FOUNDED in 1969, the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) is a space mission of India and its role is to advance space technology, space programs, satellite systems, television broadcasting, disaster warning and the Indian Remote Sensing (IRS) for various national tasks. It is headed by the Chief Executive and its headquarters is situated in Bengaluru. It has launched many space systems since its foundation. It made its first experiment in 1988 by launching its first satellite, Radar Imaging Satellite, named GSAT 1988. ISRO’s second experiment occurred in 2012 when it launched its second satellite, RISAT-1. Some other successful experiments, like the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV, Altika and Orbit, were done by ISRO back in 2013. Some heavy-lift versions of GSLV were launched, such as the LVM3 Satellite for Earth Observation. The most significant experiment of ISRO was the mission to the moon and for this, they launched Chandrayaan-1 and 2, which were launched in 2008 and 2019, respectively. One of the tasks of the ISRO is the Mars Orbiter Mission of 2013, which was launched to put astronauts into orbit. This is the future ISRO project, which will be completed under the Gaganyaan Spacecraft mission in 2024. There have been so many missions by ISRO that have taken place; however, earlier in 2013, the first interplanetary mission to Mars, known as Mars Orbiter or Mangalyaan, was achieved successfully by ISRO.
Currently, India’s Chandrayaan-3 mission was completed by two visitors named Pragyan and Vikram, who landed in the southern polar region of the moon. This mission has made India the first country to reach this part of the lunar surface and the fourth country in the world to land on the moon. While landing on the moon, scientists have explored that the distance from the Earth to the moon is about 384,400 kilometres (238,855 miles). However, the Indian astronauts landed successfully and stated they had landed about 370 miles from the South Pole and at about 70 degrees south latitude. The landing on the moon was viewed by 7.5 million people on YouTube and all news channels in India telecast the whole event live to attract more people to this milestone in history made by the Indian government. A report has asked S Somanath, the current director of the ISRO, how much cost was spent on this project. He replied that he would never disclose this secret; however, its cost equals Chandrayaan-2, which was reported as $46 million when launched in 2019.
The World Space Program, like NASA and other Space Technology counterparts, warmly congratulated the ISRO team for achieving this milestone. Bill Nelson, a veteran administrator of NASA, congratulated ISRO for the successful soft landing on the moon. He also articulated that NASA is glad to be the partner on this mission. Some experts believe that NASA sponsored it when Modi visited America for the last time and decided to have a co-partnership in Space technology. The Tweet of Bil Nelson shows that NASA has fully supported the ISRO in its Deep Space Network of Radio antenna for communication with India’s Chandrayaan-3. It shows that India could only reach the moon with NASA’s support. The ISRO faces the same challenges as the Suparco in Pakistan, despite ISRO having shown dedication by launching Chanrayaan-3 and still moving forward to pursue its goals. They plan to set some strategies to overcome its weaknesses, like resource allocation, international collaborations and technical capabilities.
Contrary to ISRO in this region, Pakistan started its space program in 1960, named Space and Upper Atmosphere Research Commission (SUPARCO). It was marked as an official project of the Pakistani government to improve research in space technology, satellite development and related fields. Pakistan made its first endeavor in space technology by launching Rahbar-1, which was launched on December 7, 1961, using a US Scout rocket. Several other projects like suborbital flights and sounding rocket, the Launch of Badr Satellites on July 16, 1990, Remote Sensing and Earth Observation (PRSS-1) which was launched in 2018, are a few worthy projects of SUPARCO, a Pakistani-based space center, still the country is endeavoring to make a significant contribution in the space program, however political turmoil, grumbling economy and dwindling currency has diverted Pakistan as a state of chaos.
Some external and internal factors have badly affected the SUPARCO space program. These are limited funding by the government, lack of political and public support, technological challenges, brain-drain, limited international collaboration, technical and operational challenges and the changing priorities of stakeholders. The political turmoil and internal security dynamics are a few hindrances to SUPARCO. The government of Pakistan should allocate necessary financial support to the National Space Agency to develop projects through the mechanism of the Public and Private Partnership programs. The relevant ministries, government and non-government organizations must provide adequate human resources, infrastructure and equipment to effectively utilize the space technology in the country. The National Space Agency shall facilitate the socio-economic development of the country. It should expand its services in sectors like agriculture, forestry, Geology and mineral inspection, environment, urban planning management and disasters. An active National Space Agency plays a crucial role in the geo-strategic and geo-economic conditions of the country. Let’s make SUPARCO reinvigorate.
—The writer is a freelance columnist based in Islamabad.
Email: [email protected]
views expressed are writer’s own.


Up and down the country amateur astronomers are out in their back-garden observatories looking at stars, galaxies and nebulae. The team visits some astronomers on their own turf, to find out what keeps them up late at night.
|05:00 - 05:10||Focus op biologie||Nederland 3|
|05:00 - 05:30||Body Matters||BBC 2|
|05:00 - 05:30||Plusminus - Das ARD-Wirts...||ARD|
|05:05 - 06:00||Die Ludolfs||Discovery Channel|
|05:10 - 05:20||Focus op biologie||Nederland 3|


It is an art of heavenly articles, for example, stars, planets, comets, and worlds nearby with phenomena that occur outside the climate of the Earth (daylight and infinite radiation). The given science is focused on meteorology, chemistry, material science, advancement, and heavenly movement; issues with respect to development and formation of universes are additionally included here. Stargazing is among the most established and the most intriguing parts of science.
What should i write my astronomy essay on? Astronomers of the early human progress were busy with the precise checking of a night sky, and from that point forward, numerous divine gadgets have been created by the designers. Nonetheless, to all aims and purposes, an innovation of telescope had gone back to the time that came before an emergence of a cutting edge science, and you can mention it in your astronomy essay.
From the earliest starting point of the XX century, a field of expert stargazing has been separated into two subdivisions: hypothetical astronomy and observational. Observational kind is centered around information accumulation; this procedure requires a formation of instruments and its use, capacity to expound results is additionally fundamental. Hypothetical astronomy is focused on the implementation of observational information into PC or analytical models. These two subdivisions complement one another: hypothetical astronomy attempts to clarify consequences of perceptions. Heavenly perceptions can be utilized for testing such essential speculations in material science as, the relativistic hypothesis.
It happened that astronomers-novices partook in numerous impressive disclosures and composed a ton of articles about astronomy. The given science is as yet a circle in which novices assume a significant job, especially in the perception of explicit phenomena.
Present day stargazing isn’t related with crystal gazing, which is an arrangement of convictions that expresses that human action relies upon area of excellent bodies. In any case, these two circles started from one source; most of supporters of either science knows for beyond any doubt that these two frameworks are totally extraordinary. All in all, why not to utilize this reality and write an astronomy article?
Essay About Astronomy: From Where to Start?
- Research your topic or get help from astronomy essay service. The initial step for writing a research paper on Astronomy is doing appropriate research. It tends to be done by either laboring through the Internet or setting off to the closest library. The last may take longer, however it will ensure the unwavering quality of your sources. The best libraries are generally the University and College ones. They regularly have an abundance of information on practically any subjects. The books to pay special mind to are those composed by the people of perceived merit inside the field of Astronomy. Contingent upon your scholastic requirements, it is in every case better to go for later distributions.
- Write an outline. Outline all that you think about the topic. Write out all the essential angles you can without much of a stretch remember. A decent outline will guarantee that you don’t go amiss from your topic and adhere to the point. When you are done with that, consider your paper on a greater scale. Outline the entire thing utilizing short synopses for every one of the areas.
- Cover sheet. Ensure your essay about astronomy has an effectively formatted cover sheet. The cover sheet demonstrates the topic of the research paper, the name of the creator (or creators), and your student enlistment number.
- Conceptual. Why center around the dynamic? It’s basic – your theoretical is one of the primary things the peruser will arrive their eyes on. You need it honestly and explicit to tell the crowd precisely why they should keep perusing your work. The unique comes next after the cover sheet, yet it very well may be composed after the whole paper is done in light of the fact that, in such a way, it is less demanding to abridge the material. A conceptual is a brief of the paper. It tells the peruser what the paper is about and what’s in store from the research. It ought not be longer than 250 words.
- Presentation. The presentation ought to pass on the general thought of your research paper. It sets the stream and conveys the thesis statement or your hypothesis.
How To Write An Astronomy Essay? Astronomy Essay Ideas to Choose from
How to write an astronomy essay? To comprehend what astronomy essay thoughts you can write about, it is critical to be familiar with the majority of the most essential astronomy issues. It is a science including heavenly articles, for example, planets, stars, universes, and comets, close by with the irregularities that occur past the Earth’s air including grandiose radiation and daylight. Thoughts that the science rotates around incorporate chemistry, development, material science, heavenly movement, and meteorology.
Issues with respect to formation and development of universes are likewise comprehensive of the thoughts. Stargazing stays a standout amongst the most old and fascinating classes of science.Topic thoughts can talk about how astronomers amid the antiquated human advancement were vanquished by the methodical checking of a night sky, and as far back as a great deal of heavenly gadgets have been made by creators.
Another thought can talk about the creation of the telescope which came before contemporary science and how it was brought into reality. You can likewise examine different classifications of expert stargazing to incorporate observational and hypothetical astronomy depicting what each is centered around. Observational includes concentrating on gathering information and requires the development of instruments, their utilization, and the ability of explaining results which are vital.
Here is a rundown of conceivable astronomy essay topics:
- Correlation and Contrast of Astronomy and Astrology
- Astronomy: Space vehicles
- Clashes among Galileo and the Church
- The total actualities on the planet Venus
- Johannes Kepler
- Mars Exploration
- Apollo Missions
- Space investigation and Rocket History, Tsiolkovsky’s effects
- Hubble Space Telescope
- The Space Shuttle Columbia
- Should Pluto be viewed as a Planet?
- The Formation of the Solar System
- Planerary Asteroid Defense Study
- UFO’s and Aliens
- The Impact of Asteroids on Earth
- Planetary Comparison


Time has not helped drive the first flight into Earth orbit from the USA in the past nine years. Just over 16 minutes before the countdown ended, shortly after the rocket began to supply, the company SpaceX (responsible for the flight contracted by NASA) decided to suspend the launch of the Crew Dragon capsule, due to lack of weather conditions at the Kennedy Space Center. , in Florida. The next window comes on Saturday (30), at 4:22 pm (from Brasília). If it doesn't happen, another opportunity comes on Sunday.
When it occurs, the flight will be historic for two reasons. Not only is it the first manned space launch (excluding small, suborbital "jumps into space" made by Virgin Galactic's VSS Unity suborbital vehicle) since the retirement of the American space agency's space shuttles in 2011, but also is configured as the first orbital flight with crew to be carried out by a private company.
NASA is on this mission as a contractor / passenger. She is a partner, collaborator and financier, but the operation of the flight, as well as the ownership of the launch vehicle Falcon 9 and the Crew Dragon capsule, belongs to the company SpaceX. The astronauts will be “delivered” to the company just over two hours before takeoff and fly as test pilots on the designated mission Demo-2 (Demo-1 was in 2019, unmanned), heading for the International Space Station (ISS) .
It is a great novelty. And, if all goes well, the beginning of an unprecedented shift in space exploration. Just remember that, in addition to the contract with Nasa, SpaceX also already has flights contracted with the private sector.
The Axiom company plans to make two annual manned flights to the International Space Station, starting in 2021. Japanese billionaire Yusaku Maezawa, who paid a small fortune to ride around the moon in a future SpaceX Starship vehicle, must first make a land orbital tour. Space tourism company Space Adventures also sells seats on future flights. And recently news circulated that Tom Cruise would be in talks with SpaceX and Nasa to shoot a movie in space.
NASA'S GREATEST SUCCESS IN THE DECADE
It is ironic that the most successful endeavor by the American space agency in the past ten years has been to pass the ball on to the private sector. But it happened, in a long gestation.
The first investment in the development of private crew transport came in 2010, during the Obama administration. The president's plan was to overturn NASA's direct development of space vehicles and foster competition between companies to provide these services to the agency.
In the midst of this initiative, the White House had proposed the summary cancellation of the Constellation project, created by the Bush administration in the wake of the Columbia space shuttle accident to take astronauts back to the moon. The US Congress, however, prevented the cut, and so much the Orion capsule as well as a high-capacity rocket (which has only changed its name from Ares V to SLS) continued to be developed, under NASA management, with Lockheed Martin (in the case of Orion) and Boeing (in the case of SLS).
It was defensible; Until then, no one was clear that private companies, with fixed-price contracts, without NASA's specialized management, could achieve the safety and reliability standards required for manned flights. In fact, the big test of that premise is still ahead, starting with this flight.
But the fact is, while Orion and SLS received much more eye-catching resources (about $ 37 billion and counting), and are still far from the first manned flight (at least 2022, probably 2023), the commercial crew program cost less US $ 8 billion. And what it generated were not one, but two capsules capable of manned flight.
The one that will fly first with crew was the cheapest of them. At the closing of the contract with SpaceX, in 2014, NASA paid for the development of Crew Dragon and for at least one manned test flight the sum of US $ 2.6 billion. A similar arrangement was made with Boeing, which would build its own capsule, CST-100 Starliner, and make at least one manned test flight, for $ 4.2 billion.
The first to reach the finish line would win a symbolic race. On board the International Space Station, in 2011, a small American flag was left by the crew of the space shuttle Atlantis. His destination was to return to Earth on the first manned mission launched from American soil after the retirement of the space shuttles.
One of the crew on the Atlantis mission (STS-135) was Doug Hurley, who now commands the SpaceX Demo-2 mission and will be able to return to the ISS to fetch the flag he left there more than nine years ago.
RELEASE IN PANDEMIA
While publicizing the historic flight as much as possible, NASA has asked the public to avoid crowds near the Kennedy Space Center in Florida, from where the flight will depart. The concern is contagion with the new coronavirus.
The astronauts themselves had to go through a longer than usual quarantine before the flight, but, in medical terms, they did not undergo much greater scrutiny. “Apart from coronavirus tests, we haven't had many procedural changes. We are used to being examined extensively, ”said Hurley, in a video conference with the press.
Following the longstanding tradition of American space flight, astronauts intend to name their capsule – but keep the name secret until launch time.
The flight itself follows the traditional SpaceX launch script, even involving something never used before on manned flights: for the first time, the rocket will be fueled while the astronauts are already on board the capsule.
The ascent to orbit, driven by the two stages of the Falcon 9 rocket, should take about 12 minutes, before the Crew Dragon capsule starts its autonomous flight. Then a series of maneuvers and tests of the vehicle begins, culminating in the arrival at the ISS.
During the flight, Doug Hurley, as commander, will pilot the ship, carrying out the required tests in order to certify it for future missions. If all goes well, astronauts are expected to stay two to three months at the station. The exact duration is still uncertain and depends on the performance of the capsule's solar panels over the months, as it remains attached to the ISS.
NASA expects to fly the first regular flight of a Crew Dragon by the end of this year. The Americans Michael Hopkins, Victor Glover and Shannon Walker are already training to fly it, accompanied by the Japanese Soichi Noguchi.
On the second regular flight, for 2021, a Russian, Andrei Borisenko, is expected to compose the crew.
Roscosmos, the Russian space agency, naturally looks with some suspicion on the new American vehicles. Especially because, with its entry into operation, NASA is no longer the goose that lays the golden eggs in its space program, hiring exorbitantly priced seats for its astronauts on board the Soyuz capsules – the only means of access to the ISS since the retirement of the buses space.
As of now, if all goes well, NASA intends only to exchange seats, with Americans flying in Russian capsules in exchange for Russians flying in American capsules. The exchange allows greater security and more redundancy in access to the station. But it is no longer a cash mine for Russia.
As for Boeing's Starliner, it will still be some time before it can fly manned. The first unmanned test, conducted in December 2019, failed to take the capsule to the International Space Station. The company has already said it will carry out a new test without astronauts, still without a scheduled date, before proposing to conduct a manned flight.


Pushing our vision farther April 19, 2015Posted by Ezra Resnick in Science, Superstition.
Tags: Thirty Meter Telescope
1 comment so far
It’s been 400 years since Galileo pointed his telescope at the heavens and the Roman Inquisition convicted him of heresy; nowadays, many people insist that there’s no conflict between science and religion — that was all just a medieval misunderstanding, whereas modern faith has left superstitious ignorance behind. Astronomy, certainly, has come a long way since Galileo: in fact, they’re about to build an awesome Thirty Meter Telescope on top of Mauna Kea, Hawaii:
TMT scientists selected Maunakea after a rigorous five-year campaign spanning the entire globe that measured virtually every atmospheric feature that might affect the performance of the telescope. Located above approximately 40 percent of Earth’s atmosphere, the site at Maunakea has a climate that is particularly stable, dry, and cold; all of which are important characteristics for capturing the sharpest images and producing the best science…
The TMT telescope will provide extremely sharp images that will allow astronomers to see much fainter and more distant objects than possible with existing telescopes, and to study them in greater detail. This represents the possibility of pushing our vision farther into space and our understanding farther back in time to help answer fundamental questions about the universe. It is very likely that TMT will enable discoveries that we cannot even begin to anticipate today…
Following a lengthy 7-year public and agency review, all required state and county permits were issued to the Thirty Meter Telescope.
So how soon does it open? Well, funny story.
A nonprofit company planning to build one of the world’s biggest telescopes on a mountain many Native Hawaiians consider sacred will continue to postpone construction, Hawaii Gov. David Ige said Friday.
This is the second time the Thirty Meter Telescope has extended a moratorium on building at the summit of Mauna Kea, the highest peak on the Big Island of Hawaii…
The company suspended building after law enforcement arrested protesters for blocking the road to the summit and refusing to leave the construction site.
Scientists say Mauna Kea’s summit above cloud cover offers some of the world’s best conditions for viewing the skies. But some Native Hawaiians believe their creation story begins atop the mountain. It’s also a burial site for ancestors and a home to deities.
(That’s some stellar reporting from the Associated Press, by the way: first, implying that the telescope would encroach on a burial ground, whereas, according to the TMT Foundation, “The selected site has no archaeological shrines or features, no endangered plants, no endangered bugs and no burials”; then stating, without qualification, that the mountain is “a home to deities” — is that a fact?)
Despite the irony of opposing a project that seeks to better understand the origins of the universe because of parochial myths about the origin of the universe, some will argue that we should respect people’s heartfelt traditions and beliefs, even if we don’t share them ourselves. But where does it end? We also have Jews who refuse to sit next to women on airplanes, Christians whose businesses won’t serve same-sex couples, etc. — and I don’t think irrational demands should be given respect they don’t deserve. We got out of the Dark Ages by valuing reason and evidence over superstition and authority, and that is the key to building a healthy society that can face the challenges of the future. Those who wish to sanctify their traditions and be bound by them may do so, but they’re not sacred to the rest of us, and we mustn’t let them hold us back as we aim for the stars.


1But there is a catch.
As NASA astronomers peer further and further into space, they require ever larger and more powerful telescopes to do so. That’s why one team of researchers from the Jet Propulsion Lab have proposed using the biggest object in our solar system, the Sun, as a cosmic magnifying glass.
According to Einstein’s Theory of Relativity, massive objects will bend the space around it and cause the path of objects traveling within that space– including light itself– to curve. And, under the right conditions, that light can bend just enough that it magnifies the view of space behind it.
As the JPL team explained during a presentation to NASA’s recent Planetary Science Vision 2050 workshop in DC, the observational instruments would need to be stationed 550 AU away from the Sun in order to focus its light accurately. 1 AU is the distance between the Sun and the Earth so 550 AU is smack dab in the middle of interstellar space.
There’s also the issue of the Earth’s orbit. Depending on the planet’s position relative to the Sun and observational instruments, window for observing specific stars or sections of the sky could be extremely limited.
Despite these technical difficulties, the payoff for actually implementing this system would be huge. With the Sun as a gravitational lens, telescopes equipped with starshade technology will be able to see the exoplanet itself.


Chilstone garden ornaments suit gardens large and small with a mix of classical and contemporary designs. Our pieces are entirely handmade with a finish identical to carved stone. This is in great contrast to the mass market ornaments seen in so many garden centres and nurseries.
For a small garden, knot garden or as the centre of a vegetable garden, a sundial is a beautiful and practical piece of sculpture to form a central or focal point.
Available in various sizes, this sundial can be placed in a wide variety of spaces and areas. The sundial plates vary from handmade brass to cheaper resin ones.
Range from 67cms in height to 95cm.
A neo-classical column with decorative collars, suits both a sundial or an armillary sphere.
Height: 88cm, 35”
Base Diameter: 37cm, 15”
Ecliptic Armillary Sphere
An Ecliptic Armillary Sphere is a beautiful piece that features the bands of the Solstice, the Tropics, the Equinox, the Equator with mounted Roman numerals to indicate the time, the Ecliptic marked with the signs of the Zodiac, an arrow gnomon fitted with a central orb to mark the changing of the seasons, and a stanchion displaying the moon. These are made to order and can take 3 months for delivery.
Sphere diameter: 38cm, 15”


When NASA’s Mars rover Perseverance, a robotic astrobiology lab packed inside an area capsule, hits the ultimate stretch of its seven-month journey from Earth this week, it’s set to emit a radio alert because it streaks into the skinny Martian ambiance.
By the time that sign reaches mission managers some 127 million miles (204 million km) away on the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) close to Los Angeles, Perseverance will have already got landed on the Red Planet – hopefully in a single piece.
The six-wheeled rover is predicted to take seven minutes to descend from the highest of the Martian ambiance to the planet’s floor in much less time than the 11-minute-plus radio transmission to Earth. Thus, Thursday’s concluding, self-guided descent of the rover spacecraft is ready to happen throughout a white-knuckled interval that JPL engineers affectionately confer with as the “seven minutes of terror.”
Al Chen, head of the JPL descent and touchdown crew, referred to as it essentially the most critical and most harmful a part of the $2.7 billion (roughly Rs. 19,600 crores) mission.
“Success isn’t assured,” Chen advised a latest bulletin briefing. “And that is very true after we’re making an attempt to land the most important, heaviest, and most intricate rover we have ever constructed to essentially the most harmful place we have ever tried to land at.”
Much is driving on the end result. Building on discoveries of almost 20 US outings to Mars relationship back to Mariner 4’s 1965 flyby, Perseverance may set the stage for scientists to conclusively show whether or not life has existed past Earth, whereas paving the plan for eventual human missions to the fourth planet from the solar. A secure touchdown, as all the time, comes first.
Success will hinge on a fancy sequence of occasions unfolding with out a hitch – from inflation of a large, supersonic parachute to deployment of a jet-powered “sky crane” that can descend to a secure touchdown spot and hover above the floor whereas decreasing the rover to the bottom on a tether.
“Perseverance has to do that all on her personal,” Chen stated. “We can not help it throughout this era.”
If all goes as deliberate, NASA’s crew would obtain a follow-up radio sign shortly before 1pm Pacific time confirming that Perseverance landed on Martian soil on the fringe of an historic, long-vanished river delta and lake bed.
Science on the floor
From there, the nuclear battery-powered rover, roughly the dimensions of a small SUV, will embark on the first goal of its two-year mission – partaking a fancy suite of devices within the seek for indicators of microbial life that will have flourished on Mars billions of years in the past.
Advanced energy instruments will drill samples from Martian rock and seal them into cigar-sized tubes for eventual return to Earth for additional evaluation – the primary such specimens ever collected by humankind from the floor of one other planet.
Two future missions to retrieve these samples and fly them back to Earth are within the planning levels by NASA, in collaboration with the European Space Agency.
Perseverance, the fifth and by far most subtle rover car NASA has despatched to Mars since Sojourner in 1997, also incorporates a number of pioneering functions circuitously associated to astrobiology.
Among them is a small drone helicopter, nicknamed Ingenuity, that can test surface-to-surface powered flight on one other world for the primary time. If victorious, the four-pound (1.8-kg) whirlybird might pave the plan for low-altitude aerial surveillance of Mars throughout later missions.
Another experiment is a tool to extract pure oxygen from carbon dioxide within the Martian ambiance, a software that might show invaluable for future human life support on Mars and for producing rocket propellant to fly astronauts residence.
‘Spectacular’ however treacherous
The mission’s first hurdle after a 293-million-mile (472-million-km) flight from Earth is delivering the rover intact to the ground of Jerezo Crater, a 28-mile-wide (45-km-wide) expanse that scientists imagine may harbour a wealthy trove of fossilised microorganisms.
“It is a spectacular touchdown place,” mission scientist Ken Farley advised reporters on a teleconference.
What makes the crater’s rugged terrain – deeply carved by long-vanished flows of liquid water – so tantalizing as a analysis place also makes it treacherous as a touchdown zone.
The descent sequence, an improve from NASA’s last rover mission in 2012, begins as Perseverance, encased in a protecting shell, pierces the Martian ambiance at 12,000 miles per hour (19,300 km per hour), almost 16 occasions the pace of sound on Earth.
After a parachute deployment to gradual its plunge, the descent capsule’s warmth protect is ready to fall away to launch a jet-propelled “sky crane” hovercraft with the rover connected to its stomach.
Once the parachute is jettisoned, the sky crane’s jet thrusters are set to instantly fire, slowing its descent to strolling pace because it nears the crater flooring and self-navigates to a easy touchdown place, steering away from boulders, cliffs and sand dunes.
Hovering over the floor, the sky crane is because of decrease Perseverance on nylon tethers, sever the chords when the rover’s wheels attain the floor, then fly off to crash a secure distance away.
Should all the pieces work, deputy mission supervisor Matthew Wallace stated, post-landing exuberance could be on full display at JPL regardless of COVID-19 security protocols which have stored shut contacts inside mission management to a minimal.
“I do not assume COVID goes to have the ability to cease us from leaping up and down and fist-bumping,” Wallace stated.
© Thomson Reuters 2021
Can Realme X7 Pro tackle OnePlus Nord? We mentioned this on Orbital, our weekly automation podcast, which you’ll be able to subscribe to through Apple Podcasts, Google Podcasts, or RSS, obtain the episode, or simply hit the play button below.


DIY Solar Eclipse Glasses:
Nature is abundant with phenomena that never fails to enthrall and captivate us. One such phenomenon is the solar eclipse. An astronomical event where the new moon comes between the Sun and the Earth, thereby blocking the rays of the Sun and casting a shadow of the moon on the Earth. There are three types of solar eclipse: partial, annular and total eclipse. The curiosity behind the solar eclipse is so immense that everyone wants to view the spectacle. But to view a solar eclipse safely is a priority and for that, you need special glasses equipped to view the solar eclipse. And what better way but to make your own DIY solar eclipse glasses.
DIY Solar eclipse glasses
- Piece of white paper
- An empty box of cereal
- Pair of scissors
- Tin foil
- A pin or a nail to make a pinhole
- Take the empty cereal box and place it on the white paper sheet.
- Stand the box to get a rectangular shape and trace the outline of the box on the sheet.
- Cut out the shape of the rectangle and tape it to the bottom of the empty box.
- Close the top of the box.
- Now cut out two holes, both square in shape on the left and right sides.
- Take the tin foil and place it over one of the holes and tape it down to the sides.
- Put the pinhole in it and your solar eclipse glasses are ready.
- Stand in such a way that your back is to the sun and you can see the shadow that you are casting.
- Hold the box up so the solar eclipse reflects on the tin foil. As you look into the opening on the box, the sun will appear in all its phases on the white paper.
An easy and quick way to make your own DIY solar eclipse glasses.


On Time Out of Time is a suite of works originally commissioned for the 2017 installations 'ER=EPR' and 'Orbihedron' by artists Evelina Domnitch and Dmitry Gelfand (in collaboration with Jean-Marc Chomaz and LIGO) for the exhibition, 'Limits of Knowing' at Martin-Gropius-Bau, Berlin by curator, Isabel de Sena. These works utilize, among other things, exclusive source recordings from the interferometers of LIGO (Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory) capturing the sounds of the merging of two distant massive black holes, 1.3 billion years ago. The CD and Digital formats feature two tracks: The 40-minute title track, "On Time Out of Time," as well as "4(E+D)4(ER+EPR)", a live track recorded during the aforementioned installation. The vinyl LP format features two exclusive mixes of the title track: "On Time Out of Time" on the a-side; and "On Time Out of Time (The Lovers)" on the b-side, made especially for the vinyl format.
RIMARIMBA - IN THE WOODS VI...


Big Holes in Space
Black holes are areas where the pull of gravity is so strong that not even light can escape. Usually they happen after very big, supergiant stars explode. The exploded star turns into something called a “supernova.” It is very bright, but short-lived. Supernovas create the largest explosions in space.
The material remaining after the supernova explosion collapses. Gravity pulls, or crushes, all the matter into a very small space. When light can no longer escape that space, it is known as a black hole.
The human eye is unable to see black holes in space. But telescopes with special tools can help find black holes by seeing how they affect nearby stars.
In February, the Japanese space agency sent its Astro-H satellite into orbit around the Earth. The satellite’s job was to examine large structures in space, like huge black holes that exist at the center of most galaxies. The Astro-H satellite fell apart after only a month in space. But in that short time, Astro-H was able to gather important information. It sent back data about the Perseus cluster – a grouping of galaxies in the star constellation Perseus. The Perseus cluster is home to hundreds of galaxies. They are 240 million light years from Earth.
The Japanese satellite Astro-H was carrying an instrument called an X-ray spectrometer. It was able to measure the way gas flows at the center of the Perseus cluster.
What it found was that the superheated gas at the center of the cluster flowed more calmly than researchers expected. And that told them something about how black holes work, and how galaxies are formed.
YDS kelime listeleri, Kelime Testleri, Mini YDS testleri, ve makaleyi dinleme özellikleri, yeni geliştirme çalışmaları kapsamında şimdilik kaldırılmıştır. Bu özellikleri daha kullanışlı olarak Defeat YDS Anroid uygulamamızda kullabilirsiniz. Defeat YDS indirme linki
Okunma Sayısı : 640


In the diagram below, given a
semicircle of diameter AB, CD is a perpendicular to AB, circle
of diameter CD and semicircles of diameter AC and CB
respectively. If S1, S2, S3 , S4,
and S5 are the shaded areas, prove that: S1
+ S2 + S3 = S4 + S5.
Archimedes' Book of Lemmas:
Proposition 4 Arbelos.
Typography Art of Problem
100 using Mobile Apps, iPad Software
Artist's impression of Oumuamua, the first known interstellar object to pass through the Solar System. Photograph: ESO/M. Kornmesser/PA.


30 agosto 2012
Il ghiaccio sulla Luna. Uno studio pubblicato su Geophysical Research Letters il 28 Luglio 2012.
I ricercatori, guidati da Bradley Thomson dell'Università di Boston, hanno pubblicato lo studio sulla rivista Geophysical Research Letters: An upper limit for ice in Shackleton crater as revealed by LRO Mini-RF orbital radar
Received 23 April 2012; accepted 16 June 2012; published 28 July 2012.
Although diverse measurements have indicated H+, OH−, or H2O species in the lunar polar regions, pinpointing its location, form, and abundance in specific reservoirs has proven elusive. Here we report on the first orbital radar measurements of Shackleton crater near the lunar south pole. Mini-RF observations indicate a patchy, heterogeneous enhancement in CPR (circular polarization ratio) on the crater walls whose strength decreases with depth toward the crater floor, a result that is most consistent with a roughness effect due to less mature regolith present on the crater wall slopes. However, the results do not rule out a modest ice contribution, and an upper limit of ∼5–10 wt% H2O ice (up to 30 vol.%) present in the uppermost meter of regolith is also consistent with the observations.


Big news today, The Light Interferometry Gravitational wave Observatory (LIGO) has just announced (Link) the first direct detection of gravitational waves. These were predicted by Einstein back in 1913 and have been indirectly observed through their distortion of light by optical telescopes but this is the first time they have been detected by a purpose built instrument.
I think there’s some poetic justice in the fact that Einstein’s relativity project was motivated by the result of an interferometry experiment, the Michelson Morely experiment. Now 100 years later Relativity is vindicated by a device which is fundamentally just a scaled up version of the same equipment Michelson and Moreley used.
Well done to the LIGO team.
[Above image By ESA/Hubble & NASA [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons]


Becoming an astronaut is every boy’s dream. Who doesn’t want to walk on the moon? Unfortunately that dream fades away for the vast majority of us when we grow up and realize NASA doesn’t employ overweight college dropouts. That’s when we take up blogging.
But thanks to an upcoming iOS app, we can all pop on a white suit and moon boots and dance with the satellites.
Independent iOS developer Jose Hernandez is developing a new app called Astronaut Simulator, which gives everyone with an iOS device the chance to a Manned Maneuvering Unit (MMU) — the same booster-controlled suite used on NASA shuttle missions — in space.
This isn’t like traditional space-based titles that have you battling aliens with lasers of catapulting unhappy birds at thieving swines. Instead, Astronaut Simulator calls upon you to complete 20 missions with objectives that involve reaching satellites and performing repairs before your air supply runs out.
Hernandez says the project is still around three weeks away from completion, which means we’ll probably see Astronaut Simulator in the App Store in late June or early July following approval from Apple. But in the meantime, you can enjoy these gorgeous screenshots.
by Killian Bell


Alex - We have been doing our new space topic. We had to think of things that existed in space and consider the evidence and how reliable it is. We also made a kwhl grid.
Ellie May - This week we wrote a paragraph about ourselves in cymraeg. We included things like what our names are, what school we go to and our hobbies. We also created a mind am about Science Fiction films and books like Star Wars.
Cameron - this week we have been looking at space. We annotated a science fiction story. We looked at things in space such as comet and space stations. It is really interesting and a really good topic.


SPACE DICE is played on board showing a representation of the Solar System arranged in twelve rings each containing 12 segments - a total of 144 spaces in all. Starting on their birth month (on the third most inner ring) players move their three space ships through the Solar System to the Center of the Galaxy (accessed from sector 144 on the outer ring of the board) via planets, comets, major stars and constellations. Movement is conducted based on the results of the throw of four dice with at least one double being required to launch each ship from its starting position. Movement is a result of the combination of the four dice roles. For example a roll of 20 (including a double) would allow a space ship to leave July (space 26) and move to Mars (space 46). The following dice rolls have the following effects: Throwing four of a kind (a quadruple) wins outright, even on the first throw. A triple, regardless of the number thrown allows a move of 36 spaces. A perfect sequence (1234, 2345, 3456) allows a move of 48 spaces. Some squares contain special instructions that must be followed. These include instructions to throw again or move to another square. On arrival at sector 144 each space ship there qualifies for three throws of the dice. After each throw the player may pick up or leave down any dice in choosing to go for a quadruple or perfect sequence within those three throws. Each time a quadruple or perfect sequence is thrown one ship may be placed on the space representing the Center of the Galaxy. The first player to get all three of their ships to the Center of the Galaxy is the winner.


Look skyward on a winter’s night in the Northern Hemisphere and you may glimpse the beauty of the aurora borealis. Come sunrise, the same forces that spur its shimmering bands will likely wreak havoc with communication systems and GPS navigation.
Each time the sun beams a solar flare or lobs a coronal mass ejection (CME) toward our planet, a surge of charged particles strips electrons from gases in our atmosphere, resulting in the familiar glow and also dense plasma masses that refract, or delay, satellite signals.
Predicting where this plasma will travel remains one of the challenges of space weather forecasting. Now, with the help of a National Science Foundation CAREER Award, Seebany Datta-Barua, assistant professor of aerospace engineering, hopes to shift the science closer to becoming as accurate as meteorologists' storm tracking.
“Say there is a CME headed toward Earth. It strikes our magnetosphere and some of the particles get rerouted into Earth's upper atmosphere. Where will those particles go? It would be helpful if we could forecast whether they will be mostly visible over Australia or the U.S., or not affect anyone at all,” Datta-Barua says. “It would allow airlines and electric-power suppliers to plan for it and take appropriate action.”
Datta-Barua will use mathematical modeling of the plasma densities to detect something called Lagrangian coherent structures (LCS), which can help scientists predict where—and how quickly—particles will move from one location to another.
LCS have been used successfully to model the movement of pollutants in the ocean. If Datta-Barua can detect their presence in the atmosphere, she can use them to model where the plasma will gather over our planet following a solar event.
“The idea is to pretend you're following one particle in the flow through time, and then you follow another particle nearby to see how far they separate over time. Do that for a lot of neighboring points and a pattern emerges where some particles start off close together and then diverge quickly. Yet in another region, they stay close,” Datta-Barua says. “An LCS is like a wall that divides the particles that separated most rapidly. It defines a barrier that tells us something like, ‘Two particles that start on either side of this barrier will go far apart from each other after five hours.’”
The entire dance plays out in the ionosphere, an ever-shifting layer of charged particles within the thermosphere, which has interested Datta-Barua since her days as an undergraduate studying physics at Stanford University. While doing undergraduate research, she found her interest shifting from fundamental physics to a desire to pursue science that directly affects people's daily lives. So, along with a bachelor's degree in physics, Datta-Barua went on to earn a master's degree and doctorate in aeronautics and astronautics, and participated in the GPS Research Laboratory run by Stanford Professor Per Enge.
“Aerospace engineering and working with the near-space environment—satellites and all the technologies that rely on them like communications, navigation, and remote sensing—was where I thought it all really connects to modern society,” she says.
Although Datta-Barua admits it may be years before we can forecast space weather the way meteorologists track winter storms, the quest still shimmers on the horizon, brilliant as the northern lights.
Seebany Datta-Barua’s homepage: engineering.iit.edu/faculty/seebany-datta-barua
“The Skeleton of Water,” on Lagrangian coherent structures: www.economist.com/science-and-technology/2009/11/12/the-skeleton-of-water


Last chance to see Comet NEOWISE
PUBLISHED: 20:05 30 July 2020
Grab your binoculars to see this spectacular comet before it disappears for another 6,000 years
In late March, a comet was discovered in the vicinity of the Sun by the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer (WISE), a NASA asteroid- and comet-hunting space telescope. NEO-is short for Near-Earth Objects - hence it was named NEOWISE. Unlike two other recent comets which promised to be visible from Earth but disintegrated, this one survived its encounter with the Sun and is now visible in the early morning sky in the north. Search Comet NEOWISE finder for its position and, if you’re willing to get up early in the morning and the clouds part, you may well see this long-tailed object low in the sky. Keep away from buildings and trees to stand a better chance.
Some think that comets whizz through the sky. No, they just appear to sit there, pursuing their immense journeys very slowly as seen from Earth. By July 31, the comet will be seen below and to the left of the Plough, it will then start to fade from our view. I took this photo of NEOWISE from Wimborne on July 13 at 3.47am.


What do you want people to know about your graduation project?
The Astronomy Culture Centre is to deal with the gap between people and astronomy.
It is designed as an interior station where the public can engage with sky events and explore the world above with interactive galleries and simulation technology. It helps visitors to seek to understand our role in the universe and to care about the future of humanity.
What or who is your inspiration and why is following this route important to you?
‘Astronomy for All’ is the motto of the International Astronomical Union (IAU). If “All” is a very vast term to define society and its communities, “Astronomy” as a body of knowledge is also similarly vast.
However, astronomy lacks an effective way to reach the masses, and visitors find it hard to appreciate the beauty and grandeur of the universe in a traditional museum setting.
I have tried to create a virtual visitor experience that will help astronomy reach the masses.
Astronomy is not just about scientific advances or technological applications; it is also a part of humanity’s culture. It has repeatedly revolutionized the way we think, and the way we see the world and our place in the larger universe.
What has been your favourite thing about ECA and Edinburgh?
The most memorable thing in Edinburgh is the snow-capped castle seen from Evolution House.
I also enjoyed my time spent in the ECA library with art magazines and journals. Great materials build up an artistic atmosphere, where I could be very inspired and develop my creative ideas.
What are your hopes for life after ECA? Do you have any plans?
I plan to do a Masters programme in architecture design and find an internship related to my major. I expect to work internationally in the future to do projects around the world and get in touch with different cultures.
Is there anything you’d like to share about your experience studying here?
Design students benefit a lot from sharing their ideas and getting responses from others.


Hello fellow galactic travelers, welcome to the thread dedicated to the very large (as well as the very small). The universe is a fascinating place that’s, for all intents and purposes, too unfathomably large for our feeble human brains to comprehend; but that doesn’t mean we shouldn’t try, right?
I’ve always been fascinated with the wonders of the great beyond. Being from a very small town in Michigan, with my house in the middle of nowhere, no less, I’ve been granted the delightful opportunity to gaze upon the stars in all their majesty with little obstruction. And only recently have I delved into the incredibly small (I changed my major from mechanical to materials science engineering last year).
The insane complexity of it all is quite mind-boggling. And though I’m not at all a religious person, it’s hard to believe that this all happened randomly (but please don’t turn this to a religious thread in any sort of way). Of course, my favorite idea is that before anything existed (pre-Big Bang), there weren’t any sort of laws of physics that stated that something couldn’t just start happening.
Let’s start with some fun facts:
-The Earth is spinning at 465.1 m/s (1,040.4 mph)
-The Earth is orbiting around the sun at 29,800 m/s (66,660.7 mph)
-Our solar system is is orbiting around the center of the Milky Way galaxy at 220,000 m/s (492,126 mph)
-Besides all that craziness, the Milky Way itself (along with us) is hurtling through space at the break-neck speed of 515,000 miles per hour due to the expansion of the universe.
Ok, so we’re going pretty fast (HOLD ON TO SOMETHING!).
Would all this speed cause a problem with time machines? Unless the entire system of the time machine and Earth with it’s blazing-fast velocity act as a non-inertial reference frame, then you’d be simply transported to a point in the middle of space, and consequently die.
Please, PLEASE share any information you have or any questions you have! I’ll be updating this thread periodically with tidbits of info I have on space, planets, black holes, stars, and the stuff that makes all of it up - atoms.


Ever since he was a boy, Temple family physician John Manning, MD, has been fascinated by space.
“I watched Alan Shepherd’s first launch into space around age 7, and that got me hooked on space and flying and the sky,” said Dr. Manning, who since 1995 has been practicing at Baylor Scott & White Medical Center – Temple. “I remember watching Lost in Space as a kid and looking at the sky and imagining people flying around in spaceships like on the TV shows.”
Now, Dr. Manning is also an amateur photographer. About 10 years ago, he merged his interests in photography and space into his latest obsession: astrophotography.
“Taking pictures like I can do now used to be much more difficult with film cameras, and amateurs really couldn’t do it,” the program director for Baylor Scott and White’s family medicine residency program told Texas Medicine. “But with digital cameras and computer software programs, I was able to marry those two and realized it was the perfect hobby.”
From his back yard about 10 miles outside Temple, Dr. Manning has photographed distant objects like nebulae and galaxies along with Earth’s nearby planetary neighbors.
“I find it very fascinating, and when I take these pictures, sometimes I’m shocked as much as anybody,” Dr. Manning said. “When it comes out I go, ‘Oh my gosh, look what I just did.’”
Here are more highlights from Texas Medicine’s interview with Dr. Manning.
What kind of equipment is necessary to take a photo of, say, the Andromeda Galaxy or the Orion Nebula?
This entails, first of all, a telescope because you need to be able to get in closer than you can get with your standard lenses on a camera. You need at least a semi-professional version of a digital single-lens reflex (DSLR) camera, and an adapter that connects your camera to your telescope just like it connects to a telephoto lens. So essentially the telescope becomes a very large telephoto lens for the camera. The problem is, especially when you’re zoomed in very closely with a very powerful lens, within a second or two the Earth has rotated enough that whatever you’re taking a picture of begins to drift across the frame, causing what’s called trailing.
The only way you can take a clear 2- or 3-minute picture with a telescope is if the telescope moves at the exact same rate and direction of the Earth. The mount that you put the telescope on is motorized and has this mechanism whereby you align the axis of the telescope with the axis of the Earth by lining up on Polaris, the North Star, which sits directly above the North Pole. Once you’ve done that, the telescope moves at just the right rate and direction as Earth, so the image stays in the center of the field of view.
When you’re sucking in a lot of light at night, there’s also a lot of background noise created by the camera along with random light from the sky. To make these pictures really sharp, you take 15 or 20 of these 3-minute exposures, so you’re getting a several-hours-long set of pictures. There are software programs that … stack (the images) and align the actual … object of the picture … and remove the noise.
How long does all that take to set up?
It probably takes a good hour getting everything set up. I keep dreaming [about] building or buying an observatory. A lot of people just build a shed and then put a roll-off roof on it. The value of that is, if you get a protected building, you can leave your equipment there all set up.
How does astrophotography relate to medicine?
It is a pretty high learning curve. You don’t just go out and do this one day. It takes dedication – you start small, start learning how to use a camera correctly, and all the different ways you can improve lighting and capture. And then you move to learning the intricacies of how to adjust and align a mount. Next, the software is another entire learning curve of how you process those pictures. So each of those are high learning curves that can take many, many months to get even your first good picture.
Medicine is like that: You don’t just go out and start doing it. All of us who have done this know that it takes years and years of passion and training. And even more than that, after all that training, it’s the experience obtained over time where you learn the details and nuances of the craft such that you slowly transition to the level of expert in a way that you can’t even describe.
Tex Med. 2020;116(2):46-48
February 2020 Texas Medicine Contents
Texas Medicine Main Page


They are further divided into minor divisions called stars or nakshatras which measure approximately 13.33 degrees. The Nakshatras are further divided into minute divisions called Padas and are about 3.33 degrees approximately each.
Rasis and their Gods
There are nine mythological Gods named Chevaai/Mangal (Mars), Shukra (Venus), Budhan (Mercury), Chandra (Moon), Surya (Sun), Shukra (Venus), Guru/Brahaspathi (Jupiter), Shani (Saturn), Rahu and Ketu. They have been dedicated as in charge of the divisions of the sky and they rule those places.
These divisions are very important for the calculation of the positions of the planets in the sky.
The 12 rasis or zodiac signs are as below:
Ruling Graha (Planet)
Published in Basic Astrology


Moon Landing, Apollo 11 Digital History ID 2758|
Credit: National Aeronautics and Space Administration
Media type: photograph
Annotation: On July 16, 1969, Apollo 11 became the first manned mission to land on the Moon. The landing fulfilled President Kennedy’s mission of “landing a man on the moon and returning him safely to the Earth.” Neil Armstrong and Edwin “Buzz” Aldrin landed on the moon, while Michael Collins orbited above. Armstrong’s famous words remind us that the event was one of the defining moments of the 20th century. When the lunar module landed, he said, "Tranquility Base, the Eagle has landed." As he stepped onto the moon’s surface for the first time, he said, "That's one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind."
Copyright 2016 Digital History


Shaori Megalithic complex is the one of the most interesting megalithic monuments, possibly has astronomic nature on the area of modern Georgia. It is located near Lake Paravani, at 2700m above sea level. Fortress Shaori is located on the top of Kerogli Mountain which represents extinct volcano. Amazing construction of Bronze Age is the copy of Abuli Fortress. The most interesting fact is good preserved rocky road. Among with the main fortress Shaori exist another one too located on the neighboring top 400m far to the east.
Complex has a great value based on archeo-astronomic study it is oriented to the horizon point with an azimuth of 98-1000. That’s why it is possible to use the complex as a solar observatory which will define solstice point.
It was possible to observe sun rise and sunset in the days of solstice and many more astronomic feature.
This kind of construction may be called “solar plant”. People had lived, worked, believed and observed over ancient luminaries of the ancient world for the purpose of orientation in time or space.
Shaori Megalithic Complex
Do you have any questions or would you like to visit sight?
Please fill in the following form and we will contact you.
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Around the World List
First time on Mars? Join us as we tour some of the biggest, strangest and most fascinating wonders the Red Planet has to behold
Written by Ben Biggs and Giles Sparrow
1. Grand Canyon of Mars
Welcome to Valles Marineris – the biggest canyon in the entire Solar System
It’s difficult to recount exactly the impact the Grand Canyon has on you on your first visit. It’s pretty overwhelming: at around 29 kilometres (18 miles) at its widest point and nearly two kilometres (1.2 miles) from the plateau to the Colorado River at its deepest, it’s probably the biggest thing anyone could hope to witness in their lives. Yet the entire Grand Canyon would be no more than a mere gully in the biggest canyon in the Solar System.
Valles Marineris is unbelievably enormous, spanning over 4,000 kilometres (2,500 miles) in length, with some parts of it 200 kilometres (125 miles) wide and over ten kilometres (six miles) deep. It would stretch across the entire United States if it was on Earth and its size is only exaggerated by the fact that Mars is around half the size of Earth – around 20 per cent of Mars’s circumference is taken
up by this massive gouge in its surface.
The canyon is, naturally, host to a plethora of interesting geological features that offer scientists clues as to its turbulent past. Located just south of Mars’s equator, its western end begins with a series of steep, maze-like valleys given the sinister Latin title Noctis Labyrinthus, or ‘the labyrinth of the night’. This region shows typical fault-line activity, with valley-forming depressions known as ‘grabens’. Moving eastwards, Valles Marineris starts to grow in breadth and depth, with twin canyons called the Ius and Tithonium chasmata running parallel to each other, divided by a central ridge. This gives way to three more chasmata and the deepest part of the canyon at 11 kilometres (6.8 miles) from the plains above. These eventually lead to the eastern end: Coprates Chasma, defined by its layered deposits that could originate from landslides or water erosion, Eos and the Ganges chasmata and, finally, where the canyon terminates in the Chryse region, a mere kilometre (0.62 miles) above Valles Marineris’s deepest point.
Although there’s evidence of a number of processes at work here including water erosion, the scientific community generally agrees today that the volcanic region west of Valles Marineris played a major role in the formation of this huge rift, with water reshaping and deepening its course. It’s thought that as the Tharsis Montes was pushed up my molten rock to form gigantic volcanoes, the crust split to form fault lines around 3.5 billion years ago, which inevitably widened to form Valles Marineris. Though they share many similarities, this is unlike the Grand Canyon, which was gradually carved out of the surrounding rock millions of years ago by the meandering of the Colorado River and its tributaries.
How Valles Marineris formed It’s thought that Valles Marineris is an example of a giant rift valley, similar to Africa’s rift valley system. Its formation is primarily tectonic and consists of three main stages that begins with the Tharsis bulge, a region where Valles Marineris is today that began to uplift as magma rose, as early as 4 billion years ago. The pressure and extra weight of magma led to parts of the crust forming graben – valleys sunk along fault lines. The crust then began to float on the magma and, pushed to breaking point, splits along the length of Valles Marineris. Finally, tectonic activity, landslides, asteroid impacts and even meltwater could have widened and deepened the long chasm to form Valles Marineris as we see it today.
1 Tharsis bulge
Approximately 4 billion years ago, the Tharsis bulge begins to form as magma rises under what is today the Thaumasia Plateau region of Mars.
2 Crust failure
As the magma builds up, the pressure on the crust becomes too great and it begins to fracture and split to the east, giving birth to a young Valles Marineris.
3 The chasm widens
Millions of years of tectonic and volcanic activity in the area leads to further fracturing and widening of Valles Marineris to its current size today.
2. Chasm with a violent past
Meet Valles Marineris’s little brother If it weren’t for its bigger sibling several hundred kilometres to the south, Kasei Valles would have taken the gong for being the biggest canyon system on Mars, if not the Solar System. As it stands, its 3,000-kilometre (1,900-mile) expanse, three-kilometre (1.8-mile) depth is still more than prominent enough to stand out from the surface to any passing orbiter. It even tops Valles Marineris in places, reaching over 300 kilometres (185 miles) wide. Its size isn’t what makes Kasei Valles a wonder of Mars alone though. All 1.5 million square kilometres (nearly 600,000 square miles) of the region were forged by some of the most violent events in Mars’s history. Today, the most potent force Kasei Valles faces is the occasional, turbulent dust storm that, given the thin Martian atmosphere, is hardly about to carve another record-breaking canyon into it any time soon. It was a different story over 3 billion years ago, though: the same raging tectonics that were busy creating Valles Marineris were ripping the landscape apart further north, bringing groundwater to the surface which combined with ice melted by the volcanoes further west to create furious torrents of mud, forming and shaping the channels of Kasei Valles. The same violent floods failed to completely erode the outcrop of Sacra Mensa but further downstream, they made mincemeat of the southern rim of the 100-kilometre (62-mile) Sharonov crater, before emptying into the plain of Chryse Planitia.
3. Super Volcano
The tallest peak on Mars and in the Solar System
At some point in the distant future, when commercial space flights have reached the border of the asteroid belt and we can freely explore other planets, Olympus Mons will likely become the number one tourist destination in the Solar System, outside of any wonder on Earth. It holds some impressive titles, including the tallest known peak in the Solar System at 22 kilometres (14 miles) from base to tip and a diameter of around 624 kilometres (374 miles), nearly the same size as France and about the
same size as the US state of Arizona. It has a caldera to match its enormous expanse: at around 80 kilometres (50 miles) in diameter, these six collapsed magma chambers form a single craterlike
depression that’s easily large enough to comfortably hold one of the biggest cities in the world by area, New York, with plenty of room to spare. And the volume of Olympus Mons is equally huge at around 100 times that of the Hawaiian volcano Mauna Loa, which is enough to contain the entire Hawaiian archipelago from Hawaii to Kauai, in fact.
This is no mere mountain, however. Olympus Mons is a giant volcano, a shield volcano to be precise, the kind that spews lava slowly down its slopes rather than violently erupting magma, smoke and ash kilometres into the sky. As a shield volcano it has a low profile and its sides slope at an average incline of only five per cent. In fact, if you were standing at the top of Olympus Mons and didn’t know it, you probably wouldn’t be aware that you were at the summit of a very high mountain. If you walked to the far edge where the volcano begins to rise, you’d encounter an escarpment, or boundary cliff, an astonishing ten kilometres (six miles) high. That’s higher than the largest volcano on Earth, Hawaii’s own shield volcano Mauna Loa.
Olympus Mons’ giant size is no fluke. Low Martian gravity has a part to play in the continuous build-up of cooling lava on its flanks. But tectonic activity on Mars is extremely limited compared to Earth, too: unlike the Hawaiian islands, for example, which have produced several smaller volcanoes as a result of plate movement over millions of years, Olympus Mons has been sitting in the same spot for a long time, allowing the volcano to continuously erupt and grow to its current size.
How Olympus Mons was created
The theories on how the biggest volcano in the Solar System formed
One theory is that lava flowed underwater, piling up until it reached the surface and then spread out sideways after.
In the subaerial theory, the lava piled up and flowed in the air, with water rising later to change the dynamics of the lava flow.
Regardless of whether Olympus Mons was partially underwater or not, instability resulted in multiple
landslides, reducing its size.
As the water drained from the northern lowlands, further landslides shaped Olympus Mons, giving it its lopsided aureole.
When the water surrounding Olympus Mons disappeared, fresh lava flow smoothed its previously scarred surface.
4. Volcanic hot spot
Tharsis Montes is responsible for Mars’s most famous features
Mariner 9 was the first spacecraft to orbit another planet when it arrived at Mars in November 1971, with the Red Planet engulfed by one of its characteristic dust storms at the time. As the orbiter began to return unprecedented close-ups of the surface of Mars to Earth, NASA could make out three faint but distinctive spots. This was the Tharsis Montes region of Mars and the spots were actually the peaks of three enormous volcanoes, evenly spaced in a northeast-southwest orientation. To the
northwest, what had been known as ‘Nix Olympica’ since the 19th Century and was suspected to be a mountain, was discovered to be a massive volcano and was subsequently renamed Olympus Mons.
Tharsis Montes is the biggest volcanic region on Mars: it’s some 4,000 kilometres (2,500 miles) wide
and is home to 12 huge volcanoes up to 100 times bigger than their equivalent on Earth. The Tharsis Montes region is responsible for many of Mars’s more interesting wonders. Around 4 billion years ago, rising magma caused what is now a plateau to rise, forming the Tharsis bulge, a geological feature the size of North America. This led to the formation of Valles Marineris, the Tharsis Montes volcanoes and Alba Mons, a huge volcano with a diameter of roughly 1,500 kilometres (930 miles) but with an extremely low relief that makes it unique on Mars. Olympus Mons is often (understandably) attributed to the area, although it’s actually not part of the plateau.
5. Martian two-face
The planet-shattering reason behind Mars’s strange north-south divide
Sometimes it’s hard to see the woods for all the trees, as is the case with the strange, nearhemispheric
dichotomy of Mars’s southern highlands and northern lowlands. The difference between the two hemispheres has been observed for decades now, with investigation by orbiting probes in the late-Seventies highlighting the radical contrast between the topography of each region: the south is rugged, volcanic and pock-marked with craters and features the tallest peaks in the Solar System, while the north is a huge plain of unparalleled smoothness, with an altitude typically several kilometres below the lower regions of the south. Up until recently no one really knew why this was, although it was known that this feature was very ancient, almost as old as the planet itself.
A few theories had been postulated as to why the two halves were so different: one was that convection in the mantle caused upwelling in the south and downwelling in the north. The other, originally proposed in 1984, was that the hemispheric dichotomy was the result of a single enormous impact. It was the simplest solution to the mystery that meant the entire northern region, an area 8,500 kilometres (5,300 miles) wide and 10,600 kilometres (6,600 miles) long, was a colossal impact basin. That theory quickly got shot down because the borders of the northern hemisphere didn’t fit the expected round shape of an impact crater. However, since the Eighties, several confirmed craters have been discovered with strangely elliptical borders, such as the Moon’s South Pole-Aitken basin.
The case for the massive impact theory wasn’t helped by the fact that the Tharsis bulge and its enormous volcanoes formed after this huge crater was created, obscuring the shape of the rim on one side. So it was only after two decades of surface and gravitational field observations by various spacecraft that the unambiguously elliptical impact basin of the northern hemisphere was revealed. Today, although the giant impact theory hasn’t been proved beyond doubt, the evidence weighs heavily in its favour. The Borealis Basin, if it is the result of an ancient impact, will be the largest known crater in the Solar System: covering an area of around 90 million square kilometres (35 million square miles) it’s larger than the continents of Europe, Australia and Asia combined. That’s nearly four times as big as the next biggest known crater on Mars, Hellas Planitia. The object that created the Borealis Basin must have been terrifyingly massive, around 2,000 kilometres (1,200 miles) in diameter, striking at an angle of 45 degrees to create the elliptical basin. These objects and collisions were relatively common 4 billion years ago, shaping the geography and the orbits of the planets to mould the Solar System as we know it today.
6. Giant dust storms
The enormous clouds of fine red dust that can sometimes grow to engulf the entire planet
The surface of Mars is covered in dust far finer than the sands of any desert on Earth – indeed it’s the iron oxide (rust) content of this dust and the underlying rock that gives the planet its distinctive ruddy colour. From month to month, the gentle Martian winds blow clouds of dust across the landscape, stripping the surface sands away to reveal underlying rock in some places, and accumulating in other places to form spectacular dunes.
Normally, these billowing dust storms flare up and die away in a couple of days, but occasionally they can grow in size to the scale of entire continents before subsiding. And every couple of years, around the time of Mars’s closest approach to the Sun, they can run out of control to wrap the entire planet in an orange murk that persists for several months.
These enormous storms are only possible because of the size of Martian sand – the Red Planet’s thin
atmosphere (exerting just one per cent of the Earth’s atmospheric pressure) means that even the strongest winds of around 120 kilometres per hour or 75 miles per hour (equivalent to hurricane force on Earth), would barely be able to shift Earth-sized sand grains. But atmospheric dust grains on Mars, worn down by billions of years of steady erosion, are comparable in size to the particles in cigarette smoke, so that even the gentle winds of the planet’s thin atmosphere can lift them from the ground. Wind speeds in a typical storm are around 100 kilometres per hour (62 miles per hour), but an astronaut on the surface would barely feel that as a light breeze.
Once lofted into the air, dust particles may linger for months. The reasons for this persistence are still
uncertain, but it’s possible that weak electromagnetic fields help to repel them from each other and prevent them settling back on the ground. This means that once the dust particles are stirred up, they can move at speeds many times faster than those in dust storms on Earth, and travel much further. As they absorb sunlight and prevent it from reaching the surface, atmospheric temperatures may rise by up to 30 degrees Celsius (86 degrees Fahrenheit).
Awesome though they may appear, the main threat from storms to either current Mars rovers and landers, or future astronauts, comes from the dust they carry within them. As it settles back out of the atmosphere it may coat equipment and solar panels with particles that get into delicate mechanisms and cut down the efficiency of solar panels. Fortunately, NASA engineers have discovered that encounters with the occasional ‘dust devils’ that spiral across the Martian surface can also help remove dust and restore power.
7. Subterranean lava tubes
A hidden world of caves that could shelter Martian microbes
A skylight – or entrance – to a lava tube on Pavonis Mons Rising to about 12 kilometres (7.5 miles) above the surrounding dusty plains, Pavonis Mons is roughly three kilometres (1.9 miles) higher than
Everest. However, it has another feature that qualifies as a Martian wonder in its own right. Running down the volcano’s southwest flank are a number of parallel, tadpole-shaped features that look at first like empty riverbeds. Tens of kilometres long, their heads point roughly towards the volcano’s summit, while their tails peter out or merge to form broader depressions. But these valleys are not the work of water erosion. Known as ‘lava tubes’, they form when the surface of a lava flow starts to cool and solidify, but molten rock continues to run below the surface. When the eruption finally comes to an end, the underground river of lava may drain away completely, leaving behind a cavernous subterranean passage.
Normally, lava tubes are all but invisible from the surface, but over time, the weight of overlying rock may cause their ceilings to cave in, creating steep-sided valleys like the ones seen on Pavonis Mons. In other places, the surface may just subside to form a string of circular depressions known as a pit chain. When the middle of the depression then collapses inward, the result is a ‘skylight’ opening into the lava tube. When the first astronauts reach Mars, they may head straight for these curious portals. Lava tubes offer natural protection from the harsh surface environment, and are an obvious place to set up a long-term base. And for the same reasons, they are also one of the most promising places to look for simple Martian life.
8. Frozen carbon dioxide poles
Mars has two permanent ice caps, but they’re not like Earth’s poles…
The temperature at the Martian equator is probably not as bitter as you might think, pushing the mercury as high as 20 degrees Celsius (68 degrees Fahrenheit) during the summer, with a soil temperature that has been recorded close to a positively beachy 30 degrees Celsius (86 degrees Fahrenheit). It’s a different story at the poles, however: with a desperately thin atmospheric pressure of just 600 pascals to insulate them – a fraction of Earth’s 101,000 pascals – little heat is retained at either end of the Red Planet. Here, temperatures have been known to drop to as low as -153 degrees Celsius (-243 degrees Fahrenheit) in the complete darkness of a Martian polar winter.
The Martian caps are pretty puny compared to those on Earth. The biggest of the two, the northern ice cap, has an estimated volume of 1.6 million cubic metres (56 million cubic feet), while the Antarctic ice sheet, the biggest on Earth, has a volume of 26.5 million cubic metres (935 million cubic feet). However, the extreme cold at the Martian poles results in over a quarter of Mars’s atmosphere freezing into enormous slabs – and because over 95 per cent of Martian air is carbon dioxide, winter brings a deposition of up to two metres (6.5 feet) of dry ice. When summer comes around, rising temperatures cause the frozen carbon dioxide to sublimate (turn immediately from solid to gas) and return to the atmosphere. The changes in the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, along with the increasing and receding poles during summer and winter, is so great that the gravitational field of Mars changes with the seasons as a result. Mars also experiences ice ages across a time scale of hundreds of thousands of years, caused by marginal changes in its orbit and axial tilt. Like Earth it’s currently in an interglacial period, but from around 2.1 million to 400,000 years ago, a time when sabre-toothed cats, woolly mammoths and other Pleistocene megafauna roamed Earth, Mars was plunged into an ice age of its own. The increased tilt on its axis heated the poles, evaporating ice into the atmosphere only for it to settle and spread from the 60 degree latitude mark to around 30 degrees north of the Martian equator in both hemispheres.
9. Deep 9 impact
The huge Martian crater that’s visible from Earth
Hellas Planitia is a huge crater that was formed in the early days of the Solar System, an era of heavy meteorite bombardment around 4 billion years ago when enormous objects flew around and collided with others on a regular basis. With its bright, reflective floor it’s a spectacular site, even when viewed from Earth. It has a diameter of 2,250 kilometres (1,400 miles) and over nine kilometres (5.6
miles) separate the rim of the crater from its floor. The rims are nearly two kilometres (1.2 miles) high, which puts the floor of the basin seven kilometres (4.3 miles) below what on Mars would correspond with sea-level on Earth. At this depth, the atmospheric pressure at the bottom is nearly double that at the top. Under certain conditions, that’s enough for liquid water to form. There’s evidence to suggest that the gullies around the basin rim were formed by glacial movement as well as explosive boiling of the water into steam. Hellas Planitia would be the biggest crater on Mars, if it wasn’t for the suspected (but still unconfirmed) Borealis Basin in Mars’s northern hemisphere
10. Martian ‘canals’
The features that went on to inspire a century of science fiction
In 1877, astronomer Giovanni Schiaparelli observed numerous gullies criss-crossing the surface of Mars, which he described in his native Italian tongue as ‘canali’. For better or for worse, the literal translation of ‘canals’ was made into English and from there, early 20th Century academics (including a certain Percival Lowell), flushed with the prominence of a new scientific age, promptly assumed that evidence of an intelligent civilisation was inferred. Fortunately, others were more scientific in their observations, pointing out that the ‘canals’ were caused by an optical illusion in poor-quality telescopes that joined visible features by lines. Spectroscopic analysis showed that atmospheric pressure on Mars was indeed too low for liquid water and that the Red Planet was considerably colder than originally anticipated. Finally, powerful telescopes of the day showed no such lines on Mars, which led to this rather tenuous theory quickly being debunked, although the notion of a Martian civilisation lived on in science fiction for decades. Today, albedo features – the craters and basins like Hellas Planitia that contrast the russet background, as well as dust streaks leading across mountains and dust storms – can be considered the remains of what were once the great Martian canal system.


Monday, December 15, 2014
Ascension Part 1-2 sounds interesting
5 second plot: 50 years ago a spaceship was launched on a 100-year mission. The idea is to find a new home for mankind and to make sure humanity survives. Everything has been going relatively well, but now things are getting shook up by a series of events. Starting with the murder of a young woman.
5 second review: The space exploration theme is really interesting. The space station is really cool. It's got that awesome '50s vibe. But that doesn't go a long way. Everything is too artificial. It simply doesn't add up and it's often ridiculous and over the top. It's probably working towards something special but it's such a drag to get there.
IMDb score: 7,1/10
Our score: 6/10


No idea? NASA's Dr. John Mather who won the 2006 Nobel Prize in Physics for measuring the echoes of the Big Bang and understanding how it happened, has answers. This is part of a new YouTube Q&A series called: "Ask a Nobel Laureate" hosted on the Nobel Prize YouTube channel.
Submit your question for Dr. Mather by attaching it as a video response to his call-out. How was the universe created? What does space smell like? Is there life on other planets?
Questions are due by October 30th, and should be less than 30 seconds. A selection of questions will be answered via video and posted to the Nobel channel.


No. of Player：2 - 5
Playing Time：40 mins
Version：Japanese and English
OXYGEN LEVELS FALLING!
You are trapped on the moon due to a massive magnetic storm originating from the sun and all of the supplies have been scattered about the surface. You and your fellow astronauts are desperately trying to recover the scattered supplies, all while your oxygen levels are falling. Moon Adventure is a cooperative board game where everyone must work together to complete the mission. Trust in your wits and your friends to make it back alive!
A challenging cooperative game based on Oink Games' worldwide hit "Deep Sea Adventure," selling over 200,000 units.Players work together as a team on a desperate mission to recover supplies on the moon. Willl the crew be able to survive the magnetic storms and limited oxygen supply?


Published at Wednesday, July 17th, 2019 - 12:27 PM. dark Map Of. By Steven G. Rios.
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Are you ready for our out-of-this-world new image pack!
We are excited to take our VideoScribe library to new levels with our brand new space and solar system images. Find all 96 of them in the Science folder.
Whether you’re planning a physics lesson they’ll never forget or designing fun invitations for your space-themed party, we’d love to see what you get up to with our new image pack.
Whatever next? Let us know what other images you would like to see in the Library.


Since October 1st 2005 the Institute for Theoretical Physics and Astrophysics at the University of Würzburg has a DFG-funded International Research Training Group entitled "Theoretical Astrophysics and Particle Physics", wherein several grants for PHD studies will be offered.
The established cooperation between the chairs in astronomy, particle physics and computational physics and the section of applied mathematics provides the graduate students with ideal conditions for interdisciplinary studies and research - research that comprises current subjects like dark matter and dark energy, physics of the early-state universe or phenomenology of elementary particles beyond the standard model.
Within the different working groups creative, innovative and even unusual initiatives for the solution of scientific problems shall be encouraged.
Furthermore, the fostering of international competence - by means of extended visits of foreign research facilities and the execution of workshops with international participants - enjoys high priority.
By Dr. Alexander Merle, University of Southampton, UK
"Multi-Wavelength Observations of the high-peaked BL Lacertae objects 1ES1011+496 and 1ES2344+514"
"Neutrinos aus photohadronischen Wechselwirkungen in kosmischen Beschleunigern"
"Muon performance aspects and measurement of the inclusive ZZ production cross section through the four lepton final state with the ATLAS experiment at the LHC"


Last week we hosted the first ever international conference on artificial light at night, ALAN 2013! After two evening events of the conference, I took advantage of being out on a night with clear skies to use the Loss of the Night app in three places. I've labelled their approximate locations on this map of Berlin at Night from the Suomi-NPP VIIRS image:
The first location, "Dahlem" is in a suburb at the edge of Berlin. The second, "Spreebogen" is an unlit park across the river from the brightly lit main train station. The third was a block away from Friedrichstraße, which is the brightest place in the center of the city (at least according to VIIRS). The results of the three measurements are shown below:
The plots are similar to the ones I showed in an earlier blog post. The vertical axis shows how bright or faint the stars are. Stars I said I couldn't see are shown in red, stars I wasn't sure about are shown in blue, and stars that I said I could see are shown in black. The horizontal axis shows the time since the measurements were started (each small tick is one minute).
The horizontal lines show the estimate (maximum likelihood fit) of how bright the sky was at each location. With a few assumptions, it's possible to turn this value into a very rough estimate of how many stars you can see. In Dahlem, about 300 stars could be seen with that level of skyglow, in Spreebogenpark about 200, and near Friedrichstraße around 100. By comparing the three datasets you can see that the app is really working, and that in each location my results are quite self-consistent. Unfortunately, I didn't happen to have an SQM with me to check how closely these results compared to the actual sky radiance.
I am continuing to learn a lot about the stars and constellations by using the app! Since September I now know learned the stars Vega and Deneb and the constellation Cygnus (the swan) very well. I am also slowly getting used to Perseus. I think that all of the stars I wasn't sure about were in the (very sparse) constellation Draco.


2017-11-15 19:19:27 来源:大耳朵英语
Request: How many people sing the praises of the moon of all ages. And what emotion do you place on the moon?
The Fascinating Moonrise
There is a hill near my home that I often climb at night. The noise of the city is a far-off murmur. In the hush of dark I share the cheerfulness of crickets and the confidence of owls. But it is the drama of the moonrise that I come to see. For that restores in me a quiet and clarity that the city spends too freely.
From this hill I have watched many moons rise. Each one had its own mood. There have been broad, confident harvest moons in autumn; shy, misty moons in spring; lonely, white winter moons rising into the utter silence of an ink-black sky and smoke-smudged orange moons over the dry fields of summer. Each, like fine music, excited my heart and then calmed my soul.


It was really cool! Really, REALLY cool! I mean, I sound like the biggest, "well, yeah DUH" geek ever, but I realized that while I had seen several pictures of Jupiter and Saturn...I had never actually SEEN them for myself beyond bright spots in the sky.
And get this...
SATURN HAS RINGS!!! RINGS!
I know! It's so neat! It was unbelievable to look through and see this huge ring glowing around the planet! I mean WOW! A RING!
JUPITER has stripes! And they're sort of reddish and cream! WOW!
I know, I know...these are things I already KNEW...but to see them for myself! WOW!
They had a 12 inch telescope focused on the moon and I couldn't believe the detail I could see. I wanted to reach out with my finger and make a big mark on the surface. It was so crisp!
My problems seemed very small, the universe seemed very large and God seemed very good.
Rings man, RINGS!!!!!


NEW PUBLICATION IN SCIENCE
The bulk of the comet 81P/Wild 2 (hereafter Wild 2) samples returned to Earth by the Stardust spacecraft appear to be weakly constructed mixtures of nanometer-scale grains, with occasional much larger (over 1 micrometer) ferromagnesian silicates, Fe-Ni sulfides, Fe-Ni metal, and accessory phases. The very wide range of olivine and low-Ca pyroxene compositions in comet Wild 2 requires a wide range of formation conditions, probably reflecting very different formation locations in the protoplanetary disk. The restricted compositional ranges of Fe-Ni sulfides, the wide range for silicates, and the absence of hydrous phases indicate that comet Wild 2 experienced little or no aqueous alteration. Less abundant Wild 2 materials include a refractory particle, whose presence appears to require radial transport in the early protoplanetary disk.


The engines are thrifty with fuel, using only about 3.25 milligrams of xenon per second (about 10 ounces over 24 hours) at maximum thrust. The Dawn spacecraft carried 425 kilograms (937 pounds) of xenon propellant at launch.
Do ion engines need fuel?
The ion propulsion system’s efficient use of fuel and electrical power enable modern spacecraft to travel farther, faster and cheaper than any other propulsion technology currently available.
Why are ion engines so weak?
So Ion Engines appear “energy inefficient” because they are accelerating low mass propellant to very high velocities. In some applications this is perfectly fine: it is expensive to put mass into orbit, so it can make sense to use a less “energy efficient” engine to save mass in propellant.
Why do ion engines use xenon?
3 Answers. Xenon is the heaviest non-radioactive elemental inert gas. The added mass allows for denser packing at less pressure. The mass is one of the limiting factors, so having a more dense gas helps tremendously.
How does an ion engine work?
An electrostatic ion engine works by ionizing a fuel (often xenon or argon gas) by knocking off an electron to make a positive ion. The positive ions then diffuse into a region between two charged grids that contain an electrostatic field. … An electromagnetic ion engine also works by ionizing a fuel.
How much does an ion engine cost?
The goal of the original CubeSat was to create a nanosatellite which could be deployed in orbit for a cost of $65,000 – $80,000, as opposed to the multiple millions of dollars you’d normally expect. The CAT thruster would loop around the Earth multiple times, building up enough speed to reach escape velocity.
Can ion engines work on earth?
The breakthrough offers a great proof of concept showing ion thrusters can be used on Earth, says Alec Gallimore, an aerospace engineer at the University of Michigan who was not involved with the work. But any such use would likely be in limited capacities.
How powerful is an ion engine?
Ion thrusters in operational use have an input power need of 1–7 kW (1.3–9.4 hp), exhaust velocity 20–50 km/s (Isp 2000 – 5000 seconds), thrust 25–250 mN (0.090–0.899 ozf) and efficiency 65–80% though experimental versions have achieved 100 kW (130 hp), 5 N (1.1 lbf).
Are ion engines hot?
The ion thruster itself reaches temperatures as high as 300 degrees C during peak thrusting, and as low as -100 degrees C during far-from-Sun, non-thrusting periods. -100 degrees C may seem very cold, but it is still much warmer than the void of space.
What is the fastest propulsion system?
- The fastest chemical rocket ever, the Star-48 engine was built to launch satellites and was recently incorporated into the New Horizons probe, which took off in 2006. …
- Ion thrusters rely on electromagnetic effects to accelerate charged particles out the back of a spacecraft, generating propulsive force.
Is Xenon an ion?
Xenon atoms are injected into the propulsion chamber. They are heated and bombarded with electrons until they form a plasma, with electrons separated from the cores of the atoms, which become xenon ions. The positively charged xenon ions move towards the back of the chamber.
Do ion thrusters work on Earth space engineers?
, Ion thrusters provide less force but draw more Energy from their power supply. However, unlike Atmospheric thrusters which can only work in an atmosphere, Ion thrusters work in a vacuum (space), and in an atmosphere.
|Provides thrust and/or rotation|
|Fits small ship|
Can electricity produce thrust?
Due to limited electric power the thrust is much weaker compared to chemical rockets, but electric propulsion can provide thrust for a longer time. … However, electric propulsion is not a method suitable for launches from the Earth’s surface, as the thrust for such systems is too weak.
Does satellite use fuel?
Satellites do carry their own fuel supply, but unlike how a car uses gas, it is not needed to maintain speed for orbit. It is reserved for changing orbit or avoiding collision with debris.
How does a plasma jet engine work?
A plasma propulsion engine is a type of electric propulsion that generates thrust from a quasi-neutral plasma. This is in contrast with ion thruster engines, which generate thrust through extracting an ion current from the plasma source, which is then accelerated to high velocities using grids/anodes.
What fuel do ion thrusters use space engineers?
There are three types of thrusters: Atmospheric thrusters which are electrically powered and only work in the atmosphere of a planet, Ion-based thrusters that use electricity and work in vacuum, and powerful Hydrogen thrusters which require Hydrogen as a fuel.