A GIS-BASED ASSESSMENT OF EMISSION HOTSPOTS IN ABUJA MUNICIPAL AREA COUNCIL (AMAC), ABUJA
ENVIRONMENT AND CLIMATE CHANGE DIVISION
DEPARTMENT OF STRATEGIC SPACE APPLICATION
NATIONAL SPACE RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT AGENCY
THE NATIONAL SPACE RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT AGENCY
TABLE OF CONTENT
TABLE OF CONTENT
SDGS ADDRESSED BY THE PROJECT
LIST OF MDAS THAT WILL IMPLEMENT THE RECOMMENDATION
This report presents the preliminary findings of air quality project delivered in 2021 by the Environment and Climate Change (ECC) Division to investigate emission hotspots in Abuja Municipal Area Council (AMAC), Abuja using GIS-based approach. At the time of the project, the Environment and Climate Change (ECC) Division was not utilizing ground-based in-situ measurements of air quality or greenhouse gases in the research because the project is to be carried out in phases, but this is the Phase I.
The use of satellite Sentinel-5P emission data was however utilized in the research for validation. The use of such data was adopted in this project due to increasing popularity in air quality research and the scientific community. For instance, the Tropospheric Measuring Instrument (TROPOMI) on the European Space Agency (ESA) Sentinel-5 Precursor (Sentinel-5P) satellite was providing air pollutant datasets with higher spatial resolution.
The overall goal of the project was to identify and take spatial inventory of emission hotspots locations in Abuja Municipal Area Council (AMAC). To deliver this goal, the following specific objectives were considered that served as a necessary guide: (1) to conduct reconnaissance survey in the study area; (2) to identify emission hotspot locations in the study area; (3) to validate the hotspot sampled locations with Sentinel-5P emission datasets; and (4) to assess the spatial pattern of pollutants in the study area using Geographic Information System (GIS) and present it in such a manner that is easy to understand by the people using thematic maps.
The criteria adopted in the research for the identification of hotspots zones were based on: (1) vehicles, trucks, tricycles, and motorcycles clusters; and (2) bus stops, garages, and markets. AMAC emission hotspots inventories show that a total of thirty-one (31) hotspots locations were identified and mapped using Global Positioning System (GPS) devices. In addition, on-the-spot assessment of major contributors to poor air quality in the area was performed and pictorial evidence using camera taken by the field officers during the rush hours in the morning and evening periods.
The quantitative spatial analyses of different ambient pollutants based on geospatial methodology revealed considerable emission levels at various hotspots locations with respect to tropospheric carbon monoxide (CO), formaldehyde (HCHO), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), ozone (O3), and sulphur dioxide (SO2) column density (molecules/m2). The Sentinel-5P data were analyzed to see if they could confirm these hotspots’ locations. The data however detected the presence of ambient CO, HCHO, NO2, O3, and SO2 at different hotspots locations in AMAC, Abuja. Findings from this research have unveiled the unhealthy levels of pollution at different locations in the area where there is lots of road traffic and economic activities.
However, data from the current satellite instrument cannot identify these ambient pollutants at street-level from different sites. Also, the satellite does not capture other criteria pollutants such as suspended ultrafine particles (UFPs), fine inhalable particles with diameters that are generally 2.5 micrometers and smaller (PM2.5), and inhalable particles with diameters that are generally 10 micrometers and smaller (PM10). Considering the outcome of this research, there is need for phase II of the project which will focus mainly on the use of ground-based measurement instruments and sensors in the monitoring of air quality in AMAC, Abuja. The phase II will also involve the installation of air quality billboards at the hotspots locations which will provide residents with real-time air pollution data. This future proposal mean that measurements of air quality and greenhouse gases are likely to be applied to a wide range of important outcomes including health, reduced environmental damage, and net zero emissions (Clean Air Initiative).
This project (Phase I) has enabled the Environment and Climate Change (ECC) Division to understand the current air quality status and hotspot’s locations in AMAC, Abuja. The Division is now therefore well positioned for future research in this area.
The emission of ambient pollutants because of anthropogenic and economic activities involving the utilization and conversion of energy is the key cause of environmental degradation in urban cities. The major sources of pollution are road transport, industrial emissions, and small gasoline generators aggravated by open burning and illegal dumping of waste. Urban air pollution is the major source of multiple problems:
- Smog in urban areas
- Historical buildings and monuments deterioration
- Materials damage due to increased corrosion
- Vegetation loss
- Chronic respiratory diseases due to inhalation of poisonous gases and suspended particulates.
Ambient air pollution is a major contributor to morbidity and mortality. For instance, fine particulate (PM2.5) is harmful to health because it can travel through human lung barriers and enter the blood stream, causing untimely deaths, and cardiovascular and respiratory diseases. According to the World Bank report, exposure to ambient PM2.5 caused 2.9 million deaths in 2017 which is equivalent to 9 percent of total deaths worldwide (World Bank, 2020). Similarly, the World Health Organization (WHO) reported that environmental hazards are responsible for approximately 25 percent of the total burden of disease globally (WHO, 2016).
In addition, an estimated 12.6 million people died because of living or working in an unhealthy environment in 2012 which is nearly 1 in 4 global deaths (WHO, 2016). Environmental risk factors such as air, water and soil pollution, chemical exposures, climate change, and ultraviolet radiation contribute to more than 100 diseases and injuries (WHO, 2016). There are different dangerous substances and compounds that are considered ambient pollutants and many of them released to the air, because of anthropogenic activities such as combustion of fossil fuel in automobiles and industries.
Atmospheric air pollution is the major environmental issues of the industrialized developing and developed countries globally. Both the energy production based on road vehicular traffic (Olmo et al., 2011) and fossil fuels (Meetham et al., 2016) are the key factors causing serious public health problems, from local, regional, and national levels (Sokhi and Kitwiroon, 2011; Lavaine, 2014). The World Health Organization (WHO) reported that 91% of the world population lives in polluted cities, breathing contaminated air, and 7 million fatalities occur every year due to exposure to ambient air pollution and smoke from fossil fuels emission (WHO, 2020). Several studies have confirmed strong relationships between most common diseases and traffic pollution especially in big cities where CO, SO2, CO2, NO2, NOx, methane, Ozone (O3), PM10 and PM2.5 create public health degradation, for instance, chronic respiratory diseases (Raaschou-Nielsen et al., 2013; Perez et al., 2013), fertility diseases (Slama et al., 2013), cardiovascular diseases (Cesaroni et al., 2014), which affect all age groups including children (Vidotto et al., 2012).
With electricity supply unstable and off-grid solutions not yet mainstream enough to bridge demand gaps, Nigerians have relied on generators to power homes for decades. According to estimates by Access to Energy Institute (A2EI), Nigeria’s economy depends heavily on small gasoline generators with their collective capacity more than Nigeria’s national grid. The estimate also reported that Nigeria is a home to 22 million small gasoline generators which have a capacity that’s eight times larger than the national power grid (A2EI, 2019). However, research at Carnegie Mellon University found backup power generation in Nigeria produces carbon dioxide emissions equivalent to 60% of its annual electricity sector emissions (Farquharson, Jaramillo, & Samaras, 2018).
Nigeria is fast growing among the developing countries of the world and the rapid urbanization and industrialization have resulted in the remarkable increase in population of Abuja, the capital city of Nigeria and its surrounding areas, which has further led to rise in energy consumption and significant increase in vehicle fleet which has raised serious environmental concerns in the city, transport, and housing which contributed to an increase in air pollution.
The scope of this study is limited to reconnaissance survey, and identification of emission hotpot’s locations in Abuja Municipal Area Council (AMAC). The study utilizes Geographic Information System (GIS) to map and visualize pollutants concentrations for desired geographical locations and prepare hotspot maps to categorize the ambient air quality in AMAC.
1.2 General Background of the Research
Global carbon emissions from fossil fuels have significantly increased since 1900. Since 1970, CO2 emissions have increased by about 90%, with emissions from fossil fuel combustion and industrial processes contributing about 78% of the total greenhouse gas emissions increase from 1970 to 2011. Agriculture, deforestation, and other land-use changes have been the second-largest contributors (IPCC 2014).
Air pollution caused by vehicular traffic constitutes up to 90 – 95% of CO levels, 80 – 90% of NOx, particulate matter, and hydrocarbons which contributes to smog, and poor air quality posing a serious threat to human health (Savile, 1993) Africa’s largest economy has a role to play in achieving the Paris agreement, one fifth of Africans are Nigerians (NDC, 2021).
The World Bank projects that Nigeria will become the third most populous country by 2050 with over 400 million people. Nigeria is one of the highest emitters of greenhouse gas emission across Africa and most vulnerable to the impact of climate change hence Nigeria has a leadership role to play. Nigeria’s vision on climate change was set out in the 2012 climate change policy response and strategy, which is still relevant till date. The vision aims to promote low-carbon, high-growth economic development and build a climate and will also be helpful in creating awareness to the populace on emissions and possibly proffer solutions to aid the reduction of emissions. Maps pinpointing greenhouse gas emissions hotspots can help improve land management in countries preparing climate change mitigation strategies and will aid policymakers and contribute to international climate negotiations.
2.1. Aim of the Research
The study aims to identify and take spatial inventory of emission hotspots in Abuja Municipal Area Council (AMAC), Abuja. This research will provide timely scientific, spatial, and technical information that is likely to improve the air quality and provide baseline data for the study area.
2.2. The specific objectives of the study
- To conduct reconnaissance survey in the study area.
- To identify emission hotspot locations in the study area.
- To validate the hotspot sampled locations with Sentinel-5P emission datasets; and
- To assess the spatial pattern of pollutants in the study area using Geographic Information System (GIS) and present it in such a manner that is easy to understand by the people using thematic maps. These maps can help the public to make informed decisions on where to live or engage in outdoor activities in the study area.
Air quality is in the news globally, whether in the context of regulatory breaches, poor visibility, traffic congestion, or health impacts. Air pollution generated due to industrial emissions can reach to a level where it can cause severe damages to human health, wildlife, and vegetation. Air pollution levels in many cities exceed the legal and World Health Organization (WHO) limits for particulate matter, Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs), and greenhouse gases (GHGs) which can be found in concentrations that are hazardous to human health. Poor air quality is causing public health problems since breathing polluted air increases the risk of deadly diseases such as lung cancer, stroke, heart disease, and chronic bronchitis. Globally, air pollution because of vehicular traffic constitutes up to 90 – 95% of CO levels, 80 – 90% of NOx posing a serious threat to human health. However, there are several health problems associated with high pollutant concentrations. For instance, NO2 causes impairment of the immune system, exacerbation of asthma, chronic respiratory diseases, reduced lung functionality, cardiovascular diseases, and increased mortality rate. Traffic-related atmospheric pollutants including ultrafine particles (UFP, <100 nm in diameter), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), black carbon (BC), and volatile organic compounds (VOCs), are believed to adversely impact the health of populations living and working near roadways. Proximity to major roadways and exposure to congested traffic-related atmospheric pollutants may be associated with several respiratory and cardiovascular issues including asthma, reduced lung function, adverse birth outcomes, cardiac effects, respiratory symptoms, premature mortality, and lung cancer (Health Effects Institute, 2010). A cohort study in Toronto, Canada suggested that proximity to traffic (residence within 50 m of a major road or 100 m of a highway) may be associated with an increase in circulatory mortality of over 40% (Jerrett et al., 2009).
On-road vehicles were believed to be the single largest source of major atmospheric pollutants till 1998 (USEPA, 2000; Pokharel et al., 2002) and continued to remain a great source especially in developing countries. Emission of airborne pollutants from the transport sector accounts for more than 50% of gross emission in urban and semi-urban areas (Gurjar et al., 2004; Fu, 2004; Wang et al., 2005; Zhang et al., 2008; Ramachandra & Shwetmala, 2009; Sahu et al., 2011).
In Nigeria, increased air pollution levels from transportation sources are on the increase in per capita vehicle ownership which has resulted in increased health risks among the urban population. Thus, an exact assessment of emissions hotspots from on-road vehicles using GIS-based approach is crucial to understand the air quality in Abuja Municipal Area Council owing to the rapidly growing population in the territory, usage of power generating plants, emission of CO, SO2, CO2, NO2, NOx, Ozone (O3), PM10 and PM2.5 from anthropogenic sources.
Project Goals/Significance of the Study
This research will provide timely scientific, spatial, and technical information that is likely to improve the air quality and provide baseline data for the study area. This will help Federal Capital Territory (FCT) Government, the Ministry of Environment, and the Ministry of Health to create policies to address urban air pollution problems, taking into consideration people that are most vulnerable to high air pollutant concentrations.
SDGS ADDRESSED BY THE PROJECT
Goal 11: Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient, and sustainable.
TARGET: To reduce the adverse per capita environmental impact of cities, including by paying special attention to air quality and municipal and other waste management.
Goal 6: Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all.
TARGET: To improve water quality by reducing pollution, eliminating dumping, and minimizing release of hazardous chemicals and materials, halving the proportion of untreated wastewater, and substantially increasing recycling and safe reuse globally.
3.1. Location and description of the study area
Abuja is the capital city of Nigeria, located between latitudes 8° 25’N and 9° 25’N of the Equator and longitudes 6°45’ E and 7°39’ E of the Greenwich Meridian. It is bordered to the north by Kaduna state, to the east by Nasarawa state, to the southwest by Kogi state and to the west by Niger state. The study area, Abuja Municipal Area Council (AMAC), is the largest most urbanized and developed area councils in Abuja (Touristlink, 2013). The bulk of the built-up area of AMAC is made up of the Federal Capital City (FCC). The FCC has five main districts, namely Asokoro, Maitama, Garki, Wuse, and Central Area and other newly developed districts Apo, Gaduwa, Gudu, Lokogoma, Kaura, Durumi, Katampe, Gwarimpa, other districts such as Kagini, Karsana, Karmo, etc, has shown recent developmental growth in the FCC.
AMAC is located between latitudes 8° 36’N and 9° 21’N of the equator and longitudes 7° 07’E and 7° 33’E of the Greenwich Meridian. It covers about 1,500sq km of the total land area (38.8%) of the Federal Capital Territory (Balogun, 2001). The 2006 National Population and Housing Census put the population of AMAC at 778,567, the highest within Abuja. The 2017 estimated population of AMAC is about 1,967,500 (National Bureau of Statistics, 2017).
Abuja has a climate classified by Köppen as tropical wet and dry. The area experiences two seasons annually, these are warm humid rainy season and a cold dry season. Fortunately, the high altitudes and undulating terrain of the FCT act as moderating influence on the weather of the territory. The rainy season begins from April and ends in October, when day-time temperature varies between 28°C and 30°C and nighttime temperature vary between 22°C and 23°C (Adeyeri et. al., 2015). In the dry season, daytime temperature can soar as high as 38°C and night time temperatures can drop to 12°C. The total annual rainfall varies between 1100 mm and 1600 mm while relative humidity is about 30% in dry season and 70% in wet season (Malik, 2004).
AMAC is located within the savanna zone vegetation of the West African sub-region. Basically, the savanna vegetation in the area can be divided into three (3) types; the park or grassy savanna that constitutes about 53% land area of the area; the savanna woodland covers about 12.8% of the area while the shrub savanna covers about 12.9% of the land area (FCDA, 1979).
Some of the economic activities carried out by the inhabitants of AMAC are fishing, farming, lumbering, trading, people working in public and private sectors as well as other activities like; carpentry, hair dressing, brick laying, taxi driving and so on. This is made possible due the presence of General markets in Wuse, Garki, Utako, and Gudu. Also, various industries, ministries, agencies and education institutions are located in AMAC (Secure Africa, 2012). In addition, AMAC is the location of the Presidential Complex, National Assembly, and the Supreme Court, and it also houses the headquarters of the Economic Community of West African States, ECOWAS (Touristlink, 2013).
Figure 1: Map showing the study area
3.2. Data Collection
The tropospheric column concentrations of air pollution datasets used in this project were produced by the TROPOMI instrument on a Sentinel-5 precursor (also called Sentinel-5P). Sentinel-5P is the first Copernicus mission to monitor the lower atmosphere, with the main purpose of reducing the data gap between ENVISAT Satellites and the launch of Sentinel-5 (Veefkind et al., 2012). The satellite carries the most advanced TROPOMI instrument for the measurement of ultraviolet-visible (270–500 nm), near-infrared (675–775 nm) and short-wave infrared (2305–2385 nm) spectral bands, which implies that it can image different air pollutants such as NO2, O3, CH2O, SO2, CH4, and CO (Galli et al., 2012). Since Sentinel-5P Level-2 data products provide atmospheric geophysical parameters and the total column of trace gases, Carbon Monoxide (CO), Formaldehyde (HCHO), Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2), Ozone (O3), and Sulphur Dioxide (SO2) datasets for 2021 were used in this study.
Table 2 depicts basic information of primary and secondary datasets used in this study and their characteristics and relevance.
Table 2: A table showing list of the datasets used for the project
|DATA||DATA TYPE||DATA SOURCE||YEAR||RELEVANCE|
|Sentinel-5P emission datasets||Secondary||European Space Agency
|2021||For air quality levels and to support public health authorities and policy.|
|GPS Coordinates||Primary||Field Investigation||2021||Mapping of emission hotspot locations.|
|Abuja Base Map||Secondary||NASRDA||2021||Delineation of state boundary, road network, and settlements.|
3.3 Field work (Reconnaissance/Validation Survey)
- A proper feasibility study and site survey of the study area was carried out to obtain the coordinates of emission hotspots locations in AMAC using a Global Positioning Systems (GPS) for validation and updates.
- Pictorial/video evidence.
3.4 Laboratory Analyses and Map Creation
Figure 2 shows the methodology flowchart which clearly depicts the procedures adopted in this study up in stages.
Figure 2: Illustration of methodology of emission hotspot mapping with integration of GIS
3.5. Time Frame
Table 1: Project activities
4.1 Reconnaissance survey and identification of emission hotspot locations
Table 3 below shows the emission hotspot locations mapped during the field exercise. A total of 31 emission hotspot locations were identified and mapped across the study area (see Figure 3). In addition, on-the-spot assessment of major contributors of emission hotspots in the area was performed and pictorial evidence taken during the rush hours in the morning and evening periods (see Figure 4).
Table 3: A table showing list of emission hotspot locations visited
|S/No||Hotspot Zone||Hotspot Locations||Latitude||Longitude|
|1.||Jabi-Berger Axis||Airport Junction||9.065158||7.410603|
|Jabi Motor Park||9.065968||7.432822|
|Life Camp Roundabout||9.075326||7.408709|
|3.||Nyanya-Karu-Asokoro Axis||AYA Roundabout||9.050887||7.529187|
|4.||APO Axis||APO Roundabout||9.012633||7.491198|
|APO Resettlement (Close to Shoprite)||8.986586||7.493374|
|APO Mechanic Village||8.973542||7.495706|
|5.||Lugbe Axis||FHA Bridge||8.978983||7.37763|
|6.||Lokogoma Axis||Galadimawa Roundabout||9.001948||7.424014|
|Lokogoma (Ebano Junction)||8.979117||7.462627|
|7.||Garki-Central Area Axis||Garki Market||9.021071||7.490845|
|Area 1 Roundabout||9.029767||7.468068|
|8.||Gwarimpa Axis||Kadobiko Market||9.099471||7.417138|
|First Avenue Entrance||9.089047||7.413138|
|9.||Mpape-Katampe Axis||Katampe Hills||9.114083||7.474851|
|Maitama by Habiba Plaza||9.104037||7.492401|
Figure 3: Spatial distribution of emission hotspot locations in the study area. (Source: Field Survey, 2021)
Figure 4: Major contributors of emission hotspots in the study area at: (a) AYA Roundabout (b) Nyanya (c) Dantata Bridge (d) Tipper Garage (e) SunnyVille Junction (f) Charlie Boy (Source: Fieldwork, 2021)
2.4.2 Quantitative Spatial Distribution of Ambient Pollution Hotspots in AMAC
The quantitative spatial analyses of different pollutants in the study area was based on geospatial processing of Sentinel-5P satellite data tropospheric CO, HCHO, NO2, O3, and SO2 column number density (molecules/m2). These satellite-based ambient pollutants were considered in this study for the validation of emission hotspots locations mapped during the field exercise.
The analyses of the maps and data revealed a considerable emission level at various hotspot locations with respect to the level of the CO pollution (Figure 5), as it maintains high values at Karu Market, Nyanya Bridge, Airport Junction, Life Camp Roundabout and First Avenue Entrance respectively. The peak in CO emission levels in these locations can be explained by the emission of CO gases in the atmosphere due to high traffic congestion and other anthropogenic sources.
The spatial analyses of Formaldehyde pollution as illustrated in Figure 6 clearly indicate the large distribution of urban-polluted hotspots in the study area with different emission levels at various locations as it retains high values at APO Mechanic Village, Karu Market, Sunnyville Junction, Galadimawa Roundabout, Dantata Bridge, Area 1 Roundabout, AYA Roundabout, Federal Secretariat, Berger Roundabout, Wuse Market, Mpape Junction and FHA Bridge respectively. Formaldehyde is one of the most important air pollutants in outdoor environment generally emitted by atmospheric reactions of volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and the combustion of biomass and fuels.
The tropospheric NO2 concentrations (Figure 7) illustrates poor air quality within AMAC with overall peak emission levels at Dantata Bridge, Area 1 Roundabout, Berger Roundabout, Wuse Market, Utako Market, Jabi Motor Park, Airport Junction, Life Camp Roundabout, First Avenue Entrance, Tipper Garage and Charlie Boy respectively. However, the map reveals reduced NO2 concentrations at Karu Market, Nyanya Bridge, APO Resettlement (Close to Shoprite), etc. Road traffic and transportation generated pollution is a major contributor to NO2 polluted areas.
The spatial analyses as illustrated in Figure 8 clearly indicate the large distribution of ozone-polluted hotspots in the study area with different emission levels as it maintains high values at APO Mechanic Village, APO Resettlement (Close to Shoprite), City Gate, Garki Market, APO Bridge, APO Roundabout, Lokogoma (Ebano Junction), Sunnyville Junction, Galadimawa Roundabout, Dantata Bridge, FHA Bridge, Area 1 Roundabout, AYA Roundabout, Federal Secretariat, Berger Roundabout, Jabi Motor Park, and Airport Junction respectively. Moreover, a combination of high temperatures and solar radiation together with longer daylight time intervals favors the transformation of the NO2 gases to ozone (O3) during the dry and rainy seasons.
The tropospheric SO2 concentrations (Figure 9) depicts poor air quality in the study area with overall peak emission levels at Charlie Boy, Tipper Garage, Katampe Hills, Mpape Junction, Banex Junction, Jabi Motor Park, Utako Market, FHA Bridge, Berger Bus-stop, Lokogoma (Ebano Junction), City Gate, Garki Market, APO Bridge, APO Roundabout, Nyanya Bridge and Karu Market.
Figure 5: Validation map of average tropospheric CO column density over AMAC (Data sources: Copernicus Sentinel 5P Processed L3 products)
Figure 6: Validation map of average tropospheric Formaldehyde column density over AMAC (Data sources: Copernicus Sentinel 5P Processed L3 products)
Figure 7: Validation map of average tropospheric Nitrogen Dioxide column density over AMAC (Data sources: Copernicus Sentinel 5P Processed L3 products)
Figure 8: Validation map of average tropospheric Ozone column density over AMAC (Data sources: Copernicus Sentinel 5P Processed L3 products)
Figure 9: Validation map of average tropospheric Sulphur Dioxide column density over AMAC (Data sources: Copernicus Sentinel 5P Processed L3 products)
This project (Phase I) has enabled NASRDA and other relevant stakeholder to understand the current air quality status and hotspot’s locations in AMAC, Abuja. This is a big step towards mitigating health risk, environmental damage, actualizing the Clean Air Initiative which contributes to the Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) Report.
Based on the outcome of this research, it is recommended that a follow-up which is a (Phase II) of the project should be carried out with the focus mainly on the use of ground-based measurement instruments and sensors in the monitoring of air quality in AMAC, Abuja. The (Phase II) will also involve the installation of air quality sensor to be displayed on an electronic billboard with map components displayed at the hotspots locations which will provide residents with real-time air pollution data. Synergies and Funding will also help grow a spatial inventory for the nation.
LIST OF MDAS THAT WILL IMPLEMENT THE RECOMMENDATION
- Federal Ministry of Environment
- Federal Ministry of Health
- Abuja Environmental Protection Board (AEPB)
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Sulaiman, C. (2018). Population Growth and CO 2 Emission in Nigeria : A Recursive ARDL Approach. https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244018765916
USEPA (United States Environmental Protection Agency) (2000). National Air Quality and Emissions Trends, 1998, EPA-454/R-00-003 Research Triangle Park NC, p. 11–37.
Veefkind, J.P.; Aben, I.; McMullan, K.; Förster, H.; De Vries, J.; Otter, G.; Class, J.; Eskes, H.J.; De Haan, J.F.; Kleipool, Q.; et al. TROPOMI on the ESA Sentinel-5 Precursor: A GMES mission for global observations of the atmospheric composition for climate, air quality and ozone layer applications. Remote Sens. Environ. 2012, 120, 70–83.
Vidotto, J.P.; Pereira, L.A.A.; Braga, A.L.F.; Silva, C.A.; Sallum, A.M.; Campos, L.M.; Martins, L.C.; Farhat, S.C.L. Atmospheric pollution: Influence on hospital admissions in paediatric rheumatic diseases. Lupus 2012, 21, 526–533.
Wang, L., Zhang, Q. Hao, J. and He, K. (2005). Anthropogenic CO Emission Inventory of Mainland China. J. Environ. Sci. 25: 1580–1585 (in Chinese).
WHO, 2016. Preventing disease through healthy environments: a global assessment of the burden of disease from environmental risks. Available online: https://www.who.int/news-room/facts-in-pictures/detail/preventing-disease-through-healthy-environments (accessed on 15 October 2021).
World Bank, 2020. The Cost of Air Pollution in Lagos. Available online: https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/environment/publication/the-cost-of-air-pollution-in-lagos (accessed on 15 October 2021).
World Health Organization. Air Pollution. Available online: https://www.who.int/health-topics/airpollution#tab=tab_1 (accessed on 11 October 2020).
Yazdi, M. N., Delavarra, M., & Arhami, M. (2015). Science of the Total Environment Evaluating near highway air pollutant levels and estimating emission factors : Case study of Tehran , Iran. 538, 375–384. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.07.141
Zhang, Q., Xu, J., Wang, G., Tian, W. and Jiang, H. (2008). Vehicular Emission Inventory Projections Based on Dynamic Emission Factors: A Case Study of Hangzhou, China. Atmos. Environ. 42: 4989–5002


What actions have you taken to reduce your carbon footprint? What if I told you that it would cost less to offset your carbon emissions from travel than to buy two fast food burritos? Carbon offsets allow individuals and organizations to compensate for their emissions and reduce their carbon footprints. The average person living in the United States produces about 4 metric tons of carbon from air and ground travel per year, which would cost around $24 to offset. The money used to purchase carbon offsets is funneled towards a project that is designed to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Some of these projects might be geared towards planting trees, developing renewable energy, or capturing methane from landfills.
But, what is carbon? Is it that bad for the environment? There is regular CO2 and rampant CO2. Regular carbon dioxide is used and created by natural life processes. However, rampant carbon dioxide is produced from burning fossil fuels for energy. Plants use regular CO2 that animals exhale, and therefore some CO2 is part of natural life cycles. But, we are also adding CO2to the air when we burn oil, natural gas, and coal for energy. We call this type of CO2 “rampant” because there is too much of it and we need to get it under control. When rampant carbon dioxide accumulates in our atmosphere and our oceans, it creates problems for the earth’s climate and ecosystems. Now that we know about rampant carbon dioxide, does the idea of carbon offsets sound more intriguing?
To get a better understanding of what a carbon offset is and how it works, let’s take the example of a Holy Cross student who lives in New York. This student drives home to New York for Holy Cross breaks and during these drives, the student produces carbon emissions. By purchasing a carbon offset, the student can continue to drive to and from New York but at the same time support a project that pulls an equal amount of carbon from the air. Even if the student is emitting carbon on the East Coast, their contribution to the carbon offset benefits everyone even those halfway across the world.
As a Holy Cross student who lives in California, I am aware of the larger carbon footprint that I have due to my air travel throughout the year. I may not have a car on campus to drive into Boston on the weekends, go for weekly Trader Joe’s runs, or pick up InHouse coffee but, I am still emitting a lot of carbon by living in California and attending the College of the Holy Cross. The question then becomes who’s responsible for these carbon emissions? Does it all fall on me? Do the airlines share the responsibility? Does Holy Cross have an obligation to offset carbon emissions from student and employee commuting? My answer is that it is everyone’s responsibility to reduce their carbon output and it starts with knowing your own carbon footprint. Calculate yours now.


Red Rain in Kerala known as God’s own country is one of the most beautiful states of India with beautiful backwaters, rich flora and fauna, enchanting beaches and mountains and lip-smacking food. The beautiful place like this also has experienced some mysteries like Red Rain.
The strange but curious phenomena of Red Rain was recorded to have occurred in some parts of Kerala. This was dated to occur from 25 July to 23 September 2001.
Red Rain in Kerala
There were several unanswered and unexplained questions which were raised like how the red particles reached the rain clouds? Where did the clouds travel from? What were the phenomena behind the mysterious red rain? And several other questions.
The other study which was commissioned by the Government of India concluded that the rain was coloured because of the airborne spores of the local terrestrial green algae.
The districts of Kottayam and Idukki was the first to witness the red rain of Kerala on 25 July of 2001 which was most frequently reported to occur for 10 days since then and was continued till 23 September of 2001.
The locals reported that there was a loud thunderstorm with lightning and tree leaves burnt. It was also reported that there was a sudden formation of wells in a few localities.
The rain was mixed with reddish-brown particles which was supposedly the reason for the coloured rain. The rain lasted for less than 20 minutes. The rain contained about 9 million red particles. It was estimated as there were 50000 kgs of red particles showered and the particles were of the size of 4 to 10 micrometer.
According to the report of the Centre for Earth Science Studies ( CESS) the pH of the water was 7 (neutral) and the rain contained metals like titanium, chromium, copper, manganese and nickel and particles were mostly composed of oxygen and carbon with traces of silicon, hydrogen and nitrogen and it was coloured because of the presence of huge amount of spores containing algae. The LIDAR test said that the reason for the cause of the red rain was the outbreak of the cloud of dust particles near Kerala.
The red rain caused panic among the people but it’s the part of nature and its mysteries but there are many other mysteries which are beyond science and human imagination and knowledge in the world and the red rain of Kerala can be said as one among them.


The images of the monster storm brought terror to those whose lives lay in her path.
With 175 mph winds, she was the third strongest storm on record in the Atlantic Basin. With frightening clarity, radar images captured the massive, swirling bands of a Category 5 hurricane that filled the entire Gulf of Mexico. This hardcover coffee-table book goes through the story of the storm and the members of the community that helped when people were in need.
Note: images on this promotional page may not appear in final product.


Tropical Storm Earl strengthened to a hurricane Wednesday as it approached Belize and southeastern Mexico, bringing up to a foot of rain and the possibility of floods and mudslides, the National Hurricane Center said.
A hurricane hunter plane reached the storm Wednesday and confirmed that the storm had maximum sustained winds of 75 mph, making it a Category 1 hurricane, the hurricane center said. The storm system is about 150 miles east of Belize City and was moving west at around 14 mph.
The hurricane is expected to make landfall late Wednesday or early Thursday, and could bring 8 to 12 inches of rain to Belize, Honduras, Guatemala and the Yucatan peninsula of Mexico through Thursday night, the hurricane center warned.
Isolated areas of Belize and Mexico could receive up to 16 inches of rain. "These rains could result in life-threatening flash floods and mud slides," the hurricane center said.
Belize's national emergency management organization was setting up shelters and warned residents to be prepared to leave, the government said in an advisory. Storm surges of 2 to 4 feet were anticipated and flooding was called likely.


We are a team of engineers and weather scientists who leverage IoT (Internet of Things) with Web3 to create a new way to map the world’s weather through a community-powered weather network.
Our mission is to collect high quality, hyperlocal weather data for every corner of the world and make them universally accessible and useful.
We believe in making the world a better place. We value public goods, open source software and open data that allow permissionless creativity and innovation.
We see a world where Web3, IoT and meteorology are combined to build a global, decentralised, community-powered network of millions of small, inexpensive weather stations.
We believe that this model will unlock great value, open up new opportunities and have a direct positive impact on the lives of millions of people around the world and our planet.
From Childhood Dreams to Meteorological Innovation
Discover how WeatherXM’s founders turned childhood dreams into a meteorological revolution, reshaping weather forecasting with a decentralized network of weather stations.
Meet the team
We are a multi-disciplinary team, sharing our common vision of enabling accurate weather services around the globe.
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A fire weather warning has been issued Berks County, the Lehigh Valley and southern Pennsylvania.
The red flag warning is in effect until 5 p.m. Monday, according to the National Weather Service at Mount Holly, N.J., which issued the warning Sunday.
Critical fire weather conditions are expected due to a combination of strong winds, low relative humidity and dry fuels. Any fires that develop may quickly get out of control and become difficult to contain.
Northwest winds increasing to 20 to 25 mph with gusts around 35 to 40 mph are expected Sunday afternoon and evening. The winds are predicted to continue at 10 to 15 mph with gusts around 20 mph from late Sunday into Monday.
Relative humidity is expected to around 20% Sunday afternoon, recovering only to 35 to 40 percent late Sunday night. The relative humidity will fall back to 15 to 20% Monday.
Sunday’s temperatures with a high in the 50s and low in the 20s will drop with highs into the 30s and 40s Monday.
For more information about wildfire danger, burn restrictions, and wildfire prevention and education, please visit the state forestry or environmental protection website.


How will Window Tinting Help You Go Green?
These days, global warming is showing its negative impacts on a full scale. The heated rays of the sun have turned into the deadly ultraviolet rays due to the adverse effects of the ozone layer depletion. All these dramatic changes in the environment have encouraged people to think carefully and adopt environment-friendly technologies. Window tinting is one of the coolest eco-friendly technology which has been proving out boon for the people of hot regions such as Dubai.
The window films have been helping out in saving the ecosystem in various different ways. These films can be very useful to save the environment for your successors.
Window Films Curbs the Effects of Greenhouse Gases
Greenhouse gases are the cocktail of vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone which have been working as the warm blanket of the earth and keeping it warm. This effect is collectively known as the greenhouse effect. According to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has increased by nearly 40% since pre-industrial times – the current level is higher than it’s been in the last 800,000 years.
Window films here can be very useful in retaining down the impact of these vicious gases. Window tints help in reducing the heat in the summers by observing the heated and ultraviolet rays emitted by the sun. On the other hand, window films retain the heat inside on the dark winter days which eventually reduces the utilization of energy and results in less emission of greenhouse gases.
The window films can help in reducing greenhouse gases emission in the following ways;
- The less electricity will be consumed by people in summer to keep their home cool and warm in the winters
- When the less energy is required, then the fewer fossil fuels will be burnt
- The carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases will be less emitted to the environment
Electricity is the Main Culprit
If we are looking for the biggest culprit of global warming, then the vicious cycle will lead you to the electricity. The consumption of electricity has drastically increased in the world because of the utilization of cooling and heating equipment. These equipment has increased the electricity utilization plus they emit greenhouse gases as well.
So, when the window films reduce the consumption of electricity during the summers and winters by maintaining the heat level, then the less electricity will be required by people. This eventually results in the less exploitation of natural resources and less emission of greenhouse gases.
Window Films will Save You
So, people if you live in Dubai, then you have to constantly blast your air conditioner to protect yourself from the scorching heat. This means you are constantly increasing in global warming, now you can reduce your share of carbon emission. Just by installing the window tints on your commercial and residential buildings from the SAFA, you can reduce your carbon share by 33%.
SAFA window films can reduce the impact of heated rays from raising the temperature of your place and this way you will eventually cut down your electricity consumption. So, people let’s go green with the window films.


Clocking in with winds over 165 mph, when Hurricane Patricia slammed into Mexico today it became the unfortunate record holder as the largest hurricane ever recorded. Topping 200 mph before finally hitting land, the Category 5 storm sent tourists and residents alike fleeing as it rolled straight into Mexico’s Pacific Coast.
Declaring an official state of emergency, Mexican officials have scrambled to prepare as landslides and fallen trees are already being reported. Those unable to evacuate have been stacking supplies as they bunker down to ride out the monster storm. Directly impacted are small fishing villages located less than 150 miles from Puerto Vallarta, who were hit with winds of 200 mph before the storm lost a small amount of steam.
President Enrique Peña Nieto sent a statement out via Social Media, tweeting: “Hurricane Patricia is on the coast of Mexico. Do not go outside. Protect yourselves and follow instructions from Civil Protection. I am thinking of you all.”
It’s unclear how the U.S. will be affected, though cities in Texas are already preparing for heavy rains and potential flooding. Additional forecast information can be found via the Weather Channel.
This story is still developing.


First Alert Weather App Fox 6. * 250 meter radar, the highest resolution available. * access to station content specifically for our mobile users * 250 meter radar, the highest resolution available * future radar to see where severe weather is headed * high resolution satellite cloud imagery * current weather updated multiple ti…
* access to station content specifically for our mobile users. * future radar to see where severe weather is headed.
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* high resolution satellite cloud imagery. 250 meter radar, the highest resolution available.
First Alert Weather App Fox 6
r above normal hurricane season, and it looks like they’re forecasting thirteen to twenty named storms six to ten hurricanes and three to five major hurricanes over the hurricane season and by the way this also marks the start of meteorological summer.Download 6 news first alert weather and enjoy it on your iphone, ipad, and ipod touch.Download the ‘kesq first alert’ weather app to be sure you have the latest forecast information to keep.Download wbrc first alert weather and enjoy it on your iphone, ipad, and ipod touch.
Few downpours, summery heat continues late week.First alert weather alert this week for a dangerous heatwave.Get milwaukee, wi weather updates including the weather forecast for today and this week along with alerts on closings and delays from fox6 news.High resolution satellite cloud imagery.
Improving feel to the air and drier weather taking over.It expires at 13:00 pm on june 26, 2021 cdt.It gives you precipitation alert so it will give you a heads up.It looks as if most of us will stay dry today.
It was issued at 19:58 pm on june 22, 2021 cdt.It’ll become the sixth ymca of the fox cities facility.Look for the wbay first alert weather app in the apple app store and google play.May 26, 2021 at 7:24 am.
More clouds than peeks of sun to wrap up the weekend.National weather service says there is a significant threat to property or life in chambers county, liberty county.Once we get into the weekend, things are going to take a turn toward stormy.Our first alert weather app can tell you if a storm near you has hail, strong winds or rotation.
Our first alert weather app hey, carol.Showers tonight, clouds stick around sunday times of showers with a chance of a storm tonight.Sign up for first alert weather.So for meteorologist when we look at weather patterns and and look at the way the weather is kind of lined up we go by june july and august when.
Temperatures will climb into the lower 80s and by morning we will start off in the.The kauz mobile weather app includes:The wbrc mobile weather app includes:The wowt weather app includes:
This alert comes from the national weather service in houston/galveston, texas.Today’s our give carol hughes.You can always keep our forecast handy with our free weather app.You know, if a shower is nearby or if you know, we’re detecting some lightning nearby, incredible tool and it’s free.
the wbrc mobile weather app includes:the wowt weather app includes:• 250 meter radar, the highest resolution available.• access to station content specifically for our mobile users • 250 meter radar, the highest resolution available • high resolution satellite cloud imagery • future radar to see where severe weather is headed • current weather updated multiple times per…
• access to station content specifically for our mobile users.• future radar to see where severe weather is headed.• high resolution satellite cloud imagery.


Enhancing Indoor Air Quality for Health and Well-being: The Power of Air Filters
Disclosure: This post may contain affiliate links, meaning Chikara Houses get a commission if you decide to make a purchase through our links, at no cost to you. Please read our disclosure for more info.
In our daily lives, we often overlook the importance of the air we breathe. Yet, the quality of the air in our homes, offices, and other indoor spaces plays a vital role in our overall health and well-being. With air pollution becoming a global concern, it is essential to understand its impact on our respiratory and cardiovascular systems. Fortunately, advancements in technology, such as air filters, offer a promising solution to enhance indoor air quality and protect our health.
The Impact of Air Pollution on Health
Air pollution has emerged as a significant environmental health risk, causing millions of premature deaths worldwide. The World Health Organization (WHO) reports a strong link between air pollution exposure and cardiovascular diseases, strokes, ischemic heart disease, and cancer. Furthermore, respiratory diseases, including acute respiratory infections and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), are closely associated with both indoor and outdoor air pollution. Disturbingly, household air pollution alone contributes to millions of premature deaths annually.
Understanding Indoor Air Pollution
While outdoor air pollution is widely acknowledged, the alarming statistics on indoor air pollutants (HAP) demand our attention. Factors such as poor ventilation, building materials, and human activities contribute to the presence of hazardous substances in indoor air. Tobacco smoke, emissions from cooking and burning of fuels, as well as allergens from dust mites and pets, are common culprits. Studies have shown a steady rise in respiratory diseases like asthma and COPD due to increased exposure to indoor pollutants.
The Role of Air Filters in Improving Indoor Air Quality
Air filters offer an effective strategy to combat indoor air pollution and improve the air we breathe. These devices, commonly equipped with High-Efficiency Particulate Air (HEPA - high efficiency particulate air filter) filters, can efficiently remove airborne particles, allergens, and pollutants. HEPA filters, known for their high filtration efficiency, can capture particles as small as 0.3 micrometers. By incorporating air filters in our homes and workplaces, we can significantly reduce the concentration of harmful pollutants, providing cleaner and healthier air for all occupants.
Health Benefits of Air Filters
Studies have demonstrated the positive impact of air filters on respiratory and cardiovascular health. Asthma patients living with pets have experienced improved symptoms and quality of life when using air purifiers with HEPA filters. These filters effectively capture allergens, reducing the triggers for asthma attacks. Similarly, individuals with cardiovascular conditions have benefited from improved vascular function and reduced systemic inflammation when exposed to cleaner indoor air. The use of air filters has shown promising results in enhancing overall well-being.
As we become increasingly aware of the detrimental effects of air pollution, it is crucial to prioritize the enhancement of indoor air quality. The use of air filters, particularly those equipped with HEPA technology, offers an effective solution to mitigate the risks associated with indoor air pollutants. By investing in these filtration systems, we can create healthier living and working environments, safeguarding our respiratory and cardiovascular health.
Remember, the air we breathe directly impacts our health and well-being. Let's take control of our indoor environments and ensure enhanced indoor air quality for a healthier future.
Why is indoor air quality important?
- Indoor air quality plays a crucial role in our health and well-being. We spend a significant amount of time indoors, whether at home, work, or other indoor environments. Poor indoor air quality can lead to various health issues such as respiratory problems, allergies, asthma, and even cardiovascular diseases. By enhancing indoor air quality, we can create a healthier and more comfortable environment, improving our overall quality of life.
What are the common sources of indoor air pollution?
- Indoor air pollution can stem from both outdoor and indoor sources. Outdoor pollutants, such as vehicle emissions and industrial pollutants, can infiltrate our indoor spaces. Indoor sources include tobacco smoke, cleaning chemicals, volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from paints and furniture, mold, pet dander, and dust mites. Identifying and minimizing these sources, along with proper ventilation and air filtration, can significantly enhance indoor air quality.
How can air filters contribute to improving indoor air quality?
- Air filters are an effective tool for improving indoor air quality. They work by capturing and trapping airborne particles, allergens, and pollutants, preventing them from circulating in the air we breathe. High-efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filters, in particular, are known for their ability to filter out small particles, including pollen, dust mites, pet dander, and even some viruses. By using air filters in our homes, offices, or other indoor spaces, we can reduce our exposure to harmful pollutants and breathe cleaner, healthier air.
Remember, prioritizing indoor air quality is an investment in our well-being. By understanding its importance, identifying sources of pollution, and utilizing effective tools like air filters, we can create spaces that promote health, comfort, and vitality for ourselves and our loved ones.
Now that we've explored the significance of enhancing indoor air quality for our health and well-being, let's delve into a remarkable solution that complements this journey towards cleaner and healthier environments. Introducing the Anti-Gravity Water Droplet Humidifier, a revolutionary device designed to elevate your indoor air quality experience to new heights.
Immerse yourself in pure tranquility with the Anti-Gravity Water Droplet Humidifier. Experience the transformative power of pristine air and unparalleled serenity. Elevate your space and embrace optimal air quality. Click now to unlock the balance between well-being and enchantment. Invest in a device that goes beyond humidification, captivating your senses with its anti-gravity display. Join the movement of individuals committed to nurturing their inner peace. Experience the magic of the Anti-Gravity Water Droplet Humidifier and embark on a journey of rejuvenation. Click here to prioritize your well-being and create a sanctuary of purity and harmony. Your soul will thank you.
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Rain forecast for the weekendSave
By Tess Nichol
Enjoy the fine weather while it lasts because rain is forecast this weekend.
A mainly fine day was forecast today for most of the country with low cloud in places keeping temperatures up, said MetService meteorologist Tom Adams.
"Enjoy this week, there's a wee system heading our way this weekend," he said.
Low pressure coming in from east coast of Australia would bring rain by the end of the week - "but leading up to that it's not a bad week".
A southerly bringing cloud would make its way up the South Island today, meaning patchy drizzle for a few spots on the east coast including Christchurch and the Wairarapa.
"With this southerly a few temperatures down south will be a bit lower than average. There's a few fronts in this but they're pretty slow-moving and they're pretty weak.
"Places that get stuck under them, like the West Coast, will see drizzly weather on and off.


The irony is that our eyes have opened only when the smog has blocked the vision. Smog seems to have enveloped the national capital, making it all the more alarming than it ever was. The smog we see now is considered to be the worst in past two decades and more severe than any other which has happened in densely polluted cities like Beijing etc.
To understand the intricacies better, we primarily need to understand what smog is. Smog is a term used to describe the haze of smoke-laden fog that is caused by atmospheric pollution being trapped close to the ground. Also popularly known as smoke plus fog, smog is very dangerous to inhale and reduces the visibility exponentially.
It is a not a matter of bewilderment to know about this severe Delhi smog. With Diwali having passed just a few days ago, it was expected out of the reckless, irresponsible human behavior practiced. Besides that, the vehicular pollution that has been uncontrollable since ever, has also contributed a lot for the state of plight we are in. One more interesting reason behind the Delhi smog is heavy concentration of particulate matter that stagnates in air and traps the pollution close to ground. These particulates are brought here by air flow patterns from Afghanistan and Pakistan which pick emissions of burnt crop and agricultural waste from states like Punjab and Haryana.
The effects of smog can be severe and at times fatal as well. The most severe effects are on the human health, right from respiratory troubles to cardiovascular problems. The most vulnerable victims to smog are infants, children and animals. The effect on them are far more devastating than one could imagine. Also, the Delhi smog has reduced visibility to a very large extent increasing the risks of road accidents and also disrupting train and flight traffic.
What we experience today is not an alien phenomenon but a result of our own deeds. The healthy environment we had once lived in was to be preserved and enhanced for the generations to come but on the contrary, we even snatched away the right to breathe pure air and drink clean water. Innumerable infrastructural development took place to advance the city, but at the cost of degradation of the environment. Jungles got transformed into concrete jungles, we cherished and celebrated it hardly realizing that we were digging our own grave in the process. Undeniably, it is very late, yet we can make a fresh start to stop the ongoing devastation around us so that the status-quo gets a little better and habitable.


Tornado Alley 3D at the Tennessee Aquarium IMAX 3D Theater
9/14/2011 8:00:00 AM
Join Storm Chasers star Sean Casey and the researchers of VORTEX 2, the most ambitious effort ever made to understand the origins and evolution of tornadoes, on this heart-pounding science adventure. Armed with a 70mm camera, a fleet of customized vehicles designed to withstand gale force winds, torrential rains and unrelenting hail, and an arsenal of the most advanced weather measurement instruments ever created, the stars of Tornado Alley take audiences on a thrilling quest to experience a tornado’s destructive power at point blank range.
Above image: Sean Casey, inside the Tornado Intercept Vehicle, gets into position to capture a twister on film from within the storm.
FOR IMMEDIATE RELEASE Contact: Thom Benson 423-785-3007
Tornado Alley 3D Launches at the Tennessee Aquarium IMAX Theater September 30th
Giant Screen Science Adventure Explores Unknown Twister Mysteries
Chattanooga, Tenn. (September 14, 2011) - Nearly five months have passed since the unprecedented tornado outbreak that swept through the Southeast with devastating results. Broadcast meteorologists, armed with the latest technology, were able to reach people with tornado warnings that had unequalled lead time in the Tennessee Valley. According to the National Weather Service, tornado warnings were issued an average of 24 minutes before communities were struck by the violent winds. “With large and long-track tornadoes, you have the potential to give people additional warning time,” said Dr. Karen Kosiba, atmospheric scientist at the Center for Severe Weather Research in Boulder, CO. “Unfortunately the lead time for all tornadoes is only about 10 minutes.”
Kosiba and an army of scientists from VORTEX2 are featured in Tornado Alley 3D. The most ambitious scientific mission of its kind, VORTEX2 was comprised of more than 100 severe-weather researchers from around the world, a fleet of radar trucks, mobile weather stations and the most sophisticated weather-measuring instruments ever created. The mission: probe nature’s most violent storms to better understand how tornadoes form and develop. “The data we collected on about 60 tornadic storms will help us improve the predictability of tornadoes,” said Kosiba. “We also want to better understand and correlate how the winds inside a tornado cause damage.”
Scientists still don’t know why one storm will go haywire, producing a massive twister like the ones that touched down in Tuscaloosa, AL or Ringgold, GA, while other nearby storms fail to produce any tornadoes. “What we’re trying to do is warn people BEFORE a storm produces a tornado,” Kosiba said. “Currently a radar signature may indicate a potential tornado, but 75% of those storms don’t produce tornadoes. So we need a better discriminator to reduce the false alarm rate and more accurately warn people.”
In the film, audiences see how incredibly difficult it is to actually measure tornado winds directly. Kosiba helped gather wind measurements indirectly with radar trucks, but was also responsible for coordinating teams that deployed weather sensors in the path of oncoming tornadoes. “The wind data can help us correlate what we’re seeing on radar and may help others design stronger homes and buildings in the future,” Kosiba said.
Sean Casey, star of Discovery Channel’s wildly popular Storm Chasers series, designed his Tornado Intercept Vehicle, or TIV, to film from within the center of a storm’s fury. Armed with weather instruments and a 92-pound IMAX camera, Casey worked for more than eight years to get direct readings and a shot of a tornado at point blank range. “My dream has always been to get footage that’s as powerful as the subject matter,” said Casey. “There’s a huge difference between filming a tornado from a couple of miles away with a telephoto lens, and filming a tornado that’s on top of you with a wide-angle lens.” The cinematic result gives audiences the chance to ride along – and to experience a visual powerhouse of never-before-captured tornado footage on the giant, six-story screen.
Dr. Kosiba will be at the Tennessee Aquarium IMAX 3D Theater to introduce the film during a special FREE preview of Tornado Alley 3D on Thursday, September 29th at 7:00 pm. Seating is limited and available on a first-come basis. Donations will be accepted at this screening for the Chattanooga Red Cross to help our community be better prepared for future storms. “In addition to disaster response, The Red Cross believes in training people to be prepared. Last year more than 45,000 people in the Chattanooga area received training from our staff and volunteers. These residents now have family plans and are better equipped to deal with future threats,” said Barbara Alexander, Chief Executive Officer of the Greater Chattanooga American Red Cross. “The number of people requesting training increased dramatically after the tornado, so we’re happy to partner with the Tennessee Aquarium to offer classes in conjunction with seeing Tornado Alley 3D at the IMAX Center.”
One of the “Doppler on Wheels,” or DOW, radar trucks will be at IMAX for the special screening on September 29th. The DOW and Sean Casey’s TIV will be at IMAX on Saturday, October 1st.
For more information about Tornado Alley 3D, or to purchase tickets online, go to: http://www.tnaqua.org/IMAX/IMAX.aspx


What You Need to Know About Air Pollution & How to Measure it With Ontoto’s Air Quality Sensor
Air quality sensors, also known as air pollution sensors can detect and monitor dust and particulate matter in the air around us. These sensors can be used inside to detect indoor air pollution and outside to monitor pollution in the environment.
These sensors are small and provide data in near-real time at low cost and using low amounts of power.
Sensor based measurement devices are becoming more popular as people are becoming aware of harmful pollution, smoke and dust, and the health impacts this has on individuals and the environment around us.
The air quality sensor comes bundled with our weather station solution.
Ontoto’s particulate matter (PM) sensor features new technological breakthroughs in comparison to traditional optical PM sensors. Its measurement principle is based on laser scattering and is contaminant resistant. This technology, together with our high quality data loggers, enables accurate monitoring from the device’s first start and throughout its lifetime.
PM2.5 and PM10 refers to particulate matter (PM) with particle diameter up to 2.5 microns and 10 microns, respectively, and are among the most dangerous air pollutants for humans. Due to their small size, PM2.5 particles can travel deep into the human lungs and bloodstream, causing a variety of health issues; such as triggering asthma attacks or contributing to cardiovascular and respiratory disease. Ontoto’s air quality solution delivers simple yet accurate air quality monitoring & data insights.
PM stands for particulate matter (also known as particle pollution) which is the term for a combination of dispersed solid particles and liquid particles. Many particles are large or dark enough to be seen with the naked eye, such as dust, dirt, soot or smoke. Others are so small they can be observed only through an electron microscope.
Particle pollution mesurements primarily consist of:
- PM10: inhalable, 10 micrometre and lower diameter particulate matter.
- PM 2.5: inhalable particulate matter with 2.5 micrometre diameters and lower.
What is 2.5 micrometres small? Think of a single hair on your head. The median diameter of human hair is approximately 70 micrometres–30 times that of the largest particulate matter.
Particulate matter can come in many sizes, shapes and can be made up of hundreds of different chemicals. PM is emitted directly from sources like construction sites, vehicles, power plants, industry and fires.
Severe health problems can be caused by inhalation of microscopic particles. Many particles with a diameter of less than 10 micrometers can be inhaled deep into the lungs and even enter the bloodstream. PM2.5 Particles pose the greatest health risk due to their size. These fine particles cause respiratory issues and cardiovascular disease in the body.
Air particles can also reduce visibility and cause haze if in high enough concentrations in the area.
A weather station & air quality sensor so advanced, yet so simple to setup and use. The Environmental Monitoring System can be easily set to record data at any interval. From as little as fifteen minutes, up to one year. Don’t sacrifice the integrity of your data with manual logging, our data is sent autonomously via 4G straight to your web portal. Get high resolution radings for PM 0.5 all the way up to PM 10. You can also check your results in real-time via the Ontoto web portal, or on the free Ontoto Connect mobile Application for iOS and Android. Learn More about the Environmental Monitoring System here.


We sat down with resource consents specialist Paul Crimmins to talk about air quality and clear the air on some misconceptions about smoke and air testing.
Firstly Paul, what’s your role at the council and what kind of air expert are you?
I work with the council’s resource consents team providing advice on air quality issues from a regulatory perspective across the region. My role includes making sure that hazardous air pollutants in the outdoor air remain within the levels acceptable under national environmental standards and our own Auckland Unitary Plan, to minimise risks of health effects.
I know a bit about monitoring outdoor air quality as a result of my training and my work, but it’s not my main role. However, I’m really pleased to be helping out this week as teams from across the council are all pitching in on this response.
So, lets cut to the chase Paul, what’s in this smoke that has been swirling in the city centre?
That is the burning question. And also the most difficult one to answer. We’re getting used to watching the magic of film and television return detailed results from fancy labs in a flash. In reality, we can’t quite do that.
Firstly, people should always avoid breathing in or spending large amounts of time in smoky conditions.
We know that this smoke will contain a complex mixture of combustion particles similar to what you would find in any smoke, such as from home wood-burners or vehicle exhausts. When talking about the harmful aspects of smoke and air quality, we focus on particulate matter, particularly those particles that are small enough to be inhaled because these have an effect on health.
Ok, so tell us about the particulate matter that we would expect to find in smoke from a fire like this one.
We monitor two sizes of particulate – PM10 and PM2.5 . PM10, which also contains PM2.5, is particles that can be inhaled into the lungs. PM2.5 is very fine particles that can enter the bloodstream. These particles are really tiny, a couple of thousandths of a millimeter in size.
The complexity of the components in smoke means it’s not easy to measure or define the wide range of exact chemicals in the smoke, but – and this is based on World Health Organisation guidance and standards – it is best to use PM10 measurements as a proxy for determining the risks of smoke from this fire.
We also know that the roofing material in this fire contained treated timber and bitumen. Burning bitumen has similar smoke profile to the emissions you would get from a ship.
So, in short, we can’t categorically list all of the components that were in the smoke from the International Convention Centre Fire but we were concerned about the health risks of the smoke.
You talked about monitoring air quality in the region, how is this done?
We have a network of air quality monitors across the region, a few of which are in the central city. We’ve been monitoring City Centre air quality using a high accuracy reference monitor on Queen Street, which is backed up by indicative sensors at the corner of Victoria and Albert Streets, Symonds and Wellesley St and a new monitoring site at Customs St near Albert St.
Results showed that parts of the City Centre experienced poor air quality on Tuesday afternoon and during Wednesday due to the plume of smoke. The levels of PM10 and PM2.5 fluctuated based on the direction of the smoke plume (carried by wind conditions) and the stage that fire was at.
On Wednesday, PM10 readings at the Queen St and Victoria/Albert St monitoring sites exceeded the 24-hour average national standard. However, the Customs St and Symonds/Wellesley St monitors did not appear to be impacted by the smoke.
While this event created an unusually high spike in PM10 for Auckland, it’s important to note that poor air quality readings are unfortunately not uncommon in the City Centre, largely shown by elevated nitrogen dioxide levels from traffic. And some large cities around the world are unlucky enough to experience readings like this on a continuous basis.
What areas were affected by the smoke from this fire and how do people know whether they should be concerned or not?
We all know that smoke is carried by wind and therefore influenced by the weather conditions on the day.
The fire was contained in the block that is surrounded by Nelson and Hobson streets, and Victoria and Wellesley streets.
Wind direction largely remained consistent with very strong south-westerlies. This meant that anywhere to the west of the Convention Centre was largely unaffected by smoke. The streets most impacted by the smoke plume were to the north-east of the fire. At the outset, smoke was rising fairly high and largely impacting high rise buildings. On Wednesday, the smoke was pushed down to have a greater impact at lower buildings and street level.
Paul explains which areas experienced the worst of the smoke since Tuesday afternoon.
What should people do if smoke has entered their workplace or home?
If you haven’t already – and some people will have returned home or returned to work – we recommend you air out your building as thoroughly as possible.
Auckland Regional Public Health Service has posted some great advice on its website for people in the smoke-affected area.
Importantly, if your area was not affected by smoke, so if you didn’t see or smell smoke, you don’t need to do anything.
Airing out buildings will range from full cleaning of air conditioning and ventilation systems by building managers (and specialist contractors) before re-commissioning the systems, to just opening doors and windows in residential apartments.
If you have any soot accumulated on surfaces, this should be wiped down.
Some places will continue to experience residual odours from smoke, especially where it’s impacted furnishings and this smell may be unpleasant and uncomfortable, but is unlikely to cause any ongoing health issues. If people are worried about their health, they should contact their GP or Healthline on 0800 611 116.


Although Jordan is a relatively small country, with an area of around 100,000 square kilometres, in three distinct climatic zones. The largest of those is of course desert, which covers around 80% of the country. The western mountain heights is where most of the cities, towns and archaeological sites reside, while the Jordan Valley, averaging around 300 metres below sea level has an entirely different climate than the rest of the country.
Nights are relatively cool in all the highlands. Jordan averages about 310 days of sunshine per year. The rainy season starts at the end of November and continues into March. Snow occasionally falls in Petra, Amman and some of the western mountain ranges during December- February.
Jordan has 4 distinct seasons; winter and spring are relatively short, while summers are long, dry and relatively hot. The low humidity means that even temperatures in the low thirties are bearable. Jordan does not get the extreme heat that the gulf countries are accustomed to, and temperatures rarely go over 35 degrees Celsius even in the peak of summer.
In brief, Jordan has hot, dry summers, and wet, relatively cold winters. The peak season is between March till May, and from September till November, though summers are nowhere as hot as the gulf.


Friday, June 29, 2012
Back to the Greenhouse Future
Everybody is focussing on CO2 whereas the real cause of global warming is the heat being emitted from our energy use. It is not even necessary to include CO2 in our projections
So, in summary there is no evidence that the continued increase in human emission of CO2 has diminished the capacity of significant portion of the emitted CO2 from being absorbed by what are still unknown elements of the environment.
Posted by Michael at 5:54 AM


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I like white sneakers and I don’t want them to become dirty. That’s why I always check on the next day’s precipitation probability. If I intend to leave only for a couple hours, then the breakdown of the rain risk is of particular interest to me. When comparing the probabilities on hourly and daily basis I could rarely figure out the relationship between both. Consider the following weather forecast:
For simplicity I chose to present the rain risk for periods of 6 hours length. Anyway, in what way are the daily rain risk of 40% and its breakdown of 20% over 12 hours related? Can we trust the weather forecast’s statements anyway? This article will discuss the topic.


This country is situated in the southern part of the African continent, most of the interiors consist of high plains and the ocean that surrounded the country from three different side’s moderates the weather. Due to which the temperature remains warm. South Africa is also known for its warm sunshine and it somewhat a dry country. The rainy weather is most during the winters and that too in the Western Cape region. Other countries that are located in the same latitudes like Australia, South Africa mostly has a low temperature because of its located above the sea level. The average summer temperatures are 30 C/ 86 F and in winters the temperature falls below the freezing point. The warmest areas in winter are the coastal regions. There is a huge difference between the east and the west coast, as the warm Agulhas currents sweep the eastern coast and the cold Benguela sweep the western coast. The hottest month in Cape Town is Jan and the average high temp is 26 degrees C /78 F and the coldest month is July and the average low temp is 8.3 Degrees C/47 F. Durban summer temp in Jan is 28 C / 82.4 F and in winters the temp is 11C/51.8 F. similarly in Johannesburg the summer temp in Jan is 26C/78 F and in winters temp is 4 C/39 F in the month of July. This country is blessed by four main seasons and they are:
• Summers are mostly from mid – Oct to mid – Feb and are usually warm and sunny and few thunderstorms take place but clear quickly. The Western Cape has a Mediterranean type of climate and receives rainfalls in winters.
• Autumn is from mid – Feb to April and it get warm as this region receives very less rainfall but it is an ideal time for touring this country.
• Winters are mostly from May to July and the days are chilly and the nights are colder and it snows in the mountain region of the country.
• Spring lasts from Aug to mid – Oct and the weather is usually warm which attracts lot of tourists from all over the world who come and enjoy the flower festivals that take place in the western and northern cape.


The Meteorological Service has discontinued the Flash Flood Watch for low-lying and flood-prone areas of St. Ann, St. Mary, Portland, St. Thomas, Kingston, St. Andrew and St. Catherine with immediate effect.
The pre-frontal Trough and Cold Front that have been influencing weather conditions across Jamaica have drifted to the east, away from the island. Satellite imagery and rainfall data indicate that conditions have improved significantly throughout today; hence the potential for flooding no longer exists.
A Trough however, is expected to move across Jamaica on Thursday and bring a significant increase in rainfall, which could continue into Friday. More information on this Trough will follow in subsequent News Releases and Forecasts.


I am pleased to announce that the Kanzelhohe Observatory for Solar and Environmental Research (KSO) is now the Regional Warning Center (RWC) Graz.
KSO provides space weather forecasts of high-speed solar wind streams and geomagnetic activity, as well as real-time detection and alerting of solar flares. They have ongoing effort to forecast solar energetic particle events and to detect automatically Earth-directed filament eruptions.
KSO is Austria's designated space weather service provider, and that have a variety of capabilities that will strengthen ISES. You can access their web site at: www.spaceweather.at.
Welcome RWC Graz to ISES.


Droughts, Wildfires vs. Hurricanes, Floods
Mother Nature is flexing her muscles all at once in response to decades of carbon pollution in the atmosphere. The United States is a good example. The nation is being punished by droughts in the West, while the Southern and East Coast are suffering a constant deluge. People are raising their voices for climate action after decades of denial and disinformation. Unfortunately, we are in defense mode. Most scientists concur that if we stopped all carbon emissions today, global warming and climate change will continue to accelerate. It’s time to pull out every tool in the box, but resilience is now priority one. safe food and water supplies for an overpopulated planet will continue to dwindle.
The problems in the American West are not unique. Rising populations and declining water supplies, in the face of record heat and record drought are proving to be an existential threat. The Dust Bowl a century ago drove millions out of the Midwest. That drought pales in comparison to the mega-drought scorching the American West today. According to most scientists, the situation isn’t likely to improve.
The past year has been the driest or second driest in most Southwestern states since record keeping began in 1895. Almost 75 percent of the American West is experiencing severe drought, which puts more than 57 million people in harm’s way. While the West has long experienced boom and bust cycles of precipitation, climate change is increasing the volatility and intensity of these cycles.
While drought and dry weather occur and vary naturally in the region, the increasing temperatures pushing the American West over the edge are human in origin. Some scientists suggest that the word drought is no longer accurate, because it implies that the water shortages may end. According to their analysis, the added heat and winds from climate change supercharged the drying process, making the current drought the second worst in the last 1,200 years. The Colorado and Rio Grande rivers are trickling compared to their long-term averages.
Thanks to global warming and climate change, we can’t rely on the past to predict the future.
Human-caused climate change, in tandem with human reshaping of the natural hydrological systems—by damming rivers, growing vast fields of crops, and more—have shifted the baseline conditions so thoroughly that there is no way to return to what used to be considered normal. Farms and cities have begun imposing water restrictions.
Today’s catastrophic conditions are influenced by many factors, including a La Niña that began last fall. A La Niña makes it more likely that Pacific storm systems curve northward toward the Pacific Northwest and Canada rather than California and the Southwest.
“It’s incredible, how much of the West is in extreme or exceptional drought right now, including much of the Colorado and Rio Grande basins, the two lifelines of the Southwest,” said Sandra Postel, Director of the Global Water Policy Project.
Summer temperatures in the Northern Hemisphere are now higher than they have been in the last 1,200 years. Climate change has bumped up average air temperatures 1.6 degrees Fahrenheit in the region in just the past 100 years, which evaporates more water from streams, rivers, lakes, reservoirs, plants and soil.
Read the full story about the worst drought to hit the American West in centuries.


What is a NOAA Weather Radio?
Quickly changing weather demands careful attention. Keep your family safe by staying tuned to NOAA Weather Radio -- it provides critical life-saving weather information when placed properly in your home.
NOAA Weather Radio (NWR) is the "Voice of the National Weather Service," a nationwide network of radio stations broadcasting continuous weather information direct from a nearby National Weather Service office.
NWR broadcasts National Weather Service warnings, watches, forecasts, and other hazard information 24 hours a day commercial free. NWR is an "all hazards" radio network, making it your single source for comprehensive weather and emergency information. NWR also broadcasts warning and post-event information for all types of hazards--both natural (such as earthquakes and volcanic activity) and environmental (such as chemical releases or oil spills).
Getting Better Reception Reminders
An external antenna may be needed if you are located more than 30 miles from the transmitter. Strobe lights, pagers, computers and text printers can be connected for the visually and hearing impaired.
Remember power outages can occur at any time, so be sure to keep a battery-powered radio handy. Go to www.nws.noaa.gov/nwr to find the nearest NWR transmitter.


Researchers have developed a connected air quality sensor that measures fine particulate matter (PM) in homes.
The US$200 Speck combines a particle sensor and machine-learning algorithms to gauge the level of so-called PM2.5 pollution in the air, which has been linked to disease.
Developed by Carnegie Mellon University's Robotics Institute, the sensor can provide information allowing users to make decisions about indoor ventilation and whether to install air filters.
The unit incorporates a tiny fan, particle sensor, color display and Wi-Fi connectivity so air quality data can be uploaded to a cloud server. The screen shows whether unhealthy levels of fine particles are present. The sensor data is hosted by CMU but users have control over how the information is shared.
"People and communities need to take back control of their air at home -- and it's very, very difficult today to measure true air quality in the home and act on it," Illah Nourbakhsh, a CMU robotics professor who developed the sensor, said via email.
Most home air monitors detect volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and carbon dioxide but not fine particulates, Nourbakhsh said, adding that the machine-learning algorithms are used to filter out noise from the sensor, which is relatively cheap.
Fine particles have been linked to illnesses including asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and heart problems. PM2.5 refers to particles less than 2.5 micrometers in diameter, about one-thirtieth the average width of human hair.
Nourbakhsh pointed to a recent study by researchers from the University of Chicago, Harvard and Yale which found that fine particulate matter pollution is reducing the life expectancy of more than half the population of India by three years or more.
In a trial, the Speck sensor was distributed to families in the area in and around Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania and one found that the sensor showed air quality was reduced when an air conditioner was on, exacerbating their daughter's asthma, Nourbakhsh said. Other alerts were triggered by construction or exhaust from a diesel generator.
Pre-orders are being taken for the Speck sensors, which will begin shipping in April.
Tim Hornyak covers Japan and emerging technologies for The IDG News Service. Follow Tim on Twitter at @robotopia.


Below are some photos of the Outer Banks after Hurricane Arthur hit July 3-4, 2014. Thankfully the storm moved fast and the towns of Nags Head, Kill Devil Hills, Kitty Hawk, Southern Shores, Duck, and Corolla are all fairing well with only a little wind damage.
The forecasts are in. Researchers from Colorado State University announced on Thursday their predictions for the 2014 Atlantic Hurricane Season, and the numbers look promising. The bottom line – the team expects only nine named storms, three hurricanes, and one major (category 3 or above) hurricane. On average, around twelve named storms are par for[Read More…]
It seems like much longer ago, but on October 29, 2012, Hurricane Sandy brought massive flooding and widespread damage to the Outer Banks. Below are some photos and videos from last year:


Today we had one of the special weather phenomena that leave you dumbfounded. Originally the name Khamsin comes from Egypt and describes a wind from the Sahara -- hot and full of sand. In our case it is more often a wind from the desert east of us that carry fine sand in the air.
The visibility today was almost as though there was a fog, a fierce wind was blowing and the temperature climbed almost 15C above what it was the previous day.
Driving back home in the afternoon, one could barely see the view few hundred meters ahead.
(Don't worry, I don't take pictures while driving, I had Inbar as a passanger and she gets the photo credits).
Coming home from work, I could feel the fine layer of dust on my laptop keyboard, which was standing in my office today.
Science wise, this type of weather has immediate implications. The dust carries micro-organisms that can pollute samples, it blocks air filters, and gets in the way of fine mechanisms.


The emission rates tell us what proportion of nitrogen
is released into the air as ammonia. As ammonia emissions from animal husbandry, manure storage and manure application originate to a large extent from soluble nitrogen, emission rates are given as a percent of the amount of soluble nitrogen (% TAN; Total Ammoniacal Nitrogen).
Furthermore, a certain amount of nitrogen applied as mineral or recycling fertilizer is also lost as ammonia. The emission rate is expressed as a percent of the amount of applied total nitrogen or soluble nitrogen. Finally, processes in plants and soil also result in ammonia emissions. The emission rate used is kg of ammoniacal nitrogen per ha of agricultural land.
The emission rates used in the model are outlined under Technical Description.


12-Oct-2012Heavy raincloud gangs congregating at Central Reserve
Rainclouds from numerous gangs have been seen converging on Central Reserve and using it as a place to meet and hang.
On any given cloudy and wet day forecast in Melbourne, rainclouds from at least four different gangs all seem to make a beeline for Central reserve in Glen Waverley and bump into each other from all directions.
Witnesses have seen clouds from the cumulus, cirrus, stratocumulus, cirrocumulus and most worryingly, the dangerous cumulonimbus cloud gang all meeting at the trouble-spot to hang with other clouds and cause a general nuisance.
The clouds seem particularly active on Saturdays, and once they set up camp over Central Reserve, are usually reluctant to be moved along.
Locals fear a cloud war starting up, with at least four different gang patches and colours been seen at different times, light grey, white, dark grey and black.
Local councillor Bryan McSnuff said the recent cloud activity might have something to do with the skate park located at the corner of Central Reserve.
â€œWe know troubled youth have been known to congregate near and around skate parks, it might be no different with these water-bearing clouds,â€ he said.
However Channel 7 weatherman David Brown said the answer to why the clouds from all over the metro area like to head straight to the area was more likely a meteorological one.
â€œCentral Reserve lies in that eastern suburban strip that rain clouds are most attracted to,â€ he said.
â€œIt has got to do with the wind patterns, topology and all sorts of things that have rain clouds sucked into that eastern strip in front of those Dandenong mountain areas.â€
A nasty looking dark cloud that didnâ€™t want to be identified told the RCC website that Central Reserve was â€˜THEâ€™ place to be for cool clouds.
â€œOh yeah man for shaz!â€, the cloud said.
â€œWe like that little strip over Centrals man, itâ€™s where the wind blows us in from four different directions, yiieeeewwwww! We can just hook up with other clouds and hang, maybe have a skate and drop our loads level 10 style yiiieeewww! Epic as!â€
It seems the local residents and Richmond Cricket Club are stuck with having to sit back and watch as these clouds from all directions slide into the Glen Waverley strip to meet, chill and hang whenever thereâ€™s a rainy day forecast, leaving other areas of Melbourne left to deal with just the odd passing shower or teasing drop.
Return to the list of Snapper's Musings.


Much of the south east is expected to received heavy rain this afternoon, with the Met Office warning drivers to watch out for flash flooding.
Rainfall of up to 40mm - nearly half of the usual rainfall for the entire month of November - has been predicted.
The Met Office has issued a yellow severe weather warning, stating: “A spell of heavy rain is expected to affect parts of southern England during Friday and early Saturday.
“The public should be aware of the risk of localised flooding.”
A low pressure zone, currently forming over the Atlantic, is expected to drift close to southern England this afternoon, bringing the expected rain with it. Winds of up to 50mph are also predicted in coastal areas.