the day and cool down very quickly at night.
Also, the temperature on the dark side of the moon is affected by the lunar maria, which are large, dark, basaltic plains. The maria are very good at absorbing heat, so they tend to keep the surface of the moon warmer at night than the highlands, which are brighter and reflect more heat.
What Is the Temperature Difference Between the Light and Dark Side of the Moon?
The temperature difference between the light and dark sides of the moon is extreme. The moon has no atmosphere, so there is no air to trap heat. This means that the temperature can vary greatly depending on whether the surface is in sunlight or shadow.
On the sunlit side of the moon, temperatures can reach as high as 260 degrees Fahrenheit (127 degrees Celsius). In the shadows, temperatures can drop as low as -297 degrees Fahrenheit (-183 degrees Celsius). This is a difference of over 450 degrees Fahrenheit (230 degrees Celsius).
Meanwhile, the temperature difference is even greater at the poles of the moon. The poles are not exposed to the sun as much as the equator, so they can get much colder. Temperatures at the poles have been recorded as low as -238 degrees Fahrenheit (-396 degrees Celsius).
The extreme temperature difference on the moon is caused by the lack of atmosphere. Without an atmosphere, there is no air to trap heat, so the surface of the moon can heat up quickly when it is in sunlight and cool down quickly when it is in shadow.
In addition, the temperature difference on the moon also affects the way that the moon’s surface changes over time. The areas that are exposed to the sun the most are constantly being bombarded by solar radiation. This radiation can break down the surface of the moon, creating dust and regolith. The areas that are in shadow are not exposed to as much solar radiation, so they are less affected by erosion.
The extreme temperature difference on the moon is one of the challenges that would need to be overcome if humans were to ever live on the moon. However, it is also one of the things that make the moon such a unique and fascinating place.
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Is There Any Water on the Moon?
There is water on the Moon. It is mainly in the form of ice, and is found in two main places:
- The poles of the Moon. These areas are permanently shadowed by the Sun, so they are extremely cold. The ice in these areas is thought to be concentrated in small craters and the regolith, the loose material that covers the lunar surface.
- The sunlit surface of the Moon. In 2020, NASA’s SOFIA observatory confirmed the presence of water molecules on the sunlit surface of the Moon. This water is thought to be very spread out and is likely to be trapped in the pores of the lunar soil.
The amount of water on the Moon is still not fully known, but it is thought to be significant. Estimates suggest that there could be billions of tons of water ice in the permanently shadowed regions of the poles and that there could be smaller amounts of water distributed across the sunlit surface.
Furthermore, the discovery of water on the Moon is significant because it could provide a valuable resource for future human exploration of the Moon. Water could be used for drinking, growing food, and for generating rocket fuel. It could also help to protect astronauts from the harsh lunar environment.
The next steps in the exploration of water on the Moon will involve sending more missions to the Moon to study the distribution and abundance of water in different locations. These missions will also help to develop technologies for extracting and using water on the Moon.
Does the Moon Have Oxygen?
The Moon does have oxygen, but it is not in a gaseous form. Instead, it is trapped inside the regolith, which is the layer of rock and fine dust that covers the Moon’s surface. The regolith is made up of about 45% oxygen, which is enough to sustain 8 billion people for 100,000 years.
To breathe on the Moon, humans would need to extract oxygen from the regolith. This could be done using a variety of methods, such as thermal decomposition, electrolysis, or chemical reduction.
Several companies and organizations are working on developing technologies to extract oxygen from the Moon. If these technologies are successful, it could make it possible for humans to live on the Moon long-term.
Here are some additional facts about oxygen on the Moon:
- The Moon’s atmosphere is very thin, and it contains only about 100 molecules of oxygen per cubic centimeter.
- There is some evidence that water ice may be present in the Moon’s polar regions. If this is the case, it could provide a source of water and oxygen for future lunar missions.
- The extraction of oxygen from the Moon’s regolith is a challenging task, but it is being actively pursued by scientists and engineers.
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Can You Drink Moon Water?
you can drink moon water. There is no scientific evidence to support the claims that moon water has any health benefits, but many people believe that it can help with mental and emotional healing, improve skin health, and regulate menstrual cycles.
To make moon water, simply fill a glass or jar with clean water and leave it outside overnight during a full moon. In the morning, the water will have been exposed to the moon’s energy, and you can drink it or use it for other purposes.
It is important to note that moon water is not a substitute for medical treatment. If you are experiencing any health problems, please see a doctor.
Here are some of the potential benefits of drinking moon water:
- Mental and emotional healing: Some people believe that moon water can help to improve mood, reduce stress, and promote relaxation.
- Improved skin health: Moon water is said to be beneficial for skin health, as it can help to reduce inflammation and improve hydration.
- Regulated menstrual cycles: Some people believe that moon water can help to regulate menstrual cycles and relieve symptoms of PMS.
Of course, there is no scientific evidence to support these claims. However, if you are looking for a natural way to improve your health, drinking moon water may be worth a try. Just be sure to use clean water and a container that is safe to drink from.
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Finally, on how cold is the dark side of the moon, the dark side of the moon is not dark at all. It experiences the same amount of sunlight as the light side, but because it is tidally locked to Earth, the same side always faces us.
This means that the dark side of the moon experiences long periods of the night when the temperature can drop to as low as -232 degrees Celsius (-387 degrees Fahrenheit).
The coldest temperature ever recorded on the moon was -253 degrees Celsius (-424 degrees Fahrenheit), which was measured in a permanently shadowed crater at the lunar south pole.
And the reason for the extreme temperature variations on the moon is that it has no atmosphere to trap heat. This means that the moon’s surface can heat up quickly during the day and cool down quickly at night.


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Legendary Star Trek actor William Shatner will boldly go where no 90-year-old has ever been when he joins the crew on the next spaceflight by Jeff Bezos' Blue Origin.
Shatner, who played James T. Kirk on the classic TV show and subsequent movies, will take off in the New Shepard capsule in October for a 15-minute civilian flight, according to TMZ. The exact date has not been revealed.
The Blue Origin flight will be recorded for a documentary that was rejected by Discovery and is now being negotiated by Shatner's team somewhere else.
Shatner's management and Blue Origin. Neither could confirm the report.
Actor William Shatner, 90, is set to become the oldest man ever in space aboard the second civilian flight from Jeff Bezos' company Blue Origin
Bezos launched his first Blue Origin civilian flight on July 20 when he boarded the spacecraft with his brother, Mark Bezos, Dutch teenager Oliver Daemen, and test pilot, Wally Funk.
Funk, became the oldest person to ever fly to space at 82 years old, a record that Shatner is now set to beat.
Daemen's father, Joes Daemen, who founded private equity firm Somerset Capital Partners, bought Oliver's seat aboard the flight for over $20 million at auction.
At 18 years old, he became the youngest person, first teenager, and first person born in the 21st century to travel to space.
It is believed that the actor's spot aboard the spaceship is being comped. His fellow civilian astronauts have not yet been named.
The Blue Origin New Shepard is scheduled to launch sometime next month
Bezos launched into space in July as part of Blue Origin's first civilian launch
Shatner, right, starred at Captain Kirk in the 1960's cult classic Star Trek: The Original Series
Shatner commented on Bezos' space launch and the recent billionaire space race to begin space tourism.
'I know there is an argument to be made about popularizing space travel, and I've talked to a lot of travelers to space who are excited to get to Mars,' he told NBC.
The actor mentioned Bezos' mission to Mars but called it 'ridiculous.'
'It takes a year and a half to get there. People will think it's like we're on a trip, on a cruise line. No, man! You're in zero gravity and it's hotter than hell and the air is putrid. 'Help me, I'm dying, but I'm dying slowly!' What a terrible fate.'
He also noted the danger of space travel.
'If you basically have a flat tire in space, it means you die. It seems to me you're more likely to die there than on the Hollywood Freeway.'
But Shatner ended discussing his perspective on morality.
'You know, at my age, you're constantly aware of mortality. Any moment of, 'Oh, I'm a little dizzy. Am I dying?' It's an interesting question.'
Shatner has been criticized for his recent partnership with RT America for his science-themed talk show, I Don't Understand.
US intelligence agencies have described the Kremlin-backed channel, which is registered with the federal government as a 'foreign agent' as 'Russia's state-run propaganda machine.'


HR MacMilllan Space Centre: Astronomy 101: Shooting Stars - Online
- August 4, 2021
- Times: 6:30 PM – 7:30 PM PDT
- Location: Online
- Admission: $9.98
Join us online for a night of astronomy.
About this event
ACCESSING THE LIVE STREAM:
There are 2 ways to participate:
1) Zoom - register on Eventbrite. Tickets are $8 plus taxes and fees.
2) TELUS Optik TV® available on channel 611 to subscribers with a 4K PVR box. No registration required.
LINK TO ZOOM LIVE STREAM: Emails will be sent from the Eventbrite platform with a link to access the live stream 2 hours before, and 10 minutes before the event starts.
Have you ever seen a shooting star? Ever wonder what they really are? Join the team from the H.R. MacMillan Space Centre for a family friendly live stream and learn what makes those streaks of light in the night sky, and how to spot and identify them. This month is a great time to look for them because the annual Perseid meteor shower will be taking place.
All ages are welcome to join us for this event but the content is more appropriate for children 10 years and older.
Registration is required and capacity is limited, so don't miss out!
We will be broadcasting from Vancouver, BC, Canada at 6:30pm PDT.


Let’s discuss the question: how many months until february 17 2022. We summarize all relevant answers in section Q&A of website Countrymusicstop.com in category: MMO. See more related questions in the comments below.
How many days 17 feb 2022?
More about February 17, 2022
There are 28 days in this month.
Is February 17 a national holiday?
2022 Daily Holidays that fall on February 17, include:
National Cabbage Day. National Cafe Au Lait Day. National Indian Pudding Day. National PTA Founders Day.
PBS NewsHour full episode, April 13, 2022
Images related to the topicPBS NewsHour full episode, April 13, 2022
How long is a month?
The accuracy of the Gregorian calendar results from the close agreement between the length of its average year, 365.2425 calendar days, and that of the tropical year. A calendar month may contain 28 to 31 calendar days; the average is 30.437. The synodic month, the interval from New Moon to New Moon, averages 29.531 d.
How many days are there until February 20?
The year 2020 is a ‘leap year’, meaning the month of February will have 29 days instead of 28, and the total number of days will be 366 instead of 365. This was also the case in 2016, and 2024 will again be a leap year.
Who shall I be day?
Every once in a while, Handsome Boy and Lovely Girl ask me some variation of “Who Shall I Be?” as they make their way in this world.
Is February 17 a special day?
Each year on February 17th, National Random Acts of Kindness Day grows in popularity. It is celebrated by individuals, groups, and organizations nationwide to encourage acts of kindness. The movement of Random Acts of Kindness inspires people every day.
What is the Zodiac for February 17?
A baby born today has a Sun in Aquarius and a Moon in Taurus. HAPPYBIRTHDAY for Wednesday, Feb. 17, 2021: Sensitive, realistic and hard-shelled, you go to bat for yourself, others and what you believe in.
How long is February?
Each month in the modern Gregorian calendar consists of at least 28 days. That number would be a nicely rounded 30 were it not for February. While every month besides the second in the calendar contains at least 30 days, February falls short with 28 (and 29 on a leap year).
Drones, hackers and mercenaries – The future of war | DW Documentary
Images related to the topicDrones, hackers and mercenaries – The future of war | DW Documentary
How are the months named?
The modern Gregorian calendar has roots in the Roman calendar, specifically the calendar decreed by Julius Caesar. So, the names of the months in English all have Latin roots. Note: The earliest Latin calendar was a 10-month one, beginning with March; thus, September was the seventh month, October, the eighth, etc.
How long is a month in GTA?
Every GTA day is 48 minutes. 1440/48=30. So, every GTA day is 30 times faster than a real day. So, one month in GTA is about one day in realtime.
Was Feb 2018 a leap year?
That’s because 2018 is not a leap year. The last leap year was 2016, and the next one will occur in 2020, followed by 2024 and 2028, according to the the astronomical calendar we’ve used for the past 2,000 years.
Is 2021 a leap year or not?
A year, occurring once every four years, which has 366 days including 29 February as an integral day is called a Leap year. 2021 is not a leap year and has 365 days like a common year. It takes approximately 365.25 days for Earth to orbit around the Sun.
Why do we have 29 days in February?
February 29 is a date that usually occurs every four years, and is called the leap day. This day is added to the calendar in leap years as a corrective measure because the Earth does not orbit the Sun in precisely 365 days. The Gregorian calendar is a modification of the Julian calendar first used by the Romans.
What is Human Spirit day?
World Human Spirit Day is observed annually on February 17 as a day to encourage mindfulness through meditation; to get us to form the habit of constant reflection as a way to feel content in our pressure-filled society.
PBS NewsHour full episode, Feb. 17, 2022
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What is my way day?
My way day is celebrated on February 17 of every year. It is an official day to practice anything on your way. Many people succeed in life by standing up for their ideas and working hard for them.
What is the important day of February 28?
28th February is celebrated as National Science Day (NSD) in India. NSD is celebrated to commemorate discovery of the ‘Raman Effect’, which led to Sir C.V. Raman winning the Noble Prize.
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The American space agency NASA has built a spacecraft that will deliberately crash into a small asteroid called Dimorphos. Although the asteroid poses no threat to Earth, it was chosen to help prove that dangerous incoming rocks could be deflected by deliberately crashing into them, according to a report. Sky News.
On September 26, the Double Asteroid Redirect Test (DART) spacecraft will hit an asteroid not far from Earth like a battering ram. The mission of the project is to protect the planet from possible asteroid collisions Fox Weather.com said
The space agency shared a post on Twitter on Wednesday and said, “On the scenic route. As our Dart mission moves toward its intended impact with Dimorphos, an asteroid moon that poses no threat to Earth, the spacecraft’s imager captured a picture of Jupiter.” and its four largest moons.”
Take the scenic route. 📸
As for us #DARTMission With Dimorphos, an asteroid moonlet traveling toward its intended impact, which poses no threat to Earth, the spacecraft’s imager captured a picture of Jupiter and its four largest moons. Learn more: https://t.co/l34qt7Ql1fpic.twitter.com/6eWToVmZS8
— NASA (@NASA) September 20, 2022
According to a release The space agency’s Didymos Reconnaissance and Asteroid Camera for Optical Navigation, or Draco, on NASA’s DART mission photographed hundreds of stars as it headed toward a collision with the binary asteroid Didymos on Sept. 26.
The images provide the Johns Hopkins Applied Physics Laboratory (APL) team, which is in charge of the project for NASA, with information needed to support spacecraft experiments and simulations leading up to the spacecraft’s kinetic collision with Dimorphos’ moon.
According to Space.com“The Draco image, I just want to emphasize, is going to be pretty spectacular,” Nancy Chabot, DART coordination lead at the Johns Hopkins University Applied Research Laboratory, said at a September 12 press conference.
“You’re going to come across an asteroid that nobody’s ever seen before,” Chabot continued. “You’re going to see things like ten centimeters for that final image and then it’s going to be cut. I think it’s going to be pretty cool,” he added.


Throughout the period, we have noticed a few rotating situations that have helped us understand the rotation of our planet. One example is the Earth’s speed of rotation, that could be measured with atomic clocks. This velocity fluctuates, and experts estimate which it heightens with a small amount of ms every 100 years. Another revolving event is certainly precession, which often can explain numerous substantial developments, including the alternating rotation suggestions of cyclones. The Coriolis impact is usually a spinning event, and it’s finest observed at meteorological scales.
The Earth moves on it is axis each and every day, but all of us don’t discover fast it could be moving or why. Scientists have been trying to puzzle out what’s going on by decreasing things upon the surface of the Globe. Eventually, Leon Foucault performed an research that was conclusive, and is considered been regarded since 1851 as the pendulum research. Today, we know that the Earth’s rotation speed is 107, 800 https://northcentralrotary.org/2021/07/08/generated-post/ kilometers an hour.


The most comprehensive physics and astronomy article database. SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS) includes three bibliographic databases: Astronomy and Astrophysics, Physics and Geophysics, and arXiv e-prints. ADS also links out to data catalogs and archives.
Database of electronic preprints covering physics, astronomy, math, computer science, quantitative biology, and statistics. (Preprints are drafts of articles; many will later go through a formal peer-review process and be published in scholarly journals.) ArXiv is also available in the database ADS (Astrophysical Data System).
Search the web for articles, books, theses, and other sources spanning many disciplines. Many results will be from scholarly sources. Access full-text articles from your search by selecting the FullText@NAU link. To see the FullText@NAU links in Google Scholar from any computer anywhere, link your Google Scholar account to NAU.
With more than 440,000 papers spanning biomedicine, communications, sensors, defense and security, manufacturing, electronics, energy, and imaging, the SPIE Digital Library is the most extensive database available on optics and photonics research.


If you’re looking to get more into the holiday spirit, apparently all you have to do is tilt your head up to the stars. The green glowing comet named 46P/Wirtanen—also deemed as the “Christmas Comet” because of the timing—made its closest approach to Earth in centuries, and you can catch a glimpse over the next few days.
The comet made its 2018 debut this past Sunday at 7.1 million miles from Earth (about 30 times the distance from Earth to the moon), a distance that scientists expect won’t happen for several more centuries. The comet will be visible for several more days, according to NBC News, and astronomers at the University of Maryland created a set of star charts that can help onlookers find the holiday astrological sighting.
It’s close proximity made it so it was possible for observers to see it without a telescope in some locations, although the equipment surely enhances the experience. Jay Pasachoff, an astronomer at Williams College in Williamstown, MA, told NBC News that “The odds are against seeing it with just your eyes, though there is no harm in trying.” Whatever method you take, it’s a given that finding a spot away from the lights will increase your chances of spotting the green comet.
If watching the “Christmas Comet” from the comfort of your couch sounds more appealing (we don’t blame you), the Virtual Telescope Project is providing a free live-stream tonight at 5 p.m. E.T. so you can do just that. Pop some corn, grab your coziest blanket, and have a stellar viewing party!


Rare Sighting: Northern Lights Illuminates Owensboro, Kentucky’s Skyline – See Breathtaking Photos Here!
The Aurora Borealis made an appearance over parts of the country where it isn't typically seen, including the night sky across Owensboro, Kentucky's Ben Hawes Park. Keep reading to see photos captured in Owensboro.
Aurora Borealis aka Northern Lights
The Aurora Borealis, commonly referred to as the Northern Lights, is a natural phenomenon that occurs in the polar regions of the Earth. It is a stunning display of colorful lights that appear in the sky, usually in the form of green, pink, or red streaks, arcs, and patterns. The lights are caused by the interaction of charged particles from the sun with the Earth's magnetic field and atmosphere.
Northern Lights are Less Common in Some Parts of the World
The Northern Lights are typically visible from late September to early April, and the best time to view them is during the winter months when the nights are longer and darker. The lights are most commonly seen in countries like Norway, Finland, Sweden, Iceland, Canada, and Alaska, but they can also occasionally be seen as far south as the far northern portions of the United States.
Myths and Legends of the Aurora Borealis
The Aurora Borealis is a fascinating and beautiful natural phenomenon, and it has been the subject of many myths and legends throughout history. Many cultures believe that the lights have spiritual or supernatural significance, and they are often associated with good luck, fertility, and even the souls of departed loved ones.
The Science of Aurora Borealis
From a scientific perspective, the Aurora Borealis is a result of the sun's solar wind interacting with the Earth's magnetic field. The charged particles from the sun are drawn towards the Earth's magnetic poles, and when they collide with the atoms in the Earth's atmosphere, they create the colorful light display we see in the sky.
Northern Lights Spotted in Kentucky
Despite not typically being visible in southern Indiana or Kentucky, many in our area were able to take in the wonders of the Northern Lights thanks to some coronal mass ejections from the sun. Local resident, Tyler Shields was able to capture a few photos and has shared them with us. He tells us the photos were taken in Owensboro, Kentucky near Ben Hawes Park. See Tyler's photos below.
There is no doubt that the Aurora Borealis is a remarkable natural phenomenon that has captured the imagination of people for centuries. Whether you believe in the spiritual significance of the lights or simply appreciate their beauty, the Aurora Borealis is a breathtaking display of nature's power and wonder.
[Source: New York Times]


At 20:06:18 UT Friday 06 December 2019
the waxing moon’s phase was
is 20.1216666666667 in decimal hours.
The Julian date was 2458824.23165694.
The sun’s ecliptic longitude was 254.443970727592 degrees.
Its mean anomaly was 332.5581504998 degrees.
The moon’s mean longitude was 318.351648 degrees.
These calculations incorporate the switch to the English New Style (N.S.)i.e., Gregorian calendar after Wednesday, 02 September 1752; the next day became Thursday, 14 September, skipping eleven days. (Please also note that, while fairly accurate, these calculations remain a bit buggy.)


Millennium Ark: 7 June 1998
The following report has a number of interesting pieces of info regarding the current 11-year sunspot cycle. I have'bolded' certain words to draw your attention to them. Have as look at the 22nd Solar Cycle for more info. -Stan Deyo 7 June 1998
Solar Cycle 23 Project: Summary of Panel Findings
J.A. Joselyn, J. Anderson, H. Coffey, K. Harvey, D. Hathaway,G. Heckman,
E. Hildner, W. Mende, K. Schatten, R. Thompson,
A.W.P. Thomson, and O.R. White
The objective of the Solar Cycle 23 Project is to survey forecasts for the amplitude and phasing of the most common indicators of solar and geomagnetic activity (Sunspot Number, 10.7 cm solar flux, aa, Ap) for Solar Cycle 23 and to recommend a forecast or group of forecasts for operational use. To reach this objective, the NOAA Space Environment Center (SEC), with the support of the NASA Office of Space Science, recruited a scientific panel to assess prediction techniques and arrive at a reasoned consensus, including uncertainty, on how the solar cycle will develop. The panel, consisting of 12 scientists from 10 agencies (including representatives from Australia, Germany, the United Kingdom, and the United States) convened September 9 - 25, 1996, in Boulder, Colorado. This report summarizes the findings of the panel, the data and concepts considered, and the process used to arrive at the results. A more detailed report will be available as a NOAA Technical Memorandum, and as an article in the open literature.
Predictions of solar and geomagnetic activity are important to various technologies, including the operation of low-Earth orbiting satellites, electric power transmission grids, geophysical exploration, and high-frequency radio communications and radars. The scale height of Earth's upper atmosphere (and thus the drag on satellites in low Earth orbit) is dependent on the intensity of short-wavelength solar radiation and the level of geomagnetic activity, so knowledge of the profile and magnitude of the next solar and geomagnetic cycle is crucial for logistical planning for reboosting the Hubble Space Telescope and assembly of the International Space Station.
The general trend in recent solar activity cycles (Figure 1) is toward larger amplitude sunspot cycles; Cycle 19 was the largest in recorded history (smoothed sunspot number maximum of 201 in March, 1958), and Cycle 22 was the third largest (smoothed maximum of 159 in July, 1989). Cycles 21 and 22 both showed annual averages of geomagnetic activity that were large in comparison with most cycles in the record of aa indices (Figure 2). The dramatic variability from one cycle to the next in these sunspot and geomagnetic records shows the difficulty in making empirical predictions of both types of activity. The issue is further complicated by the lack of a successful quantitative, theoretical model of the Sun's magnetic cycle.
Figure 1. Annual Sunspot Numbers, 1840-1995; cycles are labeled with their associated numbers.
Figure 2. Annual average aa geomagnetic index, 1868-1995.
Prediction of the Sunspot Number and 10.7 cm Solar Flux
In advance of the panel meeting, forecasts of solar and geomagnetic
activity were requested from the scientific community through
the electronic newsletters of the appropriate sections of the
American Geophysical Union and the American Astronomical Society;
replies were considered by the panel along with forecasts published
in the open literature. To place all forecasts on the same footing,
10.7 cm flux values were converted to an equivalent sunspot number.
The resulting 28 forecasts were then separated into 6 classes
according to the nature of the prediction technique used. The
predictions in each class were then considered in detail and a
"representative" prediction was selected. These values are given
in Table 1 in descending order of the predicted maximum. In the
table, "Recent Climatology" considers only Cycles 18 and later,
but the mean characteristics of all (or nearly-all) known cycles
are considered in "Climatology (all)."
Table 1: Combined forecasts of maximum smoothed sunspot number
While four of the six techniques are in general agreement, the panel gave the greatest weight to precursor methods, since they have proved to be the most successful technique for solar activity predictions in the past. These methods utilize the concept of an "extended solar cycle" the idea that the imminent solar cycle actually starts in the declining phase of the previous cycle. In the declining phase and at solar minimum, the coming cycle manifests itself in the occurrence of structures such as coronal holes and the strength of the solar polar magnetic field. High speed solar wind streams from low-latitude coronal holes give rise to recurrent geomagnetic disturbances that are used as the predictor of the strength of the next cycle (e.g., Thompson ). The precursor methods invoke a solar dynamo concept, where the polar field in the declining phase and at minimum is the seed of future toroidal fields within the sun that will cause solar activity (e.g., Schatten and Pesnell ). The dependence on the strength of the solar polar field also offers an explanation of why geomagnetic precursors serve as proxies for predicting the solar cycle physical connection exists between the polar field, coronal holes, the interplanetary field, and geomagnetic activity.
The prediction technique based on the empirical result that odd-numbered cycles are larger than their preceding cycle, suggests that the next cycle will exceed Cycle 22 and could be larger than Cycle 19. The general trend of cycle amplitudes is also increasing; recent cycles have been large (see Figure 1). Based on such an analysis, there is a reasonable probability that Cycle 23 will equal, or exceed, Cycle 19. This does not, however, consider the observed conditions that are the basis of the precursor technique. The conditions presently being observed in the Sun-Earth environment are not consistent with those observed prior to Cycle 19 and do not support the idea that Cycle 23 will be as large as Cycle 19.
The representative predictions in Table 1 were combined to obtain
a consensus prediction for the panel. This is listed in Table
2 for sunspot number and for 10.7 cm solar flux. Combining such
different techniques was a difficult process and in doing so,
the panel made use of its experience and knowledge of the techniques
and their success in predicting previous cycles specially Cycles
21 and 22.
Table 2: Consensus prediction
The general profile of Cycle 23 depends on factors like the time of minimum, the rise time (minimum to maximum), and the maximum amplitude of the cycle. Based on current information, the smoothed minimum will most likely occur after April 1996 and before March 1997, most likely in late 1996.
In advance of a confirmed date for the Solar Cycle 22/23 minimum, the range in the date of the smoothed cycle maximum is as follows:
These dates were obtained using a range of dates in the time of minimum and a range of possible rise times. In general, larger cycles rise to maximum more quickly than weaker ones. For cycles with a predicted maximum of 160, the rise time is expected to be about 3.4 years (between the extremes of 2.8 and 4.3 years).
The determination of the precise "Shape" of Solar Cycle 23 in 10.7 solar flux and/or sunspot number is not currently possible. To provide a general shape for Cycle 23, profiles based on smooth "functional" forms derived from solar cycles 1-22, a profile from an average of recent large cycles (18, 19, 21 and 22), and a computed profile using a spectral analysis method based on cycles 5 through 22 were compared. All approaches agree closely with the consensus shape shown in Figure 3. This profile assumes that Cycle 23 minimum will be near September 1996. The smoothed maximum then occurs near March 2000, assuming a rise time of 3.4 years. The variability in the monthly 10.7 cm flux about the smooth curve is estimated to be plus or minus six at solar minimum, increasing to plus or minus 26 near maximum. The task force will review the prediction as Cycle 23 progresses, and will update it with new information. Observations between now and the end of 1997 will allow more precise timing of the solar cycle as the exact date of solar minimum becomes clear.
Figure 3: the estimated Cycle 23 profile of sunspot number and 10.7 cm solar flux.
Prediction of Geomagnetic Activity
The objective of the panel with regard to geomagnetic activity is to predict the approximate total number and annual number of significant geomagnetic disturbances during Cycle 23. This is a new objective that is not widely studied in the scientific community. Two types of forecasts were received: a climatological approach based on the 128-year record of the aa index, and a precursor approach that used the counts of disturbed days based on the Ap index, which has been archived since 1932. The two indices are similar since both are based on the daily summaries of the 3-hourly Kindices derived at a network of geomagnetic observatories (Menvielle and Berthelier  describe details of their derivation). The aa index is based on the observations at two nearly antipodal observatories (Canberra, Australia, and Hartland, United Kingdom), and is expressed in nanoteslas (nT). The Ap index, expressed in units of 2 nT, is derived from a larger network of geomagnetic stations but which includes the aa observatories. A quantitative comparison of the two indices [e.g. Mayaud , 1980] reveals that the conversion between them is on the order of Ap ~=0.8 aa. This conversion factor is taken into account in the results below.
Similar to solar cycle predictions, the climatological (statistical) forecasting approach uses the entire record of indices to extend the series, whereas the geomagnetic precursor technique does not rely on the whole record of activity but only on recently observed conditions. Both methods predict that the level of upcoming geomagnetic activity will be near the levels experienced in Cycle 22. The profiles of the activity differ, but both imply high levels during the years 1999-2005.
The climatological approach makes use of the secular trend since 1900 of an increase of approximately 15 nT per century (see Figure 2). Further, as noted by several researchers (e.g., Bartels , Chernosky ), the patterns of activity differ depending on whether the cycle number is even or odd-numbered. While all cycles have multiple-maxima, even-numbered cycles tend to have a broad maximum late in the declining phase of the solar activity cycle attributed to a favorable orientation of the solar dipole (positive polarity in the northern solar hemisphere) which is oppositely directed to Earth's dipole field. The climatological profile in Figure 4 (shown with the standard deviation calculated from median cycle statistics) is the median of the odd cycles. While this is appropriate for Cycle 23, as it turns out this result best reproduces the observed profiles (i.e., within +/- one standard deviation) of all recent solar cycles, even and odd. This result assumes that the beginning 13-month smoothed aa value for Cycle 23 repeats the value for Cycle 22 (17.2 nT). The expected number of disturbed days per year (daily aa >=100 nT) is shown on this plot and the total numbers for Cycle 23 are listed in Table 3. Following Feynman and Gu , these numbers were determined from a quadratic fit of the relationship between the observed number of days with aa >=100 and the 13-month smoothed value of aa for all cycles. The likely error in the total number of disturbances of Table 3, for both aa >=50 nT and aa >=100 nT, is an underestimate of about 15%, based on the performance of the climatological method in predicting cycle 22. Year-by-year uncertainties, arising from the quadratic fit and median cycle statistics, are however as much as 50% to 100%, or more, for the number of days when aa >=100 nT. This, again, is consistent with the performance of the method in cycle 22. The highest errors occur in the most active years, when the method always underestimates the actual number of disturbances.
Figure 4: Climatological estimate of Cycle 23 aa profile (lines, left axis) and the annual number of geomagnetically disturbed days with aa >=100 nT (bars, right axis)
The precursor method uses the same relationship between solar and geomagnetic activity that has served well as a forecast of solar activity, in predicting the total number of disturbed days in the Ap index. To make this prediction it is necessary to know the amplitude of the following solar cycle Cycle 24. This is unknown at present and so has been taken to have a maximum sunspot number of 150, a reasonable estimate in view of the sequence of recent cycles close to this amplitude. The cycle profile of annual geomagnetic activity, however, must be assumed. At this time, because the forecast of solar activity is close to that observed for Cycle 22, it is assumed that the geomagnetic profile will mimic the cycle just past this result is shown in Figure 5. Table 3 lists the geomagnetic activity thresholds for aa and Ap, and the calculated number of occurrences during Cycle 23 for each method. The totals shown are comparable to the number of days of each type experienced in Cycle 22. The uncertainties scale with the assumed amplitude of Cycle 24 cycle sunspot number estimate of 200 would predict 700 days of Ap >=25, whereas an estimate of 100 would predict 500 days. In all cases, the expected number of very large storms (e.g., Ap >=100) is not well predicted owing to their rarity and the uncertainties are on the order of 100%.
Figure 5: Precursor method estimates of geomagnetic activity during Cycle 23.
Panel Recommendations for Future Solar Activity Studies
Criticisms of long-term solar cycle prediction focus on the thin physical foundation beneath such predictions and the limitations of the data used to define and extend solar and geophysical variability. The panel largely agrees with these criticisms, and offers the following recommendations to improve future studies:
After examining a variety of methodologies used for predicting
solar and geomagnetic activity in Cycle 23, the panel finds that a reasonable consensus is for a large solar cycle with a smoothed sunspot maximum of 160. This is comparable to the last two cycles, but is not expected to exceed Cycle 19, the largest cycle on record. While the month of solar minimum
is yet to be determined, recent low levels of activity imply that
the minimum is at hand, and will occur during the final months
of 1996. If so, Solar Cycle 23 will most likely peak in early
2000. Likewise, geomagnetic activity during the cycle is expected
to be comparable to that experienced in recent cycles, resulting
in annual average levels among the highest in the 128-year aa record. The probability for severe geomagnetic storms will be the greatest
during an extended period lasting from 1999 through 2005.
Bartels, J., Discussion of time variations of geomagnetic activity indices Kp and Ap, 1932-1961, Ann. Geophys., 19, 1, 1963.
Chernosky, E.J., Double sunspot-cycle variation in terrestrial magnetic activity, 1884-1963, J. Geophys. Res., 71, 965, 1966.
Feynman, J., and X.Y. Gu, Prediction of geomagnetic activity on time scales of one to ten years, Rev. Geophys., 24, 650, 1986.
Mayaud, P.N., Derivation, Meaning, and Use of Geomagnetic Indices, Geophysical Monograph 22, American Geophysical Union, Washington, D.C., 82-84, 1980.
Menvielle, M., and A. Berthelier, The K-derived planetary indices: Description and availability, Rev. Geophys., 29, 415, 1991.
Schatten, K.H., and W.D. Pesnell, An early solar dynamo prediction: Cycle 23 ~ Cycle 22, Geophys. Res. Lett, 20, 2275-2278, 1993
Thompson , R. J., A Technique for Predicting the Amplitude of the Solar Cycle, Solar Phys. 148, 383, 1993.
All photos and text contained on this website are copyrighted to the owners who are listed below. By law, written permission to reproduce or otherwise use any of the images or text must be obtained from them at the email addresses below,.... Thank you.
© Copyright Stan and Holly Deyo 2001


Know How |
Helping you See the Night Sky - Newsletter No. 17 March 2008
March brings us to the beginning of Spring, a season that is favoured by many deep-sky observers for the good views of remote galaxies that it can afford.
The nights are often still cold and still and dark and due to the position of our planet in its orbit around the Sun and our orientation due to the axial tilt of the Earth, we are able to see right out of the plain of our own galaxy the 'Milky Way' and far into deep space, inhabited by other island universes that are the galaxies.
Many of these galaxies are available to simple 7x50 or 10x50 binoculars as faint smudges of light, but to get a really good view you will need a telescope and the larger the better. A good hunting ground can be found in the constellations of Leo the Lion and Virgo the Virgin and a smaller constellation above and between these two called Coma Berenices or Berenices Hair. So take some time to scan this area to see how many of these distant and faint objects that you can find. You'll need a clear dark sky away from city lights and steady air to get the best views, so if you aren't lucky the first time, don't be put off and have another go on another night.
Orion and Taurus are now sinking into the west for Northern Hemisphere observers, so now is the time to have a good look at the many deep-sky delights to be found in these winter constellations, if you have not already done so. DOn't miss the Great Orion Nebula and the famous Pleiades or 'Seven Sisters' star cluster while you still have the chance.
Finally don't forget that we have the Spring or Vernal Equinox on March the 20th. This is when the Sun appears to cross the Celestial Equator from the southern to the northern celestial hemisphere and marks the beginning of the summer 'season'. Days will become longer and nights, shorter.
The constellations of Spring are now putting in an appearance and they have a lot to offer the astronomers armed with binoculars or a telescope, or even the naked eye observer.
Leo is fairly easily recognised by its 'backward question mark' asterism, otherwise known as the 'Sickle', which represents the head of the Lion. It is marked at its southernmost point by the bright star regulus' and this month the constellation plays host to the planet Saturn, which can be found just to the east of Regulus.
Rising at around 11:00pm at the beginning of the month Virgo can be found in the south east, with the bright star Spica just clearing the horizon at around this time. With the constellation of Coma Berenices to the north of Virgo, this area of sky marks the realm of the galaxies as mentioned previously. Many of the brighter galaxies in Charles Messiers famous catalogue can be found in this region and detected with binoculars or a small telescope.
There are other interesting sights available such as M44 the 'Beehive' cluster in Cancer the Crab to the west of Leo and Melotte 111 a large open cluster of stars in Coma Berenice, which is supposed to represent Queen Berenice's hair, sacrificed for the safe return of her husband from battle. to the north-east of Virgo can be found the constellation of Bootes the Herdsman, containing the bright red giant star Arcturus, a notable orange coloured star.
off to the north-eastern shoulder of Bootes is the constellation of Corona Borealis or the Northern Crown, an attractive semi-circle of stars. This constellations main 'jewel in the crown', the star alpha Coronae Borealis is aptly named Gemma. So you can see that there is plenty to see in the Spring skies.
This March most of the planets are either hidden from our view or are difficult to see with the exception of Saturn, which continues to be a delightful sight in the south eastern sky just to the left of the bright star Regulus in Leo. If you haven't turned a telescope on this the most beautiful member of our solar system, then try and make the most of this opportunity, as the rings are slowly 'closing from our view-point on Earth and will become increasingly difficult to see over the next few years.
Mercury can be found shortly before dawn close to the south-eastern horizon, which means that it is not well placed for observing. However, you may be able to spot it by locating the planet Venus. These two planets lie close to each other in our skies for most of the month and should be visible within the same 10x50 binocular field of view. It may be possible to pick these two in daylight on the 5th of the month if the sky is clear, with the help of a crescent Moon (6% waning) in a blue sky. Venus can be found just to the north-east of the Moon's crescent, so pan your binoculars slightly to try and find it. If you can find Venus, see of you can spot the fainter Mercury just a little to the north of the mid-line between the Moon and Venus and slightly nearer the Moon than Venus. Do take care that the Sun's disc is blocked either by the corner of a building or fence, so that there is no danger that you will catch it in your binoculars. Do take care!
Mars is still visible in the constellation of Gemini the Twins as a brightish orange 'star' just to the north of the open cluster M35. However, we are moving away from Mars quite rapidly now and the disc is therefore quite small and so any detail on the planets surface will be quite hard to spot.
March is the month when it is technically possible to see all of the objects in the Messier catalogue in one night!
So, if you are a deep-sky fan, then this is the time of year for you.You should be able to see all but one of the 110 objects in this famous catalogue providing that you have good clear skies and a view right down to the horizon. You won't be able to see M30 in Capricornus from mid-northern latitudes as it is too close to the Sun. However 109 objects in one night is still an impressive achievement!
You will get two opportunities this month, one at the beginning on the week-end of the 8/9 March, which you can use as a dry run for the better conditions of the week-end of the 29/30 as the Moon is likely to wash out the fainter objects at the start of the month.
If y9ou would like more information about the Messier Marathon, please take a look at the web site www.seds.org/MESSIER/xtra/marathon
|Tip of the Month
Observing Variable Stars...
Tip: If you fancy making a start in observing variable stars, that is stars that vary in brightness over a period of time, then it is best to start with relatively well known candidates. You can find lists of these in various magazines and web sites. Variable stars come as regular, semi regular and irregular and can become a very interesting area of study. You will find that with a little practice, that you will get quite good at estimating stars brightness quite quickly. A graph of brightness against time, will show you the light curve of these stars, so have a pencil handy!
some links to some other recent news stories that I thought you would find
Seeing stars: The right outdoor lighting can restore dark skies and save money, too more...
The rush to build the biggest eye on the sky as astronomers chart colossal telescopes to see farther, clearer more...
Five days to change tyre (on 250ft telescope) more...
Physics' funding furore more...
Astronomy Technology Brings Nanoprobes into Sharper Focus more...
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binoculars to see it better?.. |
My online course gives you all the essential information to be a good astronomer, without lots of jargon or difficult maths. You'll get loads of free bonuses and it also has videos and animations to help make the explanations clear and concise. So if you want to know what Sir Patrick wished for...
...please take a look at my eCourse called Basic Astronomy with a Telescope. It's what Sir Patrick wished he'd had when he started out in astronomy!
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The ceremonial part of the XXV. General Assembly of the Learned Society, at which the Medals of the Learned Society of the Czech Republic Societas Scientarium Bohemica Ad Laudem et Honorem and the awards of the Learned Society of the Czech Republic in the “Young Scientist” and “Grammar School Student” categories were presented, took place on Monday 20 May 2019 in the Great Hall of the Carolinum.
American physicist Kip S. Thorne, recipient of the Nobel Prize for 2017 for detection of gravitational waves, visited Prague at the invitation of he Learned Society. He held a series of “Bolzano lectures” and a lecture titled “Creating Gravitational-Wave Astronomy” for the Learned Society on 15 May 2019 in the Blue Auditorium of the Carolinum. The lecture was held with the support of the Karel Janeček Foundation and was received very enthusiastically.
XXV. General Assembly
The Czech Learned Society is holding its XXV. General Assembly on 20 and 21 May 2019. The Learned Society’s awards in the “Young Scientist” and “Grammar School Student” categories, Teaching Awards for pedagogic workers who promote interest in science and research at grammar schools and the Learned Society’s medals for meritorious contributions to the advance of science will be presented during a ceremony on 20 May at the Karolinum. Lectures by renowned scientists will also be presented. The second day will be reserved for the working part of the meeting, in the building of the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic.


The James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) was the most powerful telescope ever launched into space as of 2022. The telescope was named after James E. Webb, administrator of NASA from 1961 to 1968. It was designed as a successor to the famous Hubble Space Telescope and features improvements to allow for higher resolutiona nd better images. It is hoped the Webb telescope will give astronomers the chance to investigate some of the oldest stars and galaxies in the universe from the safety of planet Earth.
The Hubble Space Telescope was smaller than JWST and observed objects in ultraviolet, visible, and near-infrared light. JWST, on the other hand, observes objects in a lower frequency range from long-wave visible (red) light through mid-infrared. It is equipped with a powerful kite-shaped sunshield to keep direct light from the Sun and indirect light from the Moon and Earth from hitting it. This was done to keep the telescope at the extremely cold temperature (50 Kelvin or -370 ºF) required to keep it functioning. JWST orbits the Sun at 930,000 miles from Earth.
JWST was supposed to launch in 2007, but was delayed by unforeseen circumstances (including the COVID-19 pandemic, which began in 2020). The telescope finally launched in December 2021, marking the beginning of a new era in space imaging.


Today I stumbled upon this Chinese article that describes a space race scenario similar to that of the Cold War. I’d like to share the article with you and to highlight some interesting passages. I apologize in advance for their translation because I can’t speak Chinese, so they’re the direct outcome of Google Translator. I decided to […]Read more "The race for space supremacy"
A couple of posts ago I wrote about a plasma shielding system that, in my opinion, would be useful for space applications. With maybe a bit of delusion, I wrote that “all pieces of the puzzle are going into their place” (that is, to build a manned e.m spaceship). Today I’ve just discovered that another […]Read more "Another piece for E.M spaceship puzzle?"
Dear readers, Here is an update about F242 written by Laureti in the latest issue of ASPS official periodical Nova Astronautica: The PNN prototype F242 is operative again. I’ve tested it several times in late 2016 and that’s why there is a consistently delay in the publication of Nova Astronautica issue n.150. Practically I’ve had to […]Read more "F242 is operative again"
In one of my first posts I translated an ASPS article regarding the physics and the equipment of an hypothetical PNN spaceship. One important piece of navigation system had to be a laser powerful enough to disgregate major debris before they impacted the ship hull. As we know, at incredibly high speed even the impact […]Read more "Boeing plasma shield – Trespassing into science fiction"
This is the first time I read something like this in space exploration history: according to the Italian newspaper Repubblica there is a controversy ongoing between Italian Space Agency (ASI) and ESA. Italian Agency accuses ESA to have subcontracted Schiaparelli landing system tests to Astra, a Romanian space company without the skills required for […]Read more "Discount space exploration"
Yesterday I began to write an enthusiastic post about ExoMars mission while I was following the live coverage of the event from ESA website, at least until the news that demonstration module Schiaparelli failed to communicate with Earth at the expected time. Thus I decided to wait until today before completing the post, with the […]Read more "The partial failure of ExoMars mission"
Dear readers, today I would like to propose you another selection of Laureti’s comments about the rising awareness -by other scientists- that EmDrive might not work by recoiling on quantum substrates, (that is, for now , the most accepted hypothesis even if it’s basically science fiction) as they shyly start to mention the fact […]Read more "About E.M thrusters orbital tests"


Dr. Christian Trenkel
Thursday 2nd November 2017 @ 7:30 PM
"Gravitational waves were observed for the first time on the ground by the LIGO space mission. LISA Pathfinder has been launched to further the measurement of gravitational waves from space. Dr Trenkel will describe the motivation behind the century old quest to observe gravitational waves and present recent in-flight results obtained from LISA Pathfinder."
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To the north-east of Samarkand, at the foot of a hill Chupa-Ata in 1908, thanks to found ancient documents, the ruins of the Ulugbek Observatory were discovered by Samarkand archaeologist V.L. Vyatkin. The excavations, which lasted for many years and ended only in 1948, suggest that the found Observatory is the largest astronomical facility of the Middle Ages. “The brainchild” of Ulugbek had huge those days (1428-1429) dimensions and the cylindrical building height of 30 meters had a diameter of 46 meters. Inside, the observatory presented a deep trench curved shape with two marble walls at the edges, with carved symbols of degrees and minutes. The sextant presumably placed in the trench. Other instruments have not survived, but all seen suggest that the roof was used for astronomical measurements.
The authors of the observatory project were Ulugbek himself and his mentor Kazi-zade Rumi, the building was erected in record time, even though after the construction a year was spent for the instruments calibration.
During the work of the observatory a lot of work have been done. There are such impressive works of Ulugbek like “New astronomical tables”, “the table of geographical coordinates”, including 683 localities around the world, “Stars Directory” provides description of 1018 stars, located in the constellations, there also was determined the length of the Earth year — 365 days, 6 hours , 10 minutes and 8 seconds. But this titanic work would have been impossible without the help of brilliant scientists, astronomers and mathematicians: Dzhemshid Kashi, Kazi-zade Rumi and Ali Kushchi, headed the observatory at various times.
“The brainchild” of Ulugbek was abandoned in 1469, after his death, when the persecution of scientists started in the country.


Observations of rotating occurrences in our time point to the origin, but you may be wondering what are the causes? There are many possible explanations, https://northcentralrotary.org/2019/11/16/rotating-events-in-our-time nonetheless we are left with a limited selection of plausible ones. However , we can identify a number of recurring features in the noticed events and develop a comprehension of their beginning. These features include the existence of magnet fields, the presence of subsolar space things, and the prospect of multi-messenger diagnosis. This article will express some of the common features of revolving events within our time.
For instance , the planet Mercury rotates when and a half moments in its orbit round the sun. That means you Mercury daytime is equivalent to 176 Earth days and nights. Larger exoplanets, on the other hand, move much more quickly. Jupiter, Saturn, Neptune, and Pluto each complete a emerging trend every 15 hours, as the Earth usually takes 365 days to generate one total circle. These planets revolve around the sun, and in addition they each take 365 days to complete you.


Effect of solar magnetic field smf on solar radio flux
Solar flares induced d-region ionospheric and geomagnetic perturbations solar flare effect on earth's magnetic field h component at the show that electron density increases with increase in solar flux. 2018-07-12 according to the scaling laws derived in the solar system, the radio emission should depend on the stellar wind, interplanetary magnetic field, from the dissipation of the kinetic and magnetic (poynting flux). 2018-07-13 the effect of curvature on flux-rope models of coronal mass ejections a model of fast radio bursts: magnetic helicity estimations in models and observations of the solar magnetic field iii. It comes from the winding-up of the solar magnetic field during which the magnetic field degrading hf radio communications unlike the flare effect, the gcr flux changes with solar activity, so i calculated.
2014-09-03 martian ionosphere and its effects on propagation (plasma and magnetic field) 21 introduction density as a function of solar radio flux. 2017-07-13 systems to various dynamic changes in the solar, cosmic ray, and ambient magnetic field the group’s hrv and solar wind speed, kp, ap, solar radio flux, of bioeffective effect of magnetic storms. 2011-04-14 solar power without solar cells: a hidden magnetic effect of light could make it possible april 14, 2011, the light’s magnetic field.
2005-02-17 solar magnetic field signatures in helioseismic splitting the toroidal field strength shows a hysteresis-like effect when compared to the global 107 cm radio flux the poloidal field strength shows evidence of saturation. 2010-11-12 influence of solar variability on rainwater magnetic field and atmosphere causing weather, 107 cm radio flux proton fluence. The 107cm solar radio flux is one of the most widely used indices of solar activity the solar magnetic field flux measured for the entire solar gk, msc,(2011),the effect of the variable component of 107cm.
2016-10-19 shortwave / ham radio / hf radio propagation solar wind affects the earth's magnetic fields, which in turn can effect hf and shortwave predicted sunspot numbers and radio flux report of solar-geophysical. 2015-06-16 reconstruction of solar extreme ultraviolet flux 1740 an electric current having a magnetic effect observable on the ground, of the solar magnetic field to the regular diurnal variation of the geomagnetic field. 2012-10-12 understanding hf propagation the sun’s magnetic field travels along the solar wind as if m- and x-class flares may have a disastrous effect on hf radio propagation b). 2014-01-02 advisory (icsa-11-084-01) solar magnetic storm impact cmes involve large clouds of charged plasma with an embedded magnetic field whose leading edge can expand to nearly 40 stray flux can enter the transformer. 2015-11-19 below is the latest proton flux level data that updates every 5 minutes this effect is called radio blackouts deflected by earth's protected magnetic field.
Which of the following amateur radio hf frequencies are least reliable for long distance communications during periods of low the solar radio flux at think of the k index as the earth's magnetic field getting. 2006-03-03 predicting the strength of solar cycle 24 using a flux-transport dynamo-based tool the sum of the unsigned magnetic flux for a solar rotation implications for the evolution of the heliospheric magnetic field. 2012-03-30 solar radio emission i this expression does not include the effect of the magnetic field solar and galactic background flux density. M-class flares can cause brief radio blackouts at the poles and minor billions of tons of solar material and magnetic field are hurled from the sun into magnetic pole ‘reversals’ have no effect on the rotational.
2013-04-10 aspect of modeling the space radiation environment the solar periodic solar activity are sunspot numbers and solar 107 cm radio flux developed based on the structure of the magnetic field within. 2018-07-17 i will try to give you some general background about how the sun affects radio propagation here on earth solar-flux readings are another measure of solar this may interact violently with the earth's magnetic field. (sfu=solar flux units) 30 minutes of dazzling sun or, the smoothed 107-cm radio flux index, use the following predicted values in this following table: the total magnetic field strength has fluctuated around 5 nt. 2011-01-14 near-real-time hf radio propagation data in effect, the solar flux number and the x-ray index are duking it out to affect propagation these indicate instabilities in the solar magnetic field as sensed at the.
- Solar panels or photovoltaic this is because a magnetic field would be avoided because the current end up being the two types of emfs that we encounter from solar panel / pv systems radio frequencies come into play.
- 2015-05-23 increasing cosmic rays published on may 23, 2015 share on these are released as a plasma carrying a fingerprint of the solar magnetic field throughout inter-planetary solar 107cm radio flux, solar irradiance,.
- 2018-07-10 the electrodynamical interaction between jupiter and io has been known for some time and is evidenced by radio forms because of the piling up of solar wind magnetic field lines the national academies press.
2017-08-02 sfi = solar flux index the 2800 mhz (107 cm flux) radiation increased geomagnetic activity has the adverse effect the strength of earth’s magnetic field and reduce its. 2018-06-29 and potentially damaging, solar superstorm (solar flare, coronal mass ejection, solar emp also describable as magnetic flux is a special-purpose solar radio telescope designed for studying solar. 2013-10-30 the radio-sun the sun was one of magnetic storms lastly, solar flares also emit high velocity charged particles when the particles arrive they slam into the earth's magnetic field. 2013-04-10 solar wind magnetic field and cosmic ray intensity were anti-correlated cme solar wind activity at earth in odd-numbered solar cycles this effect was (107 cm radio flux), van allen 2000 (sunspot number),.


A few years back, I was attempting to photograph the stars someplace where there was limited light pollution. We saw fireflies and I was so excited. I was all set to capture the perfect shot with the twinkling of the fireflies and the stars when a wild boar decided that our shoot was over. I remember pulling my tripod into the car and slamming the door, mid-exposure. I got a great story out of the night, but I certainly did not get a good shot.
The last time I tried to photograph a meteor shower, the part of my tripod that holds the head steady broke and I didn't get a shot. I saw three of the most beautiful meteors but had nothing to show for it.
Last night was an overlap of two meteor showers and I was so excited. I was all set to drive far enough west that there wasn't much of anything, set up my tripod, and click away. I had just finished adjusting all the settings and was about to take my first shot when Doug went "Brenda..." and I froze. He heard the boar before I did and wanted to alert me without attracting its attention. We didn't stick around to get a shot of the boar; I dragged my tripod into the car and we sped off.
I snapped this shot as we turned off the dirt road and got close enough to civilization that I felt safe.
We stopped off at Sonic for some "I'm sorry your night got ruined by a boar again" root beers and then continued on towards the beach.
Unfortunately, we could not find any place dark enough to shoot the meteor shower that we could actually get to safely and legally.
Maybe one day I'll get to actually shoot a meteor shower or star trails without something happening.


File(s) under embargo
until file(s) become available
Comment on “Evaluation of the Tenax Trap in the Sample Analysis at Mars Instrument Suite on the Curiosity Rover as a Potential Hydrocarbon Source for Chlorinated Organics Detected in Gale Crater” by Miller et al. (2015)
journal contributionposted on 2023-01-11, 23:43 authored by Fabien KenigFabien Kenig, L Chou, Duncan WardropDuncan Wardrop
Miller et al. [2015, https://doi.org/10.1002/2015JE004825] described the result of experiments testing the potential of Tenax TA, a polymer used on Sample Analysis at Mars (SAM), as a source of chlorinated benzene. Miller et al.  conclude that the amount of chlorobenzene produced is low and that Tenax TA cannot be the source of the chlorobenzene observed on Mars by SAM. Miller et al.  did not provide the identification of two unknown compounds produced during these pyrolysis experiments, though their abundance is orders of magnitude higher than that of chlorobenzene. Here, we tentatively identify these compounds based on the mass spectra provided by Miller et al. , the most abundant of which is a chlorinated monomer of Tenax TA. This chlorinated monomer is likely to accumulate in the hydrocarbon Tenax trap and in the transfer line between the trap and the mass spectrometer. Further breakdown of these compounds could lead the high background of chlorobenzene observed on Mars.


There is an imaginary clocklike circle in the heavens which now comes down to us as we, at this time, have more accurate representations of our night skies. Chapter 4 of the 'Book of Revelation' describes a throne that was set in heaven. I believe this throne to be on the 'Precession of the Equinoxes' circle of the ages of time. It makes one complete revolution in approximately 25,600 years. I have also used the color wheel of our art world to represent the 24 elders around this throne, each lasting for approximately 1,067 years. We are now in the lime color or hue of this spectrum because Chapter 4 describes the rainbow as being emerald in sight during the time it was written. I have divided the imaginary clock circle into 8 sections starting off the brightest northern pole star of 'Vega', which was closest to this circle at around 12,134 B.C. and shall be again at around 13,466 A.D. There are 4 great beasts or quadrants of stars described as eyes around the circle that also consists of this throne. There are also the 4 horses with each one representing one of the 4 quadrants. The white horse is in the yellow/gold sector, then the red, then the black is where the purple and blue is on the color wheel, and finally the pale is in the green section. I divided this circle into 8 sections for the 7 churchs or lampstands plus a 0 or 8th. The temple of heaven is of the 'Cepheus' constellation (also called the 'King'). There are 7 Spirits or North Stars that are around the throne. These are 7 northern Pole Stars namely 'Errai', Alderamin', 'Deneb', 'Vega', Thuban', 'Kochab' and our north star of our day 'Polaris'. There is an 8th which is of the 7 which 'goeth into perdition' according to Rev. 12:9 and Rev. 17:11 and that I believe is 'Errai' also called 'Alrai', which will be the North Star at around 3,866 A.D. With these writings I am hoping to bring some type of connection to all the differing beliefs in our world and a more unified and peaceful future for all of mankind. Many myths, religions and cultures have developed based on this circle of ages of the zodiac as it is divided into the 12 sections.


I can’t tell you how many times I have been out for a hike and I have come around a great big bend and all of a sudden the stars align. As I watch the planets align and the stars move on their paths, I’m filled with wonder. That feeling of “oh, I get it” is such a powerful feeling that I couldn’t help but share it with y’all.
It’s a weird feeling, but it’s one I haven’t experienced since I was a child, and it is one of those things that you never really stop feeling.
The feeling of seeing the stars align is something that has always drawn me to science fiction and astronomy. I remember seeing a film from the 60s called “The Sky Full of Stars” and even though I was only 10 at the time, I remember feeling like I could just float above the earth and watch these stars as they moved across the sky. The feeling of seeing the stars align is something that has always drawn me to science fiction and astronomy.
I remember when I was young I thought that seeing the stars align would be the ultimate achievement in my life. Instead, I ended up sitting on a park bench in the middle of nowhere watching the stars move across the sky.
The more I thought about it, the more I realized my time on Deathloop was probably just a dream. Not to mention I was the only person who could see the stars with my own eyes.
It’s weird to think that the universe you are seeing right now is actually the same one that you were looking at when you were in your 20s. Even if you managed to see the stars with your own eyes, it’s not like you’re in control of that vision anymore. So what does that mean? It means that I am no longer the only person who can see the stars. This is exactly what happened to me when I was on Deathloop.
The stars have aligned to give you the ability to see the stars. What that means is that you are now able to see exactly what you are looking at. Because it is now clear that you are looking at the stars, you have the ability to move your gaze back and forth. It is also implied that you have the ability to see the stars through your glasses, but this ability was only present when you were on Deathloop.
The people on Deathloop are all about making fun of the stars. So by the time you’re on Deathloop, they’ve become the stars, making fun of the stars. In fact, after you’ve been on the stars, you have become the star of the party. You can also see the stars through your glasses, you can see the stars through your eyes, you can hear the stars through your head, and the star is you.
If youre on Deathloop, youre like a giant puppet. If youre on Deathloop, youre like the giant puppet that has all the stars.


A small solution to a cosmic problem
Space has held the curiosity of humankind since the earliest days. We’ve walked on the moon, conducted microgravity research aboard the space station, mastered GPS, sent satellites beyond the bounds of our solar system, and more! Now, with standardized small satellites called CubeSats, it is easier than ever for students and industry to design their own missions and get their hands on a little part of space. The biggest obstacle to the continued growth of CubeSats is their limited in-space motion. But by harnessing 3D-printed rocket technology that fits within the CubeSat size and weight restrictions, CubeSats will be able to move around and complete bigger, better missions. It’s a small but important step towards solving a cosmic problem and enabling anyone to learn and explore amongst the stars.
Britany Chamberlain is graduate student at Utah State University working on her master’s degree in aerospace engineering. She earned a bachelor’s degree in mechanical engineering with an aerospace emphasis and minor in business from USU in 2015. As a NASA Space Technology Research Fellow, her primary research is on hybrid rocket propulsion applications for small satellites. When she graduates, she wants to be involved in making space tourism a reality.
Britany is a member of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics and the Society of Women Engineers. She loves being involved in these organizations because they’ve given her opportunities to meet an endless stream of interesting people and to learn more than she could ever get from a classroom. Some of Britany’s favorite hobbies include snowboarding, camping, and attempting crafts and recipes she finds on Pinterest. She enjoys reading science fiction and high fantasy novels, and her favorite authors are Raymond E. Feist and Orson Scott Card.


Crazy Might Work | Issue #5 | September 2022
“Despite this extraordinary job and recognition, my life changed when the Hubble Failure Review Board named the cause of the flawed mirror a ‘leadership failure’.”
– Dr. Charlie Pellerin, Author of ‘How NASA Builds Teams’
Post-mortems of failed NASA missions revealed that one of the most destructive behaviours was castigation of contractors when things went wrong, which made them reluctant to speak up on subsequent occasions. Many of these people had been at NASA longer that the incumbents and had spent more time at NASA than in their own organisations, and yet were treated as second rate citizens within the mission teams. One of the important changes of the NASA 4-D program is to treat contractors as team members. Another was to differentiate between under and over-inclusion:
Too many people CC’d on emails, or invited to meetings on initiatives for which they have no direct accountability or responsibility; hitting ‘Reply All’ on someone else’s over-inclusive e-mail.
Withholding information, power or acknowledgement from those that deserve it, or need it to do their jobs effectively; engaging in behaviours that diminish another’s sense of belonging.
Once you are clear who should be included, the following behaviours establish a sense of inclusion:
Establishing shared interests
Asking for contributions from everyone
Setting and respecting boundaries/standards
Our full CRAZYPodcast series ‘How NASA Builds Teams’, with Dr. Charlie Pellerin, is live on major podcast sites and our YouTube Channel!
Dr. Charlie Pellerin is the former Director of Astrophysics at NASA, architect of the 4-D program for high-performing teams, author of How NASA Builds Teams and leader of the NASA Hubble mission.
You can listen or watch the episodes here:


Simulated lens data are generated assuming a flat ΛCDM cosmological model with Ωm = 0.27, including:
- HST image
Eight non-drizzled images with the drizzled image are provided for one lens system, together with the noise map and PSF. Note that drizzling introduces correlated noise. This means one needs to boost the noise level to be effectively infinite at central pixels of each AGN image while modeling drizzled image. The noise maps for the images are provided which contain the standard deviation of the noise.
- Time Delay
- Lens Velocity Dispersion
An integrated line-of-sight velocity dispersion is provided assuming a square aperture with 1 arcsec on a side and a seeing condition with a full width at half maximum of 0.6 arcsec.
- External Convergence
The kext are generated using a random Gaussian distribution with 0 and 0.025 as mean value and standard deviation, respectively. This, from the point of view of modeling, one can adopt a prior on kext of 0±0.025.
The non_drizzled images are put in the first layer of the lens sample folder. Drizzled images are put in the folder named “drizzled_image”. The other information of the lens could be found in the text file named “lens_info_for_Good_team.txt”.
Enjoy the data:
Download Rung0 True parameter for Rung0
Download Rung1 Rung1 open box
The oversampled PSF as used in the simulation are provided; the pixel size is 0.13/4=0.0325 arcsec:
Download oversampled PSF for Rung0-1
Download Rung2 Rung2 open box
Download Rung3 Rung3 open box


11+ Spacex Starship Interior Concept Background. Deepspacecourier have created animation of their concept for spacex's starship interior. Spacex's starship mk1 prototype (left) stands 165 feet (50 meters) tall at the company's boca chica site in south texas.
Animation of spacex starship interior concept by deepspacecourier. Spacex's goal is to rapidly develop a fully reusable steel rocket system called starship that — if the idea pans out as musk envisions — could slash the cost of. Giant launcher, nuclear engine, martian base or orbital city… space is incredibly difficult and expensive.
At least 31 of those slots will probably be filled on.
Spacex starship interior concept by jim murphy (with. Starship will be the world's most powerful launch vehicle ever developed, with the. Spacex starship interior concept for 100 passengers. 1626 x 1591 jpeg 714 кб.


We all know that we should be aiming to get at least 8 hours of sleep each night. The benefits of getting plenty of sleep have been proven time and time again and include boosting your immune system, allowing the body time to repair itself, preventing weight gain, improving overall
Sleep is something that is very underrated in the modern world. I, myself, fall victim to lack of sleep the majority of the time. The importance of sleep may seem minor to some, but it is an integral part of growth within the body and also a very important factor
The first full moon after the June solstice, known as the strawberry moon, is appearing this Thursday 24th June and is expected the biggest, brightest and lowest full moon of the summer.
While we may be unaware of the impact lunar activity has on our sleep, sleep experts Dormeo, wanted to explain how
Sleep enables our bodies to function. We need sleep (and plenty of it) to be able to have a healthy body, both physically and mentally. The Sleep Foundation recommends adults get between 7 and 9 hours of sleep each night. If you aren’t managing this, you could be suffering from
For centuries, the moon has played an important part of our daily lives on Earth. It controls the tides through its magnetic pull, the calendar was based on the moon (or lunar) cycle and in fact, affects us as humans more than most of us realise.
The theory about what powers


BOB HARTRANFT | Good Thinking
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A Law-Abiding Cosmology Model
3 May 2018 Version
Robert M. Hartranft Scott W. Hartranft
Simsbury CT 06070 Aloha OR 97006
Suppose the laws of physics – including conservation of mass-energy – are truly invariant: the same at every time and place; before, during, and after the Big Bang; inside, outside, and on the boundaries of black holes; etc. No clever “Cosmic Inflation” to get the universe expanding. No physics magic like “Dark Energy” to accelerate expansion. The laws of physics were, are, and always will be, everywhere in the universe, as they are here and now.
The two Figures below then follow:
The Big Bang produced two exactly concentric, mutually gravitationally repulsive, inter-meshed, expanding spheres
· One of positive mass Matter and Anti-Matter.
· One of negative mass Unmatter and Anti-Unmatter.
Initial Conditions: Endless void. No mass-energy. No laws of physics. Time was undefined.
Creation Event: Creation of the laws of physics, including conservation of mass-energy. But there were no “clocks” – periodic events – to measure time.
Inertia: Caused by self-gravity; therefore present from the start of Big Bang.
Initial Expansion: Zero net external gravitational force. Zero net external electromagnetic force. Strong nuclear force – which is repulsive at very short ranges – drove expansion.
In this era, particles mixed freely, like molecules in a fluid, because energies were high and only short-range interactions were significant. Therefore the expansion would have seemed to an internal observer to have no center.
Cancellation was rare in this era because it requires time for a particle-unparticle pair to form and to decay down to the ground state, from which cancellation is possible. For comparison, the half-life of “positronium” (an electron and a positron) is 0.125 nanoseconds. While this is a short interval under most conditions, it is a very long interval here. The pair would be knocked apart before it could cancel.
Segregation and Acceleration. Simultaneously with the above, the positive and negative mass material was separating into distinct regions. Because of gravitational repulsion and cancellation, the regional boundaries were distinct, and there were no small inclusions of opposite sign mass material in the various regions. This separation caused repulsion between unlike regions, which caused accelerating expansion. After a few hours, nucleons appeared and then separated. Inertia caused expansion to continue. After a few years, atoms appeared and then separated. Inertia caused expansion to continue.
First generation stars formed. Because there was no spin and only small acceleration, but high material density, they were very large and therefore short-lived. This produced an immense number of both matter and unmatter black holes. Many of these then agglomerated into supermassive black holes, which generally then further grew by absorbing material in an adjacent region with a nearly equal radius from the Big Bang center. This caused them to accelerate laterally and to spin. The lateral motion gave them access to additional material.
Galaxies then appeared as the spinning supermassive black holes accumulated orbiting material.
All just straightforward application of invariant laws of physics – neither clever Cosmic Inflation nor magic Dark Energy!
Note that the three m0ost fundamental equations for mass,
F = ma Inertia
F = Gm1m2/r2 Gravity
E = mc2 Relativity
are all symmetric for positive and negative values of m. This suggests a family of negative mass particles (“Unmatter" and “Anti-Unmatter" here), with zero net mass-energy for the universe overall.
· The positive m matter and anti-matter gravitationally attract other positive m material;
· Negative m unmatter and anti-unmatter gravitationally attract other negative m material;
· But positive m material gravitationally repels negative m material.
Ironically, see Newton’s law of gravity. (The parallel to British physicist P.A.M. Dirac in 1930 is clear and compelling. Dirac made a similar observation about the electromagnetic equations. The discovery of the positron followed quickly, followed by the whole anti-matter family.)
Anti-matter v. unmatter: It is important to understand that ordinary anti-matter is still positive mass. For example, when an electron and an anti-electron (a.k.a. a
positron) “annihilate”, they create two 0.51 Mev gamma rays, precisely equivalent (E = mc2) to the sum of the masses of the two particles. By contrast, if an electron and a negative mass unelectron “cancel”, they simply disappear – which is again equal to the sum of the initial masses – zero.
There are neither “worm holes” nor other cosmic shortcuts in this model: the speed of light limitation applies everywhere and always except to the Creator Himself.
Black holes are not singularities in this model: they are simply quantum mechanical regions of particularly intense gravity. The laws of physics are the same inside, outside, and on the boundaries of black holes, whether of matter or unmatter.
John 1:1 in the King James Version of the Bible provides an elegant summary of the universe after the creation of the laws of physics but before the Big Bang began:
“In the beginning was the Word,
and the Word was with God,
and the Word was God.”
Or in the notation of modern mathematical physics:
Ʃ universe (m) = 0
We believe that the model proposed here can be described in finite-element analysis computer code to explore aspects of cosmology never before susceptible to such analysis. We hope others with more experience in finite-element analysis will agree and do those analyses.
This model vs. “physics miracles”. We also note that most current cosmology models require three “major physics miracles”:
· The creation of an all-positive-mass universe, which is a huge violation of the conservation of mass-energy.
· “Cosmic inflation” to allow initial expansion despite gravity. And,
· “Dark Energy”, an unspecified material which somehow causes accelerating expansion in the current era.
Most current models also require “minor physics miracles” to explain:
· Earlier appearance of stars than predicted.
· Earlier appearance of galaxies than predicted.
· Earlier appearance of galactic spins than predicted.
· More sharp1y defined regional boundaries than predicted. And,
· Absence of small islands of visible matter in the “voids”.
None of these “miracles” are necessary in this model because the combination of gravitational attraction and repulsion is more effective at agglomerating material than attraction alone. Even the Creation Event, which here is the creation of the laws of physics, is unopposed.
Two verification experiments: Looking for locations in a sky map where unphotons from an ungalaxy have “cancelled” the positive energy photon "mist" should work. Such locations would be small black dots in the sky map, stable in both time and position.
A direct imaging camera may also work. The detector pixel could be supplied electrons at elevated energy. Any transitions to ground state without photon emission should be mostly from unphoton absorption. The lens would be just a drilled block of the same material held at the elevated energy.
Unresolved: Note that this model does not resolve Why the Big Bang occurred, nor the individual sphere Masses: these are left to the Creator to decide.
Origin of this model: This model is based on broadly accepted physics and cosmology, with strong application of symmetry principles. It is not based on any specific prior work, nor do we know of any comparable work. We would greatly appreciate references to comparable work by others.
About the authors: Both authors are graduates of the Cornell University College of Engineering: Robert in Engineering Physics in 1966, and Scott in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 2001. Robert is Scott’s father.
This work was made possible by the tireless support of Dr. Martha Hartranft (Robert’s wife, Scott’s mother).
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