The importance of soil carbon sequestration in reaching NetZero 2050
In our many conversations around the office kitchen table, as well as in our lectures and presentations in Australia and abroad, one of the biggest recurring themes is the relationship between soil health and climate change.
As our CEO is also an author on land degradation and climate change, we allowed ourselves to grab the following extract, with a few edits, from Philip Mulvey and his daughter Freya’s book Ground Breaking: Soil Security and Climate Change. The basic tenet in this book underpins all that we seek to achieve at Carbon Count.
A number of scientists worldwide, including hydrologists, meteorologists and soil scientists, believe the greatest anthropogenic impact on climate change is not CO2 emissions, but the land use changes we have made, especially how we practice agriculture. Our research has brought us to the same conclusion.
Reaching zero emissions alone won’t stop the Earth heating up. In our presentations and conversation , our aim is to broaden the discussion around what remains the most pressing problem of our time: what is causing climate change?
The answer is heat. And what causes and contributes to generating excess heat is at the heart of solving our human–made climate catastrophe.
Excess heat starts with land use change and its impact on soil security. Securing our soils is crucial to preserving the clean water we drink, the food we eat and the air we breathe. It is integral to preserving our biodiversity and the ecological sustainability of our environment, as well as regulating our climate.
Soil security and climate change are the defining emergencies of our time, and the two are intimately connected, in Australia and globally.
What we continue to stress whenever we promote soil carbon farming practices, is that our landscape practices are as important to climate change as atmospheric processes, of which greenhouse gases, GHGs, are only one.
The key to carbon dioxide’s (CO2) strong influence on climate is its ability to absorb heat emitted from our planet’s surface, preventing it from escaping out to space. CO2 and the other GHGs do not in and of themselves generate heat. While GHGs are an important component of climate change, their outsized influence is responsive, not causative.
It all starts with the sun shining through our atmosphere warming the Earth’s surface (as shown in Figure 1 above). Heat emitted from the sun is solar radiation. When solar radiation, the sun’s energy, reaches Earth, some of it is absorbed by the atmosphere, land and ocean, and the rest is reflected back into space as infrared radiation.
Svante Arrhenius (1859-1927) found that rather than infrared radiation escaping back into space, some was being trapped by GHGs and re–emitted in all directions. That is, GHGs are partly transparent to incoming solar radiation and only reflect a portion of the outgoing infrared radiation back as it is exiting the atmosphere. Some of the re–emitted infrared radiation does escape to space, but the rest further heats the earth’s atmosphere, or is absorbed by the land, and the majority, over 90 per cent, is adsorbed by the oceans.
The greenhouse effect is a natural physical process. It is necessary for human survival; without it the Earth’s average surface temperature would be too cool. The problem arises when excess heat is absorbed by the land, oceans and atmosphere.
Excess heat to the atmosphere is in part due to the enhanced greenhouse effect, when emissions from human activity contribute more heat–absorbing gases in the atmosphere. Increased concentrations of GHGs in the atmosphere in the last 50 years is not natural and contributes to additional warming of the Earth’s surface.
However, while what is regulating the earth’s atmosphere is multifaceted, principally it is a two-step process: a heat source and a blanket.
In concentrating on GHGs, which act as the blanket, investigation and understanding of the heat source has largely been forgotten. The ultimate heat source is the sun’s energy which is foremost absorbed by the land. GHGs are not the heat source, but the blanket that only traps outgoing infrared radiation.
The heat source for GHGs to reflect then, is what the land does with solar radiation. Increasing the size of either the way the land processes solar radiation to create infrared radiation or the volume of GHGs in the atmosphere, increases global atmospheric heat. Increasing the size of both accelerates the heat rise, having a compounding effect.
Greater investigation and concerted effort directed to addressing the first element of the process, the heat source, and what alters the heat source, is critical to mitigating anthropogenic climate change.While carbon neutrality or decarbonisation are helpful in reducing the blanketing process, and thereby the acceleration of anthropogenic climate change, reaching net zero emissions will not reverse anthropogenic climate change if the source of the infrared radiation is not also reduced.
Reducing CO2 and other GHG emissions alone will simply not be enough. What seems to be missed so often, by scientists and lay people alike, is that the key factor of anthropogenic climate change arises as a result of the increased heat of the Earth’s surface caused by our land-management practices.
The state of our land changes how heat is absorbed, emitted and processed, and consequently how heat affects atmospheric processes. Poor land management is the cause of excess heat, and GHGs trap and hold that heat. Sitting beneath it all, is soil. Soil plays a critical role in regulating the earth’s temperature. Soil is vital for life, from the smallest organisms to the planetary climate system. Soil is what holds life as we know it together.
Soil organic matter is 50 percent carbon. Carbon today is often misunderstood and wrongly demonised; it is a primary component of all known life on Earth. By glueing soil together, organic matter provides a home for microorganisms, feeds both micro– and macro–organisms, stores nutrients, resists pH change, and performs many other critical functions. On the macro scale, aerated organic–matter–rich soils protected by vegetation, propagate rainfall into the interior of continents. Soil provides the structure that underpins landscape resilience, and sick soil is a key and under-recognised aspect of climate change.
Through science the key role soil, land and landscape play in regulating our climate is increasingly being recognised in practices such as conservation agriculture, regenerative agriculture and natural-sequence farming. These land–management practices have demonstrated that it is possible to restore degraded land and in so doing restore the small water cycle (when water which evaporates over land returns to the same land in the form of precipitation; locally derived rain). However, the connection between soil as a key environmental function and climate change is less well known and understood.
Soil provides the structure that underpins landscape resilience, but the health of the soil beneath our feet is not obvious, and this lack of awareness results in management practices which degrade soil. Degraded soil drastically increases infrared radiation, a primary driver of climate change. Soil health also has a critical impact on precipitation, as degrading soil health diminishes the small water cycle.
Climate change is initially and almost primarily controlled by loss of precipitation from continents. As such, global temperature rise is an inadequate measurement of climate change. Our research suggests measurement of precipitation loss predates agreed measurable global temperature increase by at least 20 to 30 years.
We at Carbon Count have made it our mission to regenerate landscape and thereby reverse anthropogenic climate change and reinvigorate agricultural communities through soil carbon farming practices. If you would like to find out more about the power of soil carbon sequestration or would like to understand whether your land is suitable for a soil carbon project, reach out and someone from our team will be in touch.
Postscript: A book shop release of Phil’s and Freya’s book is due out later this year.


This storyboard does not have a description.
Sun radiation passes through the atmosphere, some of it is reflected from the earth and sent back to space
most of the radiation is kept in the air by greenhouse gasses caused by human activity
greenhouse gasses are caused by pollution coming from most transport, factories etc. Too much ghg can cause the earth to absorb more radiation than average.
When sun radiation passes through the earth it can cause changing weather patterns that affect many countries that are common to natural disasters
A large amount of greenhouse gasses can also rise the temperature.
As the temperature increases, rising sea levels are caused by melting icebergs which effects the plant and animal species.
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Lagos, Lagos, Nigeria - Monthly weather averages including average high and low Temperature, Precipitation, Pressure, Wind Charts to assist you in planning your … This page gives the highest temperature for each year in Melbourne and the date that it happened. Nigeria Source: Globocan 2018 Summary statistic 2018 Males Females Both sexes Population 99 277 846 96 597 394 195 875 239 Number of new cancer cases 44 928 71 022 115 950 Age-standardized incidence rate (World) 89.1 119.4 103.8 Risk of developing cancer before the age of 75 years (%) 9.8 12.5 11.1 Number of cancer deaths 28 414 41 913 70 327 Age-standardized mortality rate (World) 60.4 … On March 30th, Bahrain International Airport recorded a maximum temperature of 37.6°C (99.7°F)—the third highest daily maximum temperature for March since 1946, behind 29 March 1998 (38.1°C / 100.6°F) and 19 March 1966 (38.0°C / 100.4°F). The 1901–2000 average combined land and ocean annual temperature is 13.9°C (57.0°F), the annually averaged land temperature for the same period is 8.5°C (47.3°F), and the long-term annually averaged sea surface temperature is 16.1°C (60.9°F). England had its third driest June on record, with several locations across southern England experiencing their driest June in over 100 years. The position of Nigeria's highest point has been marked. 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However, 2018 was just shy of reaching the 1.0°C (1.8°F) mark at 0.97°C (1.75°F). Nigeria has overtaken India as the country with the largest number of people living in extreme poverty, with an estimated 87 million Nigerians, or … Precipitation totals across the Island of Fiji were average to well above average in February, with only 3 of 24 stations experiencing drier-than-average conditions. Over the course of 24 hours, the “coolest” that the air reached was a sizzling 42.6 degrees Celsius (108.7 degrees Fahrenheit) – a new record for Highest “low” temperature. From 2001 to 2010, Nigeria had the fourth highest of GDP growth rate in the world. The stations Nabouwalu (632.4 mm), Udu Point (546.1 mm), Matei Airfield (717.2 mm), and Monasavu (1200.5 mm) set new record high precipitation totals for the month of October since records began in 1918, 1946, 1956, and 1980, respectively. As for minimum temperatures, the national minimum temperature for March was 2.9°C (5.2°F) above average, tying with 1969 as the highest on record. The yearly temperature for North America has increased at an average rate of 0.12°C (0.22°F) per decade since 1880; however, the average rate of increase is more than twice (0.29°C / 0.52°F) as great since 1981. Nigeria - Highest recorded Temperature(C) Nigeria - Highest recorded Temperature(F) Knoema is the most comprehensive source of global decision-making data in the world. The daylight hours vary little, and the temperature differences between summer and winter are also lesser. Our tools allow individuals and organizations to discover, visualize, model, and present their data and the world’s data to facilitate better decisions and better outcomes. The record year was set in 2013 at +1.25°C (+2.25°F). A savanna climate, with marked wet and dry seasons, prevails in the north and west, while a steppe climate with little precipitation is found in the far north. Soc., 78, 2837-2849. Moolman took over as MTN chief in 2015 following the devastating $1 billion fine imposed on the telecommunication giants for SIM card infractions by the Nigerian government. Potiskum, Yobe State in the northeast of Nigeria recorded Nigeria’s lowest ever temperature of 2.8 °C (37.0 °F). In a month, 3 mm of precipitation is recorded. Top 10 Hottest Countries in Africa 2018. Read More. Nigerian children made up the highest number of those who died, with an estimated 162,000 deaths in 2018 – 443 deaths per day, or 18 every hour. Amer. France has hit its highest recorded temperature - 45.9C (114.6F) - amid a heatwave in Europe that has claimed several lives. At night the average minimum temperature drops down to around 24°C, that's 75°F. Although it was very wet across Fiji, several stations (Monasavu, Udu Point, Nabouwalu, Matei Airfield, and Vanubalavu) had more than three times their monthly normal rainfall totals. The increase is 0.26% points higher than the 12.56% recorded in June 2020, according to a report published on Monday, August 17. Lagos, Nigeria: Annual Weather Averages February is the hottest month in Lagos with an average temperature of 29°C (84°F) and the coldest is July at 25°C (77°F) with … Inland there are two different seasons. Published 27 June 2019. Asia's trend during the 1910–2018 period was +0.14°C (+0.25°F) per decade; however, the trend is a little over double during the 1981–2018 period (+0.33°C / +0.59°F) per decade. Exports in Nigeria averaged 466401.69 NGN Millions from 1981 until 2020, reaching an all time high of 2648881.76 NGN Millions in December of 2011 and a record low of 322.93 NGN Millions in February of 1983. Several storms impacted France during January 2018. It was reported that Salalah, Oman, had a total of 328 mm (12.9 inches) in a 36-hour period from May 24–25, 2018—this is over twice the annual average precipitation of 130 mm (5.1 inches) for the city. Also, as discussed below, extreme precipitation and drought events occurred across the world. According to KMA, many locations across South Korea set new maximum August temperature records. A disputed record temperature of 48.5°C was measured on 10 August 1999 in, The lowest unofficially measured temperature in Slovenia was recorded at. The previous records was set in 2000 (99.1 mm / 3.9 inches). The nation's mean maximum temperature was 4.9°C (8.8°F) above average and the highest for March since 1946, surpassing the previous record set in 1969 and again in 2008 by +0.8°C (+1.4°F). Oceania, as a whole, had its third warmest year on record at 1.15°C (2.07°F) above average. This was the highest temperature over a five-day period for April since 1960. Lagos, Nigeria: Annual Weather Averages. Humidity is equal to 22%. License: CC BY-4.0 Line Bar Map. Average temperature: Average daily (24h) temperature per month. The years 2014–2017 comprise South America's four warmest years on record, with 2015 the record warm year. The following information was compiled from previous NCEI monitoring reports and public reports by National Hydrometeorological Services (NHMSs; peers of the U.S. National Weather Service). Africa's annual temperature has increased at average rate of 0.10°C (0.18°F) per decade since 1910; however, it has almost tripled to 0.28°C (0.50°F) since 1981. 2018 > December > Nigeria ranks highest in Africa with tuberculosis, drug resistance cases. Geophys. Peterson, T.C. Record warm temperatures were measured across much of Europe and the Mediterranean Sea, the Middle East, New Zealand and surrounding ocean, and across parts of Asia, the Atlantic Ocean and the western Pacific Ocean. Vose, 1997: An Overview of the Global Historical Climatology Network Database. Above-average precipitation was observed across the Kingdom of Bahrain in October 2018. Temperature reached on multiple occasions; this is the most recent. Nine of the 10 warmest years (listed below) have occurred since 2005, with the last five years (2014–2018) ranking as the five warmest years on record. The post Highest Paying Banks in Nigeria 2018 appeared first on Prime Time News.. Banks Currently Recruiting In Nigeria 2018: Banks Recruiting Now, List of highest paying banks in Nigeria 2018. Lagos, the capital of Nigeria, is located on the Atlantic coast of the country. The yearly global land and ocean temperature has increased at an average rate of 0.07°C (0.13°F) per decade since 1880; however, the average rate of increase since 1981 (0.17°C / 0.31°F) is more than twice as great. Tweet. The ongoing Boko Haram conflict in the northeast, cycles of communal violence between pastoralists and farmers, and separatist protests in the south defined Nigeria’s human rights landscape in 2017. Here are the Top 9 Highest Paying Jobs in Nigeria 2018 #1 Pastoring Pastoring is one of the highest paying jobs in Nigeria 2018. Similarly, Kevo, Finland had a maximum temperature of 33.4°C (92.1°F) on the same day. The aim of this post is to address and guide interested applicants’ pursuing a career in the banking industry in Nigeria. Germany's 2018 mean temperature was also the highest since records began in 1881 at 10.4°C (50.6°F), which is 2.2°C (4.0°F) above the 1961–1990. Passing clouds. The following table lists the global combined land and ocean annually-averaged temperature rank and anomaly for each of the 10 warmest years on record. The Gulf of Mexico and the Hawaiian region's 2018 temperature were both the third highest on record. Nigeria - 27 January 2016 - Copy. According to the World Meteorological Organization, Norway set a new national maximum temperature record when temperatures soared to 33.5°C (92.3°F) on 17 July in Badufoss. Post published: December 23, 2018; Post Author: PSNYPG; Christopher Macek is the Chief Executive Officer (CEO) of SystemOne, a health technology company creating tools for disease diagnosis and intelligence for rapid detection and control. “In Nigeria, 19 per cent of child deaths were due to pneumonia in 2018, and it was the biggest killer of children under-five in 2017,” Acting UNICEF Representative in Nigeria, Pernille Ironside said. and R.S. Tasmania and the Western Australia were the only regions with above-average precipitation at +12% and +43%, respectively. Also Show. Smith, T.M., and R.W. As a matter of fact, you don’t need a soothsayer to know that Nigerians appreciate religious leaders a lot. Nigeria’s imports of pharmaceuticals appreciated by 182.5%. In Umuahia, the wet season is oppressive and overcast, the dry season is muggy and mostly cloudy, and it is warm year round. The Caribbean region had its coolest year since 2012, while the Atlantic Main Development Region had its coolest year since 2001. National records began in 1973. Climate. The 2018 temperature for Asia as 1.26°C (2.27°F) above average and the seventh highest in the 109-year record. Of note, the Akaroa station had a total of 240 mm (9.4 inches) of precipitation for the month, which is 455% of normal and the wettest February on record. According to a 2018 report by the World Bank, almost half the population is living below the international poverty line ($2 per day), and unemployment peaked at 23.1%. Cyclone Mekunu, the tenth tropical cyclone in the Arabian Sea in the last 11 years, ranked as the fourth strongest cyclone over the Arabian Sea. Nigeria - Nigeria - Climate: Nigeria has a tropical climate with variable rainy and dry seasons, depending on location. Meteorol. August 2018 was South Korea's warmest August on record with a national mean temperature of 27.3°C (81.1°F), which is 2.2°C (4.0°F) above average. From 1880 to 1980, a new temperature record was set on average every 13 years; however, for the period 1981–2018, the frequency of a new record has increased on average to once every three years. On 30 April, temperatures at Shaheed Benazirabad (Nawabshah) soared to 50.2°C (122.4°F), marking Pakistan's warmest April maximum temperature on record. Of interest, Nauders in Tyrol (western Austria) had a monthly total of 163.0 mm (6.4 inches) for January 2018, resulting in the highest precipitation total since records began in 1896. Bahrain's International Airport had a monthly precipitation 19.9 mm (0.8 inch), which is 40 times more than the monthly average of 0.5 mm (0.02 inch) and the highest October precipitation total at this location since 1902. Bahrain's March 2018 mean temperature was 24.6°C (76.3°F), which is 3.6°C (6.5°F) above average and resulting in the highest mean temperature for March since national records began in 1902. Reynolds (2005), A global merged land air and sea surface temperature reconstruction based on historical observations (1880-1997), J. A heat wave, characterized by its unprecedented intensity and duration, affected Europe from April 18–22. Label. It is hot and wet most of the year in the southeast but dry in the southwest and farther inland. Well, let’s keep you out of suspense below are the top 10 hottest countries in Africa 2018. The 1910–2018 trend for Oceania was +0.11°C (+0.20°F) per decade; however, the trend is twice that during the 1981–2018 period (+0.21°C / +0.38°F) per decade. A date with a plus sign means it was that hot on at least one other day earlier that year. As indicated by the Global Percent of Normal Precipitation and Precipitation Percentiles maps below and as is typical, many stations were wet for the year, while many stations were dry. Averages are for Niagara Falls International Airport, which is 7 miles from Niagara Falls. Global Measured Extremes of Temperature and Precipitation. Smith, et al (2008), Improvements to NOAA's Historical Merged Land-Ocean Surface Temperature Analysis (1880-2006), J. This page gives the highest temperature for each year in Melbourne and the date that it happened. This study investigates impacts of cloudiness on surface radiation budget and temperature from 1983 to 2018 in Nigeria, West Africa. NiMet’s Weather Outlook by its Central Forecast Office (CFO), on Monday also predicted day and night temperature of 28 to 35 and 18 to 27 degrees Celsius respectively. Climate., 21, 2283-2293. The highest monthly temperature departure for Europe is February 1990 at +3.91°C (+7.04°F). The warmest month is March with an average maximum temperature of 37°C (98°F). Minimum temperatures were also exceptionally warm, with Norway, setting a new warm national minimum temperature when temperatures dropped only to 25.2°C (77.4°F) on 18 July. ETHIOPIA; his country is known as the hottest country in Africa. Share 10. The global ocean-only surface temperature was also the fourth highest on record at +0.66°C (+1.19°F). These records go back to 1856. The nation's maximum (daytime) temperature ranked as the second highest at 32.2°C (90.0°F). A few showers. Disease outbreak - Lassa fever - Nigeria - 23 March 2018. The town of Dallol holds the record for having the average annual temperature. The Niger and the Benue Rivers showed on the map are the major rivers of Nigeria. While Nigeria has made some progress in socio-economic terms in recent years, its human capital development remains weak due to under-investment. It is the 2,419 m high Chappal Waddi. The national precipitation total was 80% above average and the wettest January since 1959. Unlike in Europe or the USA, there is almost no difference between the seasons. July’s headline inflation is the highest since 13.34% was recorded in March 2018, and is the 11th straight month that inflation consistently rose. Mexico had its driest July on record, receiving only 83.8 mm (3.3 inches), which is 60% of July's long-term average (1941—2018). During 2018, 11 of 12 monthly global land and ocean temperature departures from average ranked among the five warmest for their respective months, giving way to the fourth warmest year in NOAA's 139-year record. The coldest month is August with an average maximum temperature of 27°C (80°F). Now Africa’s biggest economy, Nigeria covers 92.4 million hectares and 53 per cent of the population lives in rural areas. According to the World Meteorological Organization's Weather and Climate Extremes Archive, Africa's highest maximum temperature of 55.0°C (131.0°F) was set in Kebili, Tunisia in July 1931. The previous record of 49.2°C (120.6°F) was set on 22 April 2017. In recent times the highest recorded temperature in December has been 35°C that's 95°F, with the lowest recorded temperature 19°C, about 67°F. According to the World Meteorological Organization, the reported temperature is currently under investigation. The national average precipitation total was 48.5 mm (1.9 inches), which is 150% of June's normal. Many locations set new high maximum (daytime) and minimum (nighttime) temperatures for the month. This value exceeds the previous record set in 2014 by 0.07°C (0.13°F). If you’ve ever found yourself struggling in a heatwave, spare a thought for the residents of Quriyat in Oman. Much-warmer-than-average conditions were present across Europe for most of 2018, with eight of 10 months ranking among the three warmest respective months on record. The national mean January 2018 temperature for New Zealand was 20.3°C (68.5°F), which is 3.1°C (5.6°F) above the 1981–2010 average. A heat wave affected eastern and central Pakistan from mid- to late-April. During the 21st century, the global land and ocean temperature departure from average has reached new record highs five times (2005, 2010, 2014, 2015, and 2016), with three of those being set back-to-back. None; Aggregates; Same region; Similar values; Highest values; Lowest values; Share Details. Temperature: 74 °F: 74 °F: 94 °F: 79 °F: 76 °F: 75 °F: 94 °F: Haze. Nigeria accounted for the highest proportion of cases globally (27%), followed by the Democratic Republic of the Congo (10%), India (6%) and Mozambique (4%) . Quayle, R.G., T.C. The southern Atlantic coast is bordered by mangrove forests and swamps. January 2018 was Austria's wettest January since 1982 at 170% of normal January precipitation. NIGERIA ENERGY SECTOR OVERVIEW. Nigerian flag (sciencekids.co.nz) A Western African nation surrounded by Benin, Chad, Cameroon and Niger, the Federal Republic of Nigeria shipped US$53.6 billion worth of goods around the globe in 2019. Ono-I-Lau set a new record for maximum daily total precipitation, recording a total of 270.7 mm (10.7 inches) on February 13, surpassing the previous record of 198.4 mm (7.8 inches) set in 2017. The cool season lasts for 1.6 months, from December 9 to January 29, with an average daily high temperature below 91°F. Fifty-nine per cent, approximately 105 million Nigerians, are under the age of 35. The country is green . Two extra-tropical cyclones impacted New Zealand during February 2018, resulting in significant precipitation totals. Passing clouds. The previous record of 24.2°C (75.6°F) was set in 1969. In the last fifteen years, only three years (2007, 2014, and 2017 [wettest year on record]) had above average conditions. Throughout the month of December daytime temperatures will generally reach highs of around 31°C that's about 87°F. Near the coast temperatures rarely exceed 32 degrees Celsius (90 degrees Fahrenheit), but humidity is very high and nights are very hot. Only four months have had a nationwide temperature exceeding 2.0°C (3.6°F), including February 2016, May 2016, and December 2017. The years 2015–2017 each had a global temperature departure from average that was more than 1.0°C (1.8°F) above the 1880–1900 average, which is a period that is commonly used to represent the pre-industrial conditions. Nigeria i… However, several locations across the nation set new precipitation records. Nigeria is the largest economy in sub-Saharan Africa, but limitations in the power sector constrain growth. At the beginning of January you can expect lower temperatures, the average highest temperature … Country/Region Lowest temperature Town/Location Date ... Nigeria 46.4 °C (115.5 °F) … Diseases & Conditions. The best month to swim in the sea is in March when the average sea temperature is 29°C (84°F). Lett., 26, 333-335. In Lagos, it is about 31 to 21 degree Celsius in January with the northern parts having the highest rate of up to 42 degree Celsius before the drops of rain in may/june ... Nigeria. Temperatures during March 2018 were 9.0°–12.0°C (16.2°–21.6°F) above average and were similar to temperatures observed typically at the end of May or early June. The coldest month is December with an average maximum temperature of 29°C (84°F). According to Meteo France, at least seven countries (Iraq, United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Turkmenistan, Pakistan, Uzbekistan, and Tajikistan) set new national March temperature records. Over the course of the year, the temperature typically varies from 66°F to 87°F and is rarely below 59°F or above 90°F. February is the hottest month in Lagos with an average temperature of 29°C (84°F) and the coldest is July at 25°C (77°F) with the most daily sunshine hours at 10 in December. Averaged separately, the global land-only surface temperature for 2018 was 1.12°C (2.02°F) above the 20th century average—the fourth highest annual temperature since global records began in 1880. The average maximum temperature for the nation during the five-day period was 26.2°C (79.2°F), which is 9.7°C (17.5°F) above average. This might just be the highest temperature ever reliably measured on the planet during April. Some locations had near-record precipitation totals, such as Provence - Alpes - Cote d'Azur and Corsica, which had their second wettest March on record, behind 2013. On month-on-month basis, the headline index increased by 1.25% in […] "Continental Weather & Climate Extremes: Based on World Meteorological Organization Defined Regions", "Servicio Meteorólogico Nacional (Argentina)", "Brasil tem novo recorde histórico de calor", "En Bío Bío se registró temperatura máxima de la historia de Chile", "Quillón tuvo hoy la temperatura más alta de la historia de Chile: 44.9 grados a la sombra", Con 1,2 grados bajo cero en Asunción, la ola polar llegó para quedarse, "Valores extremos históricos climatológicos de la red de estaciones", Programa de Capacitación Para la Estimación del Riesgo, "50.5 °C – W.A. The years 2015–2017 each had a global temperature departure from average that was more than 1.0°C (1.8°F) above the 1880–1900 average, which is a period that is commonly used to represent the pre-industrial conditions. Oman observed its highest minimum (nighttime) temperature on record when temperatures dropped to only 42.6°C (108.7°F) in Quriyat on June 26. Much of Western Australia's precipitation was associated to tropical cyclone Kelvin, which brought moderate to heavy rain. Of note, Christchurch and Hokitika had their warmest January since records began in 1863 and 1866, respectively. April 2018 was also exceptionally warm across eastern and central Pakistan. What Was The Lowest Temperature Ever Recorded In Nigeria? More sun than clouds. ", Hottest air temperatures reported on Earth, "World Meteorological Organization Assessment of the Purported World Record 58°C Temperature Extreme at El Azizia, Libya (13 September 1922)", Hottest Reliably Measured Air Temperatures on Earth, "Republic of Armenia Third National Communication on Climate Change", "Water Resources of the Azerbaijan Republic", "Temperature in Tetulia hits 50-year low", "Bangladesh records highest temperature 42.2 degree Celsius in last 14 years", "Cambodia Sees Record Low Temperatures Reach Record Lows History", https://www.chinatimes.com/newspapers/20180123000102-260309/, "Sixteen National/Territorial All-Time Extreme Heat Records Set in 2015", "Summer in Drass, India's coldest inhabited place", "BMKG Sebut Suhu Dieng Terdingin se-Indonesia Benarkah Capai 11 Derajat Celcius? Bird International Airport", "New absolute minimum of air temperature", "WMO Region IV (North America): Lowest Temperature", "Principales indicadores del clima, año 2015", "WMO verifies −69.6°C Greenland temperature as Northern hemisphere record", "Greenland witnessed its highest June temperature ever recorded on Thursday", "Datos metorologicos de los departamentos", "National Climate Extremes Committee: Existing Records", "Doubts Cloud Death Valley's 100-year Heat Record", "World Meteorological Organization Global Weather & Climate Extremes Archive". However, 2018 was just shy of reaching the 1.0°C (1.8°F) mark a… That dollar amount reflects a 10.7% increase since 2015 and a 1.3% uptick from 2018 to 2019. Temperature in Niger decreased to 29.70 celsius in August from 32.03 celsius in July of 2013. Of note, Seoul broke a 111-year record with a monthly maximum temperature of 39.6°C (103.3°F). World Bank national accounts data, and OECD National Accounts data files. June is the most wet month. 's Highest Ever Temperature", "New record for New Zealand's coldest day", "Carl Walrond. Overall, the 2018 European average temperature departure from average was the highest on record at 1.78°C (3.20°F) since continental records began in 1910. Depending on the season, the average daytime temperatures range between 30 and 37 degrees. Continental/Hemispheric records in 2018. Nigeria is a source, transit, and destination country for women and children subjected to trafficking, including forced labor and forced prostitution.Trafficked Nigerian women and children are recruited from rural areas within Nigeria - women and girls for involuntary domestic servitude and sexual exploitation, and boys for forced labor in street vending, domestic servitude, mining, and begging. During 2018, 11 of 12 monthly global land and ocean temperature departures from average ranked among the five warmest for their respective months, giving way to the fourth warmest year in NOAA's 139-year record. The following is our report on global mean temperature during 2018. Top 5 Highest Oil Producing States in Nigeria 2017/2018 Nigeria is a country that is blessed abundantly in terms of oil , mineral resource, and agriculture . The year 1998 is the only year from the 20th century among the ten warmest years on record, currently tying with 2009 as the ninth warmest year on record. The five warmest years for Africa have occurred since 2010. Benin City has a tropical climate. The air temperature in January in Nigeria during daylight hours varies within +32 °С (90 °F), and at night the thermometer's column drops to +21 °С (70 °F). Argentina's 2018 temperature was 0.34°C (0.61°F) above average, resulting in the ninth warmest year since national records began in 1961. 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A train and an Amtrak car collide in Slidell
Several days to come. Good. Crow time is 647 and it’s back to weather close to home with Derek Sibley and Derek. As you look outside this morning, will it be very warm today or not? Yes, it will definitely be warm there. Darryl. And we’re also talking about very cloudy weather conditions here at the same time. And that’s exactly what we started with a look directly outside and you can see a little bit on the foggy side here. This morning. In addition to the cloud cover in the satellite image, you can see a lot of cloudy weather moving in there from the west. So there’s a lot where that came from. This is expected to limit sunlight throughout the day. today. Our current temperatures, meanwhile, are currently in the upper 60s to lower 70s. Good morning Kenner, you are at 70 degrees and the lake front is at 72 degrees. Also 72 degrees now in SLIDEL at 69. However, in Belle Chasse. But today I expect everyone to warm up into the mid 80s to 70s off the coast. But it will probably be mid-80s closer towards the North Shore. As far as visibility goes, it looks a little blurry in some spots, especially for you guys out there along the North Shore, but it looks like it should start to clear up by the time we get around 9:00 or so, we can see something Another shows a slight round of some patchy fog. But I think a lot of this will be concentrated toward the Mississippi Gulf Coast. But either way, some patchy areas of fog are definitely a possibility tomorrow morning over southeast Louisiana before it clears by about 10:00 or so tomorrow morning. Overall, the weather forecast today is 83 degrees. Lots of cloud cover, very warm too, with a light southerly breeze contributing to the warm temperatures. Out south at 10 to 15 mph. Now taking a look at the bigger picture, you can see that we’ve got those warm southerly winds coming out of the Gulf. Not only does this help increase temperatures, but it also helps increase humidity and humidity which leads to cloud cover here for us to work with all day long. today. This will continue as we head into tonight as well. I’m also watching this approaching cold front to the west, ahead of it. Some showers and a couple of thunderstorms that will move in our general direction. So, if there are some slight chances of rain, it could be a possibility for us to work heading into tomorrow evening. Otherwise, expect a mainly cloudy and warm day ahead of that frontal boundary as it moves through. Now, behind that cold front, we are expected to see some cooler, drier air masses moving inland. This will start as we head into Wednesday. The overcast skies will clear here as we head into the afternoon on Wednesday. When cold, dry air begins to move in from the north, we expect this cold and dry air mass to remain through the middle of the week. But also, we’ll take you into the latter part of the week here as well. Not only will it be colder, it will be drier again, and plenty of sunshine will see a broad area of high pressure develop throughout the rest of this week here, and even more so in the latter part of the week. However, once that clears, we are looking at another round of moisture that could bring about some cloudy skies as we head into this weekend. I’m also watching another cold front move back to the west. Long-term indicators are that there will be no starters in dealing with us much. In fact, it could dissipate before it reaches southeast Louisiana
A train and an Amtrak car collide in Slidell
Slidell Police are currently on the scene of an accident that occurred between an Amtrak train and a car at the intersection of Goose Street (Highway 190) and Front Street (Highway 11). The railroad crossing at Gause Blvd and Front Street has reopened. SPD says the rail crossing arms are damaged and there is no time frame for when they will be repaired and it wants drivers to be careful when using the crossing and check both directions for approaching trains. This is an ongoing investigation.
Slidell, Los Angeles —
Slidell Police are currently on the scene of an accident that occurred between an Amtrak train and a car at the intersection of Goose Street (Highway 190) and Front Street (Highway 11).
The railroad crossing at Gause Blvd and Front Street has reopened.
SPD says the rail crossing arms are damaged and there is no time frame for when they will be repaired and it wants drivers to be careful when using the crossing and check both directions to make sure trains are approaching.
This is an ongoing investigation.


2 edition of Exchange of information concerning atmospheric pollution in the European Community found in the catalog.
Exchange of information concerning atmospheric pollution in the European Community
|Series||Environment and quality of life|
|Contributions||Commission of the European Communities. Directorate-General Environment,Consumer Protection and Nuclear Safety., Enex Group.|
The IMO track record in minimizing pollution from ships, both into the seas and oceans and into the atmosphere, speaks for itself. The Organization is fully committed to working through its member States and with its partners to continue to develop, maintain and implement a set of global regulations to ensure shipping's sustainable use of the. Air pollution. Air pollution occurs in many forms but can generally be thought of as gaseous and particulate contaminants that are present in the earth’s atmosphere. Chemicals discharged into the air that have a direct impact on the environment are called primary primary pollutants sometimes react with other chemicals in the air to produce secondary pollutants.
The International Cooperative Programme on Effects of Air Pollution on Materials, including Historic and Cultural Monuments performs quantitative evaluations of the effect of major pollutants on the atmospheric corrosion of important materials and assesses the trends and costs of corrosion and pollution. The information will assist countries in. They persist for long periods of time in the environment and can accumulate and pass from one species to the next through the food chain. To address this global concern, the United States joined forces with 90 other countries and the European Community to sign a groundbreaking United Nations treaty Exit in Stockholm.
Pupils conceptualise air pollution as presence of harmful substances into the atmosphere. From years on they appreciate that air is polluted with ‘extra gas(es)’, ‘fumes’, or ‘smoke’, some of them identifying specific pollutants such as CFCs, carbon monoxide and dioxide, sulphur dioxide, and nitrogen oxides (Batterham et al. Atmospheric depositions of heavy metals have been assessed using an emission-based modeling approach and an atmospheric transport model in OSPAR (Nijenhuis, Van Pul, & De Leeuw, ). Generally, atmospheric deposition of heavy metals in the Bay of Biscay is a minor source in comparison with riverine and other sources (e.g., dumping, erosion).
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GENDER: A USEFUL CATEGORY OF HISTORICAL ANALYSIS.
Exchange of information concerning atmospheric pollution in the European Community. Annual report EUR EN UNSPECIFIED () Exchange of information concerning atmospheric pollution in the European Community.
Commission of the European Communities (O.J. Cpage 3 e.s., 20 December ) provision was made for the creation of a procedure for the reciprocal exchange of informations between surveillance and monitoring networks for atmospheric pollution caused by sulphur compounds and suspended particulates. The annual report 86 concerning the exchange of information on atmospheric pollution in the European Communities is presented in this document.
This report aims at presenting the content of the exchange of information as required by the Council Decision 82//EEC. Covering the period October 85 to Septem it summarizes and. The annual report 85 concerning the exchange of information on atmospheric pollution in the European Communities is presented in this document.
This report aims at presenting the content of the exchange of information as required by the Council Decision 82//EEC. Covering the period October 84 to Septem it summarizes and. Exchange of information concerning atmospheric pollution in the European Community.
Annual report EUR EN. Exchange of information concerning atmospheric pollution by certain sulphur compounds and suspended particulates in the European Community. Annual report for January to December EUR EN.
Consequently, pollution of our atmosphere remains a critical concern, warranting continued scientific investigation and the development of effective local and global solutions. ‘The World Atlas of Atmospheric Pollution’ clearly and engagingly summarises current understanding of the state of air pollution on city to global scales.
Air pollution in urban areas is generated by transport, industry and energy production. But it is not only a visual or olfactory problem, but also one of the main health risks in theaccording to the World Health Organization, air atmospheric pollution is responsible for the premature death of 7 million people each year.
Air pollution is a local, pan-European and hemispheric issue. Air pollutants released in one country may be transported in the atmosphere, contributing to or resulting in poor air quality elsewhere. Particulate matter, nitrogen dioxide and ground-level ozone, are now generally recognised as the three pollutants that most significantly affect.
Air pollution harms human health and the environment. In Europe, emissions of many air pollutants have decreased substantially over the past decades, resulting in improved air quality across the region. However, air pollutant concentrations are still too high, and air quality problems persist.
A significant proportion of Europe’s population live in areas, especially cities, where. This book is comprised of 16 chapters and begins with an overview of atmospheric pollution, its causes, and prevention. The next six chapters deal with fuels, furnaces, and fires, with emphasis on natural solid fuels including coal, mineral oils and gases such as petroleum and natural gas, and artificial fuels like charcoal, alcohol, and water gas.
The remaining chapters focus on the. Investigations suggested the causes to be acidification of the ground and the water from atmospheric depositions of sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides - from mainly industrial sources - carried in the air over long distances.
The Convention on the Long Range Transport of Air Pollution was adopted in The Convention covers Europe and North. Sincean agreement among European countries to establish an exchange of data, collected from early atmospheric pollution networks, an increase of regulation have been put in place by the Community.
Consequently, the first and second European Community programmes set as first priority the fight against air pollution. Council Decision of 24 June establishing a common procedure for the exchange of information between the surveillance and monitoring networks based on data relating to atmospheric pollution caused by certain compounds and suspended particulates.
Atmospheric Pollution is a theme which is becoming increasingly important as the discussion on global warming becomes ever more relevant. This textbook introduces the different concepts of Atmospheric Pollution and also introduces the reader to the underlying principles of physics and chemistry, which are constants in this discussion.
Air pollution is the introduction into the atmosphere of chemicals, particulates, or biological materials that cause discomfort, disease, or death to. Industrial and community wastewater: Industries like mining, iron and steel, pharmaceuticals, food processing, soap and detergent and paper and pulp.
Agricultural sources, thermal pollution (discharge of hot water by thermal power plants cause deficiency of dissolved oxygen in water) and underground water pollution.
The Atmospheric Pollution Problem ; 2. Nature, Sources and Effects of Pollution ; 3. Air Pollution Control Strategies ; 4. Pollution Control in the United States of America ; 5. Pollution Control in the United Kingdom and the European Community ; 6.
Approaches to Pollution Control in Socialist Countries ; 7. Get this from a library. Atmospheric pollution. [Wilfrid Bach] -- This text concentrates on specific air pollution problem areas. Chapters are structured to include a descriptive section which introduces the bulk of the information available concerning the specific.
Pollution The present-day atmosphere is quite different from the natural atmosphere that existed before the Industrial Revolution (circa ), in terms of chemical composition. If the natural atm osphere is c onsidered to be “clean”, then this m eans that clean air cannot be found anywhere in today’s atmosphere.
The recently published study shows, based on the available information, that traffic (25%), combustion and agriculture (22%), domestic fuel burning (20%), natural dust and salt (18%), and industrial activities (15%) are the main sources of particulate matter contributing to cities’ air pollution.
However, there are significant differences.Thermodynamics and motion in the atmosphere are introduced with respect to air pollution, including its effects on climate, photosynthesis, gas exchange, and other earth processes.
Formaldehyde is provided as an example on how to characterize the human health risk .In the first, a general information on gaseous air pollution, parameters used to characterize the pollution level and equipment applied for air monitoring and analysis is presented.
Finally, the mobile monitoring system (MMS), as an example of a new approach for air monitoring along communication lanes, proposed by the authors is described.


Did you know that solar panels have a positive impact on the environment? Solar panels benefit our planet in several ways, including reducing carbon emissions and preserving natural resources. In this blog post by Samir H Bhatt of SHB Advisors , we’ll explore three ways solar panels positively impact the environment. Keep reading to learn more!
Solar panels have a positive environmental impact by minimizing greenhouse gas emissions. Greenhouse gases, like carbon dioxide and methane, trap heat in the atmosphere and cause the Earth’s average temperature to rise.
This global warming can lead to drastic changes in our climate, including more extreme weather events and rising sea levels. Solar panels greatly reduce the number of greenhouse gases emitted into the atmosphere, so they play an important role in mitigating climate change.
In addition to their environmental benefits, solar panels are also a cost-effective way to generate electricity. According to Samir H Bhatt, solar panels are becoming an increasingly attractive option for homes and businesses as technology continues to improve.
Traditional power plants rely on coal or natural gas to generate electricity. Burning these fossil fuels releases harmful pollutants into the air, including carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide.
These pollutants can then fall back to the earth in the form of rain or snow, contaminating waterways. Solar panels, on the other hand, do not release any pollutants into the atmosphere.
As a result, they can help to reduce water pollution by preventing contaminants from entering waterways in the first place.
In addition, solar panels can also help to save water by reducing the need for cooling at power plants. By switching to solar power, we can help create a cleaner and healthier environment for all.
The positive environmental impact of solar panels is twofold. First, they help reduce strain on finite energy sources, such as fossil fuels. Solar panels work by converting sunlight into electricity. You can then use this electricity to power different homes and establishments.
This means that we can rely less on coal and oil and instead use a renewable resource that is abundantly available. Second, solar panels also help to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
Burning fossil fuels releases harmful gases into the atmosphere, contributing to climate change. By using solar panels, we can generate electricity without emitting these pollutants. According to Samir H Bhatt, solar panels offer a cleaner and more sustainable option for powering our world.
Samir H Bhatt’s Concluding Thoughts
Solar power has several environmental benefits, some of which are outlined above. These benefits include reduced greenhouse gas emissions, less dependence on fossil fuels, and reduced water usage. According to Samir H Bhatt, installing solar panels can help you take a step towards being more environmentally friendly and reduce your carbon footprint. Have you considered going solar? If not, maybe these environmental impacts will persuade you to make the switch.


A chemistry professor has found a way to trigger the process of photosynthesis in a synthetic material, turning greenhouse gases into clean air and producing energy all at the same time. The process has great potential for creating a technology that could significantly reduce greenhouse gases linked to climate change, while also creating a clean way to produce energy.
The findings of his research are published in the Journal of Materials Chemistry A . This work is a breakthrough,” said UCF AssistantProfessor Fernando Uribe-Romo. “Tailoring materials that will absorb a specific color of light is very difficult from the scientific point of view, but from the societal point of view we are contributing to the development of a technology that can help reduce greenhouse gases.”
Uribe-Romo and his team of students created a way to trigger a chemical reaction in a synthetic material called metal–organic frameworks (MOF) that breaks down carbon dioxide into harmless organic materials.
Think of it as an artificial photosynthesis process similar to the way plants convert carbon dioxide (CO2) and sunlight into food. But instead of producing food, Uribe-Romo’s method produces solar fuel. The video below highlights this groundbreaking invention.
It worked and the chemical reaction transformed the CO2 into two reduced forms of carbon, formate and formamides (two kinds of solar fuel) and in the process cleaning the air.
“The goal is to continue to fine-tune the approach so we can create greater amounts of reduced carbon so it is more efficient,” Uribe-Romo said. He wants to see if the other wavelengths of visible light may also trigger the reaction with adjustments to the synthetic material. If it works, the process could be a significant way to help reduce greenhouse gases.
“The idea would be to set up stations that capture large amounts of CO2, like next to a power plant. The gas would be sucked into the station, go through the process and recycle the greenhouse gases while producing energy that would be put back into the power plant.”
Perhaps someday homeowners could purchase rooftop shingles made of the material, which would clean the air in their neighborhood while producing energy that could be used to power their homes.


Last year's winter is still something to talk about, especially since this one appears to be looming large already. IISG's climate specialist Molly Woloszyn took the helm of the Staerkel Planetarium in Champaign, IL last Friday to sum up last winter's story, which was one for records.
Will the polar vortex return this winter? Molly told the crowd that NOAA Weather Service forecasts an equal chance of this winter being warmer or cooler than average in the Midwest.
Illinois-Indiana Sea Grant brings together scientists, educators, policy makers, community decision makers, outreach specialists, business leaders, and the general public to work towards a healthy environment and economy. IISG is funded through NOAA, the University of Illinois and Purdue University.


November 22, 2017, by Susan Lim
New flows of chemical pollution in the Asian atmosphere
Research by Dr Matthew Ashfold, an Associate Professor in the University of Nottingham Malaysia’s (UNMC) School of Environmental and Geographical Sciences (EGS), has brought to light a form of trans-boundary air pollution which has important implications for the Southeast Asian region. In contrast to the familiar ‘haze’, this phenomenon occurs during the Northeast Monsoon season (between November and February) and the key pollutants identified are not obviously visible.
The new research focuses on pollution originating in the rapidly industrialising region of East Asia centred on China. Under certain conditions, these pollutants can travel over just a few days to equatorial regions around Malaysia. The mechanism, first identified by Dr Ashfold and colleagues in an article in 2015, is linked to so-called ‘cold surges’, which occur regularly during the northeast monsoon season, lead to cold weather in East Asia, and strong winds from the north that flows into the South China Sea. Two articles published in recent months add more detail to this story.
The first of these articles looked at the impact of this mechanism on air quality in Malaysia and the surrounding region and showed that levels of ozone – a pollutant that is damaging to both humans and plants – were significantly elevated during cold surges. In much of Southeast Asia, and particularly in areas away from cities, breaches of the World Health Organization’s guideline value for ozone occurred mainly during these episodes. The impact of pollutants emitted in East Asia on air quality in North America has been studied for a long time, and this finding shows countries in tropical Southeast Asia are also similarly affected by this source of pollution.
The second study, led by Dr David Oram at the University of East Anglia in the UK as reported on by the BBC focused on a different category of pollutants which can damage the stratospheric ozone layer. In contrast to ozone at the surface, which is considered a pollutant, ozone found in the stratosphere has a very positive impact on life on Earth. The ozone layer absorbs harmful ultraviolet radiation in the Sun’s rays before it can reach the surface, and most chemicals known to damage it – such as CFCs – are now regulated under the Montreal Protocol. This study reported surprisingly high levels of unregulated chlorine-containing pollutants in air samples collected across the region, both at the surface and from aircraft. Further, the research showed these pollutants mostly originate in East Asia, and once transported to the tropics, can be lifted by widespread thunderstorms towards the ozone layer.
According to Dr Ashfold: “These two examples of long-range, trans-boundary transport of atmospheric pollution add to growing knowledge of the processes at work in the fascinating Southeast Asian atmosphere and their relevance for global environmental issues. As with the well-known haze episodes, they also underscore the international nature of environmental problems. In these circumstances, countries will only find effective environmental solutions by collaborating with their neighbours.”
For more information, please contact Dr Matthew Ashfold


Welcome to RTS Weather Station
Welcome to the official web site for the ATSC/RTS weather station. To learn more about ATSC, the weather station and Kwajalein, click here.
Detailed information about our products and the systems that produce them, along with archived information and links to other interesting sites are provided. Near real time radar, satellite and forecasts are also available.
Feel free to email us with any questions or comments.
by RTS Chief Meteorologist Joel Martin
While this year's weather seems unique, the weather of 2015 is much like 1997 in several respects. Both were significant El Niño years; both had increased Monsoon Trough activity spreading well east of Kwajalein Atoll, past the Dateline; and research by former Chief Meteorologist Mark Bradford revealed that this is the first time Kwajalein has experienced west winds like this since 1997. In 1997 there were 45 consecutive days of nearly 20-knot winds.
Warming the Ocean--Photo by J.David Martin
El Niño is the warming of the sea surface along the Pacific Equatorial waters. Why does El Niño happen? Why does it change so many weather patterns? Quite simply, the Earth has to manage an energy budget. The tropics are the bullseye for the ceaseless blast of energy from the sun. About half that energy received is managed by the atmosphere and about half by the oceans. Both air and water are fluids and if you heat fluids, currents must develop because of Nature’s attempt to stay within the physical laws and balance the distribution of the energy. The Earth responds to the energy by setting up these complex currents, which, in turn, create nonlinear cycles in both the atmosphere and oceans. Nonlinear is a fancy term, meaning that it's not a straight relationship and much harder to predict, which usually means much, much more complex mathematics is involved.
One of those cycles the Earth creates in this energy management process is El Niño, which is caused by the periodic sloshing of the energy distribution back and forth across the Pacific Basin. Warmer water from El Niño warms the atmosphere, which enhances rising motions. Rising motions in the atmosphere mean a mass of air is being pulled from one place that must be replaced from someplace else. Replacing the displaced air creates winds. Thus, El Niño alters what is considered normal wind patterns. This alters the characteristics of the Monsoon Trough.
Himawari Water Vapor Image--Atmospheric Technology Services Company (ATSC)
What is a Monsoon Trough? The English version of the term monsoon appears to have originated in British India and referred to the changing wind. Changing wind often meant big rains would soon follow. Our military forces experienced the big Monsoon rains in Vietnam. A Monsoon Trough is simply a string of cyclonic circulation where wind patterns are converging at the surface and diverging high up to create upward motion and convective rains. Convection is the process of air going upward, cooling, condensing, and causing precipitation. Heat rises, water vapor rises, and when water vapor changes phase to liquid water it gives up heat to the atmosphere. So convection feeds upon itself to create a focus of heat and rising motion ... displacing air.
Screen Image from EarthDesk--An Apple Macintosh Application
2015 truly is wild, wet, and windy. The complex meteorology producing it is wondrous science. Kwajalein Atoll is at ground zero for climate change and part of the factory floor for manufacturing the strongest storms on the planet!
By Mark Bradford, RTS Weather, Chief Meteorologist
Tropical Storm Bavi was the first Tropical Cyclone to be present within 300 nautical miles of Kwajalein since Tropical Storm Talas in December 2004. TS Bavi produced a total of 10.65' of rain but did not set any records at Kwajalein; however it was unusual in a number of respects.
Tropical Cyclones in the Western Pacific are unusual in March, with TS Bavi being the 6th recorded system near Kwaj in the month since 1944 (four Tropical Depressions, two Tropical Storms). TS Bavi was the first time Tropical Storm strength winds (sustained wind speed of at least 39 mph) were recorded at Kwajalein in March, since 1944.
TS Bavi did not have a normal Tropical Storm wind profile at Kwajalein. Usually, winds start low and increase as the Tropical Storm approaches, reaching Tropical Storm strength for 30-45 min with a definitive peak, then decreasing rapidly as the system moves away. TS Bavi did not do this; instead, long periods of strong Tropical Depression winds were measured at Kwajalein, with a few brief bursts to Tropical Storm levels.Tropical Storm Bavi Winds Recorded at Bucholz AAF, Kwajalein
While TS Bavi was not remarkable in its wind pattern at Kwajalein, it had an unusually low pressure, even though the center of the storm was 97 nmi away from Kwaj. The station pressure at the RTS Weather station dropped to 997.2 mb between 3:00 and 3:18 pm on March 12, 2015. This was the third lowest pressure recorded at Kwajalein (the lowest was during TS Zelda in 1991, the next lowest during TS Roy in 1988).
TS Bavi's Development
A broad, elongated low pressure circulation developed in the southern Marshall Islands on the weekend of March 7-8, 2015. This, in conjunction with anomalously high pressure over the Central Pacific Ocean, created unusually strong Trade Winds over the central RMI. These trade winds created flow into the north side of the circulation that triggered a system of thunderstorms and caused heavy rains and a Small Craft Advisory at Kwajalein.
The Joint Typhoon Warning Center (JTWC) began monitoring the RMI circulation on March 7th, but did not officially discuss it. They placed changing position fixes for the center of circulation over a large geographic area. When JTWC began mentioning the system, they rated its development chances as 'low'. At 6:00 PM (Kwaj local) on March 10, 2015, JTWC raised the chances for development of a Tropical Cyclone to 'medium', however, position fixes continued to jump greatly.
As the low pressure center intensified, Kwajalein's winds accelerated. A sustained wind of 39 mph, with a 45 mph gust, was recorded at 12:18 PM (Kwaj local) on March 11, 2015, but it was only a single event. JTWC changed the position fix of the circulation from near Kwajalein to more than 150 nmi SE of Majuro.
TS Bavi began to show spin in visible satellite images after 3 PM on March 11, 2015. We began detecting a rotation signature at extreme range on the KPOL radar just before 4 PM on the 11th. This rotation was detected more than an hour before JTWC issued a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert (TCFA) for the storm. During the evening of the 11th, TS Bavi tracked westward to Ailinglaplap Atoll, between Jeh and Airok islands. On March 12th, TS Bavi moved from Ailinglaplap Atoll to a point south of Ujae Atoll, with a closest point of approach about 97 nmi SW of Kwajalein.
JTWC issued a TCFA at 5PM on the 11th, but placed the system center south of Majuro, far from the rotation we were already seeing, 295 km SE of Kwajalein. A Tropical Storm Warning was never issued for Kwajalein by the National Weather Service office in Guam.Himawari Visible Satellite Image, TS Bavi, 8:01am, March 12, 2015 (Kwaj local)
A satellite image of TS Bavi from the morning of March 12, 2015, shows the system with respect to Kwajalein Atoll (image courtesy of NOAA). JTWC placed the center of the storm 97 nmi SSW of Kwaj.ASCAT Satellite Image of TS Bavi Winds, 10:00 AM, March 12, 2015 (Kwaj local)
A pass of the European METOP-A satellite captured winds at the ocean surface with its Advanced Scatterometer (ASCAT) sensor when TS Bavi was 70 nmi WSW of Namu Atoll. Tropical Storm strength winds were observed in the northeast quadrant of the storm, and to the south of the storm's center. It is quite unusual to get a satellite pass from this satellite, right where it is needed, when it is needed.
By 9AM, March 13, 2015, TS Bavi had moved to a location more than 300 nmi west of Kwajalein.
By Dustin Williams, RTS Weather
February 2014 has gone down in the history books as the wettest February for Kwajalein, in a precipitation record that dates back to 1945. 13.82" of rain was recorded at the Kwajalein Weather Station for the month, besting the previous record of 11.79" set in 2011. What is amazing about this total is that February is typically the driest month of the year, with an average rainfall of only 3.27". In fact, 13.82" would be about 2" above normal in October, the climatologically wettest month of the year. So, why was this February so abnormal?
The subtropical ridge is an area of high pressure that normally sits north of Kwajalein Atoll during the dry season. It creates a stable atmosphere in which the development of precipitation is difficult. However, when the subtropical ridge is displaced to the east, typically by mid-latitude flow that push it to the International Dateline and beyond, the monsoon trough in Micronesia may become established in the southern Marshall Islands. This feature may be stationary and heavy rainfall around it can persist for days. While this pattern occurs over the region in other months, it had not occurred in February since 1944.
The graphic below shows the meteorological pattern just described. The subtropical ridge ("A") is well northeast of Kwajalein Atoll, displaced from its typical location near of Wake Island. The circulation ("C") centered near Chuuk anchors the monsoon trough (dashed line), which extends to the east through Kosrae and into the southern Marshall Islands. Kwajalein Atoll sits on the northeastern side of the trough, in an area where northeast winds meet east to southeast winds. The convergence of these winds produces long-lasting, widespread, heavy rainfall, which is what we recorded on more than one occasion this February.
Kwajalein Weather Factoids (previously published in the Kwaj Hourglass as "Weather Balloons")
What is nocturnal instability? (5/13/2014)On clear nights, light showers will often pop up overnight and dissipate by mid-morning. What causes this to happen? It is a phenomenon we call "nocturnal instability".
After sunset, radiational cooling occurs in the lower atmosphere, especially when there is little to no cloud cover. At the same time, air at the ocean surface does not cool as much because the water itself cools very little. Water has a higher specific heat than air; that is, water requires more energy to heat and, inversely, more slowly releases heat that it has absorbed.
The air at the surface rises into a lower atmosphere which is now cooler than it was before, thanks to radiational cooling. The rising air is more positively buoyant, so its upward motion is enhanced. When warm, moist air rises, and rises at a faster rate, clouds and rain showers form.
In the morning, a few hours after sunrise, the heat of the sun warms the lower atmosphere more rapidly than the ocean surface, which reduces the positive buoyancy of rising air and effectively cancels the nocturnal instability. Most of the showers rain out and low-level cloud cover dissipates.
Why are rain drops different sizes? (7/6/2014)Rain drops come in a variety of different sizes. Drizzle and mist are characterized by very small drops; heavy rain is compromised of large drops. Even within a single rain shower, we find a distribution of rain drop sizes, or a drop-size distribution, that runs the gamut from roughly 0.5 mm to 5 mm in diameter. Why is this? To understand drop-size distribution, we must first understand the formation of cloud and rain drops.
Obviously, precipitation starts with a cloud. Cloud drops form by the condensation of water vapor on tiny particles called condensation nuclei - these can be salt, dust, soot, etc. The nuclei come in a range of sizes, and thus cloud drops start that way, as well. Cloud drops collide and coalesce, forming larger cloud drops and widening the spectrum of cloud drop size.
Eventually, some of the cloud drops exceed 0.5 mm in diameter and become classified as rain drops. As the rain drops continue to collide and coalesce, they become too heavy to be suspended by upward motion and fall to the ground. Heavier rain typically comes from clouds with stronger upward motion, so the rain drops have spent more time colliding and coalescing, and are therefore larger.
To summarize, we see a range in rain drop size because 1) there is a spectrum of size for condensation nuclei, the building blocks for cloud and rain drops, and 2) the rate of coalescence is variable. Another consideration is that rain drops sometimes break apart as they fall to the ground.
Dry October (11/1/2013)October 2013 was the driest October on record, dating all the way back to 1945. Only 4.17" of rain was measured at the Kwajalein Weather Station, easily breaking the previous record of 5.04" set in 1969.
Statistically, October 2013 was approximately two standard deviations below the average of 11.83".
When Will the Doldrums End? (9/1/2013)"Day after day, day after day,
We stuck, nor breath nor motion;
As idle as a painted ship
Upon a painted ocean." - Rime of the Ancient Mariner
September is the month of Kwajalein's lowest normal wind, averaging 9 mph. However, long periods of doldrums are unusual. This year, Kwajalein has had an extended period of doldrums which began in August and has continued into mid-September. Doldrums like these last occurred in 2006, when they didn't break until the end of October. In September 2006, the mean wind speed was 5 mph, the lowest in the last 30 years.
Did someone kill an albatross? Look for the doldrums to break by the end of October.
Noon Shadows Vanish At Kwajalein in August (8/1/2013)At Kwajalein, the sun is located on the north side of the sky during late spring and early summer.
The sun makes the transition from the north side of the sky to the south in August and will be directly overhead on two days and very close to overhead for several weeks.
Sun overhead (slightly north): 8/31/2013 - 12:50 PM Sun overhead (slightly south): 9/01/2013 - 12:49 PM
Place a can or some other object on the ground while the sun is overhead, you'll see it has no shadow.
Watch the shadow of an object on the ground between 11AM and 2PM, you'll see it vanish, and then reappear.
Quick Facts About El Niño At Kwaj (8/21/2012)In El Niño, the sea surface temperature in the Pacific Ocean near the equator is at least 0.5 C warmer than normal.
An "El Niño Watch" from the NOAA Climate Prediction Center is now in effect. This means sea surface temperatures have become warmer than usual and an El Niño is likely to occur by Sep 2012.
The Last El Niño: Was from Jun-Jul-Aug, 2009 to Mar-Apr-May 2010. This El Niño "modoki" had little effect on us.
A Previous El Niño: From Jun-Jul-Aug, 2004 to Dec-Jan-Feb 2005 spawned Tropical Storm Talas which tracked within radar range of Kwajalein.
The Strongest El Niño since 1944: Was from Apr-May-Jun 1997 to Mar-Apr-May 1998. Typhoon Paka tracked within radar range of Kwajalein during it.
Our last four tropical cyclones (Roy 1988, Zelda 1991, Paka 1997, and Talas 2004) occurred during El Niño conditions.
Due to El Niño, at Kwaj, expect higher than normal rain in Sep, Oct, and Nov followed by a drier than normal dry season in 2013.
40th Anniversary of Kwajalein's Wettest Day - 16/17 December 1972 (12/12/2012)Violet formed near Majuro as a Tropical Depression on Dec 12, 1972. The system moved north to Maloelap Atoll, east of Kwaj, where it became a weak Tropical Storm. By the time the storm turned west towards Kwajalein it had weakened to a Tropical Depression. Very light rain fell at Kwajalein between midnight at 6 am on Dec 16, 1972. Between 6am Dec 16 and 6am Dec 17, rain fell, the likes of which had never been seen since US Army soldiers captured the island in 1944, or has been seen since.
At total of 17.15" of rain fell in that 24 hour period. The second highest rainfall was a mere 8.82" on June 2, 1995.
Six hour rain totals at Kwajalein for December 16-17, 1972:
12am - 6am: .08"
1972 was a very strong El Niño year, and the ITCZ trough was very active and persistent over the Marshall Islands throughout the rainy season.
Hourglass Weather Balloon 2011 Index:
February Rainfall Record Shattered
Does the new record mean 2011 will be a wet year? 50/50 chance. In years with the ten wettest Februaries, five had "above normal" annual rainfall and five were "near normal".
Why was Feb so wet? To be answered in a coming article.
March Tropical Cyclones near Kwajalein (within 300 miles).5 total since 1950. Georgia in 1951, Wilda in 1955, Rita in 1969, Freida in 1981, and Mamie in 1982.
Typhoon: 126 mph, Typhoon Georgia, March 1951 - During La Nina conditions. Georgia formed just east of Kwajalein and moved east, was at maximum intensity east of Maloelap Atoll. Georgia did not cause Tropical Storm strength winds at Kwaj.
Four Tropical Storms: 1 in La Nina, 1 in El Niño, 2 in normal conditions.
March maximum rainfall: 24.33", 1951 - due to Typhoon Georgia. March maximum wind: South at 39 mph in 1999, were thunderstorm winds, not a tropical storm.
The last March Tropical Cyclone was 29 years ago.
2011 is a La Nina year. Ocean temperatures are slightly above normal near Kwaj for the week 1-7 March.
Kwajalein Tsunami Records21.6 inches: Mar 11, 2011; Sendai, Japan; Mag 8.9 - Rank #5
15.0 inches: May 22, 1960; Valdivia, Chile; Mag 9.5 - Rank #1
11.8 inches: Mar 9, 1957; Andreanof Is, AK; Mag 8.6 - Rank #13
9.8 inches: Nov 4, 1952; Kamchatka, USSR; Mag 9.0 - Rank #4
9.4 inches: Jul 14, 1971; Solomon Is; Mag 7.9 - Doublet
9.4 inches: Jul 26, 1971; Solomon Is; Mag 7.9 /
7.9 inches: Oct 13, 1963; Kurile Is, USSR; Mag 8.5 - Rank #16
5.9 inches: Mar 28, 1964; Prince William Sound, AK; Mag 9.2 - Rank #2
No Tsunami was detected at Kwajalein for the #3 and #6 ranked earthquakes - Indonesia 2004 and Chile 2010.
Noon Shadows Vanish At Kwajalein in AprilAt Kwajalein, the sun is located on the north side of the sky during late spring and early summer.
The sun makes the transition from the south side of the sky to the north in April and will be directly overhead on two days, and very close to overhead for several weeks.
Sun overhead slightly South: 4/12/2011 - 12:49 PM Sun overhead slightly North: 4/13/2011 - 12:49 PM
Place a can or some other object on the ground while the sun is overhead, you'll see it has no shadow.
Watch the shadow of an object on the ground between 11AM and 2PM, you'll see it vanish, then reappear.
Do April Showers Bring May Flowers at Kwaj?,\p>
Spring rains of April are famous in the United States. But what about Kwajalein?
April is a transition month at Kwaj as the dry-season ends and tropical rains start to return.
The normal rainfall for April is 7.63", though 20.09" fell in 1971, and the severe drought of 1983 saw only 0.20".
The return to rainy season weather brings the chance of waterspouts. Have you seen one?There have been eight official waterspout sightings at the Kwajalein Weather Station since 2000:
Aug 28, 2000
Sept 21, 2001
Sept 28, 2001
Oct 29, 2001
June 24, 2004
Sept 9, 2006
Oct 13, 2007
Mar 25, 2008
There have been at least three other, unofficial, sightings of waterspouts on Kwajalein since March 2008.
Unlike tornadoes, waterspouts typically form in weak wind situations under moderately developed cumulus clouds, and dissipate quickly over land. There are two types of waterspouts: Kwajalein waterspouts are like "dust devils", usually weak and ephermeral, though they can become strong enough to damage small storage buildings; outside of the tropics there are tornadic waterspouts, these are tornadoes over water and are as dangerous as any other tornado, however Kwajalein never experiences them.
Well developed waterspouts may contain a small area of dangerous wind shear and should be avoided.
IS IT GOING TO RAIN TODAY?The probability of precipitation, or PoP, is the most confusing part of a weather forecast. What does it mean?
A "measurable" amount of rain is 0.01". The forecast is for a 12hr period. The probability is for any point in the forecast area.
So, the precipitation forecast is the statistical probability that a measurable amount of rain will fall in the forecast area during the forecast time period. The forecast is composed from two statistics, certainty that precipitation will form or move into the area, and the areal coverage of that precipitation.
If there was a 100% certainty that precipitation will exist over the forecast area and cover 10% of it, the PoP is 10%.
What does it take to get a 100% PoP? 100% certainty and 100% areal coverage.
Categories describe the PoP:
PoP Category Example
80-100% Showers, Rain "Showers today."
60- 79% Likely, Numerous "Showers likely tonight."
30- 59% Chance, Scattered "Scattered showers tomorrow."
20- 29% Widely Scattered, Slight "Widely scattered showers overnight."
10- 19% Few, Isolated, Slight "A few showers today."
0- 9% No mention of precipitation.
And, yes, it is going to rain today.
June 20-26, 2011 is Lightning Safety Week - Lightning MythsMyth: Lightning never strikes the same place twice.
Fact: Lightning often strikes the same place repeatedly, especially when it comes to a tall, isolated object. The Empire State Building is struck nearly 100 times per year, a sailboat on the open ocean will act in the same manner to attract a lightning strike.
Myth: Rubber tires on a car, and rubber-soled shoes, protect you from lightning by insulating you from the ground.
Fact: Most cars are safe from lightning, but it is the metal roof and sides that protect you, not the rubber tires. This does not apply to golf carts. Nor does it apply to tennis shoes, as current from a nearby lightning strike can still travel through the ground and into legs and body.
Myth: If you are in a house, you are safe from lightning.
Fact: A house is a safe place to be during a thunderstorm as long as you avoid anything that conducts electricity. This means staying away from corded phones, electrical appliances, TV cables and video games, computers, plumbing, metal doors and even windows with attached A/C units. It is also advised to not lean directly on BQ or old housing walls, as brick and concrete have the ability to conduct electricity.
Myth: Structures with metal, or metal on the body, i.e. jewelry, attract lightning.
Fact: Height, pointy shape, and isolation are the dominant factors controlling where a lightning bolt will strike. The presence of metal makes no difference on where lightning strikes, so there is no need to waste time removing metal objects when lightning is close. Your time will be better spent seeking immediate shelter.
More Lightning Myths Can be found on-line at: http://stormhighway.com/lmyths.shtml
Kwajalein Atoll Lightning FactsAverage Annual Thunderstorm Days: 10
Peak Lightning Months: Sep, Oct
Average Dry Season Thunderstorm Days: 0
Number of Lightning Warnings Issued Jan to May 2011: 51
2011 had 25 lightning days during the "dry season".
Lightning struck the Kwajalein Hospital on 1/29/2011 and did damage. Most dangerous place in a lightning storm? The Family Pool. Why? People do not pay attention to warnings there and cannot hear the phone during swim meets.
Low lightning strike density and low population density does not mean you are safe. Don't be the first person to die in a lightning strike at Kwajalein Atoll. Find shelter during lightning warnings, especially when you hear thunder or see lightning.
June 20-26, 2011 is National Lightning Safety Week
WARM KWAJALEIN RAINSAt Kwaj, clouds warmer than freezing may create rain. Those clouds look soft, ragged, and weak, how can they make rain? Tiny cloud drops collide and occasionally stick together. After millions of collisions, a drop may grow into a rain drop.
Diameter of a rain drop: .04-.12 inches Diameter of a cloud drop: .0004-.0019 inches Number of cloud drops in a rain drop: 1-3 million Time to make warm rain: 30 minutes
Is A Green Flash In Your Future?A few people at Kwajalein have been fortunate to see the Green Flash.
The Green Flash occurs at the first moments of sunrise or the last moments of sunset when unusual atmospheric conditions bend sunlight so that a pure emerald green color can be seen.
Usually the Green Flash is seen on coasts where the viewer can get high above the ocean so the air is warmer below them. This can't happen at Kwajalein, where you see the Green Flash at sea level. What conditions might make the Green Flash visible at Kwajalein Atoll?
The wind speed should be low, to decrease turbulent mixing of the air and give the atmosphere a better chance to form layers that can bend light. A recent light rain shower in the direction of the sun will cool the air a little and also help the air form scattering layers.
We are in a weather phase (transiting out of La Nina), which, historically, produces doldrums in July and August. You can hear a report of the current Kwajalein wind speed at 5-8161. Look for the Green Flash during doldrums (wind less that 8 knots) at sunrise and sunset, after showers have cooled the air; and remember to take a picture.
"Normal" Weather ShiftsMeteorologists redefine "Normal" weather every ten years. "Normals" are based on 30 years of measurements, which allows easy definition of "below normal", "near normal" and "above normal" weather conditions. For the past 10 years Kwajalein has used the 1971-2000 Normals, but in July, NOAA released the new 1981-2010 Normals. For Kwajalein, Normal Precipitation decreased, including a drop of more than 2 inches for May, Normal Temperature showed little change.
What caused the changes? The 1970s had several very strong El Niño episodes which caused high rainfall. Fewer weak El Niños occurred between 2001 and 2010 to replace the 1970s events in the new normals.
Kwajalein Precipitation Normals 1981-2010 (inches)
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Annual
Kwajalein Temperature Normals 1981-2010 (Fahrenheit)
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
Why Have We Had So Much Rain in 2011?Q: We are more that 21" above our normal rainfall for 2011. What's up with that? Is it El Niño?
A: Our wet February and March were caused by an unusual dry season weather pattern that created "shearlines" over the central RMI. That put our rainfall 17" above normal.
Since May 2011 we have been in a "neutral" or "transitional" El Niño situation, with near-normal ocean temperatures. Kwajalein often gets 20-30" of extra rain in the transitional years between La Nina to El Niño events. We were 2" below normal in April, so we've had another 6" above normal due to the transition out of La Nina.
An October WarningOctober is normally Kwajalein's heavy weather month. October has our maximum normal monthly precipitation with 11.83", and it has a high occurrence of lightning warnings, west wind warnings, and warnings for winds stronger than 35 kts.
The reason for this is the sun has been nearly overhead in our region since April, and the ocean has had time to warm, so a great amount of potential energy is available for creating thunderstorms. However, this year we are returning to a weak La Nina and our ocean temperature is a little cooler than normal. In October 2010 we had 20 weather warnings across the atoll. At Kwaj, beware the ides of October!
Strange Kwajalein CloudsKwajalein's tropical location creates a type of cloud that is never seen in the United States, Europe or Asia. The lower boundary of the stratosphere is very high here, and the air temperature just below it is very cold, -80 degrees Celsius. Clouds that are colder than -40C are made entirely of ice and the ice crystals in them are usually hexagonal (they have six sides). However, the cold air above Kwajalein allows an unusual trigonal ice crystal to form. You can sometimes detect these clouds because they will make a bright yellow corona around the moon at night, within one moon's width of the moon.
If you see a bright yellow ring right around the moon here at night, you are witnessing something special.
Take Cover When You Hear Thunder14 Lightning Warnings have been issued for Kwajalein or Roi-Namur since October 1, 2011.
Kwajalein has had a very active thunderstorm year in 2011 and it will continue until dry season weather appears. It is very important that people take cover during lightning warnings, especially when they hear thunder. People have remained at the pool or on the beach during these warnings, at great personal risk.
Please take cover during lightning warnings. If you hear thunder, do not stay at the pool or on the beach. Take cover in a building. Don't be the first lightning strike fatality at USAKA. It is not safe for children to play on the beach or at the pool during thunderstorms.


In For a Future I start off by explaining global warming. Climate Change or global warming is but one of the nine environmental thresholds on which the diversity of life in the Earth’s biosphere depends. According to the Stockholm Resilience Centre, of the nine planetary boundaries, four of the thresholds have been breached. In the case of global warming, CO2 in the atmosphere keeps the sun’s energy from leaving the planet. A warming planet causes the climate to change. Humans have emitted CO2 into the atmosphere for as long as they have used fire to meet their survival requirements. The Industrial Revolution greatly increased the direct and indirect energy individual humans consume to survive. Individual energy usage increased further in post-World War II societies that the consumers in today’s developed world take for granted. Most of the greenhouse gasses have been released since the last World War.
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