DISTANCIAS PLANETARIAS Y LEY DE TITIUS-BODE, Historical essay
On the paradoxical and subsequent course of the Titius-Bode law
Johann Daniel Titius (1729-1796), professor of physics at the former University of Wittenberg (Saxony) translated into German the work Contemplation de la Nature, from the Swiss author Charles Bonnet (1720-1793).
Without saying anything to anybody, Titius inserted two own paragraphs that are at the bottom of page 7 and at the beginning of the 8 in the German edition of 1766. In the preface, Bonnet warns without accurate that Titius has interspersed some own notes, which suggests not only their knowledge but also their conformity. Of course, the new intercropping paragraph is not founded in the original nor in translations of the Bonnet's work in Italian and English.
In the intercalated text we have refer there are to two parts, one after the other. In first part is exposed the succession of planetary distances from the Sun of historical planets, from Mercury to Saturn, rounded to whole numbers as exposed: If we give 100 points to Saturn and 4 to Mercury, to Venus will correspond 4 + 3 = 7 points; to the Earth 4 + 6 = 10; to Mars, 4 + 12 = 16; to the next would be 4 + 24 = 28, but with no planet; and will be 4 + 48 = 52 points and 4 + 96 = 100 points respectively, Jupiter for the and Saturn for the second.
In the second interleaved part is added as follows: If give to the Earth radius's orbit the value of 10, the other orbits radii are given by the formula Rn = 4 + (3 + 2^n), where n = -∞ for Mercury and 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 for planets that follow.
These both statements, for all their particular typology and the radii of the orbits, seem to stem from an antique cossist. In fact, many precedents have been finding up to the seventeenth century. Titius was a disciple of the German philosopher Christian Freiherr von Wolf (1679-1754). The second part of the inserted text is also literally founded in a von Wolf's work dated in 1723, and that's why, in twentieth century literature about Titius-Bode law, usually is assigned as authorship the German philosopher; In fact, Titius was a disciple of Wolf. Another reference, older than before, is written by James Gregory in 1702, in his Astronomiae physicae et geometricae elementa, where the succession of planetary distances 4, 7, 10, 16, 52 and 100 becomes a geometric progression of ratio 2. This is the nearest Newtonian formula, which is also contained in Benjamin Martin and Tomas Cerdà himself many years before the German publication of Bonnet's book.
As we have read (3), text interspersed by Titius in Bonnet's book was really transmitted in astronomy's work of Johann Elert Bode (1747-1826). In none of the issues appears Titius, and the authorship of the law is not clearly assigned (Aleitung zur kenntnis des gestirnten Himmels, 1722). Only in a posthumous Bode's memoir can to be founded a reference to Titius with the clear recognition of their priority. But in that moment, everyone knew what was Bode’s Law.
Titius and Bode hoped that the law would lead to the discovery of new planets. But it really was not. Those of the Uranus and Ceres rather contributed to the fame of the Titius-Bode law, but not around Neptune and Pluto's discovery, just because both are excluded. However, it is applied to the satellites and even currently to the extrasolar planets (5).
Titius-Bode law remains a solid and convincing theoretical explanation of their physical meaning, and is not considered as a numerical device. Its history has always been linked as more soup than substance. How can it be compared to the Hipparchus's work in respect to the planetary distances, those of Kepler regarding the orbit of Mars, the discovery of Neptune, the calculation of an event, those of an orbit starting by only three positions, or the explanation about the Mercury's perihelion deviation? However, it is usually more cited.
In the nineteenth century, the Bode or Titius-Bode law: 1) Many authors or do not know, or never cite (9.4). 2) Others use it as if it were a basic law of the celestial mechanics, unrelated to Newton. 3) There also are those who consider it an arithmetic casual approach, and 4) as established as law by Kepler, but with no demonstration.
It is interesting to mention the magnificent book titled The modern telescope from A.T. Arcemis, more than 1,500 pages in two great volumes, published in 1878 (Muntaner & Simon. Barcelona). That book explains to us that Titius’s law has its origin in a French book written by that German author and called Contemplation of nature. It has been needed to reach till XXI century to clarify better this issue, as described in (3).
 The cossists were experts in calculations of all kinds and were employed by merchants and businessmen to solve complex accounting problems. Their name derives from the Italian word cosa, meaning “thing”, because they used symbols to represent an unknown quantity, similar to the way mathematicians use x today. All professional problem-solvers of this era invented their own clever methods for performing calculations and would do their utmost to keep these methods secret in order to maintain their reputation as the only person capable of solving a particular problem.
An explanation of the Titius-Bode’s law that could be previous to its historical origin
The Jesuit Tomàs Cerdà (1715-1791) gave a famous astronomy course in Barcelona in 1760, at the Royal Chair of Mathematics of the College of Sant Jaume de Cordelles (Imperial and Royal Seminary of Nobles of Cordellas). From the original manuscript preserved in the Royal Academy of History in Madrid, Lluís Gasiot remade Tratado de Astronomía from Cerdá, published in 1999, and which is based on Astronomiae physicae from James Gregory (1702) and Philosophia Britannica from Benjamin Martin (1747). In the Cerdàs's Tratado appears the planetary distances obtained from the periodic times applying the Kepler's third law, with an accuracy of 10^-3. Taking as reference the distance from Earth as 10 and rounding to whole, can be established the geometric progression [(Dn x 10) - 4] / [Dn-1 x 10) - 4] = 2, from n=2 to n=8. And using the circular uniform fictitious movement to the Kepler's Anomaly, it may be obtained Rn values corresponding to each planet's radios, which can be obtained the reasons rn = (Rn - R1) / (Rn-1 - R1) resulting 1.82; 1.84; 1.86; 1.88 and 1.90, which rn = 2 - 0.02 (12 - n) that is the ratio between Keplerian succession and Titus-Bode Law, which would be a casual numerical coincidence. The reason is close to 2, but really increases harmonically from 1.82.
The planet's average speed from n=1 to n=8 decreases when moving away the Sun and differs from uniform descent in n=2 to recover from n=7 (orbital resonance).
What announced the Titius-Bode’s law was previously established by Kepler
Among other authors, Comas Solà defined the Titius-Bode law half of the twentieth century as an arithmetic formula that establishes approximately a geometric progression of ratio 2 with the distances of the planets from the Sun, as it had already been established by Kepler previously (4.5).
Like other astronomers of his time, Kepler already had the distances of the planets from the Sun relative to the Earth determined by trigonometric methods (4.1). He also knew the periodic times directly seeing that ratio Pn / Pn-1~ 2, missing a planet between Mars and Jupiter (n = 5). Among n = 3 and n = 7 the distances from the Sun were an exponential function of the sequence of n. Naturally, by the third law, DK = (Pn /P3)^2/3 also knew that (10 x DK)n – 4 / (10 x DK)n-1 – 4 = 2. If he calculates the abnormality he had the uniform circular movement to the real elliptical and could calculate the corresponding radii Rn. This relationship is obtained
Rn – R1 / Rn-1 – R1 = 2 – 0,02 (12-n)
and perhaps it is the most important that exists between Titius-Bode’s law and what Kepler just established previously about it.
Titius-Bode’s law can only be applied to the historical planets of the Copernican solar system from n = 2, and it is not valid for asteroids nor comets
In Figure 17 we have an image, page 10 to the original facsimile of Copernicus’s manuscript (1539) of his famous De Revolutionibus Orbium coelestis. In Figure 16 we find the representation of N. Winston included on page 5 of the Tratado de Astronomía from T. Cerdà T. (1760), comprising planets and comets with different periodic times and distances from the sun.
In Figures 14 and 15 we have the image of the manuscript named Tratado de arismética y geometría práctica from the author Juan de Área y Quiroga (1718, Figure 18), representing the Ptolemaic system (s. II AD.) and Tychonic system (s. XVI AD.) as answer to the question 36 and which would not be applied to the Titius-Bode law.
As we have referred (6.1), each planetary orbit is defined by seven elements among which are the distance to the sun. With the mechanical of Newton it is possible to calculated all the elements from three apparent positions of the planet, with its ascension, straight and decline. We know that this knowledge was historically achieved by successive approximations of many apparent positions, followed by the corresponding adjustments. This is how Kepler and other observers already had much correct orbits of the historical planets.
Comets and asteroids do not follow the Titius-Bode law. Disregarding her, in 1850 Francisco Verdejo Paez, professor of geography at the University of Madrid, in his Geografía Histórica (Imprenta de Repullés, Madrid), makes a unique sequence of distances from the sun, including asteroids known at this time: Mercury, 0.4; Venus, 0.7; Earth, 1.0; Mars, 1.6; Flora, 1.9; Vesta, 2.4; Iris, 2.4; Metis, 2.4; Hebe, 2.4; Astrea, 2.4; Juno, 2.7; Ceres, 2.8; Shovels, 2.9; Higia, 3.0; Jupiter, 5.3; Saturn, 9.7; Uranus, 19.4; and Neptune, 40.5. The inclinations of the orbit from Flora to be Higia: Flora, 5 ° 53 '; Vesta 7 ° 8 '; Iris 5 ° 28 '; Metis, 5 ° 35 '; Hebe, 14 ° 48 '; Astrea 5 ° 19 '; Juno, 13 ° 4 '; Ceres 10 ° 37 '; Palas, 34 ° 38 'and Higia, 3 ° 48'. The author J. Regueiro Argüelles, cited above, in his Astronomia física written at the same year, leaves the distance corresponding to n = 5 with no sun planet, as the latest top authors, and only seven terms for the Bode law.
Interplanetary distances. Geometric mean ratio rn=1,86 from n=3 to n=7 of the Sun distances succession. The most paradoxical success of the Titius-Bode’s law. Influence of the periscope’s introduction
The projected position of the planets in the sky from Earth changes as a result of the simultaneous movement of the Earth and the planet. For example, Earth gives twelve laps around the Sun an Jupiter gives only one, and that’s why we see the planet running half year in one direction and another half on the other, the first faster than the second. There is a circle that is set with the planet revolving twelve times, giving the full revolution to the Sun. This is called epicycles. Those of Saturn is the slowest and Mars the fastest. Those from Venus and Mercury are more complicated. In addition, each planet comes to meet nearer of farther from Earth. For example, at certain points, Mars is four times farther away from us than in others. To explain these variations, it was necessary to modify the circle, from which emerged the idea of a displaced centre of rotation, with the Earth farthest or nearest. This is the eccentric. With Kepler's laws all this was changed. With its calculation of the anomaly it is obtained a circular uniform movement equivalent (4.5), between n = 1 and n = 7, with an average ratio (Rn - R1) / (Rn-1 - R1) = 2 - 0,02 (12, n) = 1.82; 1.84; 1.86; 1,88; 1,90 / 5 = 1.86 instead of 2 as an average value.
For the author of this essay, it is implausible to believe that Copernicus, Galileo, Kepler and Newton were able to interject an anonymous text in the translation of a book as apparently did Titius, and also that they could appropriate this text inserted in an own book, as did Bode. Even today it seems paradoxical the continued success of this action, after three centuries, of what may simply be a relic cosist from early eighteenth century. There are remote causes of these phenomena. In this case we could say that, without the introduction of the telescope by Galileo, the Titius-Bode law would not have existed, but would still implicit in Kepler's work. It has also been said that Copernicus could pull the Earth from the centre of the world thanks to the discovery of America. However, the catalogue of nebulae from Bode and its new constellations could have maligned anyone. But really, what it is happened is that no one remembers about that.
I do not think that rationality and, in particular, scientific knowledge has changed the average of the previous human nature, as it did, for example, passing from the Stone Age to the Age of metals. Homo sapiens stage starts with the writing, which is a relatively recent fact, only about 5.000 to 6.000 years. In the remote darkness of time is Homo habilis, about two million years ago. Iron Age changed as much as we have changed with science. Nothing to do with the small and slow changes that may come after knowing that the earth is a planet revolving around the sun, but eventually no one knows what can happen in the future.
"After having spent more than half a century, the author wrote this essay to the memory of his former teachers."


As humanity sets its sights on exploring Mars, the integration of artificial intelligence (AI) is emerging as a powerful ally for scientists studying the enigmatic Red Planet.
Among the AI tools capturing widespread attention is ChatGPT, an advanced language model developed by OpenAI. With its ability to comprehend complex queries and generate human-like text responses, ChatGPT could even help revolutionize our understanding of Mars, assisting researchers in analyzing data, providing real-time insights, and even contributing to the publication of scientific findings.
Imagine a scenario…
Read more on google


August 17, 2012
July 20th was the date that the first manned mission to the moon, Apollo 11, landed in 1969.
Do your kids love the moon?
- 12 men have landed on the moon, the first two were Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin from Apollo 11.
- Apollo 11 was launched on July 16th, landed on the moon on the 20th and landed back on Earth in the Pacific Ocean on July 24th.
- The men only spent about 2-1/2 hours on the surface of the moon.
- Upon stepping on the surface of the moon, Armstrong said, "That's one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind."
- The astronauts collected soil samples, planted a US flag and left behind a bag of memorial items and extra equipment that they did not need for the return flight, in order to lighten the load.
- When they returned to Earth, the astronauts were quarantined for 21 days as a precaution, then went on a 45-day "Giant Leap" tour all over the world. Quite a celebration!


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Have you and your kids discovered geoboards yet? Or are you searching for kid’s astronomy projects to engage your young stargazer? Well we‘ve got a double whammy here for you today, DIY Constellation Geoboards. Make this simple constellation geoboard for a great kids’ astronomy project and inspire your budding astronomer!
As a child I was an astronomy nut. I had a subscription to the kid’s astronomy magazine, Odyssey, and I remember quite a few nights spent looking at the stars with my Dad. In Los Angeles that meant looking at about 5 stars with all the light pollution, however when our family would escape the city for the weekend, my Dad and I would bring the telescope and start looking at the sky
Note: This post contains affiliate links to products I love and recommend to my readers.
Kids’ Astronomy Project: Constellation Geoboards
A note on the template: This template is a simplified star chart that in no way claims to be a completely accurate representation of the night sky! It was created for this fun project only.
- Geoboard Template
- (2) 7” Round Cork Trivets ( I bought mine at IKEA)
- Ball Head Straight Pins
- Mod Podge Matte Finish
- Hot Glue and Hot Glue Gun
- Cosmetic Wedges
- Small Rubber Bands
- Step One Print out the Geoboard Template. Depending on the age of your child choose either Template Page 1 or Page 2. I suggest Template 1 for older children and Template 2 for younger kids; it is enlarged and easier for kids who are still developing their fine motor skills.
- Step Two Cut the selected template out.
- Step Three Using a cosmetic wedge cover the surface of one trivet with Mod Podge and glue down your template to the cork.
- Step Four Dab the edges and top the template with more Mod Podge to adhere it to the trivet. Be careful to dab it only! Brushing the glue across the top of the template may cause the black ink to bleed slightly when it is moistened.
- Step Five Let dry.
- Step Six Take a second trivet and apply hot glue to one surface. Glue it to the bottom of your geoboard. Adding the second layer of cork will allow you to really secure the pins in place.
You’re done! Here’s the invitation to play:
Allow your child to start placing pins in each of the star points. We used pins with different sized heads to mimic bright and dim stars. Once there are enough pins in place, start adding rubber bands to form the outlines of the constellations! The rubber bands can be woven between the pins to form lines.
Alternatively, let your child create their own constellations! My son had no interest in following the constellation outlines but wanted to make his own shapes using the rubber bands. [clickToTweet tweet=”I wonder what constellations would look like if kids were in charge of creating them…” quote=”I wonder what constellations would look like if kids were in charge of creating them…”]Here’s my son’s handiwork along with a shot of what he decided would be a good idea for all our pins….yes they are now stuck like a giant porcupine to a heavy duty magnet. Ouch!
Sally Ride. This project definitely made Sally Ride come to mind. What young girl (and boy) from the 1980’s wasn’t inspired by Ms. Ride? I remember dreaming that I would be in her space shoes someday. Did you know that she got her first job at NASA by answering a university newspaper ad? And her answers to some of the sexist questions reporters asked her prior to her first flight into space are not to be missed: A Ride in Space Article. She truly broke barriers for women in the space industry and remains an icon of mine. This is a great read on how to encourage more young women to follow their passion for science: Girls & Science on Classic Play
Time to inspire the next Sally Ride!
Kids’ astronomy projects are a wonderful way to engage the next generation of scientists who will be exploring space. Constellation Geoboards are a hands-on way to explore the constellations of the night sky and even a chance to invent a constellation of your own.
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June 12th at 2:00. If you can find the time, check me out on this upcoming Google Plus hangout called Weekly Space Hangout, hosted by Fraser Cain of Universe Today, a really awesome podcast and Youtube channel.
Weekly Space Hangout: ACEAP
It just occurred to me. I am going to get to observe southern hemisphere variable stars! Well, more than I usually can see anyway. I will finally get to use the AAVSO 11 Star Training Tutorial for the Southern Hemisphere!
Hello everyone, this is Mike Prokosch. I wanted to ya’ll know in case you hadn’t heard, that I will be travelling to Chile this June as part of the inaugural group of the Astronomy in Chile Educator Ambassadors Program. I am one of 9 ambassadors chosen to represent the United States astronomy education community in Chile. I will be visiting many of the major international observatories located in the Atacama Desert there including CTIO, Gemini South, and ALMA. I leave on June 19th and return on July 1st. This is going to be quite the adventure. An observatory at 16,500 feet in altitude! Gemini South and its 8.3 meter telescope! Sagittarius at ZENITH in a country with a nation wide light pollution ordinance! Wild Flamingos! Great Food! I will be posting regularly on this blog page as often as possible. You can also follow me on twitter at MikeProkosch@shsuobservatory and Facebook at Michael Prokosch.


EP 3 — Rogue Space Systems's Jeromy Grimmett on the Horizon-less Possibilities of In-Space Services
On this week's episode of the DIB Innovators podcast, David talks with Jeromy Grimmett, Founder & CEO at Rogue Space Systems Corporation, a provider of sustainable in-space services. They discuss how the company was created and went from idea to an "orbot" in space in four years, what satellite projects they're working on, and the process for getting a craft onto a rocket and launched. They also discuss team leadership, how to drive innovation in the space arena, and what opportunities lay ahead for space economies and communications.
- How Rogue Space Systems Corp. got off the ground by "brute force," and how they went from an idea to a satellite in space in four years.
- An overview of the "orbots" that Rogue is creating, what's up in space now, and what the plan is for future launches.
- The biggest challenges to getting a spacecraft launched, including regulatory and licensing.
- The process of getting their “orbot” into space, including all the things that could go wrong and all the things that went right, and what it's like to see a rocket launch with your product on board.
- How they drive innovation through having a great team, problem-solving, creativity, and embracing failure.
- Where Rogue stands on their cybersecurity initiatives, and how they're taking proactive steps to protect their IP.
- The biggest advancements for the future of space and the massive opportunities for innovation there.
"I've often said one of my favorite things about space is there is no horizon. Just keep going. There's always something that needs to be done. There's always an innovation, there's always a problem to solve. And chances are that problem can help us right here on earth. Solving that problem can more than likely help us right here. And I just love that. I love that aspect of what we do here."
"It was a real treat to see that level of cooperation between people to advance the space industry and advance people within the space industry. It was this really welcoming environment that I wanted to be a part of."
"The thing that takes the longest in the program of getting a spacecraft up into space is actually the regulatory and licensing. It's the legal part that is actually the most difficult obstacle to overcome."
"Driving innovation is doing everything I can to put a team into an environment where they can feel free to be creative, as creative as they possibly can be, and making sure they understand that it's okay to fail."
Get in touch with Jeromy Grimmett:
Get in touch with your host, David Graff:
Listen to more episodes:


The Stefan-Boltzmann law states that “the total radiant power emitted by a surface across all wavelengths is proportional to the fourth power of its absolute temperature”. The law generally applies to black bodies that absorb all radiation falling on them.
Stefan-Boltzman law is named after Austrian physicists Josef Stefan and Ludwig Boltzmann. Stefan formulated the law in 1877, and Boltzmann derived it in 1884.
Suppose P is the radiant heat energy emitted per second, A is the surface area of the emitter, and T is the temperature of the surface in absolute scale. According to Stefan-Boltzmann law,
Where s is called the Stefan-Boltzmann constant. It has the following expression:
kB: Boltzmann’s constant
c: Speed of light
Plugging in the values of kB, h, and c, the Stefan-Boltzmann constant comes out to be 5.67 x 10-8 W · m-2 ·K-4.
For objects that are not black bodies, the Stefan-Boltzmann equation modifies to
Where e is the emissivity of the object. It takes fractional values between 0 and 1. It is 1 for a black body. Therefore, the radiation emitted from an object that is not a black body is less than that emitted by a black body at the same temperature.
Suppose the object radiates energy to its cooler surrounding, which is at a temperature TC. The radiation equation modifies to
From the above equations, it is clear that the total radiative power increases as the temperature increases, making heated objects glow bright.
Stefan-Boltzmann’s law can be derived using Planck’s radiation formula. Planck’s equation is integrated over wavelength to get the radiative power.
The Stefan-Boltzmann law can be applied to determine how much power the Sun gives off at its given temperature and how much radiation the Earth receives per second per square meter of its surface.
Article was last reviewed on Wednesday, February 1, 2023


As humanity looks to the stars with a renewed sense of curiosity and ambition, the concept of establishing a permanent human presence on the Moon has captured the imagination of scientists, engineers, and dreamers alike. Among the myriad challenges that need to be addressed, the question of how to build structures on the lunar surface stands out. Enter the groundbreaking fusion of two cutting-edge technologies: 3D printing and the utilization of lunar soil. In this blog post, we will delve into the discussions and conceptual ideas surrounding the construction of lunar structures using 3D printing technology and the Moon's own regolith.
Building Beyond Earth The idea of colonizing the Moon is not new, but recent advancements in technology have rekindled interest in this endeavor. Traditional methods of building in space or on other celestial bodies have proven to be both expensive and logistically complex. The concept of sending pre-fabricated materials from Earth for construction purposes poses numerous challenges, including the immense cost of transporting heavy payloads across vast distances. Enter 3D printing, a technology that has been revolutionizing industries here on Earth, from manufacturing to healthcare. The notion of applying 3D printing to the construction of lunar structures offers an innovative solution to the problem of transporting building materials from Earth. By utilizing the raw materials readily available on the Moon, we could potentially unlock a new era of sustainable and efficient extraterrestrial construction.
Lunar Soil: A Building Resource
The Moon's surface, known as regolith, is composed of various elements and minerals that, with the right technology, can be transformed into construction materials. Lunar regolith contains silicates, oxides, and other compounds that could serve as the basis for 3D printing raw materials. Scientists and engineers have been exploring ways to extract these resources and convert them into usable printing materials.
One of the key advantages of using lunar soil for construction is the potential reduction in payload weight from Earth. By utilizing local resources, we could dramatically decrease the amount of material that needs to be transported from our home planet. This not only cuts down on costs but also enhances the sustainability of lunar endeavors by minimizing our environmental impact.
3D Printing Technology: The Lunar Builder
3D printing, also known as additive manufacturing, involves creating objects layer by layer using a computer-controlled process. This technology has evolved far beyond printing simple plastic objects; it now encompasses a range of materials, including metals, ceramics, and even biological tissues. When applied to lunar construction, 3D printing can provide the flexibility to create a variety of structures, from habitats for astronauts to infrastructure for research and exploration.
The challenges of 3D printing on the Moon are unique due to the harsh lunar environment, including extreme temperature fluctuations and the absence of a significant atmosphere. Engineers are developing specialized 3D printers that can operate effectively in these conditions. These printers would utilize lunar regolith as the printing material, possibly mixed with binding agents to create a durable composite.
Discussion and Future Prospects While the idea of constructing structures on the Moon using 3D printing and lunar soil is still in its conceptual stages, the potential it holds is undeniably exciting. The integration of these technologies could revolutionize space exploration by enabling sustainable, cost-effective, and efficient construction beyond Earth's confines. However, there are still numerous technical challenges that need to be overcome. Research is ongoing to develop suitable binding agents, optimize printing processes for lunar regolith, and ensure the structural integrity and safety of the resulting buildings. Additionally, regulatory and ethical considerations will play a role in shaping the future of lunar construction. As discussions continue and ideas evolve, collaborations between space agencies, research institutions, and private companies will be pivotal in advancing this groundbreaking technology. The concept of turning the Moon into a stepping stone for further exploration of our solar system could become a reality through the fusion of 3D printing and lunar soil utilization.
Conclusion The dream of establishing a human presence on the Moon is no longer a distant aspiration but a tangible goal within our grasp. By harnessing the power of 3D printing technology and the vast resources of lunar soil, we are poised to reshape the way we approach space construction. As discussions and conceptual ideas evolve, we are entering a new era of human ingenuity—one that promises to redefine our relationship with the cosmos and pave the way for a future that extends far beyond our planet's borders.


Columbus, you’ll be wanting to keep your eyes toward the skies the next couple of nights.
The Lyrid meteor shower peaks overnight between April 21 and 22, according to a space.com article. While the Lyrids will become visible starting at about 10:30 p.m., the best time to see them is right before dawn (especially since the show will be competing a bit with moonlight).
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Depending on how clear and dark the sky is where you watch, you could see about 18 meteors per hour. The average Lyrid shower produces 15 to 20 meteors per hour.
The meteors originate from Comet Thatcher, which orbits the sun roughly once every 415 years. The Lyrids, however, appear annually.


Main / Arcade & Action / Project space station c64
Project space station c64
Name: Project space station c64
File size: 73mb
Project Space Station is a game published in by HESware, originally written for the Commodore 64 home computer, then ported to the Apple II series and. Project: Space Station is a video game published in on DOS by Avantage and space flight themes, and was also released on Apple II and Commodore Project Space Station is a game published in by HESware, originally written for the Commodore 64 home computer, then ported out to both the Apple.
28 Jul Project: Space Station casts the player into the role of a NASA Administrator, charged with the task of designing and building a space station. COM is the home of The Gamebase Collection of C64 games. Over games in Project: Space Station, GBID: Simulation - Space. Clone Of. For Project: Space Station on the Commodore 64, GameFAQs has 3 user screenshots.
30 Jul Project: Space Station starts you out on July 1, , with two space the Commodore 64; SSI alone had published dozens of them by has anyone got any idea where i can find the instruction manual, i've looked in project 64 no luck tho. Back to top. View user's profile Send. Project: Space Station cover scan player interface for one-click gaming! It comes with more than pre-installed C64 games and demoscene productions !. Project: Space Station has you taking command of NASA with the express goal of building a profitable space station. The game starts by giving you a budget. Earth Orbit Stations. APL2; C Earth Orbit Stations is a space station simulation game, and is one of the first in the genre. Build space stations, research.


Last week, I was over at a friend's house. During my visit, I talked about the outline of a science fiction story that I am thinking of writing. For the most part, it is still all vapor and no substance.
But during the conversation, I mentioned how hard it must be to get computer tech support while in space. I was thinking of the difficulties that a Mars mission would have. And for a Mars colony, I think that tech support should be sent outright to them. Imagine calling India from Mars.
"Hello, this is Earl. How can we help you today?"
"Yeah, this is Mars Colony One, and our life-support computer is down."
"Have you checked to make sure that it is plugged in?"
The conversation promises to go downhill from there, with the predicted ending of Earl (actually Ishivart from India) telling the Mars Colony that it is going to take eight months for the tech support to arrive, so they better start holding their breath.
Now by itself, this whole idea is just an indication that I spent too much of my youth reading science fiction. But a couple of days later, I got an email from my friend who found it remarkable that the international space station was having computer problems. He failed to note that they are going to have to wait for parts.
This whole conversation reminded me how some people think that science fiction is about predicting the future. It is not. Science fiction is always about the present and its ramifications. Which is how I can imagine a computer problem on Mars just days before such an event happens just above us at the current space station.
I suspect that most of the predictions that sci-fi has made that have came true have occurred the same way. I am not a fortune teller--it was just me asking "If tech support is so lousy here, how bad must it be in space?"


For this exercise, make a new directory and copy your DEM.ipw file and your Albedo.ipw file into it.
1. Run TOPQUAD 27 times, once for each of the 0.1 um wavelength regions noted in the tutorial. Be sure to change the -t, -w, -g, and -x switches , and the output file names for each run.
Hint: this could take a while, and it's repetitive so you might make a mistake as you become increasingly bored. Try setting up a shell script to do it for you, so you can take a nap or go get coffee.
All you need to do is set up a file with 27 lines of input, with the appropriate changes on each line. Since the input lines are long and may probably need two lines, end the first line with a backslash \ so that IPW knows another line is coming.
Finally, change the file permissions to make it executable by typing
chmod +x filename
then execute the filename by typing it's name.
2. Now you need to integrate the 27 spectral images into one image that has the total irradiance. You could guess that we might be using mux here, and you'd be right! But mux just interleaves the images together into one multiband file. We need to add them all together, which we can do using the IPW command lincom:
lincom -- linear combination of bands
Usage: lincom [-c coef,...] [-n #bits] [image] > [newimage]
c: band coefficients (default 1/nbands)
n: # bits / output pixel (default from input image)
image: input image file
newimage: output image file
So, to set up the spectral integration, you need to type:
mux file1 file2 file3...file27 | lincom -c 1 > TotalSol.ipw
You can put this at the end of your shell script, but don't forget to add the backslash at the end of every unfinished line.
3. Compare your TotalSol.ipw file with the TquadOUT.ipw file you created in the tutorial. Are they similar? Have you improved anything by taking this longer approach?
The hourly average data (in W m^-2) are shown below:
Hour Kdown 1 0 2 0 3 0 4 0 5 0 6 4.3 * 7 35.9 * 8 180.3 * 9 590.4 * 10 778.7 * 11 936.7 * 12 995.1 * 13 593.1 * 14 414.4 * 15 339.4 * 16 249.6 * 17 354.6 * 18 322.4 19 203.5 20 2.4 21 0 22 0 23 0 24 0
If you use the clear sky atmospheric parameters for the entire day, you would expect to overestimate the irradiance during most of the afternoon. In this exercise, you'll run TOPORAD for part of the day using clear sky parameters, and part of the day using cloudy sky parameters. Consider only the daylight hours from 6:00 a.m. through 6:00 p.m..
1. To begin, you need to determine which hours should be considered clear, and which should be considered cloudy. One way to do this is to compute the exoatmospheric irradiance, determine a ratio of surface/exoatmospheric irradiance on a flat surface, and use this ratio as an index of cloud cover. In doing so, you'll generate all the necessary solar geometry data you'll need to run TOPORAD later on.
This is a good time to set up a couple of shell scripts, as described earlier in the tutorial. It will save you a lot of work!
Run the IPW program sunang for each of the 12 hours of daylight between 6:00 a.m. and 6:00 p.m.. The following shell script will do this for you:
sunang -t 1996,8,4,6 -z -420 -b 40,2,30 -l 105,35,0 sunang -t 1996,8,4,7 -z -420 -b 40,2,30 -l 105,35,0 sunang -t 1996,8,4,8 -z -420 -b 40,2,30 -l 105,35,0 sunang -t 1996,8,4,9 -z -420 -b 40,2,30 -l 105,35,0 sunang -t 1996,8,4,10 -z -420 -b 40,2,30 -l 105,35,0 sunang -t 1996,8,4,11 -z -420 -b 40,2,30 -l 105,35,0 sunang -t 1996,8,4,12 -z -420 -b 40,2,30 -l 105,35,0 sunang -t 1996,8,4,13 -z -420 -b 40,2,30 -l 105,35,0 sunang -t 1996,8,4,14 -z -420 -b 40,2,30 -l 105,35,0 sunang -t 1996,8,4,15 -z -420 -b 40,2,30 -l 105,35,0 sunang -t 1996,8,4,16 -z -420 -b 40,2,30 -l 105,35,0 sunang -t 1996,8,4,17 -z -420 -b 40,2,30 -l 105,35,0
Running this will output the cosines of the Zenith angles and the solar azimuths for each hour of the day.
Now, for purposes of determining the exoatmospheric irradiance on a flat surface, you need to find out the exoatmospheric solar irradiance on a surface normal to the incidence angle (Snormal) by running the IPW program solar for the wavelength range 0.3-3.0 um.
The exoatamospheric irradiance on a flat plane is given by:
ESflat = cosZ * Snormal
Now you can calculate the transmissivity index ratio T (%) as:
Kdown T = ------- * 100 ESflat
Note that T is low in the early morning when it was cloudy, increases markedly through the morning to midday when it was clear, decreases again through the afternoon when it was cloudy again, and then increases in the early evening when the skies clear again.
As an arbitrary indication for determining atmospheric parameters for TOPORAD, let's say that if T is greater than 60%, the atmosphere is clear, and if it is less than 60%, it is cloudy. You already know the clear sky atmospehric parameters; the cloudy sky parameters are given below:
Wavelengths tau omega gamma 0.3-0.4 1.42 .77 .06 0.4-0.5 0.63 .98 .13 0.5-0.6 0.46 .68 .20 0.6-0.7 0.36 .59 .26 0.7-0.8 0.31 .81 .34 0.8-0.9 0.24 .97 .41 0.9-1.0 0.27 .76 .44 1.0-1.1 0.16 .96 .49 1.1-1.2 0.29 .53 .46 1.2-1.3 0.14 .84 .53 1.3-1.4 0.96 .26 .26 1.4-1.5 0.55 .13 .44 1.5-1.6 0.11 .77 .56 1.6-1.7 0.09 .78 .58 1.7-1.8 0.12 .70 .58 1.8-1.9 1.58 .01 .40 1.9-2.0 0.74 .06 .39 2.0-2.1 0.28 .06 .37 2.1-2.2 0.07 .68 .59 2.2-2.3 0.09 .30 .45 2.3-2.4 0.15 .10 .37 2.4-2.5 0.25 .15 .42 2.5-2.6 3.82 .01 .33 2.6-2.7 6.58 .01 .25 2.7-2.8 7.92 .01 .21 2.8-2.9 1.97 .01 .28 2.9-3.0 0.42 .02 .34
2. Next, you'll need a new albedo image of 0.3's instead of 0.6's (since this is August, not May!). You can modify your mask image using a new linear quantization header to do this.
3. Now it's time to begin the TOPORAD runs. You're going to be running TOPORAD 27 times for each of 12 hours, or 324 times! You'll definitely want to set up some shell scripts to handle the processing tasks.
First, you'll need to run the IPW program shade once for each of the 12 hours. Since you've already run sunang for each hour, just plug the numbers into shade. To do this, you can set up a shell script similar to the one for sunang, except you'll need to write the results of each shade command to a separate file, e.g.shade6.ipw, shade7.ipw,...etc.
Next, set up the elevrad runs. Remember you have to run elevrad once for each hour/wavelength combination - 324 times. In the interest of conserving computer space, you'll need to carefully plan out how you are going to do this.
You need to set up 27 TOPORAD runs for each hour - thats 27 different erad images from elevrad, which then get muxed into 27 TradIN images. These are multiband images that will take up a lot of space. Set up a script or two to generate the 27 TradIN images, then run TOPORAD on each, and use the lincom command to add them all together. You'll have the solar irradiance for that hour finished, so you can delete all the erad and TradIN images and start fresh on the next hour.
4. Once you have 12 TradOUT images, you're finished with the processing. Take a look at each of them using xv2 (remember you'll need to requantize to 8-bit first). How do the cloudy/clear hours compare?
5. Be sure to delete unneeded image files before you quit. This includes the shade images, the elevrad images, and the muxed TradIN images.


Armenia’s Byurakan Observatory listed as IAU Outstanding Astronomical Heritage -
Armenia’s Byurakan Observatory listed as IAU Outstanding Astronomical Heritage
The International Astronomical Union (IAU) has listed the Byurakan Observatory in Armenia as Outstanding Astronomical Heritage.
Bu haber armradio kaynağından gelmektedir.
The international portal briefly presents the history of the Observatory, its activity and achievements.
The Byurakan Observatory is presented as the most important astronomical center in Eastern Europe and Middle East region, both by its scientific instruments and achievements.
The Observatory was founded in 1946 on the initiative of Viktor Amazaspovich Ambartsumian (1908–1996), the first director and famous Armenian scientist of the 20th century. Since 1998 the Byurakan Observatory bears the name of Ambartsumian.
The erection of the buildings started in 1946 under the supervision of famous architect Samvel Safarian (1902–1969), who was specialist for science buildings. The architectural ensemble of the observatory (1951 to 1955) consists of two telescope towers, laboratory buildings, central building, conference hall, and guest house.
Byurakan Observatory organized many international astronomical meetings and the astronomers were active in the International Astronomical Union (IAU): V.A. Ambartsumian was IAU President in 1961–1964 and Vice-President in 1948–1955, B.E. Markarian and E.Ye. Khachikian were Presidents of IAU Commission No. 28 (Galaxies, 1991–1994).
Haber metninde yer alan görüşler haber kaynağı (armradio) ve yazarına ait olup,
bolsohays.com sitesi haber hakkında herhangi bir görüş üstlenmemektedir.
Opinions expressed are those of the author(s)-(armradio). They do not purport to reflect the opinions or views of bolsohays.com


POETA - Public Outreach and Education:
Transfer from Astronomy and Astroparticles
The popularization of the scientific culture is an activity that IASF-Palermo
has always conducted both through individual and/or coordinated forms.
The activity, mainly concerning the field of the high energies astrophysics,
includes seminars and public conferences, guided visits to the laboratories,
participation to exhibitions and events of national and international
The coordinated activities of Public Outreach and Education in astrophysics (POETA) are planned and conducted
with the collaboration of the researchers and technicians of the Institute.
Last Modification: Wednesday, December 9 2009


I recently made a very cheap upgrade to a set of high magnification astronomy binoculars.
Included with a set of Celestron Skymaster 15×70 binoculars is a small tripod adapter that is made from plastic.
This adapter allows you to mount your binoculars to your tripod to keep the field of view steady and to give you arms a rest, after all these binoculars are quiet weighty. Unfortunately, the tripod adapter that is included with the pair of binoculars is not the best. It is constructed from plastic and is not very rigid. The slightest bump with your hand or even the breeze causes the binoculars to wobble and at 15x magnification, the whole image shakes about.
With an upcoming camping trip planned where a dark sky was guaranteed, I thought it was time to fix this problem and upgrade the tripod mount.
Using a piece of scrap 4mm thick angle steel, and some simple tools I quickly made an improved tripod mount for the binoculars.
The new mount screws directly to the tripod quick release plate. A 1/4 inch tap was used to make the threaded hole which the quick release plate screws into.
The threaded mount at the front of the binoculars is a 1/4 thread. A new thumbscrew was made using a 30mm length of thread was cut from a 1/4 inch brass screw and a 1/4 inch wingnut. To secure the wingnut to the threaded brass, the brass was threaded into the wingnut and a centre punch was used to punch the brass into the wingnut. A couple of 1/4 inch brass washers were also used.
As for the results, there is still some vibration of the field of view when the binoculars are touched, however the vibrations are damped very quickly. Using the binoculars on a tripod is much more pleasant now. See the video below for a comparison of the old plastic mount versus the new steel mount when the binoculars are given a tap from the left hand side.


EFFECTS OF WEIGHTLESSNESS
The Space Shuttle continues in a state
of constant free fall until it maneuvers back to Earth. This free
fall is the source of the "apparent weightlessness"
which astronauts experience in orbit.
Some of the very real effects of this "apparent
1. Loss of bone mass (similar to osteoporosis)
2. Reduced total blood volume, particularly loss of red blood
3. Giddy, light-headed feeling
4. Space sickness with nausea and vomiting
5. Decrease of heart size
6. Nasal congestion
7. Muscle weakness
Note that the heart does not have to work
as hard in space to pump blood. On the other hand, the heart must
work hard on the ground because it must pump blood against the
force of gravity.
Similarly, muscles do not need to work
as hard in space due to the apparent lack of gravity.
Astronauts can maintain healthy muscles
in space by exercising. For example, astronauts aboard MIR exercise
using a treadmill and stationary bike.
Another effect that astronauts may experience
is possible tissue damage from radiation. There is no atmosphere
or ozone layer to protect the astronauts from this radiation.
There are two types of weight:
1. True weight
2. Apparent weight
"True weight" results from Newton's
law of gravitation.
The force F between any two particles having
masses m1 and m2 separated by a distance r is an attraction acting
along the line joining the particles. This force has the magnitude
F = G (m1)(m2)/ (r^2)
where G is a universal constant having
the same value for all pairs of particles.
G=6.6720 [10^(-11)] N m^2/kg^2
Reference: Halliday & Resnick, Physics
Parts 1 & 2, Wiley, New York, 1978.
A particle can be a planet, a star, a person
standing on a planet, or any physical object whatsoever.
The formula for the true weight W can be
derived from the Newton formula:
W = mg
where m is the object's mass and g is the
acceleration of gravity. The acceleration of gravity at the Earth's
surface is about 9.81 meters/sec^2. Again, the "true weight"
does not depend on an object's state of rest or motion.
"Apparent weight" is essentially
the weight measured by placing the object on a bathroom-type weight
scale. Imagine that you were standing on a weight scale inside
an elevator. The scale would show that your "apparent weight"
increases as the elevator accelerates upward. On the other hand,
your "apparent weight" would decrease as the elevator
An object in a free-fall has "zero
Space shuttle astronauts experience "apparent
weightlessness" as the shuttle orbits the Earth. Nevertheless,
this "apparent" condition produces very real physiological
effects, such as loss of bone mass.
Space shuttle astronauts cannot use a bathroom
scale to measure their weight. William Pogue was an astronaut
on the Skylab space station. He wrote that this space station
had a special chair that swung back and forth on springs. This
device was called the body mass measurement device (BMMD).
The mass of the person sitting in the chair
could be calculated from the period of oscillation. The period
is the time required for one complete cycle of back-and-forth
The person's "true weight" could
then be calculated by multiplying mass by the gravitational acceleration.
Please send comments and questions to Tom
Irvine at: firstname.lastname@example.org


“Look at that, you son of a bitch.” That was the message of what is believed to be the first political protest in space, and it was directed at the President of the United States:
The Tweet was launched into space by a weather balloon belonging to the Autonomous Space Agency Network (ASAN), an anonymous group of space scientists.
The tweet was quoting Apollo 14 astronaut Edgar Mitchell, the sixth person to walk on the moon. He famously said of viewing Earth from space: “You want to grab a politician by the scruff of the neck and drag him a quarter of a million miles out and say, ‘Look at that, you son of a bitch.’ ” This quote has been cited as an example of the overview effect, a perspective shift toward global unity and conservation reported by astronauts struck by the planet’s fragility.
“Everyone at ASAN is a pretty big fan of Dr. Mitchell, who was one of the more … colorful characters to have ever set foot on another celestial body,” the ASAN member said. “We sought to send a message of protest to President Trump against his proposed budget cuts for NASA’s Earth science program, which is invaluable to understanding climate change and making informed, data-driven policy decisions.”
Scientist Neil deGrasse Tyson is also a big fan of Mitchell, as he tweeted the entire original quote when Mitchell passed away in 2016:


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This lab activity covers: – Solar Eclipse – LunarEclipse ———————————————-Bonus Activities: To ensure your students don’t have any downtime between stations, your lab also includes a 10-word word scramble and word search, both with an answer key. You can use them as part of their mark, as a bonus so it’s ....
• L = 1 Dark eclipse, gray or brownish in coloration (Details are distinguishable only with difficulty) • L = 2 Deep red or rust-colored eclipse (Very dark central shadow, while outer umbra is relatively bright) • L = 3 Brick-red eclipse (Umbral shadow usually has a bright or yellow rim) • L = 4 Very bright copper-red or orange eclipse
Lunar eclipses are more easily observed than solar eclipses, as they can be viewed with the unaided eye by any observer situated where the moon is above the horizon. As such, a total eclipse can ...
Here are some ideas for solar eclipse and lunar eclipse learning. 9 Eclipse Activities, Lessons, and Crafts. A solar eclipse project we did based on the News 2 You article we read this week. Just glue a yellow sun to black construction paper. Then create a black moon and attach it by poking a hole and using a fastener.
Displaying all worksheets related to - Solar And Lunar Eclips. Worksheets are Solar and lunar eclipses, Solar eclipse work, Sun, Solar and lunar eclipses reading, Solar and lunar eclipses, Phases eclipses tides, Solar and lunareclipse work pdf, Tides and eclipses. *Click on Open button to open and print to worksheet. 1. Solar and Lunar Eclipses.
14 Best Images of Worksheet Moon Phase Print - Moon Phases Worksheet. 11 Images about 14 Best Images of Worksheet Moon Phase Print - Moon Phases Worksheet : Eclipse Videos for Kids | Kindergarten, Activities and Solar eclipse, Sun, Earth, Moon and Solar Eclipse Resources by elenacocina - Teaching and also Solar System: Solar and Lunar Eclipse


New Earth Realized is organized in a way similar to galactic systems or like the Milky Way Galaxy. It's all circles within circles, spheres of influence harmonizing with all others.
Every "solar system" like ours makes up a part of the whole. There are many suns and planetary systems that make up any galaxy, all working as one big perfectly synchronized system. Yet every single one of the billion + suns in the Milky Way is difference from all the others, moving in perfect harmony with all the others, just like the solar system we live in.
So in simple terms, like the follow picture shows, our organizational structure is circles within circles. There are no leaders, simply stewards of the many circles of influence we are guided to move within.


Although you are warned about killing stars before pressing the button, Sleepless Knight understands that some level of remorse is occasionally associated with potentially apocalyptic levels of destruction.
For your peace of mind, we have provided answers to the most commonly asked questions, regarding what might have happened when you callously decided to ignite the ultimate astrophysical firework.
1. What if I destroyed an entire civilisation?
Debate about the possibility of life elsewhere in the universe continues to divide the scientific community, so allow us to put your mind at ease: While it is fairly likely that you just destroyed an ancient civilisation of billions, we don’t want you to worry about it… your country’s legal system almost certainly does not prosecute in instances of extra-solar genocide.
2. What if I destroyed a planet full of harmless animals?
At the time of this post, PETA does not have an interstellar branch.
3. So, are there any consequences for causing the extinction of as yet unknown species of animal?
Unfortunately, future generations of the human race will never have the opportunity to taste those animals.
4. What if no intelligent beings were destroyed, but I prevented a potentially beautiful and peaceful culture from evolving out of basic, self-replicating molecules?
Once again, this seems fairly likely, but you can take comfort in the convenient hypothesis that those beings might eventually have grown bitter, twisted and evil, as a result of having invented unfashionable sunglasses. Such beings might one day have spread out amongst the stars to destroy entire civilisations (much like you probably just did). The universe is a better place without them.
5. What if the explosion was a really big one?
Then congratulations, you just caused a Supernova, and it will look especially pretty when the light eventually reaches Earth.
6. Yes but, what if the explosion was a really, really big one?
Congratulations, you just caused a Hypernova! This will look really, really pretty; with Gamma-ray bursts along the axis of the star for thousands of light years. Some scientists say that Gamma-rays are dangerous, but Sleepless Knight has uncovered important new evidence which suggests Gamma-rays might be responsible for The Incredible Hulk, certain flavours of ice-cream, and those really nice snoozes that leave you feeling warm and cosy, instead of groggy and irritable.
7. Aren’t dying stars responsible for the creation of black holes?
Actually, scientists believe that black holes are the result of massive stars collapsing. Since you just made one explode, you have successfully prevented the creation of a black hole. Well done! Take the rest of the day off.
8. That doesn’t make any sense though, does it?
Are you still here? I said take the rest of the day off!
10. What if the star I destroyed was very close to our own solar system?
Recent studies reveal that an exploding star may have sent comets to earth 13,000 years ago; leading to the extinction of the mammoth. Since no-one really wants hairy elephants, that no amount of insecticide can shift, trampling your flowerbeds and ruining your barbecue… I say we call it a win.
Also, high energy radiation from nearby exploding stars has the potential to deplete the ozone layer that protects Earth from ultraviolet rays. This would give us all a nice tan, as well as killing off phytoplankton, which would mean fewer microscopic wriggly things in the water when you go to the seaside.
There are many other pontential dangers from nearby exploding stars, but most of these are complicated and depressing.
11. Aren’t phytoplankton the base of the marine food chain, and the generators of over half the world’s oxygen?
Sshhhh! Eat your ice-cream.
12. Won’t the destruction of a star have local gravitational implications?
Scientists would like you to believe that, yes. But, as believers in Jesus might tell you: Scientists are the minions of Satan; sent to refute the word of God. If that is true, it’s possible that the same scientists invented gravity, to keep us all from flying up to heaven.
So, although Sleepless Knight does not advocate a belief in supernatural beings, I say we just trust the Christians on this one thing.
13. What is the most likely outcome of destroying a distant star?
Just like the possibility of life outside our solar system, exploding stars are subject to a great deal of controversy. Sleepless Knight’s own research on this subject has led to the following conclusions:
It is a mathematical certainty that the universe contains an almost incalculable number of worlds, inhabited by races of peaceful super-beings, who want nothing but to fly around the galaxies, bringing peace and distributing peanut M&Ms in those really big bags you get at the cinema. Unlike the cinema, they are willing to do all this for free but are unable to, because it is too bright to go outside.
So you see; the more stars you destroy, the more likely we all are to be showered with peace and Peanut M&Ms.
14. I’m allergic to peanuts!
Bring an umbrella!
Sleepless Knight hopes that this has gone some way towards putting your mind at rest. If you still have concerns, you can email them to: firstname.lastname@example.org.
No-one will care, but if it makes you feel better, go ahead.


For thousands of years people somehow found their way without GPS. For most of history a compass wasn’t used either. Yet the world was explored and new lands were discovered.
Even more astounding, these intrepid pioneers found their way home again. How did they do it? By using ancient wisdom. They learned how to navigate by the stars.
With over 6000 stars visible from earth on a clear night, navigation by stars can seem intimidating. But not if you take into account that only fifty-eight are useful for navigation, and you only have to know thirty-eight constellations to find your way.
To make it really easy, the majority of celestial navigation relies on only four constellations. That’s it. Four groups of stars can make the difference between being hopelessly lost in the woods and spending the night comfortably in your tent.
Polaris is the Key
In the Northern Hemisphere one star stands above all others when it comes to understanding where you are and where you’re going. Polaris, or the North Star, is the most reliable light in the sky and if you only know how to locate one star, Polaris is the best choice.
Why is it so reliable? Polaris sits almost exactly above the Earth’s rotational axis. Like the handle on a top, Polaris stays more or less in one place while our planet spins below. It does move in a very small circle, but it does not rise and set like everything else in the sky. So, once you locate Polaris, you know where north is and the other points of the compass are easy to determine from there.
Locating the North Star is the best celestial navigation strategy you can have. Fortunately, there are several ways to find Polaris. Here are the best three to use when plotting a course in the dark.
Finding Polaris Using the Big Dipper
The easiest way to find Polaris is by using the constellation known as the Big Dipper, or Ursa Major. The Big Dipper is one of the most easily recognized constellations in the sky and its bright stars are easy to see, even in less than optimal conditions.
The Big Dipper looks like a deep frying pan, or a ladle, with a long handle. At the end of the ladle, opposite the handle, are two pointer stars. These two stars, Merak and Dubhe, point directly at Polaris.
By tracing an imaginary line through both, and extending that line five times the distance between the two pointer stars, you will arrive at Polaris.
Remember, the constellation and the pointer stars rotate counter-clockwise around Polaris, which doesn’t move. This means at times your imaginary line will be traveling downward or across the sky. It won’t matter. As long as you create your line using the two pointer stars you will find Polaris.
Finding Polaris Using Cassiopeia
At certain times of the year, the Big Dipper will be too low in the sky for you to see. Don’t panic. You have a backup plan. Polaris can easily be found using Cassiopeia as well.
Cassiopeia is a bright constellation shaped like the letter “W”. This shape is made of two “Vs”. One is wider than the other. Find the wider “V’ and make a line that bisects it. This line will lead you directly to Polaris.
Even if the Big Dipper is visible, most celestial navigators use Cassiopeia to double check they have the right location for Polaris. When it comes to getting a bearing in the wilderness, it’s better to be safe than sorry.
Finding Polaris Using the Little Dipper
Using the Little Dipper, or Ursa Minor, to find the North Star is by far the easiest method. Unfortunately, the stars that comprise this constellation are not very bright and often are hard to see under normal conditions.
If you are fortunate and can see the Little Dipper you will notice one bright star at the end of the handle. That is Polaris. To double check, you can locate the Big Dipper and Cassiopeia and work your way backwards to verify you have the correct star.
Using Polaris to Determine Latitude
The North Star can also be used to discover your latitude. Once you have located Polaris, latitude can be determined by measuring its distance over the horizon. This is best done using a sextant but if you forgot to pack one your fist will do in a pinch.
A human’s fist when held at arm’s length will be approximately ten degrees of latitude. By measuring this way from Polaris to the horizon you will know your latitude. For example, if you are near Boise, Idaho you can expect Polaris to be a little more than four fists high as that city has a latitude of forty-three degrees.
While this method may not be precise enough to draw a map, it is an excellent way to verify that the star you are following is Polaris.
Finding East, West, and South Using Orion
At certain times of the year you will find one constellation dominating the sky. It is easy to find and use as a navigational aid. It is called Orion, or the Hunter.
Orion is unique because it contains three stars in a nearly straight line. This makes for easy recognition by even the most novice stargazers. Once the line, or belt, is located the rest of the hour glass shape is simple to recognize.
Orion rises in the east and sets in the west. The right-most star in its belt, named Mintaka, is the one to watch. It’s path across the sky is within one degree of true west. On the clearest nights, a special feature of Orion is visible. Descending from the middle of the belt are three stars. This is Orion’s sword. It points almost due south.
Navigating by Moonlight
The moon is another valuable tool to use when navigating, if the conditions are right. Often, a crescent moon is the simplest way to find your heading when it is too cloudy and overcast for the stars to be of much use.
If you see a crescent moon draw a line from tip to tip down to the horizon. This is south. If the moon rose before the sun set, the round side will face to the west. If the moon rose after midnight the round side will face to the east.
Determining Direction Using Any Visible Star
Stars constantly move across the sky. This is a bad thing if you are trying to use one as a bearing but it is great if you are lost. The two-stake method is a quick way to establish direction without having to memorize constellations and will work as long as you can see a single star.
The Two Stake Method
- Take two stakes and pound them into the ground about three feet apart.
- Line up one star with the top of both stakes.
- Observe the movement of the star for twenty minutes.
- If the star moves left, you are facing north
- If the star moves right, you are facing south
- If the star rose, you are facing east
- If the star dropped, you are facing west.
This technique will work with any star except Polaris. It is not a precise direction finder but it will quickly orient you when lost.
Finding South in the Southern Hemisphere
Celestial navigation is very different in the Southern Hemisphere because Polaris cannot be seen. Luckily, there is a substitute that marks the southern axis. It is a constellation called Cruxe, or the Southern Cross.
Cruxe is said to look like a kite and is comprised of four stars which form two lines, like the ribs of a kite, or a cross. The longer of the two lines will point south. Like Polaris, Cruxe stays fixed over the South Pole and is the most reliable point of navigation in the Southern Hemisphere.
How to Use What You Have Learned from the Stars
Once you have established one point of the compass it is easy to fill in the other three. If you’re planning on moving at night, establish your direction of travel relative to the point of the compass you discovered and create a reference point to help you move in a straight line. For tips on how to adjust a compass declination, check out our earlier article on this important topic.
For instance, if you want to travel south and have found Polaris, keeping the North Star at your back will keep you heading on the right course. Westward travel will find Polaris on your right shoulder.
Another way to reference your bearing is to establish a route based on the hour hand of a clock. Traveling east would mean keeping Polaris at your nine o’clock, for example. Your desired course will always be twelve o’clock.
Saving Your Bearings for Daylight
A good plan in rugged terrain is to establish your direction at night and travel during the day when you can see obstacles and hazards. To do this, you must preserve the bearings you created with your knowledge of the stars.
When you have discovered a direction through celestial navigation, draw or mark the points of the compass you establish with rocks or branches. Make sure to define all four points and confirm your accuracy with as many techniques as you remember.
In the morning use these markers to set a heading by choosing your course and picking a geographic feature to aim for. Mountains and especially tall trees work great for this purpose. If you cannot find something suitable in the distance, or have limited vision due to heavy vegetation or hilly terrain, choose waypoints on your heading at closer intervals.
Each time you reach a waypoint set a new one on the same heading. Don’t forget to look backwards for a reference point. Having a reference behind you and in front gives you the ability to stay on a straight line.
At the end of each day, mark your heading with rocks or branches and verify your heading when the stars come out. Make any necessary corrections at this time for the next day’s journey.
Telling Time by the Stars
The stars hold a lot of information if you know how to find it. It is even possible to tell the time by simply looking at the North Star. Remember that line you drew from the Big Dipper’s pointer stars to Polaris? Picture that line as the hour hand on a twenty-four hour clock. Also, this clock runs counter-clockwise.
The Big Dipper constantly rotates so your hour hand needs to be adjusted according to the time of year. On March 06, this celestial clock is right on time. For every month after this date multiply by two and subtract from the time your Polaris clock is showing. It’s not perfectly accurate but it should be in the ballpark.
Cassiopeia can be used the same way. Reference the line you created by bisecting the wider V and use March 21 as your zero date.
Using the stars to find your way does not have to be difficult. As you can see, it only requires knowledge of four constellations and some easy steps to decipher what you find in the sky.
Without proper tools, you cannot expect to be perfectly accurate but you should be able to set a course close to the direction you wish to travel or at least understand in which direction you are looking.
Like making fire or building a shelter, celestial navigation can be a critical survival tool when the chips are down. It is easy to learn and easy to teach to others. And, it can be fun. Who doesn’t want to spend an evening in the wilderness staring at the stars and mastering a bushcraft skill? See our tips for more camping ideas for you and your family.
Just remember, there is no substitute for preparation. Even if you have considerable experience using constellations to find your way, there is no substitute for a good compass and a quality map. No one says you have to use them but they are nice to have if you run into a foggy night and are not quite sure which direction is home.
For stargazing, check out our review of the best compact binoculars to make your experience wonderful.
Do you navigate by the stars? Do you have any stories to share about finding your way without a compass, GPS, or a map? If you do we’d love to hear from you in the comments section.
Mark Foster loves to push his limits when it comes to survival in the wilderness. He might go for a 30-days adventure without any food or equipment except for a survival kit and a knife. We should mention that his survival kit has 122 items in it, so he know what he is doing. Mark is working on his book to share with the world all his experience gained during those brave adventures.


To the Moon! That's the giant ball of cheese, right?
“Politics is the art of looking for trouble, finding it, misdiagnosing it, and then misapplying the wrong remedies.” -Groucho Marx
Yesterday, Newt Gingrich announced his plans about widening America's reach into space. He said that by the end of his second term (he's already campaigning for a second term assuming he wins the primary and the election!), the US will have a permanent moon base, along with space tourism, and space labs. He even said that once the moon population is 13,000, they can petition to be a state, even though Washington D.C. (pop. 500,000), can't.


What a photogenic couple! The positive feedback means everything to us!! Her daughter, Jaendri got married to Wessel on the 10th October !
A masculine noun in Old English. In Greek, Italic, Celtic, Armenian the cognate words now mean only "month. Extended to satellites of other planets.
To shoot the moon "leave without paying rent" is British slang from c. The moon race and the U. The man in the moon is mentioned since early 14c. Some Japanese, however, see a rice-cake-making rabbit in the moon. The meaning "to flash the buttocks" is first recordedU. The natural satellite of Earth, visible by reflection of sunlight and traveling around Earth in a slightly elliptical orbit at an average distance of aboutkmmi.
Its average period of revolution around Earth is 29 days, 12 hours, 44 minutes. See more at giant impact theory.
A natural satellite revolving around a planet. Show More A Closer Look: The only natural satellite of Earth, it consists almost entirely of rock, shows no signs of ongoing geologic activity, has no water, and has a very thin atmosphere consisting primarily of sodium. But our Moon does not present a typical case for planetary satellites.
Over the last 50 years, over a hundred more moons have been discovered in the solar system, so that they now totalnearly all of them orbiting the larger planets Jupiter, Saturn, and Uranus Mercury and Venus have no moonwith an additional four moons orbiting dwarf planets.
Because they are so far from the Sun, these moons are for the most part extremely cold.
It is the most geologically active body in the solar system, with almost constant volcanic activity and a surface covered by cooling lava.
Some scientists think that another moon of Jupiter, Europa, may have liquid water capable of supporting life underneath a thick layer of surface ice. The planets vary in the number of their moons; for example, Mercury and Venus have none, the Earth has one, and Jupiter has seventeen or more.
The volume of the Earth is fifty times that of the moon; the mass of the Earth is about eighty times that of the moon.
The moon has no atmosphereand its gravity is about one-sixth that of the Earth. Idioms and Phrases with moon moon see ask for the moon; once in a blue moon.
Word of the Day.Resins & customs for sale by Bonnie Krueger - 1/19/ Browse galleries of finished horses.
By closing this message you agree to allow cookies to be downloaded. Kiss me out of the bearded barley Nightly, beside the green, green grass Swing, swing, swing the spinning step You wear those shoes and I will wear that dress.
The Moon and Sixpence is a novel by W. Somerset Maugham first published in It is told in episodic form by a first-person narrator, in a series of glimpses into the mind and soul of the central character Charles Strickland, a middle-aged English stockbroker, who abandons his wife and children abruptly to pursue his desire to become an artist.
The Moon & Sixpence: Home Of Hylton Bradley’s Cuisine. Situated on the outskirts of Banbury in the beautiful North Oxfordshire village of Hanwell, The Moon & Sixpence .


There were similar developments in many other continental European universities, and at least until reforms in the early 21st century many European countries (. Belgium, Spain, and the Scandinavian countries) had in all faculties triple degree structures of bachelor (or candidate) − licentiate − doctor as opposed to bachelor − master − doctor; the meaning of the different degrees varied a lot from country to country however. To this day this is also still the case for the pontifical degrees in theology and canon law: for instance, in Sacred theology the degrees are Bachelor of Sacred Theology (STB), Licentiate of Sacred Theology (STL), and Doctor of Sacred Theology (STD), and in Canon law : Bachelor of Canon Law (JCB), Licentiate of Canon Law (JCL), and Doctor of Canon Law (JCD).
After these equations were published, other scientists used them to explore what happens to spacetime in different physical situations. In the case of objects where all the matter is concentrated into a single point, the field equations predict something unusual: the curvature of spacetime becomes so extreme that even light cannot escape. Today we know these objects actually exist as black holes, and we’ve since found evidence for them in space.
These situations where the solutions to the equations become infinite are called “singularities." Hawking’s final thesis chapter explored this idea of singularities, not for the spacetime around black holes, but for the entire universe.


Oxygen, the second most abundant element on earth, is found mainly in the crust although oxygen is most often thought of as an atmospheric gas, it is also one of the primary components of the silicate minerals that make up the vast majority of the earth's crust. The two most common elements in the earth's crust are oxygen (46%) and silicon (28%) because of this, the most abundant mineral in the earth's crust is silica (silicon dioxide) more commonly known as sand, silica is a major component of glass. Why is silicon and oxygen important to the earth crust and is the second most abundant element, exceeded only by oxygen it is found largely as silicon oxides such as sand (silica), quartz.
It is the most abundant element in the earth's crust (followed by silicon) it is present in any number of minerals and makes up most of the weight of water oxygen is the third most abundant element found in the sun, and is involved in the carbon-nitrogen cycle, one of the processes responsible for stellar energy production. The most abundant element on earth is oxygen, but the most abundant element in the entire universe is hydrogen on earth, oxygen makes up approximately 47 percent of the earth's mass and is found both in earth's atmosphere and crust on earth, oxygen and silicon are the two most abundant elements. Even though it is one of the most abundant elements (predominately in the form of nitrogen gas (n2) in the earth's atmosphere), plants can only utilize reduced forms of this element nitrogen a cornerstone of life as we know it : nitrogen is also one of the building blocks of life on this planet.
Oxygen is one of the most important and abundant elements on earth about 46 percent of the earth's crust is oxygen it is colorless and odorless and. The most abundant of the metalloids on earth is silicon which is the second most abundant element in the earth's crust after oxygen the least abundant is tellurium which is one of the rarest stable elements on earth with an abundance similar to platinum. What elements are found in the human body there are 92 elements that occur naturally on earth for living things, only 11 of these elements are found in larger than trace quantities. If aluminium is the 3rd most abundant element in the earth's crust, why are there so few centres for commercial mining what is the most abundant element on earth what is the apparent conflict of the earth's crust being composed of mostly oxygen, but it is not a gas. Most important, how did the amount but one thing is clear—the origins of oxygen in earth's atmosphere derive from one thing: life abundant oxygen indirectly due to tectonics july 28.
Silicon and oxygen are common at earths surface because they are (relatively) light and so floated to the surface of the earth to form, literally, a crust most of the earth is composed of much denser minerals that contain a lot of iron (no surprise there) and magnesium. (most abundant elements) even though there are 92 elements that naturally occur, only eight of them are abundant in the rocks that make up the earth's outer layer, the crust together, these 8 elements account for 985% of the crust. In terms of weight, silicon is the second most abundant element in the crust of earth at 277% — second only to oxygen (466%) in rough terms, the earth is essentially a spheroid of iron (the core) surrounded by layers (the mantle and the crust) of silicon and oxygen dominated compounds that include the other elements.
Article: earth without oxygen oxygen makes up about one-fifth the volume of earth's atmosphere today and is a central element of life as we know it but that wasn't always the case. The next most common is oxygen, which is an important part of respiration for humans, animals and other living things teks 6 5b: recognize that a limited number of the many known elements comprise the largest. Oxygen is the most abundant element on the planet, so it is not unreasonable to expect oxygen might be one of the dominant light elements in the core but that's not so, the new research says.
Strange, isn't it much to the surprise of many people, the most abundant element in the earth crust is oxygen at 461% the second most common element is silicone at 282. In so doing, the two elements form the simplest of organic molecules, methane, which also is one of the most abundant and stable carbon-containing compounds on earth as stated above, another example is water oxygen needs two electrons to fill its valence shell. Oxygen is the most abundant element on the earth crust accounting for 495 by from chemistry 1b at berkeley city college one oxide in most compounds oxygen is.


Those who know me, know I am not much of a night person….unless there is a band involved;)! But I’ve been wanting to try capturing this image for some time now. We had some crisp clear nights this past week, so I ended up spending one evening at a family friends property and 200 year old barn in Bartlett, photographing the Milky Way. If you are far away from any erroneous light, and once your eyes adjust, it’s truly amazing how many stars are visible on a clear night.
Walking through the field to the barn in the dark, the silence was only broken by a solitary owl in the distance. I used Star Walk 2, to align myself with the barn to include the Milky Way, set up my tripod and composed my image. I took a few test shots to dial in my exposure for the stars, and then did some light painting with my flashlight to illuminate the barn and grass. Shooting in the dark presents it’s own challenges, like trying to focus on a small screen, using live view. Or things like using the best shutter speed and ISO combo to freeze the stars, but also keeping noise low. There are a few things I would do different next time, but not bad for my first real effort. It also captured Jupiter, the bright light to the right, and a few shooting stars, with two of them forming a cross in the upper left.


IT’S school holiday time and the Discovery Science and Technology Centre is again the place to go.
These holidays there is a melody of science entertainment with a new science show, lab workshops and a new planetarium show.
The Science of Sound Science Show will look at how sound works and will take place from noon to 2pm every day.
“In our Noisy Lab workshops you can explore the science of sound and learn how to make yourself heard in a big way,” centre manager Lisa Gormley said.
The Noisy Lab Workshops will take place at 10.30am on both Wednesdays of the holidays, and cost $3.
In November this year, a total eclipse will occur in the far north of Australia, and the planetarium is preparing for it now.
“During our new planetarium show, Total Eclipse of the Sun, you can flop into a beanbag and find out why, when and how total eclipses happen,” Planetarium co-ordinator Craig Kendal said.
Total Eclipse shows will take place at 11.30am, 12.30pm and 1.30pm daily and are included with general admission.For more information about Discovery’s school holiday program go to www.discovery.asn.au or phone 5444 4400.


Every day leading up to the full moon last week was cloudy with showers in the evening. That included the night it was full. I swear it is always cloudy when the full moon rises (or at least when I have an opportunity to capture it). So, I decided I would at least set the […]
I only went out shooting at sunset a couple of times on my last trip to Anguilla since I would generally reserve that time to have a relaxing dinner with my folks. We were going to Roy’s Bayside Grill on Road Bay this evening, so I decided to take my gear and walk
I was out last Saturday morning to catch the lunar eclipse. I wasn’t too sure what to expect this far east in the country, but was happy to see most of the eclipse before the moon set behind the mountains. The moon is going down just to the right of the peak of Mt. Harvard.


It might sound like something out of a movie, but this South African woman is ready to leave Earth and inhabit another planet…forever.
Aspiring Martian and Theoretical physicist doing research in the field of quantum biology, Dr. Adriana Marais is patiently waiting for her one-way ticket out of here – in fact it is what motivates her to get up in the morning.
The Mars One Project was announced in 2012 by Mars One, a private non-profit organisation with plans to establish a permanent human colony on Mars by 2025. Adriana is one of the 100 final candidates selected to be apart of this historic initiative.
On the Mars One Community platform, Adriana lists her reasons for deciding to join this project. “My research interests have led me to the famous question, “What is Life?”. Showing that life is sustainable on Mars, or furthermore finding evidence of life on Mars, would be one of the most important possible discoveries for humanity- a giant leap in terms of understanding who we are, where we come from and what the future may hold. The Mars One Project, one of the most ambitious projects ever proposed, makes this dream realisable.”
Recently, Adriana appeared on a new web series celebrating remarkable South Africans called Blue Couch Sessions (created by SA tech pioneer wiGroup), to voice her motivation behind her decision to go to Mars and never come back.
“I believe what’s most important during this short time we have on Earth, is to represent an idea that is greater than just your lifetime. While there’s only a small group of people set to embark on the first manned mission to Mars, its success is something in which all of humanity will share.
“I have a firm belief that you can achieve anything you want to you. Nelson Mandela said ‘it always seems impossible until it’s done,’ and this is something I really live by.”
She says it is very difficult to list the criteria required of the first Martian settlers because nobody has settled on Mars before. About the challenges, she says the landing is the most dangerous.
“Lift off may be achieved, then you have the 7 month journey and then you have the landing to worry about. And then of course, the daily survival. So all of these are risky, and have never been done before, but I think if more people work together to achieve this goal, the more achievable it becomes.”
Visit wiGroup’s website for more details about Blue Couch Sessions and how you can nominate a remarkable South African to be interviewed next!