China is preparing to launch 3 artificial moons in Space in 2022, the state Run Science and Technology China Daily reported.
The artificial moon will be a satellite carrying a huge space mirror, which can reflect the sunlight to the sun-deprived Earth parts. Three artificial moons will be launched in 2022, it said.
According to plan 2020, the verification of launch, orbit injection, unfolding, illumination, adjust and control of the man-made moon will be completed by 2020, the China Daily report, quoting Wu Chunfeng, head of Tianfu New District System Science Research Institute in Chengdu in China’s southwest Sichuan province.
Wu Chunfeng, chairman of Chengdu Aerospace Science and Technology Microelectronics System Research Institute Corporation said that illuminating satellite would provide a “dusk-like glow”.
“The satellites’ brightness and service time are both adjustable, and the accuracy of the lighting can be controlled within tens of meters,” Mr. Wu further added.
And since the satellite will be movable, it can be shifted easily to remote areas and can assist in disaster relief by beaming light on areas that lost power.
How will it work:
The artificial moon will be a satellite carrying a huge space mirror, which can reflect the sunlight to the Earth, where it will supplement streetlights at night. The scientists are of the view that china’s artificial moon size will be eight times more luminous than the actual moonlight.
The artificial moonlight can cover an area of 3,600 sq km to 6,400 sq km, and the illumination intensity can be controllable.
The moon orbits the Earth about 380,000 km from the Earth, while the artificial moon is expected to be put on an orbit within 500 km from the Earth.
What is the purpose behind it?
The basic purpose is to save energy and can provide relief to disastrous/blackout areas like earthquakes. Technology advancement will also be the main goal. Lighting from the artificial moon covering 50 square kilometers in Chengdu could save about 1.2 billion yuan ($240 million) in electricity costs every year, said Mr. Wu.
It can be an investment for future generations and will open up multiple ways to explore some other stuff. Electricity at night is very expensive, It’ll also help out in the long term from the economic point of view.
Is it really work?
Well, it’s possible and it had been done before two times but didn’t effective. In the 1990s, Russia experimented with using an orbital mirror to reflect sunlight on some of its northern cities which are sun-deprived. The project was abandoned in 1999 after the mirror failed to unfold and was burst into the atmosphere.
Two attempts were made by Znamya to beam solar energy to earth but failed in the late 1990s. The Znamya project was a series of orbital mirror experiments in the 1990s and was abandoned later on.
Let’s see how the Chinese Artificial Moon projects work and would it be able to compete with Metaverse….! Wish them good luck.


An aerial view of carrier aircraft VMS Eve, left, and spacecraft VSS Unity, at Spaceport America in New Mexico on Feb. 27, 2023.
Virgin Galactic is aiming to fly its first spaceflight in nearly two years later this month, but the company’s first quarter loss widened dramatically as it funds its fleet growth.
For the quarter ended March 31, Virgin Galactic posted a net loss of $159.4 million, or 57 cents a share, compared with a loss of $93.1 million, or 36 cents a share, a year earlier.
Virgin Galactic had cash and securities totaling $874 million at the end of the quarter, down from about $980 million at the end of the fourth quarter. It reported minimal revenue.
Virgin Galactic cited “increases in research and development expenses,” in a press release. CEO Michael Colglazier said the company is “making steady progress on the development of our Delta Class spaceships.”
The company is preparing to launch its VSS Unity spacecraft for the first time since flying Sir Richard Branson in July 2021. The next spaceflight, scheduled for the end of May, will carry a crew of company employees on a mission to verify its work. It paused launches for a lengthy refurbishment period of its vehicles, with Virgin Galactic aiming to fly its first commercial mission in “late June.”
The space tourism company reported an adjusted EBITDA loss of $140 million, compared with a $77 million loss in the same period a year ago.
Shares of Virgin Galactic stock slipped more than 1% in after-hours trading, from its close at $4.09 a share. The stock is up about 17% since this beginning of the year.


“Interstellar Water,” a new episode of the “What Makes Us Human” podcast series, examines the origin of our planet’s water. The podcast’s fourth season -- "What Does Water Mean to Us Humans?" -- showcases the newest thinking across academic disciplines about the relationship between humans and water.
“Carbon and water are each essential to all life on this planet. But how did carbon make its way from interstellar space onto the early Earth? And where did water come from?” asks Jonathan Lunine in his podcast. Lunine is David C. Duncan Professor in the Physical Sciences in the Department of Astronomy and director of the Cornell Center for Astrophysics and Planetary Science.
Lunine’s research focuses on how planets form and evolve, what processes maintain and establish habitability, and what kinds of exotic environments might host a kind of chemistry sophisticated enough to be called “life.” His many research activities include being co-investigator on the Juno mission to Jupiter, on the science team for the James Webb Space Telescope, and on the Europa Clipper mission.
The “What Makes Us Human?” podcast is produced by the College of Arts and Sciences in collaboration with the Cornell Broadcast Studios and features audio essays written and recorded by Cornell faculty. New episodes are released each Tuesday through the spring semester, airing on WHCU and WVBR. The episodes are also available for download on iTunes and SoundCloud and for streaming on the A&S humanities page, where text versions of the essays are also posted.


Hallo friend Premium Kindle Book In the 22gigantes.com, You read this time with the title High Above Each Cloud , we have prepared well for this kindle book you reading online and download the information therein. Hopefully fill posts with Best Sellers eBook and author by Roee Anuar can you good of understand. Make sure you read the kindle book description in the below, and next step your Klick the download link.
22gigantes.com - Sun and Moon have started pouting, she is yelling, he is shouting,both declare and both protest, "I'm the one who's loved the best!""Tonight," Sun so boldly claims, "no one will take out my flames.I will shine all through the night; then you'll see that I am right.But if I'm wrong, I'll be a wreck; to the stars I'll have to trek. The skies will have just one sole light: a lonely moon, a darkened bright."
Most helpful customer reviews 1 of 1 people found the following review helpful. `Over the years they escort us proud, floating high above each cloud.' By Grady Harp Israeli author Roee Anaur makes his literary debut with HIGH ABOVE EACH CLOUD, a story that began as a gift for his children and how he makes it available to all of us. He is a PhD candidate at Tel Aviv University and is the vise-president of a startup science company. After reading this book you'll see that he also is an artist. The visual illustrations are By Farrah Miezel I. and Peter Simon is the editor.This beautifully written rhyming story takes place in the sky where the Sun and the Moon are arguing over who is better loved. The Sun makes a bet - stating that she will shine through the night and diminish al the stars. She succeeds that night but the people below on earth (the ones who were SUPPOSED to love her best!) are angry that they can't sleep and miss the moon. The Sun flees and the Moon rises and everyone is content. But at dawn the skies remained gloomy and the people were angry that the Sun was not present. The Moon asks the people why they are angry - the asked to have the Sun back but earlier they asked to have the Moon back: which do they want? And in eloquent verse the people reply, `Dearest Moon, all is good. We think you misunderstood. You and Sun are both the key to life on earth, to man and tree. Sun can rule along the day, and Moon the king of night shall stay. Oh, dear Moon, we need assistance; without her, there's no existence.' The Moon goes back into the galaxy, seeking the Sun to apologize and explain the people's dilemma, and both the Sun and Moon agree they are allied. And from then on the Moon and Sun no longer argued but were happy for each other's presence - and all ends well.Such a charming story and beautifully illustrated, this book will be a favorite among children. Let's hope Roee has time to continue his art in writing children's books! Highly Recommended. Grady Harp, May 15 2 of 2 people found the following review helpful. Great teachings about the moon and sun. By The Croak 500 This book not only has great illustrations but it teaches the kids the reason why we need the moon and the sun. Great teachings for the little ones. 1 of 1 people found the following review helpful. BEAUTIFUL PICTURES GREAT STORY By TimelessRomantic This book does a wonderful job of explaining the need for sunlight and moonlight in a terrific rhyming format with beautiful pictures. It is appropriate for young children. I highly recommend it.. See all 22 customer reviews...
From the Author This book was originally a gift for my 2 kids. I tried to use a rich language and encourage them to ask questions while listening to the story. To my surprise, it went better than I expected. My kids asked for the story again and again. At bedtime while reading the book, they started to remember more parts of it. Now they know the full story by heart. I want to share the joy of watching kids learn and add new words to their vocabulary. I hope you and your kids will enjoy it too. About the Author Roeeis a father of two, VPof science in astart-up company, anda PhD student at Tel-AvivUniversity.
Thank you for your Download this High Above Each Cloud kindle book in the Premium Kindle Book website, may be useful for you and we will update it about the latest Kindle Book and you can download it for free in one month trial. We will always try to update the 22gigantes.com database to update it so we get a collection of the best kindle books. Not only in this Best Sellers eBook and this author by Roee Anuar, but of course with the author and other types of books, so that visitors of Premium Kindle Book feel comfortable and happy.
22gigantes.com is a Premium Kindle Book search engine and unrelated to Adobe System Inc. Not is pdf files hosted in Our server. All trademarks and copyrights on this website are property of their respective owners.


At a glanceSend these five characters into space on a mission to mars!
Features and benefits for Happyland Space Figures
- Includes 5 characters - 2 spacemen, a dog, an alien and a robot
- Suitable from 18 months
The HappyLand space figures are the perfect add on accessory set to the Lift Off Rocket (sold separately). Including two spacemen, a dog, an alien and a robot, prepare this friendly crew for their next galactic adventure.
Take a look at the rest of the HappyLand playets and figures.


Skiing under the moonlight is a magical experience and that's why we're offering a full moon ski tour at Bluebird. The next full moon rises on March 27th. Join a small group of adventurous souls on a short ski tour up the West Bowl under the sunset and catch the rising of the full moon. We'll have some hot beverages to keep you toasty while we enjoy the views. Then, we'll enjoy some turns down the West Bowl lead by the light of the moon.
Enjoy a fire and hot beverages at the base after our tour and check out the night sky by telescope.
Participants will need to be familiar with their backcountry gear and comfortable skiing in the backcountry. They will also need to carry a beacon, shovel and probe and a headlamp.
This event will last approximately 2 hours. We will leave the base area promptly at 5:00pm in order to catch the moon rise from the best vantage point. Please arrive at 4:45pm to get checked in and ready to ski.
In the event of bad weather this event may be rescheduled to Sunday, March 28th. We will notify participants 48 hours in advance with a weather report and confirmation of the event. Refunds will be issued if you are unable to make the rescheduled date.
*You do not need to purchase a day pass if you do not plan on skiing during the day. If you plan on skiing Bluebird during the day and want to attend Full Moon tour, you will need to purchase a day pass as well.


A science communicator with a digital edge
- Data visualisation lead at the Office for National Statistics.
- Communications manager at the Parliamentary Office of Science and Technology
- Associate User Researcher at the Parliamentary Digital Service
- Explainer at Royal Observatory Greenwich
- Outreach Officer at the Institute of Physics
- Project Co-ordinator for the Stimulating Physics Network
- Graduated from Imperial College with a science communication masters.
- First degree was physics with astrophysics degree from Leicester University where he spent one year abroad in Nice on an ERASMUS exchange.
Find me on twitter.


This year Kennedy Space Center has opened the Space Shuttle Plaza – built to showcase the Space Shuttle Atlantis
Atlantis offers the full 30 year history of the shuttle programme through a mix of interactive media. Hands on and apparently immersive, the exhibit features Atlantis (which I actually saw launch in back in 2009) 1 of only 3 remaining Shuttles. The 6 storey building has 2 wings – 1 for the launch and 1 for the return. Even the outside of the building has been themed – clad in orange and gold to symbolise the re-entry, the inside has glittery tiles to remind us of the tiled underside of the of the orbiter.
The immersive experience also shines a spotlight on the astounding achievements made over the course of the 30-year Space Shuttle Program, most notably, the building of the International Space Station and the launch and maintenance of the Hubble Space Telescope.
KSC also celebrates the thousands of people who took part in creating and maintaining NASA’s five space-flown shuttles – Columbia, Challenger, Discovery, Atlantis and Endeavour – and how the shuttle program has paved the way for NASA’s next generation of manned spaceflight programs.


The cover had a pair of the yellow 1c and a pair of the 2c green stamps of Peru showing Manco Pacic, founder of the Inca Dynasty which were issued 1896-1900, but the colours were different than stated by Scott catalogue 142-143. They were cancelled by an illegible oval Peruvian postmark. It was addressed to Walter F. Gale Esqre,Newcastle N.S.W., Australia (Figure 1).
The reverse had 4 postmarks, 3 of which were overlapping and 2 of these were difficult to interpret. The top left was an arrival at SYDNEY/ AP 17/ 7-AM/ 99/ 20, and from left to right read BARREOS DE —-/CALLAO, then NEWCASTLE with SAN FRANCISCO at the right (Figure 2).
Walter Frederick Gale, banker and astronomer, was born on 27 November 1865 at Paddington, Sydney, son of Henry Gale and his wife Susannah Gordon. He was educated at Paddington House School. After five years working in insurance and commercial offices, he joined the Savings Bank of New South Wales in 1888. In 1897 he was appointed accountant at the Newcastle branch, in 1914 manager at Newtown (after it was amalgamated with the Government Savings Bank of New South Wales), in 1916 manager at Barrack Street, Sydney, and in 1917 manager and chief inspector at the head office. After retiring in 1925 he was manager of Hoskins Investments Ltd until 1938.
Gale’s interest in astronomy was stimulated by his father and firmly established by the appearance of the Great Comet of 1882. About 1884 he built a telescope with an 18-cm mirror, the first of many that he owned. Elected a fellow of the Royal Astronomical Society, London, in 1893, that year he visited Chile with a Lick Observatory eclipse expedition, and observatories in the United States of America, and he valued the contacts then made.
Back in Australia, Gale was a founder and organizing secretary in 1894 of the New South Wales branch of the British Astronomical Association and then secretary for several years. Later he was president for twenty years. He formed the habit of sweeping the sky on every clear night and discovered independently seven comets. In three cases, 1894 II, 1912 II and 1927 VI, priority was recognized by attaching his name to the comet. He also discovered some double stars which bear his name and a ring nebula. He was leader of a party to observe the eclipse of 1922 at Stanthorpe, Queensland.
An assiduous observer of the planets Mars, Jupiter and Saturn, Gale published drawings in the Journal and Memoirs of the British Astronomical Association. He examined surface features of Mars, being first to note some, and was an ardent supporter of the suggestion of life on the planet. On the other hand, he was one who held that the great turbulent activity in the atmosphere of Jupiter must be evidence of an internal energy source—this is now recognized.
When the Government Savings Bank of New South Wales closed in 1931 Gale became chairman of a committee formed to protect depositors, and had to control several turbulent meetings, one by getting the Town Hall organist to drown the noise. His interests included coins, stamps and handwriting; he regularly played cards, solo and poker. In all his fields he was prepared to assist and advise others, particularly the young, and was a frequent and able public lecturer on astronomy.
Gale twice received awards from the (Thomas) Donovan Trust and in 1935 the Jackson-Gwilt medal of the Royal Astronomical Society ‘for his discoveries of comets and his work for astronomy in New South Wales’. He was chairman of the board of visitors of Sydney Observatory and a trustee of the Public Library of New South Wales in 1913-37.
Gale’s usual sweep of the sky was frustrated by cloud on 1 June 1945; later that night he died in a few minutes from a heart attack. He was survived by his wife, Violet Marion, née Birkenhead, whom he had married on 28 June 1899 at St Mary’s Anglican Church, West Maitland, and by two sons and four daughters.
As stated in the text, Gale ‘valued the contacts then made’ (on his trip to America), and this letter probably was a communication with a fellow astronomer.


Just going to show a few crops here as you can get more detailed reviews elswhere but here are some facts:
- both photos were shot in pretty much the same location (talking about 2km distance here) but we are not really looking at light pollution in this case
- both photos were shot on the Samyang 14mm F2.8 (also sold as Rokkinon in some countries) – the a7iii using the Sigma MC-11 Adapter
- both cameras used the same exposure settings, ISO 3200 and 25s
- just for the record – its APS-C vs full frame.. so yeah less star trailing on the Sony
Apart from the sensor of course the photos were shot with similar parameters the M5 with High ISO and Long Exposure Noise Reduction
The Images are both unedited, as is when imported into lightroom with only the lens profile and lens CA corrections applied.
I rarely shot on ISO 6400 on the 500D and the M5 as it became significantly worse but will post some 12800 on the a7iii in the future.
Currently ISO 3200 is my go to setting for astro @ 25s the only real way to get better conditions is to move into a darker light zone which will hopefully be done in 2022 with the next milky way season.


StardustMarch 24, 2017
We are Stardust.
Humans… connected to the Earth, the stars, the universe…
Billions of years ago cosmic explosions gave origin to all we know. We, the cosmos and every living creature originate from stardust. This same matter flows through us even today. Connecting us directly to the universe, rebuilding our bodies over and over again in our lifetimes.
On the smallest scale everything is all the same condensed energy.
Go look up at the night sky. We are all in this together. We are all made of stardust…
Buy the track and support us:
Google Music: goo.gl/hb2Lq6


“One of the universe’s overriding mysteries is where heavy elements originate.” — JAMES LAT TIMER
Mass Separator facility to measure the
mass of a pure sample of zinc-82. The
researchers compared this mass with
predictions in various computer simu-
lations and determined that zinc-82 is
probably too light to be stable beneath a
neutron star’s surface. That’s in line with
the most well-supported prediction of
neutron star composition.
A newly formed neutron star (marked
by arrow) sits in the center of the
supernova remnant Cassiopeia A,
about 11,000 light-years away.
Astrophysicists have long looked for
another astronomical process with
enough energy to forge heavier elements
from protons and neutrons.
Lattimer believes this aspect of the
study is not its greatest contribution;
previous experiments had already shown
that the leading model was more accurate
than others. Instead, he is most impressed
by the technique’s potential to pin down
the characteristics of other exotic nuclei
that may exist in neutron stars.
One potential explanation is that
these elements form in the midst of
the extreme heat and energy of supernovas — no neutron stars required. But
simulations show that these explosions
have an insufficient quantity of neutrons. That need for neutrons leads to
a competing idea: that heavy elements
form when two neutron stars collide and
some of their crustal material escapes
34 neutrons in the most common form
of zinc. The challenge was isolating and
measuring the rare isotope, most of
which would decay in less than a second.
At the CERN lab outside Geneva,
Wolf’s team used the On-Line Isotope
Scientists want to create this compositional profile because neutron stars may
be the source of many of the universe’s
heavy elements. Fusion reactions in the
cores of regular stars produce carbon,
oxygen, nitrogen and other elements
essential for life. But the heaviest element that fusion can construct is iron.
To evaluate this possibility, theorists
need to improve models of neutron star
composition. Mass measurements of
heavy atoms like zinc-82, Wolf says, will
help them do that. Then astronomers can
survey the abundances of heavy elements
in various stars and compare them with
predictions of what would be produced
in neutron star collisions.
www.sciencenews.org Science News Extreme Weather
Thursday, October 11, 2012 2:03:00 PM
Go to http://www.thisisclimatechange.org


From Macmillan’s Website:
Meet Sun: He's a star! And not just any star—he's one in a billion. He lights up our solar system and makes life possible. With characteristic humor and charm, Stacy McAnulty channels the voice of Sun in this next celestial "autobiography." Rich with kid-friendly facts and beautifully illustrated, Sun! One in a Billion is an equally charming and irresistible companion to Earth! My First 4.54 Billion Years.
From Heidi - Goodreads
SUN! combines darling illustrations with a fun, informative text. Sun is, of course, telling his own story. He wants to make sure that the reader knows just how important he is. This would come across as obnoxious if he weren't so friendly looking in the illustrations. The information is blended beautifully with the story leaving the reader almost unaware he/she has learned anything. There is some additional information at the back of the book for readers who want to know more. This book would work well both at home and in a classroom. This book would make a fun introduction to a unit on the solar system and the sun's importance in it. The illustrations are large and attractive and cleverly done. A book both amusing and educational.
From Macmillan’s Website:
Meet Moon! She's more than just a rock—she’s Earth’s rock, her best friend she can always count on. Moon never turns her back on her friend (literally: she's always facing Earth with the same side!). These two will stick together forever. With characteristic humor and charm, Stacy McAnulty channels the voice of Moon in this next celestial "autobiography" in the Our Universe series. Rich with kid-friendly facts and beautifully brought to life by Stevie Lewis, this is an equally charming and irresistible companion to Earth! My First 4.54 Billion Years and Sun! One in a Billion.
From Publishers Weekly
In a companion to Sun! One in a Billion, an anthropomorphic Moon—rendered by Lewis as a friendly figure with doe eyes and a sweet smile—announces that it is BFF’s with Earth (an equally affable figure who shows its appreciation for Moon with a tender half hug). “We have been together since the beginning. Almost,” Moon begins. It describes how it came into existence (from a giant impact with “baby Earth”), explains the moon’s phases, and details the way that gravity “pulling on Earth’s oceans” causes the tides. Moon provides facts about itself and about various planets and their moons, while clearing up misconceptions and myths (it doesn’t go away during the day, and cows don’t jump over it). McAnulty conveys complex concepts in a gentle, clear manner that provides readers with a solid foundation for learning more about the galaxy. Ages 4–8. (June)
From Ben Truong - Goodreads
Moon! Earth's Best Friend is the third children's picture book in the Our Universe series written by Stacy McAnulty and illustrated by Stevie Lewis, which stars the Moon as an exuberant celestial body with black doe eyes and a sweet smile, who is happy to tell its life story as the best friends with Earth.
McAnulty's text is rather simplistic and straightforward. It is an anthropomorphic story about the Moon and its relations within the Earth – who is its best friend. Additional notes could be found at the back of the book. Lewis' mixed-media cartoons work in perfect sync with the narration to share the astronomical tidbits with panache.
The premise of the book is rather straightforward. The Moon describes how it came into existence, explains the moon's phases, and details the way that gravity causes tides on Earth. Moon provides facts about itself and about various planets and their moons, while clearing up misconceptions and myths. McAnulty conveys complex concepts in a gentle, clear manner that provides solid foundation for learning more about space.
All in all, Moon! Earth's Best Friend is a wonderful history and importance of the Moon, albeit cursory, and a wonderful continuation to a children’s book series that I look forward to reading.


First, the Commission declared that the new ATV standard must be more than an enhanced analog signal, but be able to provide a genuine HDTV signal with at least twice the resolution of existing television images.
List of orbits Various earth orbits to scale; cyan represents low earth orbit, yellow represents medium earth orbit, the black dashed line represents geosynchronous orbit, the green dash-dot line the orbit of Global Positioning System GPS satellites, and the red dotted line the orbit of the International Space Station ISS.
The War Production Board halted the manufacture of television and radio equipment for civilian use from 22 April to 20 Augustlimiting any opportunity to introduce color television to the general public. A transponder is capable of: In the receiver, a type of Kerr cell modulated the light and a series of variously angled mirrors attached to the edge of a rotating disc scanned the modulated beam onto the display screen.
It was displayed when a TV station first signed on every day. Also known as an intermediate circular orbit. Until Junethe Japanese MUSE standard, based on an analog system, was the front-runner among the more than 23 different technical concepts under consideration. As a year-old German university student, Paul Julius Gottlieb Nipkow proposed and patented the Nipkow disk in The scanner that produced the beam had a aperture disk.
The list includes the European Space Agencya multi-national state organization, but does not include private consortiums. The brightness of the neon lamp was varied in proportion to the brightness of each spot on the image.
This is widely regarded as the first television demonstration. An elliptic orbit where the perigee is at the altitude of a Low Earth orbit LEO and the apogee at the altitude of a geosynchronous orbit. Using cyan and magenta phosphors, a reasonable limited-color image could be obtained.
Centric classifications[ edit ] Geocentric orbit: The computer industry argued that progressive scanning is superior because it does not "flicker" on the new standard of display devices in the manner of interlaced scanning.
Both sets were capable of reproducing reasonably accurate, monochromatic, moving images. A bright light shining through a spinning Nipkow disk set with lenses projected a bright spot of light which swept across the subject. Such an orbit can place a satellite in constant sunlight and is useful for imagingspyand weather satellites.
A highly elliptic orbit with inclination of Historically, due to budgetary constraints at the beginning of satellite missions, satellites were rarely designed to be de-orbited. An orbit around the planet Earth, such as the Moon or artificial satellites.
It would be several years before any other system could even begin to compare with it in picture quality. An updated image was transmitted "several times" each second.
Fournier in Paris in The final standards adopted by the FCC did not require a single standard for scanning formats, aspect ratiosor lines of resolution.The Combining of Cable TV and the Internet The Telecommunications Act of opened the way for cable TV (CATV) companies to become full-fledged telecommunications companies, offering two-way voice and data communications services, in addition to television programming.
1. Overview The role of satellite networks in global communications is growing at an unprecedented pace. From direct broadcast satellite (DBS) television, to satellite phones, to credit card transactions, to the Internet, corporations and consumers are embracing these new services and placing demands on bandwidth.
SATELLITE COMMUNICATION FOR COMPUTER NETWORKS. In this section we will examine, two aimed at voice communication and one aimed at internet service. Iridium. An iridium satellite was launched in Communication service began in November Satellite Television.
Fixed Service Satellite.
Direct Broadcast satellites. Internet television (Internet TV) cable, or satellite methods. Internet television is a general term that covers the delivery of television shows, and other video content, over the Internet by video streaming technology, typically by.
Satellite Television gives us many solutions to the problems that come with broadcast TV and, although not perfect itself, is now the main way to view television. In its basic form satellite television is a lot like broadcast television.
Television has become the most common and most widespread source of knowledge, entertainment and information of the present world. We will write a custom essay sample on Uses and Abuses of Satellite TV Channels specifically for you for only $ $/page.
Uses and Abuses of Satellite TV Channels. send.Download


Observing the Northern Lights is an astounding experience! This report presents facts on how to see the Northern Lights in Iceland. From in which to see the Northern Lights in Iceland to tips we’ve obtained you covered!
As we presented in a former write-up, Iceland is residence to some astounding points of interest, some of them currently being terrific locations to see the northern lights in Iceland far too.
What are the Northern Lights
The Northern Lights – or Aurora Borealis or polar lights are in reality disturbances in Earth’s magnetic field. The predominant colour is environmentally friendly, but the lights can also be purple, purple, and blue.
The Northern Lights are most frequently noticed in the polar regions through the winter season months when the nights are for a longer period, and the sky is darker.
Greatest time to see the Northern Lights in Iceland
The finest months to see the Northern Lights in Iceland are from September to mid-April. Usually, the finest months in this interval are December and January.
Certainly, the Aurora Borealis is noticeable all through the evening – the most effective hours are from 9 PM to 2 AM.
How to see the Aurora Borealis in Iceland
If you are arranging a trip to Iceland and want to see the Aurora Borealis, the very first detail to know is that there is no assurance that you will be ready to see it. It is a pure phenomenon, so it is not anything that individuals can impact. However, there are a number of tips to see the Aurora Borealis in Iceland (see the segment below far too.)
Tip 1: Verify the aurora forecast in progress. This is a prediction of the likelihood of seeing the Northern Lights based mostly on different things such as solar exercise, cloud deal with, and geomagnetic exercise and it is supplied by quite a few sites and applications.
Tip 2: Go in the vicinity of a town to be capable to completely love the northern lights. You can hire a motor vehicle in Iceland and, organizing your journey in progress, you can go to 1 of the many sites that present a great look at of the aurora borealis. This is why exploring Iceland on a self generate is the most effective possibility for such a trip!
Idea 3: Make confident you are ready for the chilly weather – pack layers of warm dresses and make sure you have gloves and boots that keep you heat!
Suggestion 4: Attempt to be flexible – if achievable, retain your Iceland itinerary adaptable so that, when trying to keep an eye on the aurora forecast, you can go to the selected destination to see the northern lights at the finest time.
Where by to see the Northern Lights in Iceland
There are various finest spots to see the northern lights in Iceland. They are all absent from the town, in locations with reduce mild pollution.
Right here are some of the well-liked areas to see the Northern Lights in Iceland:
- Thingvellir National Park – established in a Rift Valley in Southwest Iceland, the park is a selected Environment Heritage Web site which helps make it a perfect location to see the northern lights and investigate the spot for the duration of the day!
- Jökulsárlón Glacier Lagoon – a lake of glacial origin, this is perhaps the very best place to see the Northern Lights in Iceland. It is located in the southeastern portion of the nation.
- Vatnajökull Nationwide Park is the location to go for mesmerizing landscapes. You will be in awe when arriving in this article, as the landscape – a blend of Arctic landscape and wild nature – is actually remarkable.
- Seltjarnarnes in Reykjavík – this is fantastic if you want to keep close to Reykjavik.
Other suggestions for experiencing the Northern Lights in Iceland
Whilst arranging a vacation all around the thought of viewing the Northern Lights in Iceland, attempt to plan an itinerary that will give you the possibility to admire some of the gems in Iceland.
Love each and every put through the day – as all parks and metropolitan areas have a little something to offer you.
Use this excursion to study far more about local culture, historical past, and artwork – especially if you’ve in no way been to Iceland prior to.
Involve relaxing and fun activities on your checklist – dependent on your choices and the chosen region.
If you have the chance, convey a camera with you and test to get photos of the Northern Lights:
- make guaranteed you bring a tripod
- use a wide-angle lens to capture as much sky as probable
- set your ISO to about 1600 and adjust as necessary
- if feasible, use a remote shutter release or a self-timer to avert the digital camera from shaking. Established your shutter velocity to about 10-15 seconds – and probably test various exposures.
- established your aperture to the widest environment
These are common tips for using pictures at night, and they are helpful for capturing the northern lights also. Indeed, it is doable to not get great pictures (we have so several photographs with evening sky we delete, but retain seeking to get superior.)
Once more, don’t forget that seeing the northern lights simply cannot be guaranteed (not even by tour operators). But, by maximising every aspect of the journey, you can improve your likelihood fo observing them.
Consider to include things like lots of items to do on your Iceland itinerary so that you have a total working experience (and are not as well upset if you do not see the lights the first time). There is constantly the up coming journey!


Etienne Savalle, Benjamin M Roberts, Florian Frank, Paul-Eric Pottie, Ben T McAllister, Conner B Dailey, Andrei Derevianko, Peter Wolf
We discuss the theoretical analysis and interpretation of space-time separated clock experiments in the context of a space-time varying scalar field that is non-universally coupled to the standard model fields. If massive, such a field is a candidate for dark matter and could be detected in laboratory experiments. We show that space-time separated experiments have the potential to probe a fundamentally different parameter space from more common co-located experiments, allowing decorrelation of previously necessarily correlated parameters. Finally, we describe such a space-time separated clock experiment currently running at the Paris Observatory, and present some preliminary results as a proof of principle.


Uncover 12 amazing space objects inside 12 asteroids! Once excavation is complete, learn about each unique object, from a UFO to an astronaut, using the exploration guide. Simply soak the clay asteroid in water, then carefully chisel away the sedimentary material to reveal the out-of-this-world toy inside.
• Each asteroid contains a different object from outer space
• Helps promote an early interest in science and imagination for kids
• The perfect activity for parties and groups
• 12 asteroids, chiseling tools and instructions
Age Recommendation: Ages 4 and up


|Full Title||Current Topics in Astrofundamental Physics: The Cosmic Microwave Background|
|Publisher||Springer-Verlag New York, LLC|
Norma G. S nchez |
The book presents the fundamental physics underlying our increased understanding of the early universe, the cosmic microwave background, large scale structure formation, the dark matter problem, and the interplay between them, focusing on the cosmic microwave background. There is an emphasis on the mutual impact of fundamental physics and cosmology, both at theoretical and experimental / observational levels, within a deep and well defined programme that additionally provides a careful interdisciplinarity. Special sections cover fractals and scaling laws in astrophysics and cosmology, and high energy and neutrino astrophysics.
|Dimensions||9.21 (w) x 6.14 (h) x 1.45 (d)|
Electromagnetism - Radiation |
Astrophysics & Space Science
Copyright © 2018. All rights reserved


The Solar System and The Earth Notes 11th Geography for Tnpsc Exam
11th Geography Lesson 2 Notes in English
2. The Solar System and The Earth
- Have you ever relaxed lying on the terrace of a building or in the front yard at a cloudless night?
- If yes, could you watch the night sky filled with glittering stars which appear to be growing in numbers?
- These glittering stars, which we see, are a part of the universe.
- Let us now discuss in detail about the Universe, stars, planets and other objects.
- The universe is a vast endless space which includes galaxies, stars, planets and other forms of matter and energy in it.
Theories of the Earth’s origin
- There are many theories supporting the origin of the earth.
- One of the earlier and popular arguments of the earth’s origin was by a German professor Immanuel Kant.
- Mathematician Laplace revised it in 1796.
- It was known as Nebular Hypothesis. It considered that planets were formed out of a cloud of material associated with a youthful sun, which was slowly rotating.
- Lyttleton propounded the accretion theory of the earth’s formation.
- According to this theory, approximately 4.6 billion years ago, the solar system was a cloud of dust and gas known as a solar nebula.
- As the solar nebula began to spin, the gravity collapsed the materials on itself and it formed the sun in the centre of the solar system.
- When the sun formed, the remaining materials began to clump up.
- Small particles drew together, bound by the force of gravity, into larger particles.
- The solar wind swept away lighter elements, such as hydrogen and helium, from the closer regions.
- It left only heavy rocky materials to create planets like the Earth.
- But farther away, the solar winds had less impact on lighter elements, allowing them to coalesce into gas giants.
- In this way, planets, moons, asteroids, comets, etc., were created.
- Earth’s rocky core formed first when heavy elements collided and bound together.
- Dense materials sank to the center, while the lighter material created the crust.
- The planet’s magnetic field probably formed around this time.
- Gravity captured some of the gases that made up the planet’s early atmosphere.
Modern theories of the origin of the Universe
- The most popular argument regarding the origin of the universe is the Big Bang Theory.
- It is also called expanding universe hypothesis.
- In 1927, Abbe Georges Lemaitre, a Belgian astronomer was the first to propose, a theory on the origin of the universe.
- It was Edwin Hubble who provided the evidence that the universe is expanding.
- It was called, ‘the Big Bang Theory’. According to it, the universe was formed during a period of inflation that began about 13.75 billion years ago.
- Like a rapidly expanding balloon, it swelled from a size smaller than an electron to nearly its current size within a fraction of a second.
- Matter from the universe was thrown out with great force in all directions and started expanding outwards.
- From this matter, many groups of stars were formed which we call ‘galaxies’.
- A galaxy is a system of billions of stars, stellar remnants, interstellar gas, dust, and dark matter.
- The word galaxy is derived from the Greek word Galaxias, literally “milky”, a reference to the Milky Way.
MILKY WAY GALAXY
- The Milky Way is the galaxy that contains our Solar System.
Galaxies are in three major forms:
- Spiral Galaxies: It consists of a flat and rotating disk of stars, gases and dust. It has a central concentration of stars known as the ‘bulge’.
- The Milky Way and the Andromeda are spiral galaxies.
- Elliptical Galaxies: It contains older stars with fewer gases.
- Messier89 galaxy is an elliptical galaxy.
- The new measurement technique called gravitational lensing confirmed the age of the universe and the strength of dark energy.
- Dark energy is responsible for the accelerating expansion of the universe.
- Scientists used gravitational lensing to measure the distances light traveled from a bright, active galaxy to the earth and some details of its expansion.
- Irregular Galaxies: They are youthful galaxies with more dust and gases. This can make them very bright.
- Large Magellanic Cloud is an example of irregular galaxy. Initially, the universe was saturated only by energy.
- Some of this energy set into particles, which assembled into light atoms like hydrogen and helium.
- These atoms grouped first into galaxies, then stars and all the other elements.
- This is generally agreed-upon concept of our universe’s origin as estimated by scientists.
- In fact, the stars, planets and galaxies that can be detected make up only 4 percent of the universe, according to astronomers.
- The other 96 percent of the substances in the universe cannot be seen or easily understandable.
- The new measurement technique called gravitational lensing confirmed the age of the universe and the strength of dark energy.
- Dark energy is responsible for the accelerating expansion of the universe.
- Scientists used gravitational lensing to measure the distances light traveled from a bright, active galaxy to the earth and some details of its expansion.
Stars and Constellations
- A star is type of astronomical object which has its own light and heat. The nearest Star to the Earth is the Sun.
- Sirius is brighter star than the Sun.
Constellation-Sagittarius, like a teapot
- ‘Proxima Centauri’ is the closest star to the sun.
- Star is formed when enough dust and gas clump together because of the gravitational forces.
- Star changes its forms during its lifetime such as-red giant, white dwarf, neutron star and black hole.
- Constellation is a group of stars that forms a particular shape in the sky.
- In 1929, the International Astronomical Union(IAU) adopted official constellation boundaries that defined 88 official constellations that exist today.
- Earlier Ptolemy, in his book Almagest, listed 48 constellations.
- Ursa Major is a constellation that can be seen in the northern hemisphere and part of the southern hemisphere.
- Ursa Major means Great Bear in Latin.
The Solar system
- A solar system consists of a star at the centre and the eight planets, moons, asteroids, comets and meteoroids that revolve it.
- The eight planets, namely the Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune, revolve around the sun in fixed elliptical paths known as ‘orbits’.
- Most stars host their own planets.
- So there are billions of other solar systems in the Milky Way galaxy alone.
- Solar systems can also have more than one star.
- These are called binary star systems if there are two stars or multi-star systems if there are three or more stars.
- Our solar system is located in an outer spiral arm of the vast Milky Way galaxy.
- Our solar system orbits the centre of the Milky Way Galaxy at about 828,000 km/h.
- Our solar system takes about 230 million years to complete one orbit around the galactic centre.
- The solar system is believed to have been formed about 4.6 billion years ago.
- The solar system also includes the Kuiper Belt that lies past Neptune’s orbit.
- This is a sparsely occupied ring of icy bodies.
- This is almost all smaller than the dwarf planet Pluto.
- Beyond the fringes of the Kuiper belt is the Oort cloud.
- This giant spherical shell surrounds our solar system.
- It has never been directly observed, but its existence is predicted based on mathematical models and observations of comets that likely originate there.
- The Oort cloud is made up of icy pieces of space debris. It is orbiting our Sun as far as 1.6 light years away.
- This shell of material is thick, extending from 5,000 astronomical units to 100,000 astronomical units.
- One astronomical unit (AU) is the distance from the Sun to Earth, or about 150 million kilometre .
- The Oort cloud is the boundary of the Sun’s gravitational influence, where orbiting objects can turn around and return closer to our Sun.
- There are more than 163 known natural satellites in our solar system and several more awaiting confirmation of discovery.
- Of the eight planets, Mercury and Venus are the only planets with no satellites while the Jupiter and Saturn have the highest number of satellites in our solar system.
- The Sun is at the centre of our solar system.
- It is a yellow dwarf star, with a hot ball of glowing gases.
- Its gravity holds the solar system together and it keeps everything from the biggest planets to the smallest particles of debris in its orbit.
- Electric currents in the Sun generate a magnetic field that is carried out through the solar system by the solar wind.
Structure of the Sun
- By mass, the Sun is made up of about 70.6% hydrogen and 27.4% helium.
- The Sun’s enormous mass is held together by gravitational attraction, producing immense pressure and temperature at its core.
- There are three main layers in the Sun’s interior: the core, the radiative zone, and the convective zone .
- The core is at the centre. It is the hottest region, where the nuclear fusion reaction to give the sun power.
- Moving outward next come the radiative (or radiation) zone.
- Its name is derived from the way energy is carried outward through this layer, carried by photons as thermal radiation.
Structure of the sun
- The third and final region of the solar interior is named the convective (or convection) zone.
- It is also named after the dominant mode of energy flow in this layer.
- The boundary between the Sun’s interior and the solar atmosphere is called the photosphere.
- It is what we see as the visible ‘surface’ of the Sun.
- Did you know that the Sun has an atmosphere? The lower region of the solar atmosphere is called the chromosphere.
- Its name is derived from the Greek word chroma (meaning colour), for it appears bright red when viewed during a solar eclipse.
- A thin transition region, where temperature rises sharply, separates the chromospheres from the vast corona above.
- The uppermost portion of the Sun’s atmosphere is called the corona, and is surprisingly much hotter than the Sun’s surface (photosphere) .
- The upper corona gradually turns into the solar wind.
- Solar wind is a flow of plasma that moves outward through our solar system into interstellar space.
- Therefore, the Sun has six regions: the core, the radioactive zone, and the convective zone in the interior; the photosphere; the chromospheres; and the corona.
- The temperature of the sun’s surface is about 5,500 to 6,000 degrees Celsius.
- At the core, the temperature is about 15 million degrees Celsius, which is sufficient to sustain thermonuclear fusion.
- This is a process in which atoms combine to form larger atoms and in this process, released, staggering amounts of energy.
- Specifically, in the Sun’s core, hydrogen atoms fuse to make helium.
Size and Distance
- The sun has a radius of 695,508 kilometres.
- It is far more massive than earth and 3,32,946 Earths equal to the mass of the Sun.
- The Sun’s volume would need 1.3 million Earths to fill it.
Orbit and Rotation
- The Milky Way has four main spiral arms: the Norma and Cygnus arm, Sagittarius, Scutum-Crux, and Perseus.
- The Sun is located in a minor arm, the Sagittarius arm.
- From there, the Sun orbits the centre of the Milky Way Galaxy, bringing the planets, asteroids, comets and other objects along with it.
- Our solar system is moving with an average velocity of 828,000 kilometres per hour.
- It takes about 230 million years to make one complete orbit around the Milky Way.
- The Sun’s spin has an axial tilt of 7.25 degrees with respect to the plane of the planets’ orbits.
- Since the Sun is not a solid body, different parts of the Sun rotate at different rates.
- At the equator, the Sun spins around once about every 25 days, but at its poles the Sun rotates once on its axis every 36 Earth days.
- Most of the materials are pulled toward the centre to form our Sun.
- The Sun alone accounts for 99.8% of the mass of the entire solar system.
- Like all stars, the Sun will someday run out of energy.
- When the Sun starts to die, it will swell so big that it will engulf Mercury and Venus and maybe even Earth.
- Scientists predict that the Sun is a little less than halfway through its lifetime and will last another 6.5 billion years before it shrinks down to be a white dwarf.
- The word planet in Greek means ‘wanderer’. Planet is the celestial body which does not have light or heat of its own.
- A planet should possess the following qualities: It should orbit around the sun.
- It should not be a satellite of any planet
- Due to its own mass and self-gravity, it should get a spherical shape and Any other celestial body should not cross in its orbit.
- The planets are classified in order of their distance from the sun and based on their characteristics.
- They are: The inner planets or terrestrial planets or rocky planets.
- Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars are called inner or terrestrial planets.
- The outer planets or gaseous planets or giant planets.
- Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune are called outer or gaseous planets.
- Each planet spins on its own axis.
- This movement is called rotation.
- One rotation makes one ‘planet day’.
- The planets moving around the sun is called revolution or a ‘planet-year’.
Planets in the Solar System
- Mercury is the nearest planet to the sun and it is the smallest planet in the solar system.
- It does not have any satellite.
- It rotates on its own axis in 58.65 earth days while it takes 88 Earth days to complete one revolution around the sun.
- Mercury is 0.4 astronomical units away from the Sun. The sunlight takes 3.2 minutes to travel from the Sun to Mercury.
- Mercury is the second hottest planet though it is nearest to the sun.
- ‘Venus’ is the second nearest planet to the sun.
- It is also called as ‘Earth’s Sister’ planet due to its similar size and mass as that of our Earth.
- It is the hottest planet in the solar system and experiences a mean surface temperature of 462degreeC.
- It is popularly known as “Morning star and Evening star” It is seen in the east sky before sunrise (dawn) in the morning and in the west sky after the sunset (twilight).
- It rotates clockwise i.e. east to west direction on its own axis.
- The rotation and orbit of the Venus are unusual in several ways.
- Venus is one of just two planets that rotate from east to west.
- Only Venus and Uranus have this ‘backwards’ rotation.
- It completes one rotation in 243 Earth days which is the longest day of any planet in our solar system.
- The Venus takes 224.7 Earth days to complete one revolution around the sun, and it has no natural satellites.
- Venus is 0.7 astronomical units away from the sun.
- The sunlight takes 6 minutes to travel from the sun to Venus.
Distance of the planet from the earth
- Earth is the third nearest planet to the sun.
- It is the fifth largest planet in the solar system.
- The Earth’s orbit lies between the orbits of Venus and Mars.
- It takes 23 hours 56 minutes and 4 seconds for the earth to complete one rotation on its own axis.
- The Earth takes 365.25 days to complete one revolution around the Sun.
- Earth’s surface temperature varies from – 88degree to 58degreeC and it is the densest planet in the solar system.
- The Earth is a unique planet because of its distance from the sun, its motions, atmosphere with oxygen, presence of water and moderate temperature.
- The earth is neither too close nor too far from the sun. It is the only known planet to support life.
- It is also known as the ‘Blue Planet’ because of the presence of water.
- Earth has only one natural satellite called the Moon.
- The sun light takes about 8.3 minutes to reach the earth.
- Mars is the fourth nearest planet to the sun and it is the second smallest planet in the Solar system.
- It is also described as the “Red planet”.
- It is reddish in colour due to the presence of iron oxide on its surface.
- The landmass of Mars and Earth are very similar.
- It takes 24 hours and 37 minutes to complete one rotation on its axis and its takes 687 days to complete one revolution around the Sun.
- The surface temperature of the Mars is ranging from –153degree to 20degreeC.
- With the exception of the Earth, Mars probably is the most hospitable to life.
- This planet has seasons, polar ice caps, volcanoes, canyons and weather.
- Mars has two satellites namely Phobos and Deimos.
- Jupiter is the largest planet in the solar system.
- It is made primarily of gases and is therefore known as ‘Giant Gas planet’.
- It takes 9 hours 55 minutes to complete one rotation on its axis and it takes 11.86 years to complete one revolution.
- Jupiter has the shortest day in the solar system.
- Jupiter has a faint ring system around it.
- They are mostly comprised of dust particles. Jupiter has 67 confirmed satellites orbiting the planet.
- Ganymede, the satellite of Jupiter, is the largest natural satellite in the solar system (even bigger than the planet Mercury).
- Saturn is the sixth planet from the sun and the second largest planet in the solar system.
- Saturn is called as the Ringed Planet.
- It is because of large, beautiful and extensive ring systems that encircles the planet.
- These rings are mostly made from the chunks of ice and carbonaceous dust.
- Saturn is the only planet in our solar system whose average density is less than water.
- The Saturn has 30 rings and 53confirmed natural satellites.
- The Saturn takes 10 hours 34 minutes to complete one rotation on its axis and it takes 29.4 years to complete one revolution around the sun.
- Uranus is the seventh planet from the sun and it is not visible to the naked eye.
- Like Venus, Uranus also rotates on its axis from east to west.
- Uranus is inclined on its axis at an angle of 98 degrees.
- The planet is almost lying on its side as it goes around the sun.
- The sunlight, thus, is received mostly in the polar areas.
- Hydrogen, helium and methane are the major gases of its atmosphere.
- It is very cold due t its great distance from the sun.
- Uranus is named after the ancient Greek god of the sky.
- It has a dense atmosphere primarily consisting of methane, which lends it a bluish–green appearance.
- Uranus also has rings and twenty-seven satellites.
- Neptune is the eighth planet from the sun.
- It takes 16 hours to complete one rotation on its own axis and it takes nearly 165 years to revolve around the sun.
- It has 13 natural satellites and 5 rings.
- It is the coldest planet in the Solar System because it is the farthest planet from the Sun.
- Neptune was the first planet located through mathematical calculations.
- Neptune is our solar system’s windiest planet.
- Dwarf planets are tiny planets in our solar system.
- Any celestial body orbiting around the sun, weighing for the self gravity and nearly be round in shape is called ‘Dwarf Planet’.
- It should not be a satellite of any planet.
- They are five in number Ceres, Pluto, Heumea, Makemake and Eris.
- As Pluto has not cleared the neighbourhood around its orbit, it is officially demoted in 2006 from its ninth position as a planet.
- The word ‘Satellite’ means companion.
- The moon was the only known satellite in the Solar System until 1610. Today, there are 163 known satellites in the Solar System.
- The satellites move around a planet from West to East.
- They do not have own light, but reflect the light of the Sun. They have no atmosphere and water.
Moon: the Earth’s Satellite
- The moon is located at a distance of 8, 84,401 km from the earth .
- The moon revolves around the earth.
- The moon takes 27 days and 7 hours and 43 minutes for both its rotation and revolution around the earth.
- Hence, the observers on the earth could see only one side of the moon. The moon is the fifth largest natural satellite in the solar system.
Surface of the moon
- The moon was likely to be formed after a Mars sized body collided with Earth.
- There are many craters, high and steep mountains of different sizes which cast shadows on the Moon’s surface.
- The light which is reflected by the Moon will reach the Earth in just one and a quarter seconds.
- Since the moon is smaller than the earth, it has 1/6 of the gravitational pull of the earth.
- So, man weighs 6 times less on the moon than the earth.
- Asteroids are small rocky celestial bodies that revolve around the Sun, like other planets.
- They are also called ‘Minor Planets’.
- There are lots of asteroids in the solar system. Larger asteroids are called Planetoids. These are found in between the planets Mars and Jupiter.
- This belt is known as ‘Asteroid belt’.
- The diameter of the asteroids varies from 100 km to a size of a pebble.
- The asteroids may be the fragments of a planet exploded in the past or some parts of comets.
- The new asteroids are being discovered continuously.
- Comets are the most exciting heavenly bodies and have ever been the objects of man’s curiosity as well as fear.
- The word Comet is derived from the Greek word Aster Kometes meaning ‘Long Haired Star’.
- They are made up of small ice particles and meteoric fragments.
- They revolve around the Sun. But their orbits are irregular.
- Sometimes they get very close (Perihelion) to the sun and in other times they go far away (Aphelion) from the sun.
- There is a bright streak of light flashing seen often in the sky during night for a few seconds.
- They are called as ‘shooting stars’.
- They are the removed pieces of rocks mainly from the Asteroid belt.
- They are called Meteoroids before they enter into our atmosphere.
- They enter into the atmosphere with great speed.
- But most of them are burnt when they enter into the atmosphere.
- After entering into our atmosphere they are called as Meteors.
- Some pieces do not burn fully and they fall on the earth and make craters.
- The large unburned pieces of rocks that fall on the earth are called Meteorites;
- Examples for Meteorite Fall: Meteor crater in Northern Arizona and Lake Lonar in Buldhana District of Maharastra in India were created by meteor impacts.
Shape and size of the Earth
- It once was believed that the Earth was flat and that ships could sail over the edge.
- This view persisted even in the middle ages and was an issue in recruitment of Columbus.
- Early Greek view was that the world was surrounded by the ocean (Oceanus), origin of all rivers.
- Anaximander (600 B.C) proposed that cylindrical earth was surrounded by celestial sphere.
- Pythagoras (582-507 B.C.) believed that the Earth was a sphere, which was considered the most harmonious geometric shape.
- Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) described observations that supported the theory that the Earth was a sphere.
- These included the fact that the shadow of the moon is circular in lunar eclipses and constellations were higher in the sky as one traveled south- Eratosthenes
Titan – only moon with clouds and atmosphere.
- Titan is Saturn’s largest moon and the second largest (after Ganymede of Jupiter) in the solar system.
- It is the only moon in the solar system with clouds and a dense, planet-like atmosphere.
- Scientists believe that conditions on Titan are similar to Earth’s early years (the main difference is that, because it is closer to the sun, Earth has always warmer).
- According to NASA, “In many respects, Titan, is one of the most Earth-like worlds we have found to date.”
- Titan was discovered by Dutch astronomer Christiaan Huygens in 1655.
- The Huygens lander probe sent to the moon aboard NASA’s Cassini spacecraft by the European Space Agency is named in his honor.
- Huygens was the first human-built object to land on Titan’s surface.
- Diameter: 5,150 kilometres, about half the size of Earth and almost as large as Mars.
- Surface temperature: – 179 degrees Celsius, which makes water as hard as rocks and allows methane to be found in its liquid form.
- Surface pressure: Slightly higher than Earth’s pressure.
- Earth’s pressure at sea level is 1 bar while Titan’s is 1.6 bars.
- Orbital period: 15,945 days.
- Titan’s mass is composed mainly of water in the form of ice and rocky material.
- Titan has no magnetic field .
- (275-195 BCE) estimated size of earth from observations that the elevation of the sun varied with position on the Earth’s surface in Egypt.
- Observations of the following suggested that the Earth is a sphere.
- Mountain peaks lit by the Sun after sunset.
- Ships disappear below the horizon as they sail across ocean.
- The moon looks like a disc.
- The Earth casts a circular shadow during lunar eclipses.
- The Earth is an oblate spheroid, bulged at the equator and flattened at the poles. It is called ‘Geoid’ meaning the earth is earth-shaped.
Geoid shape of the Earth
- The bulge at the equator is caused by the centrifugal force of the Earth’s rotation.
- The gravitational pull of the earth is the strongest at the flattened poles and it is weaker towards the equator.
- The Sun’s gravitational pull differs in force at the poles.
- The North Pole points in the same direction to the North Star when it revolves about the Sun.
- If the Earth would not have been tilted on its axis, the days and nights would have been of same duration always.
Motions of the earth
- The earth has two basic movements: 1) Rotation and 2) Revolution.
- The spinning of the earth around its axis is called the rotation of the earth.
- The axis is the imaginary line passing through the centre of the earth.
- The earth completes one rotation in 23 hours, 56 minutes and 4.09 seconds.
- It rotates in an eastward direction opposite to the apparent movement of the sun.
- The earth’s axis is inclined at an angle of 66½degree to the orbital plane as it moves around the sun.
- We can say, the earth’s axis is tilted at an angle of 23½degree from a perpendicular to the elliptic plane.
- The velocity of earth’s rotation varies depending on the distance of a given place from the equator.
- The rotational velocity at the poles is nearly zero.
- The greatest velocity of the rotation is found at the equator.
- The velocity of rotation at the equator is 1,670 km per hour.
- Effects of earth’s rotation: The rotation of the earth causes the following effects:
- The apparent rising and setting of the sun is actually caused by the earth’s rotation which results in the alternate occurrence of day and night everywhere on the earth’s surface.
- Rotation of the earth is also responsible for the difference in time between different places on the earth.
Tilt of the Earth’s surface
- A 24 hour period divided by 360 degrees gives a difference of 4 minutes for every degree of longitude that passes the sun.
- The hour (60 minutes) is thus 1/24 of a day.
- When you observe through a moving train, trees, houses and fields on the other side of the track appear to move in the direction opposite to that of the speeding train.
- The apparent movement of the sun and the other heavenly bodies in relation to the rotating earth is similar.
- As the earth rotates from west to east, the sun, moon, planets and stars appear to rise in the east and set in the west.
- Rotation causes the working of the Coriolis force which results in the deflection of the winds and the ocean currents from their normal path.
- Tide is caused by the rotation of the earth apart from the gravitational pull of the sun and the moon.
- Rotation causes a flattening of Earth at the two poles and bulging at the Equator. Hence, there is a difference in diameter at the poles and equator.
Circle of Illumination:
- The line around the earth separating the light and dark is known as the circle of illumination.
- It passes through the poles and allows the entire earth to have an equal amount of time during the daylight and night time hours.
- This line can be seen from space, and the exact location of the line is dependent on the various seasons.
Revolution of the Earth
- The movement of the earth in its orbit around the sun in an anti-clockwise direction, that is, from west to east is called revolution of the earth.
- The earth revolves in an orbit at an average distance of 150 million km.
- The distance of the earth from sun varies time to time due to the elliptical shape of the orbit.
- About January 3rd the earth is closest to the sun and it is said to be at Perihelion (‘peri’ means close to and Helios means sun).
- At Perihelion, the distance is 147 million km.
- Around July 4th the earth is farthest from the sun and it is said to be at Aphelion (Ap means away and Helios means sun).
- At Aphelion the distance of the earth is 152 million km away from the sun.
- The period taken by the earth to complete one revolution around the sun is 365 days and 6 hours (5 hours, 48 minutes and 45 seconds) or 365¼ days.
- The speed of the revolution is 1,07,000 km per hour.
- The speed is 30 km per second.
- The bullet from a gun travels with a speed of 9 km per second.
Period of Revolution and Leap year
- The period of time the earth takes to make one revolution around the sun determines the length of one year.
- The earth takes 365 days and 6 hours to complete one revolution.
- Earth takes 365.25 days to complete one trip around the Sun.
- That extra quarter of a day presents a challenge to our calendar system, which has one year as 365 days.
- To keep our yearly calendars consistent with our orbit around the Sun once in, every four years we add one day.
- The extra day added to is called a leap day, and the year the extra day is added to is called a leap year.
- The extra day is added to the month of February which has 29 days in a leap year.
- Effects of revolution of the earth the revolution of the earth around the sun results in the following Cycle of seasons, Variation in length of days and nights, Variation in distribution of solar energy over the earth and the temperature zones.
- The seasons are caused due to the combined effect of the earth’s revolution and the tilt of its axis in the same direction throughout the year.
- In general, spring, summer, autumn and winter are the four seasons.
- The latitude at which the sun appears directly overhead changes as the earth orbits the sun.
- The sun appears to follow a yearly pattern of northward and southward motion in the sky, known as the ‘apparent movement of the sun’.
- It gives an impression that the sun is continuously swinging north and south of the equator.
- Actually it is the earth that is moving around the sun on its tilted axis.
- It varies when observed on a daily and monthly basis, at different times of the year.
- On 21 March and 23 September the sun rises precisely in the east and sets exactly in the west.
Equinoxes and solstices
- You already knew that the sunrays are vertical at noon.
- The vertical rays fall on a small area, giving more heat.
- Equinoxes occur when the earth reaches the points in its orbits where the equatorial and the orbital planes intersect, causing the sun to appear directly overhead at the equator.
- During the equinoxes the periods of day light and darkness are equal all over the world.
VARIATIONS IN THE LENGTH OF DAY AND NIGHT
- On 21 March the sun is directly overhead at the equator.
- Throughout the world, on this day all the places experience almost equal hours of day and night.
- This position of the sun is called spring equinox.
- Again on 23 September the sun is directly overhead on the equator and it is called autumn equinox.
Position of the earth on 21 March
- Neither pole is inclined towards the sun. The rays of the sun fall vertically on the equator.
- All the places have equal days and nights as both the poles receive the rays of the sun.
- It is spring in the northern hemisphere and autumn in the southern hemisphere.
- This day (21 March) is known as spring equinox.
- Position of the earth on 23 September.
- Neither pole of the earth is inclined towards the sun. The rays of the sun fall vertically on the equator.
- All the places have equal days and nights. It is autumn in the northern hemisphere and spring in the southern hemisphere.
- This day (23 September) when sun’s rays for fall verticaly on the equator, is known as autumnal equinox .
Position of the earth on 21 June
- The North Pole is inclined or tilted towards the sun. It, therefore, experiences complete light for 24 hours.
- The South Pole is tilted away from the sun so it is in complete darkness for 24 hours.
- The rays of the sun fall vertically at the tropic of cancer (23½º N).
- In the Northern hemisphere, the days are longer than the nights
- It is summer in the northern hemisphere and winter in the southern hemisphere.
- The day 21 June is known as summer solstice.
Position of the earth on 22 December
- The South Pole is inclined towards the sun and the North Pole is away from it.
- The rays of the sun fall vertically at the tropic of Capricorn (23½º S).
- The greater part of the southern hemisphere gets the direct rays of the sun so the days are long and the nights are short here.
- In the northern hemisphere the nights are longer than the days at this time.
- The southern hemisphere has summer.
- The northern hemisphere has winter.
- This day (22 December), when the sun’s rays fall vertically on the Tropic of Capricorn, is known as winter solstice.
Variations in the length of day time
- Let us understand the effect of the revolution of the earth on the length of the days and the nights.
- The duration of the daylight varies with latitude and seasons.
- An eclipse is a complete or partial obscuration of light from a celestial body and it passes through the shadow of another celestial body.
- The eclipses are of two types. They are:
- It occurs on New Moon days, when the moon is between the Sun and the Earth.
- Thus it obscures a part of the Sun viewed from the Earth, but only from a small area of the world. It lasts only for a few minutes.
- A partial solar eclipse happens when the moon partially covers the disc of the sun.
- An annular solar eclipse occurs when the moon passes centrally across the solar disc.
- During a total solar eclipse, the moon’s shadow is short enough to cover the whole sun.
- The outer regions still glow and look bright as a ring.
- Such a phenomenon is called Diamond Ring.
- It occurs on a Full Moon position when the earth is between the sun and the moon.
- The earth’s shadow obscures the moon as viewed from the earth.
- A partial lunar eclipse can be observed when only a part of the moon’s surface is obscured by earth’s umbra .
- A penumbral lunar eclipse happens when the moon travels through the faint penumbral portion of the earth’s shadow.
- A total lunar eclipse occurs when the earth umbra obscures the entire the moon’s surface.
- Lunar eclipse can be seen from anywhere on the night side of the Earth.
- It lasts for a few hours due to the smaller size of the moon.
Phases of the Moon
- The changing angles between the earth, the sun and the moon determine the phases of the moon.
- Phases of the moon start from the ‘New Moon’ every month.
- Then, only a part of the Moon is seen bright called ‘Crescent’, which develops into the ‘first quarter’.
- With the increasing brightness it turns into three quarters known as ‘Gibbous’ and then it becomes a ‘Full Moon’.
- These stages are the waxing moon.
- After the full moon, the moon starts waning or receding through the stages of Gibbous, last quarter, crescent, and finally becomes invisible as dark New Moon.
The varying lengths of daylight in different latitudes.
- It is evident from the table that the duration of daylight is 12 hours throughout the year at the equator only.
- As one moves away from the equator, the seasonal variations in the duration of daylight increase.
- The seasonal variations in the duration of daylight are maximum at the polar region.
Effects of the spherical shape of the earth
- Variation in the amount of solar radiation received:
- If the earth were a flat surface, oriented at right angle to the sun, all the places on the earth would have received the same amount of radiation.
- But the earth is spherical/ geoid.
- Hence the sunrays do not heat the higher latitudes of the earth as much as the tropics.
- On any given day only the places located at particular latitude receive vertical rays from the sun.
- As we move north or south of this location, the sun’s rays strike at decreasing angles.
- The yearly fluctuations in the angle of the sun’s rays and the length of the days change with the continual change of the earth’s position in its orbit around the sun at an inclination of 66½ to the orbital plane.
- Difference in the angle of the sun’s rays striking different parts of the earth.
- Away from the equator, the sun’s rays strike the earth’s surface at particular angle.
- The slanting rays are spread over a large area and do not heat with the same intensity as the direct rays.
- As we go pole wards, the rays spread over the regions beyond the Arctic and the Antarctic circles in an extremely slanting manner.
- This is how we get the various temperature zones.
- Lower the degree of latitude; higher the temperature.
- Not only that, the rays striking at a low angle must travel through a greater thickness of the atmosphere than the rays striking at a higher angle.
- The rays striking at a lower angle are subject to greater depletion by reflection and absorption by the atmosphere.
- The spherical shape of the earth along with its movement around the sun causes differences in the angles at which the sun’s rays fall on the earth’s surface.
- This causes a difference in the distribution of heat on the earth’s surface.
- As a result, the world has been divided into three distinct heat zones or temperature zones.
- They are the Torrid zone, Temperate zone and Frigid zone.
- You will learn more about it under the unit atmosphere.
Time Zones of the World
- People during the medieval period were using sundials and water clocks to observe the Sun’s meridian passing at noon.
- In 17th century, the people started using pendulum clock which did not show accurate time while travelling in the sea.
- Later chronometer was invented in 1764.
- Chronometer measures time accurately and the mariners widely used this during the 19th century.
- But in many towns and cities clocks were set based on sunset and sunrise.
- The use of local solar time hindered the development of railways and telecommunications.
TIME ZONES OF THE WORLD
- A time zone is a region on the earth where uniform standard time should be maintained for transport, commercial and social purposes.
- For example, if different time zones were followed, the trains coming from different regions, sharing single track may meet with accidents.
- The world time zone was formed, relating longitude and the rotation of the earth.
- The Prime Meridian is the centre of time zone extending from 7½ºW and 7½ º E longitudes.
- The 24 hours time zone system had been developed so that all the time zones should be referred with respect to Greenwich Mean Time.
- Earth was divided into 24 time zones, each one zone for one hour of the day.
- It is because earth rotates 15º of longitude in one hour (360º divided by 24 hours).
- The time when solar noon occurs at the Prime Meridian is fixed as noon for all places between 7½º E and 7½º W.
Daylight Saving Time
- In the mid latitude countries of Europe, North America, Australia and South America, the day time are longer in summer than the night.
- In spite of employing daylight duration, the clocks are adjusted 1 hour forward in spring and 1 hour backward in autumn.
- This time is generally known as ‘the Daylight Saving Time’ (DST).
- On its axis, the earth rotates 360 degrees every 24 hours.
- You can look at it as it takes one day to complete a full circle.
- Divided up into an hourly rate, the earth rotates 15 degrees every hour (360/24).
- This number plays an important role in determining time zones.
- You have already learned about the latitudes and longitudes and their importance in the lower classes.
- An important factor in determining time zones is the lines of latitude and longitude, imaginary lines known as latitudes and longitudes dividing the earth.
- Latitude lines are drawn east – west and they measure the location in northern and southern hemisphere.
- The line starts at the equator and measure distance from 0 degrees to 90 degrees north and also 0 degrees to 90 degrees south.
- They also become shorter farther away from the equator.
- On the other hand, longitude lines are drawn north – south and they measure eastern and western hemisphere.
- They start at the Prime Meridian (or 0 degree) and measure from 0 degrees to 180 degrees east and 180 degrees west.
- Unlike lines of latitude, these lines are fairly equal in length.
- The origin of this spherical coordinate system is at 0 degree latitude and 0 degree longitude.
INTERNATIONAL DATE LINE
- This spot can be found in the Atlantic Ocean just south west of Africa.
- Also, the two lines connect at 180 degrees or at the International Date Line.
- This too helps to determining different time zones of the world.
- Together all of the above information can be used to calculate the difference of time between two locations.
- First, we need to know what longitudes the two places are located.
- Next, you would need to find the differences in longitude (in degrees) between the two places.
- If both places are located on the same side of the Prime Meridian, then the numbers are just simply subtracted to find the difference.
- If they are on the opposite side of the Prime Meridian then the two numbers should be added together to find the difference.
- Third, we need to divide the difference (measured in degrees) by 15 since there are 15 degrees in every hour.
- This will give us the difference in time between the two locations.
- So if you know what time it is in one location, and the longitude of another location, then just simple addition or subtraction problem will give us the time in a different time zone.
- Let’s look at another way we may have to calculate the difference between times of two locations.
- Another calculation you may have to make is over the International Date Line.
- This line is strategically placed in the Pacific Ocean so that no two neighboring cities are one day apart in time.
- It can be difficult to calculate though the International Date Line when trying to determine the amount of time difference between locations on either side.
- This calculation is very similar to the situation with the Prime Meridian.
- We must start by finding the difference in longitude (or degrees) of the two places. We do this by adding the two numbers.
- Then, divide by the 15 degrees that occurs in one hour and this will give you the time difference between two locations through the International Date Line.
- And again, just add or subtract that difference from the time that we already know to come up with the new time in the new time zone.
Example of Time Calculations
- To review, to find the difference between the two longitudes and divide by 15, this gives you the difference in hours between the two locations.
- Second, add or subtract the number of hours from the time of day that was already known, we will need to add the numbers if we are going east, and subtract if we are going west.
- Here are some examples of how we may need to calculate the difference of time zones.
- If you are in London at 12:00, and want to know what time it is in Japan, you would need to first figure out that London is 0 degrees (right on the prime meridian), and
- Japan is 135 degrees East. So the difference is 135 degrees (135–0), divided by 15 which equals 9.
- It means there is a 9-hour difference between London and Japan.
- Since Japan is further east than London is, you would add 9 hours to 12:00.
- The answer is at 12:00 noon London time, it is 9:00pm in Japan.
- Now we suppose imagine that we are going through the International Date Line.
- Pretend you are in Japan, which is 135 degrees east and you wanted to know what time it is in Hawaii, which is 150 West.
- Well, there is 45 (180–135) degrees difference between Japan and the IDL.
- Also there is 30 (180–150) degrees difference between the IDL and Hawaii.
- Therefore the difference in time is (45 = 30/15 = 5) 5 hours.
- Now the tricky part is that Japan and Hawaii are on different days.
- It is one day ahead on the left side of the IDL compared to the right side.
- If it is 3:00pm in Japan on Thursday that means it is 3:00 + 5 hours = 8:00pm in Hawaii.
- However notice that when crossing the IDL we subtract a day going east. So, in Hawaii it is 8:00pm on Wednesday.
- Now note that Latitudinal lines are imaginary horizontal lines over the Earth’s globe. 0 degree longitudinal line is Equator.
- Earth completes one rotation on its axis in 24 hours and in the process turns a complete circle of 360degree.
- This means Earth rotates 360degree/24 = 15degree in one hour.
- Every gain or loss of 1degree longitude stands for 4 minutes.
- 360degree= 24 hours degree=1440 min Difference of time for 15degree longitude = one hour.
- Difference of time for 1degree longitude = 4 minutes.
Longitude Calculations Procedures
- First locate the two places involved
- find the longitude difference
- Convert the longitude difference to time and,
- Adjust the time according to the direction of movement, (west or east).
- Ponni starts her journey at longitude 0 degree at 12 noon and she’s moving towards eastward of longitude 10 degree. Calculate the time that Ponni will arrive at her destination.
- Solution Initial time = 12 noon
- Destination =10degree E
- Conversion of degree to time 1 hour = 15 degree
- and 4 minutes = 1 degree
- Hence 10 degree =(4 *10) minutes
MORE TO KNOW:
- Voyager 2 travelling at the speed of more than 62,764.416 km/h will still take more than 296,000 years to pass Sirius, the brightest star in our night sky.
- Three scientists, Saul Perlmutter, Brian Schmidt and Adam Riess won the Nobel Prize in Physics (2011) for their discovery that the universe is just expanding and picking up speed.
- Venus is hotter than Mercury because Venus has an atmosphere which is thicker and made almost entirely of carbon dioxide.
- North Pole of the Uranus experiences 21 years of night time in winter, 21 years of daytime in summer and 42 years of day and night in the spring and fall.
- Apollo 11 was the first manned mission to land on the Moon sent by NASA.
- Two American Astronauts Neil Armstrong and Edwin Aldrin set foot on the moon’s surface on the waterless Sea of Tranquility on 20th July, 1969.
- They stayed there for 21 hours 38 minutes and 21 seconds on the moon.
- Michael Collins piloted Apollo 11.
- The best known Comet, Halley’s Comet, appears once in every 76 years.
- The Halley’s Comet was seen last in 1986 and it will be seen again on 28th July 2061.
- This is the movement of the earth with the sun and the rest of the solar system in an orbit around the centre of the Milky Way Galaxy.
- This, however, has little effect upon the changing environment of the earth.
Geo connects History
- Secret to Great Pyramid’s Near Perfect Alignment Possibly Found!
- The Great Pyramid of Giza, 4,500 years ago, is an ancient feat of engineering.
- Now an archaeologist has figured out how the Egyptians may have aligned the pyramid almost perfectly along the cardinal points, north-south-east-west.
- Egyptians may have used the autumn equinox.
- Methods used by the ancient Egyptians to align the pyramids along the cardinal points are accurate.
- On the day of the fall equinox, a surveyor placed a rod into the ground and tracked its shadow throughout the day.
- The result was a line running almost perfectly east-west.
- The Egyptians could have determined the day of the fall equinox by counting forward 91 days after the summer solstice.


Astronauts face mental and emotional challenges for deep space travel. Scientists are working on solutions – CNN
The International Space Station has served as a backdrop for scientists trying to understand what truly happens to the human body in the space environment.
NASA and Weill Cornell Medicine conducted a study on Scott Kelly’s experience after spending nearly a year in space. The study found that Scott missed the weather and people on Earth.
NASA plans to return humans to the moon and Mars through the Artemis program. A big question is whether humans are mentally and emotionally prepared.
A study in 2021 had participants rest in a special bed with their heads tilted down at a 6-degree angle for nearly two months. They completed cognitive tests designed for astronauts to test if experiencing artificial gravity for 30 minutes per day could prevent negative effects.
A study suggests that astronauts’ ability to read each other’s emotional expressions may be impaired over time.
A 2021 study published in Acta Astronautica found that people spending months at research stations in Antarctica reported a decline in positive emotions and used fewer effective strategies to boost positive emotions.
NASA’s Human Research Program is developing countermeasures to help astronauts combat muscle and bone loss, and to combat feelings of isolation. One idea is to help astronauts work together toward a common goal.
The Human Research Program is studying the traits that may be necessary in deep space explorers, such as self-reliance and problem-solving.
Growing vegetables on the space station has been a rewarding and tasty experience for previous crews, but guided imagery and virtual reality capabilities may be necessary to remind astronauts of their sensory connection to “the blue marble” in the future.
For more insight on how astronauts are impacted by their travels, check out the news outlets listed below:
- Astronauts face mental and emotional challenges for deep space travel. Scientists are working on solutions CNN
- HealthWatch: Saving Astronaut’s Brains from Deep Space Radiation WFRV Local 5
- How does a year in space affect your health? CNN


Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin, the first human in space (link to youTube), tells how, after he parachuted to Earth from his capsule, on April 12, 1961 (I was 5 weeks old), the first people he met were a farmer and her daughter:
"When they saw me in my space suit and the parachute dragging alongside as I walked, they started to back away in fear. I told them, don't be afraid, I am a Soviet like you, who has descended from space and I must find a telephone to call Moscow!"
"Britannia" (1961), top left, painting by Bridget Riley, whose work was central to 1960s Op Art, the art of optical illusion.
2. Yuri Gagarin in his flight suit, 1961 (wikimedia).
3. Spock's science station, Star Trek episode "Balance of Terror," 1966.
4. Vogue magazine cover, September 1965.
[As always, thanks to Trekcore.com for the Star Trek screencaps.]


Participate in our reading programs, earn incentives, and discover great books.
Throughout the year we have different reading programs available on Beanstack. Create your own account now to register for the current program!
NASA Beanstack Challenge: This challenge will be held during the month of December, 2021. Explore our universe with the James Webb Space Telescope Challenge. Learn all about the science behind NASA’s newest space telescope mission, the James Webb Space Telescope. Scheduled to launch this winter, JWST is the most advanced infrared space telescope ever launched and will allow us to look deeper into time and space than ever before! Help your library win a collection of programming materials from NASA @ My Library by logging your reading and completing activities. Earn new badges all month long! We’ll draw a winner on January 3, 2022 from those who participate in the challenge. Need help setting up your Beanstack account? Call the library at (712) 722-2138 or stop by the library.
1,000 Books Before Kindergarten reading challenge is now available on Beanstack as well as 500 Books Before 5th Grade and 100 Books Before College!
Get started by registering below. Adults can easily add all family members as readers under one account. All prizes must be picked up in person.


Olympus Mons, the largest volcano in our solar system, is on Mars. Some people say there was a dried up river on Mars. Nasa took a picture of Mars and they found a rock formation of a head. Jupiter is the fifth planet from the sun. Jupiter is the largest planet in our solar system. Jupiter has 39 known moons. It has a giant red spot which is a storm. Jupiter is so big that you could put every planet from our solar system in it if it were hollow.
Solar, system : Perimeter poem - printable worksheet
It is known as the morning star or the evening star. Venus is very bright, and you can see it from Earth at sunrise and sunset 1 day on Venus longer than one year on Earth! Venus is different from any other planet because it spins backwards on its axis Earth is the third planet from the sun. Earth is the fifth largest planet in our solar system. Earths rotation is slowing down slightly resume about one second every 10 years. The earth is 93 million miles from the sun. We think earth is the only planet with life. Earth is the planet we live on! It only takes 24 hours to spin around its axis one day (1 day 24 hours) Earth orbits the sun in 365 days (1 year 365 days) Earth is covered mainly by water Earth has 1 moon Mars is the fourth planet from the sun. Marss nickname is the red planet because it has red soil. Marss soil is dry, rocky, and covered with iron-rich dust.
It is the fastest moving planet in our solar system. Mercury is the planet which is closest to the sun. It is one of the four inner planets. (Mercury, venus, earth, and Mars) 1 literature Earth year about 4 Mercury years Mercury is about 1/3 as big as Earth (3 Mercurys 1 Earth) The next planet is Venus. It is the second planet from the sun. It is the hottest in our solar system. The temperature is 870 degrees Fahrenheit. It is 67,230,00 miles from the sun. Venus rotates very slowly.
All the planets in our solar system revolve around the sun! This planet is Mercury. It is small and lab rocky. Mercury is the same.65 Earth days. The temperature gets hotter than an oven during the daytime and colder than a freezer at night. Mercury is the first planet in our solar system. It has a thin atmosphere.
This line is called an axis. What is a planet? A large space body with reflects the light of a star around which it revolves. There are nine planets within our solar system! My, very, educated, mother, just, served,. Nine, pizzas, mercury, venus, earth, mars, jupiter. Neptune, pluto, the Order of the Planets, why is the sun soo important! The sun is the center of our solar system! It is our closest star!
Solar, system : nasa space Place
Other planets have moons, too. Our solar system includes the essay sun and all the planets, moons, and stars. Copyright Complaint Adult Content Flag as Inappropriate. I am the owner, or an agent authorized to act on behalf of the owner, of the copyrighted work described. Download Presentation, an Image/Link below is provided (as is) to download presentation. Download Policy: Content on the website is provided to you use as is for your information and personal use and may not be sold / licensed / shared on other websites without getting consent from its author. While downloading, if for some reason you are not able to download a presentation, the publisher may have deleted the file from their server.
Presentation Transcript, vocabulary, orbit means to circle around. A star is a body which looks like a bright point in the sky at night. A star is not a planet or a moon. Our sun is a star. Scientists pretend that planets and stars have a line drawn through their middles.
What planet is the hottest? What planet is the biggest? What planet is the smallest? You home task is to do the project Russia explores space (c. Teacher: The lesson is over. Now take these pictures.
If you feel that your work was successful and useful today raise the picture with a shining sun. If you feel that your work was not absolutely successful and useful today raise the picture with the sun without lines. If you didnt understand anything today raise the picture with an cloud. Download, skip this Video, loading SlideShow in 5 Seconds. Solar System PowerPoint Presentation, download Presentation. Solar System 1 / 22, solar System. Orbit means to circle around. The planets orbit the sun. Our moon is a body in space that circles planet Earth.
The, solar, system : learning about, planets Lesson Plan
(water, gas, ground). Is there water on any other planets? How many continents are there on Earth? How many oceans are there on Earth? Which square is more, oceans or continents? Is Mars condition suitable for biography life? What explores the slogan solar system? What planet is the coldest?
Is there a life on the planets of solar system? Why is the earth unique? Teacher: Are you ready? Then lets solve the quiz. You have to use for your answers the information that you have got but write your answers in English. Which planet has got living your things? In what conditions is Earth existed?
solar system open your books on the page 60 exercise. Listen, look at the pictures and follow the text. Then answer the questions. 60-61 11, 13). What is the meaning of the words condition, temperature? How many planets are there in the solar system except Pluto?
I get a newspaper. It is interesting because it has an article Pluto isnt a planet of solar system, is it? Pupil 2: I think Pluto isnt a planet. Teacher: to answer this question i invited a geographer. She is your teacher and she helps us to understand who is right. Teacher: Thank you very much. Now we know report the answer. Who can say it at English?
Energy Projects ppa ehow
Today we have an unusual lesson. Remember degrees of comparison of adjectives and conditional. Now you dont know much about. Look at the picture what do book you see? Look at the fact file.113, what do we see? Now be ready to see a video about our solar system. Im very glad to see you. How do you find the weather today?


The Healing Moon – ooh, sounds a bit new age, doesn’t it? But what does it heal, and how does it do it? Er, pass. The Healing Moon, you see, is more or less just a piece of art: a replica of the real moon which hangs on your wall and looks pretty. It does look very pretty, though, with it’s highly-detailed lunar surface and glow-in-the-dark appearance. Use the remote control to choose which of the 12 phases of the moon you want to view, then sit back, relax and, er, heal.
It costs $79.40 and the manufacturer’s suggestions for use include switching on the healing moon while you’re “playing yoga on the mat”, “having champagne in the bathtub” or “lying on the bed with your favourite music.” Something there for each and every one of us, I’m sure.
By Staff Writer | November 22nd, 2006


A Science Kit for Aspiring Astronomers!
Click on the image to see an enlarged view!
Little Labs Stars & Planets Science Kit
Explore outer space with the Little Labs Stars & Planets Science Kit from Thames & Kosmos! Build a solar system, make moon craters and constellations, launch a rocket, and test to see which planets could support life! Tons of learning fun! Includes a 20 page instruction manual.
Please complete the information below if this is a gift:
What should the Gift Card say?
How should the Gift Card be signed?
Shipping address (if different)?
Would you like it giftwrapped? (Add $3.95)
Spice up your giftwrap with a fun package topper!
Add a Melting Snowman Plush! $4.95
Add a Snowman Hot Chocolate Tube! $5.95
Add a Christmas Bead Tube Kit! $2.49
Order by the following dates to insure delivery by Christmas: