WEATHER-WARNING (BES5) - Pune, Oct 13 (PTI) Weather Warning(valid upto 0830 hrs IST of next day):
Contributed by NAMPA / PTI.
Day 1 (13th Oct ): Heavy rain is very likely at isolated places over Arunachal Pradesh, Assam and Meghalaya, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, Tripura, coastal Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, south interior Karnataka, Kerala and Lakshadweep.
Thunderstorm accompanied with lightning and gusty wind at isolated places is very likely over Assam and Meghalaya.
Thunderstorm accompanied with lightning at isolated places is very likely over Gangetic West Bengal, Odisha, Madhya Maharashtra, Marathwada, Vidarbha, Ch ...


CHSS Director - Canterbury needs cleaner air now!
12 March 2018
Clean air campaigners are mounting an aggressive effort to improve the Canterbury environment. With the backing of the city's MP Rosie Duffield, campaign group Clean Air met on Saturday 10 March to discuss air quality issues.
CHSS Director Professor Stephen Peckham, who is currently working with Dr Ashley Mills gathering data on air quality in Canterbury, told around 100 residents of the need for urgent action to campaign to reduce the levels of air pollution in the city: “we need to be thinking about what we can do ourselves to reduce pollution and create cleaner air for Canterbury”.
Ashley gave a highly engaging talk on the local air quality monitoring project.
Timothy Baker of King's College, London talked about the scientific risks of air pollution: "Pollutants you breathe in make it into blood system. One simple thing you can do is use back roads rather than major routes when you are walking."
Later this year, the Council publishes an Air Quality Action Plan for how residents and the authority can improve the city's environment.


Keep the following things in mind as you watch this animation.
1) As the energy becomes more transparent, it represents the energy being absorbed by either the atmosphere or the ground. The more transparent it appears, the weaker it is.
2) Scattering and reflection of insolation (albedo) are not represented in this animation. Only absorption and radiation are shown.
3) The Play button must be pressed to go to the next piece of the topic.
This animation represents an ongoing process of energy exchange. In the animation several parts of the process are shown.
- The INcoming SOLar radiATION can be seen
entering the atmosphere. The ultraviolet rays (UV) can be seen getting
mainly absorbed by the ozone layer in the upper atmosphere. The
infrared (IR) can be seen getting mainly absorbed by the water molecules and
Carbon dioxide in the lower atmosphere. The ground then absorbs what
is left. (remember the reflected part is being ignored).
- Terrestrial Radiation
- The ground actually radiates energy whose frequency is related to its temperature. The temperature of the earth causes it to radiate in the infrared (IR) range. Keep in mind this is different than reflection. The majority of these radiated infrared rays get absorbed by the water molecules and carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, making it mainly opaque to IR. The earth actually contributes more energy to the atmosphere than the sun does. A very small amount of the radiation from the ground actually makes it to space.
- Atmospheric Radiation
- The atmosphere radiates energy whose frequency is also related to its temperature. The temperature of the atmosphere causes it to also radiate in the IR. As you can see in the animation, a large portion of this radiation goes to the ground while the remaining portion radiates out into space. The amount of energy the atmosphere radiates to the ground is actually more than the amount of energy the sun radiates to the ground.
- Latent Heat
- Water vapor has more energy than water (liquid) at the same temperature. As a result, when water evaporates from the surface of the earth, it takes energy form the ground. When the water vapor in the air condenses to form water it gives the energy to the atmosphere.
These processes do not follow a step by step process, they are each ongoing and not directly dependant on any of the other steps. They are related over time, but not dependant. If the sun went away, as it does every night, water still evaporates and condenses, the ground still radiates heat and the atmosphere continues to radiate.
It is important to notice that there is a balance. For the earth the amount of insolation is equal to the outgoing radiation. The same amount of energy absorbed by the atmosphere will also be radiated by it. The earth also loses as much energy as it gains. If more energy was coming in, the temperature would rise which would cause more energy to be radiated out. The amount of outward radiation would continue to increase until the two became equal and the temperature again became constant. If less energy were coming in than was being radiated, the temperature would drop, which would cause less energy to be radiated. The earth would cool until the incoming and outgoing radiation again became equal.
- What is the Greenhouse Effect?
- The green house effect, as it applies to
the earth, is that the surface of the earth is warmer than it would be if
it had no atmosphere. Notice in the animation above that the
atmosphere contributes a considerable amount of energy to the
ground. Without the atmosphere it is estimated that the surface of
the earth would be on average 30�C cooler than it is now. To put
this in perspective, in the last ice age, the average temperature of the
earth's surface was only half a degree Celsius less than it is presently.
- Is the Greenhouse Effect good?
- Life as we know it would not be possible
without it. The Greenhouse Effect is different from global
warming. Global warming is the theory that due to a buildup of certain gasses in the atmosphere,
the Greenhouse effect would increase and cause the temperature of the
earth's surface to increase. The theory is sound, global
warming could happen. The question is, "Is it happening
now?" The data is still being collected to answer the
question. While we wait, we should do what we can to avoid the
buildup of these gases.
- Does the atmosphere behave like a greenhouse or a blanket?
- No. The methods by which an actual greenhouse or blanket warms is to limit the exchange of air (convection) between the inside and out. Greenhouses themselves are often incorrectly explained and then used to teach the Greenhouse effect. Diagrams similar to this one often show visible light coming from the sun passing through the glass. No problem yet. Then, long wavelength infrared (IR) rays are shown popping off the point where the visible light hit. Here is where the train wreck starts. The infrared waves are created because the surfaces in the greenhouse have a temperature, not because visible light hit that very spot. It is not a one wave creates one wave relationship. Now for the real catastrophe. The infrared waves are then shown to reflect off the glass back into the greenhouse. Glass, as well as just about everything else, is opaque and black to infrared. Infrared is absorbed by the glass not reflected. The glass, because it has a temperature will radiate infrared just like every other object in the greenhouse. Some will be radiated into the greenhouse and some will be radiated out of the greenhouse. The air is warmed both by the radiation (from the floor, tables, plants, and even the glass) and by contact (conduction) with the same objects.
For more information on the greenhouse effect visit the Bad Greenhouse Explanations page.


In addition to temperature and humidity, your sensor evaluates the relative air quality in your home by measuring total Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs). VOCs are emitted as gases from various household products and can lead to a degradation in indoor air quality. Based on VOC measurements, the Healthy Home Sensor calculates the level of equivalent Carbon Dioxide (eCO2), the shown in the app in particles per million (ppm). The Air Quality indication provided by the Healthy Home Sensor gives a relative measurement of VOCs and will alert the user to changes in the indoor environment. Long-term exposure to poor air quality can affect the health and comfort of those exposed.
Improving Indoor Air Quality
It is important to adequately ventilate rooms whether occupied or not. Opening windows and being conscious of cleaning agents, appliances, and other sources of indoor air pollutants can help improve air quality.
The Tabs Healthy Home Sensor does not measure carbon monoxide (CO), a toxic gas produced as a by-product of combustion.
Upon installing the Healthy Home sensor, the VOC value might be off (e.g show very high values) for the first few days (up to a week). This is because it determines the baseline air quality. Typically, the values will normalize after around 3-4 days once the baseline has been determined.


The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change - Sixth Assessment Report. August 2021
Started by Martin White
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) is the United Nations body for assessing the science related to climate change. The IPCC was created to provide policymakers with regular scientific assessments on climate change, its implications and potential future risks, as well as to put forward adaptation and mitigation options.
The IPCC does not conduct its own research. IPCC reports are neutral, policy-relevant but not policy-prescriptive. The assessment reports are a key input into the international negotiations to tackle climate change. Created by the United Nations Environment Programme (UN Environment) and the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) in 1988, the IPCC has 195 Member countries.
The Working Group I contribution to the Sixth Assessment Report addresses the most up-to-date physical understanding of the climate system and climate change, bringing together the latest advances in climate science, and combining multiple lines of evidence from paleoclimate, observations, process understanding, and global and regional climate simulations.
Read the Summary for Policy Makers


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CO2 emissions from dry inland waters globally underestimated
Inland waters such as rivers, lakes and reservoirs play an important role in the global carbon cycle. Calculations that scale up the carbon dioxide emissions from land and water surface areas do not take account of inland waters that dry out intermittently. This means that the actual emissions from inland waters have been significantly underestimated – as shown by the results of a recent international research project involving 46 scientists from all over the world, measuring carbon dioxide emissions from 196 different sites on every continent except Antarctica. The study was published in Nature Communications.
Each of the 24 teams, including researchers from Limnology at Uppsala University who are estimating greenhouse gas emission from Brazilian reservoirs, carried out three closed-chamber measurements in dry areas of at least three freshwater systems in their region – a river, lake, reservoir or pond. This involves placing a special measuring container with its open end downwards on the ground, separating the air inside the container from the ambient air. An analytical device is then used to measure the change in the amount of carbon dioxide inside the container. At the same location, the project partners also took samples of the dry sediment and measured its moisture, organic matter and salt content, temperature, and pH.
The study showed that carbon dioxide emissions from inland waters worldwide have been significantly underestimated up until now. It showed significant carbon dioxide emissions from dry areas of inland waters across all climate zones. The study also discovered that these emissions are in fact often higher than typical emissions from water surfaces of the same size. If dried-out inland waters were taken account for global calculations for inland waters, the carbon dioxide emissions could increase by six percent.
But what mechanisms are responsible for the release of carbon dioxide from dry inland water sediments? Respiration processes of microorganisms is dependent on factors such as available substrate, temperature and sediment moisture. The more substrate available – the more organic matter in the soil – and the more favourable the conditions like temperature and sediment moisture, the more active they are and the more carbon dioxide is released. From the results of the study, it was concluded that the factors responsible for carbon dioxide release are essentially the same all over the globe. The interaction of local conditions like temperature, moisture and the organic matter content of the sediments is crucial, and it has a bigger influence than regional climate conditions.
With the progression of climate change, more surface waters are probably drying out and thus, CO2 emissions will likely increase.
P. S. Keller, N. Catalán, D. von Schiller, H.-P. Grossart, M. Koschorreck, B. Obrador, M. A. Frassl, N. Karakaya, N. Barros, J. A. Howitt, C. Mendoza-Lera, A. Pastor, G. Flaim, R. Aben, T. Riis, M. I. Arce, G. Onandia, J. R. Paranaíba, A. Linkhorst, R. del Campo, A. M. Amado, S. Cauvy-Fraunié, S. Brothers, J. Condon, R. F. Mendonça, F. Reverey, E.-I. Rõõm, T. Datry, F. Roland, A. Laas, U. Obertegger, J.-H. Park, H. Wang, S. Kosten, R. Goméz, C. Feijoó, A. Elosegi, M. M. Sánchez-Montoya, C. M. Finlayson, M. Melita, E. S. Oliveira Junior, C. C. Muniz, L. Gómez-Gener, C. Leigh, Q. Zhang & R. Marcé (2020): Global CO2 emissions from dry inland waters share common drivers across ecosystems. Nature Communications. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-15929-y
Dryflux project: https://www.ufz.de/dryflux/
This text is based on a press release by the Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research (UFZ) in Magdeburg, Germany.


..or can we.
The Earth's atmosphere is a very thin layer of gas, relative to the planet itself. If we imagine the earth as being the size of a basketball(a diameter of a little more than 9 inches), the atmosphere would be about 1/100 of an inch. Moreover that atmosphere contains about 78% nitrogen gas, about 21% Oxygen, a little less than 1 percent argon- the rest is water vapour,CO2 and other gases such as methane.
So the actual gases responsible for the green house effect that traps heat in our atmosphere comprise about 1 percent of our atmosphere. So we don't have to change the composition of our atmosphere much to have an effect on it.
The total mass of our atmosphere is 15 x 10-18 Kg(15 000 000 000 000 000 000 Kg) or 30 x 10 -18 lbs.
These days, humans emit 26 gigatonnes or 26 x 10-9 tonnes of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere or about 2% extra carbon dioxide per year. The earth's environment absorbs about half of that( which is causing acidification of the oceans, among other problems). Of course, methane and water vapour also contribute to green house gases, and human activity produces them, too.
So we are making a massive change in the small quantity of gases that keep our planet at a habitable temperature. This current rate has been typical of the last ten years, so our atmosphere should have shown in the region of a 10 % increase in atmospheric CO2 in the last ten years. The WMO reports an increase of 1.8 ppm of CO2 per year over the last decade or 18 parts per million increase out of about 360 ppm. This seems low, and leaves the question, where has all the carbon gone? is it my math? On the other hand, the WMO indicates a 5%/annum increase in CO2- which means doubling in 20 years.
Tuesday, May 11, 2010
..or can we.


It was another beautiful morning early Tuesday, with more heat on the way for the afternoon.
The Charlotte region could see a decrease in the air quality by the afternoon. A Code Orange has been issued for the Queen City Tuesday, and ozone levels could reach unhealthy levels for sensitive groups (those with respiratory issues, along with the very young and elderly).
Temperatures will get very close to 90 degrees, but it won’t be terribly humid. The steam starts to build up more Wednesday and will last through the end of the week.
LATE WEEK HUMIDITY: Temperatures will stay above average heading through Friday, with humidity levels slowing rising. Sunshine and quiet weather will continue through Thursday, with the next chance for isolated rain returning by Friday.
WEEKEND PREVIEW: Expect the warmth to continue both Saturday and Sunday with highs in the middle 80s. Isolated showers can also be expected both afternoons.


ISIR orbit-based terrain
and cloud mapping
The Infrared Spectral Imaging Radiometer (ISIR) is a small, low power, infrared imager that can be used on upcoming weather or remote-sensing satellites. ISIR can obtain high resolution thermal images from space without cooling which eliminates the need for bulky radiation coolers or refrigerators with oscillating pistons. This greatly improves reliability and operating lifetime of future satellite systems, lowers their cost, and simplifies the payload-tosatellite platform interface. Because ISIR does not require a radiation cooler, which must always be pointed at space, it can easily be located anywhere on the spacecraft.
ISIR employs a unique Time Delay and Integration (TDI) technique to significantly increase the radiometric sensitivity of the sensor. This yields enhanced thermal IR terrain and cloud observations through improved resolution, dynamic range and sensitivity.
Improved aircraft contrail detection from the higher quarter kilometer resolution of ISIR was a significant goal of the shuttle experiment in determining potential effects of aviation on climate. Even the shadows of boundary layer clouds were clearly seen, showing the cooling of the surface and enabling scientists to calculate the height of cloud formations.


From Space.com online
The eighth and farthest planet from the Sun in the Solar System, the gas giant planet Neptune takes center stage in a series of sharp new photos snapped by the Hubble Space Telescope in honor of the blue-green world’s first Neptunian year around the sun since it was discovered in 1846.
On July 12, 2011 Neptune completed its first trip around the sun since being discovered nearly 165 Earth years ago — on Sept. 23, 1846, to be exact, by German astronomer Johann Galle.
Neptune takes about 165 years to complete one orbit around the sun. It is about 30 times farther from the sun than Earth and typically orbits at a distance of about 2.8 billion miles (4.5 billion kilometers).
Four new Hubble photos show Neptune in stunning detail. The images were taken about four hours apart and show the planet as it appeared between June 25 and 26 over the course of a single Neptunian day, which lasts about 16 hours, yielding a complete view of the distant world.
In a photo description, scientists said the new Hubble photos revealed more high-altitude clouds on Neptune than those seen in recent observations within the last few Earth years.
The clouds are composed of methane ice crystals and hover over parts of Neptune’s northern and southern hemisphere, Hubble scientists said.
Like Earth, Neptune spins on a tilted axis, which gives the planet its own set of seasons. Earth’s axis is tilted about 23 degrees, but Neptune has a more pronounced 29-degree tilt.
More about Neptune from Wikipedia:
Neptune is similar in composition to Uranus, and both have compositions which differ from those of the larger gas giants, Jupiter and Saturn. Neptune’s atmosphere, while similar to Jupiter’s and Saturn’s in that it is composed primarily of hydrogen and helium, along with traces of hydrocarbons and possibly nitrogen, contains a higher proportion of “ices” such as water, ammonia and methane. Astronomers sometimes categorize Uranus and Neptune as “ice giants” in order to emphasize these distinctions.
The interior of Neptune, like that of Uranus, is primarily composed of ices and rock. Traces of methane in the outermost regions in part account for the planet’s blue appearance.
In contrast to the relatively featureless atmosphere of Uranus, Neptune’s atmosphere is notable for its active and visible weather patterns. For example, at the time of the 1989 Voyager 2 flyby, the planet’s southern hemisphere possessed a Great Dark Spot comparable to the Great Red Spot on Jupiter. These weather patterns are driven by the strongest sustained winds of any planet in the Solar System, with recorded wind speeds as high as 2,100 km/h.
Because of its great distance from the Sun, Neptune’s outer atmosphere is one of the coldest places in the Solar System, with temperatures at its cloud tops approaching −218 °C (55 K). Temperatures at the planet’s center are approximately 5,400 K (5,000 °C).
Neptune has a faint and fragmented ring system, which may have been detected during the 1960s but was only indisputably confirmed in 1989 by Voyager 2.


Severe Weather Awareness
Damaging winds occur, on average, 19 days per year, in the area of Georgia north of Atlanta. These events have taken place in every month of the year, but tend to be most frequent during the spring and summer months. The peak month is July during which more than 500 events were reported over the past 40 years. During the favored months, the most likely time of day for wind damage is mid afternoon through early evening.
Large hail pelts the area on average seven days per year. April is the month of peak occurrence, but many episodes have also been reported in the other spring and summer months. During this active period, the most likely time of occurrence is from mid afternoon through early evening.
The average number of tornado days is six per year. While tornadoes have been reported in all months of the year, most occur in the March-April-May time frame. During this "tornado season" the most likely time of occurrence is from mid afternoon through early evening.
Tornado intensities of F2 or greater are involved in 37 percent of the events when the data is broken down into a county-by-county basis. These strong tornadoes are more likely to occur during the month of April than in any other month. During the period 1950-1993, 72 people lost their lives in tornadoes. Almost 1,700 were injured.
In Georgia, the biggest threat from severe thunderstorms is damaging straight line winds and large hail. Straight line winds can reach speeds excess of 100 mph and produce damage similar to a tornado.Mp>The factors used by the National Weather Service to determine if a thunderstorm is severe are winds greater than 57 mph and hail greater than three-fourths inch in diameter or about the size of a penny. Typically, a severe thunderstorm lasts about 30 minutes and occurs in the afternoon and evening hours during the Spring and Summer months. However, severe weather is possible any time of the day and any time of the year. A special class of severe thunderstorms called "Supercells" are particularly violent and can last for several hours. Tornadoes are often produced from these supercell thunderstorms.
So what can you do to protect yourself and your family?
The best thing to do is to have a plan of action in place before threatening weather develops. Know what the difference between a watch and warning are. A Severe Thunderstorm Watch means conditions are favorable for severe thunderstorms to develop, but there is not an imminent threat. A Severe Thunderstorm Warning means a severe thunderstorm has been detected and an imminent threat to life and property has developed.
Know your area so you can track storms, listen to a weather radio, local TV or radio reports. Make sure you have battery backup. Monitor any forecasts if threatening weather is possible and you are planning outdoor activities.
If severe weather is imminent, and you are inside, move to shelter such as a basement or an interior room on the lowest floor of the building. Remember, it's best to put as many walls between you and the outside as possible.
If you are caught outside, try to seek shelter in a sturdy structure.
Remember, severe thunderstorms can produce tornadoes with little or no warning!!
Hail Size Estimates, Diameter in inches
Wind Speed Estimates, Speed (MPH): Effects
Considered nature's most violent storm, a tornado is a violently rotating column of air extending from the base of the thunderstorm and in contact with the ground (when it is not in contact with the ground, it is called a funnel cloud). Tornado winds average 100 mph, but can exceed 300 mph.
The strongest tornadoes develop from severe thunderstorms in atmospheric conditions with a wind profile that varies with height. Severe thunderstorms and tornadoes occur most often in the Mid-South in March, April and May. A secondary season occurs in the Fall, typically November and December.
Most tornadoes occur in the afternoon and evening. However, tornadoes have occurred in every hour of the day and night and every month of the year. No time of day or year is immune to tornado occurrences.
Your Safety will improve if you stay alert to the risk of tornadoes from thunderstorms that approach. This is especially true if a tornado watch is in effect. Conditions should be carefully monitored when severe thunderstorms are occurring, or are expected to occur.
Severe thunderstorms can produce tornadoes with little or no warning.
Know the difference between a TORNADO WATCH and a TORNADO WARNING.
Information taken from National Weather Service materials.


Acid clouds can grow on SO2 emissions from refineries, as seen here in Curaçao.
Acid rain is a rain or any other form of precipitation that is unusually acidic, meaning that it has elevated levels of hydrogen ions (low pH). It can have harmful effects on plants, aquatic animals and infrastructure. Acid rain is caused by emissions of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide, which react with the water molecules in the atmosphere to produce acids. Some governments have made efforts since the 1970s to reduce the release of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide into the atmosphere with positive results. Nitrogen oxides can also be produced naturally by lightning strikes, and sulfur dioxide is produced by volcanic eruptions. Acid rain has been shown to have adverse impacts on forests, freshwaters and soils, killing insect and aquatic life-forms, causing paint to peel, corrosion of steel structures such as bridges, and weathering of stone buildings and statues as well as having impacts on human health.
"Acid rain" is a popular term referring to the deposition of a mixture from wet (rain, snow, sleet, fog, cloudwater, and dew) and dry (acidifying particles and gases) acidic components. Distilled water, once carbon dioxide is removed, has a neutral pH of 7. Liquids with a pH less than 7 are acidic, and those with a pH greater than 7 are alkaline. "Clean" or unpolluted rain has an acidic pH, but usually no lower than 5.7, because carbon dioxide and water in the air react together to form carbonic acid, a weak acid according to the following reaction:
H2O (l) + CO2 (g) ⇌ H2CO3 (aq)
Carbonic acid then can ionize in water forming low concentrations of hydronium and carbonate ions:
H2O (l) + H2CO3 (aq) ⇌ HCO3− (aq) + H3O+ (aq)
However, unpolluted rain can also contain other chemicals which affect its pH (acidity level). A common example is nitric acid produced by electric discharge in the atmosphere such as lightning. Acid deposition as an environmental issue (discussed later in the article) would include additional acids other than H2CO3.
Emissions of chemicals leading to acidification
The most important gas which leads to acidification is sulfur dioxide. Emissions of nitrogen oxides which are oxidized to form nitric acid are of increasing importance due to stricter controls on emissions of sulfur containing compounds. 70 Tg(S) per year in the form of SO2 comes from fossil fuel combustion and industry, 2.8 Tg(S) from wildfires and 7–8 Tg(S) per year from volcanoes.
The principal natural phenomena that contribute acid-producing gases to the atmosphere are emissions from volcanoes. Thus, for example, fumaroles from the Laguna Caliente crater of Poás Volcano create extremely high amounts of acid rain and fog, with acidity as high as a pH of 2, clearing an area of any vegetation and frequently causing irritation to the eyes and lungs of inhabitants in nearby settlements. Acid-producing gasses are also created by biological processes that occur on the land, in wetlands, and in the oceans. The major biological source of sulfur containing compounds is dimethyl sulfide.
Nitric acid in rainwater is an important source of fixed nitrogen for plant life, and is also produced by electrical activity in the atmosphere such as lightning.
Acidic deposits have been detected in glacial ice thousands of years old in remote parts of the globe.
Soils of coniferous forests are naturally very acidic due to the shedding of needles, and the results of this phenomenon should not be confused with acid rain.
The coal-fired Gavin Power Plant in Cheshire, Ohio
The principal cause of acid rain is sulfur and nitrogen compounds from human sources, such as electricity generation, factories, and motor vehicles. Electrical power generation using coal is among the greatest contributors to gaseous pollutions that are responsible for acidic rain. The gases can be carried hundreds of kilometers in the atmosphere before they are converted to acids and deposited. In the past, factories had short funnels to let out smoke but this caused many problems locally; thus, factories now have taller smoke funnels. However, dispersal from these taller stacks causes pollutants to be carried farther, causing widespread ecological damage.


Council Climate Profiles
The southern councils are working with the University of Tasmania’s climate modelling team to develop council-wide climate profiles for each of the 12 southern councils. The profiles can be used by councils to help make operational and strategic decisions about climate impacts, as well as being used by the community to inform them of climate risks so they can decide how they should best respond. A presentation by Dr Tom Remenyi on the climate models can be viewed here.
There is overwhelming scientific evidence and consensus that the global climate is changing. It is projected that in the 21st century, along with an increase in temperature by at least 2 °C, extreme weather events and sea level rise will also increase.
It is equally understood that regardless of any current emissions mitigation efforts, climate change impacts will still need to be adapted to.
Tasmania is fortunate to have been the subject of the highest resolution climate change modelling conducted anywhere in Australia, which provides a firm foundation for adaptation planning.
The recently completed Climate Futures for Tasmania project provides a sound knowledge base for identifying climate related risks at a regional and local level and informs appropriate decisions to manage risks.
The Southern Regional Climate Profile completed for the RCCAP by Climate Futures for Tasmania showed that Tasmania’s maritime climate would buffer it against the severe climate change impacts that will be experienced across much of south eastern Australia.
The report notes however that climate change impacts will vary across the region dependent on the local conditions, characteristics and circumstances.
Under the A2 emissions scenario the following climate change impacts are projected:
• The greatest projected increase in temperature, over 3 °C, is in the west of the region, around the western half of the Derwent Valley, Huon and the Central Highlands.
• The frequency and duration of high temperature events across the region will increase.
• Warm spells that are currently 4–8 days in length are projected to increase by 2–6 days.
• Drought is projected to increase in severity in the central highlands by 2–4% whereas other parts of the region are expected to show little change or a slight decrease.
• The average annual rainfall is projected to increase moderately in the east coast, Tasman and greater Hobart regions but decrease by 6–10% in the Central Highlands.
• Around the east coast, greater rainfall is projected in summer and autumn with little change in winter and spring.
• Rainfall in the northern part of the Central Highlands (within the southern region) is projected to decrease in all seasons.
• The western area of the southern region is projected to experience greater rainfall in winter with a decrease in summer.
• Low-lying areas across the region may receive 1–6 extra very wet days per year, while the highlands may receive 2–3 days less.
Sea level rise
• Global sea level is projected to increase, on average, by 0.82 metres by 2100.
• The current 100-year storm tide event is around 0.9 to 1.4 m above average sea level, and is projected to increase to 1.87 metres by 2090.
• The current 100-year coastal inundation event may become a 50 year event by 2030 and a 2 – 6 year event by 2090.


More than 4,000 flights have already been cancelled for Tuesday as the incoming Northeast blizzard is predicted to cripple the country’s air travel.
Authorities have advised 50 million people to prepare for what could be the worst storm this winter season from New York City to Boston.
Winter Storm Stella is expected to sweep the New York region with possible blizzard conditions, as experts predict the region could see 12 to 24 inches of wind-blasted snow from Monday to early Wednesday.
In preparing for the huge storm, airline officials have already begun cancelling flights ahead of time.
More than 1,955 flights have been cancelled already for Monday, and a whopping 4,066 have been cancelled for Tuesday.


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Wooden Tabletop Weather Glass Water Storm Barometer New in Antiques, Science & Medicine (Pre-1930), Scientific Instruments | eBay It can also be called a "storm glass" or a "Goethe barometer"
(the writer Goethe popularized it in Germany). Merryweather lobbied for the government to make use of his design around the British coastline but they instead opted for Robert FitzRoy's storm glass.
The storm also caused the Crown to distribute storm glasses, then known as "FitzRoy's storm barometers," to many small fishing communities around the British Isles. A storm glass is a type of weather
forecasting device, composed of a sealed glass. From variations on the storm barometer, such as the Collins Patent Table Barometer. A storm glass or Goethe's device, an early practical type of
barometer. Author: Topic: Fitz-Roy barometer (Storm Glass) (Read 2669 times) 0 Members and 1 Guest are viewing this topic.
The storm-glass, sometimes known as the chemical barometer or camphor glass, is an ancient weather forcaster. A mercury barometer has a glass tube of at least 33 inches (about 84 cm) in height,
closed. British Crown distributed storm glasses, then known as "FitzRoy's storm barometers. Storm glass; Surface weather analysis; Weather forecasting; References ^. It consists of a glass container
with a sealed body, half. A mercury barometer has a glass tube with a height of at least 84 cm, closed at one end.
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Gallatin enjoys cool to moderately cold winters, and hot, humid summers. High
temperatures average 49 °F (9 °C) during the winter months, 69 °F (21 °C) in spring, 88
°F (31 °C) in summer, and 72 °F (22 °C) in fall. The coolest month is January, and July
is the warmest.
In the winter months, snowfall does occur but is usually not heavy. Average annual
snowfall in Nashville is about 5.8 inches (15 cm), falling mostly in January and February
and occasionally March and December. Rainfall is typically greater in winter and spring
while autumn is the driest. Spring and fall are generally warm.
Relative humidity averages 83% in the mornings and 60% in the afternoons, which is
considered moderate for the Southeastern United States.


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Carbon offsets are a practical and effective way to reduce the effects of climate change by funding renewable energy, forestry, or clean water projects.
At Shop Green Today we have decided to support the Woodland Trust here in the UK with Carbon Offsetting and we also plant trees with One Tree Planted.
Help lock up carbon with a donation. Your donation will help us protect and care for our woods.
Capturing and storing carbon from the atmosphere is vital in the fight against climate change. The 1,000-plus woodlands cared for by the Woodland Trust absorb and lock-up many tonnes of carbon each year in trees, shrubs and soils.
By making a donation, you’ll help protect and add to this extensive carbon store, ensuring it continues to absorb emissions, as well as creating natural havens for wildlife and people.
These projects reduce emissions of carbon dioxide or other greenhouse gases in order to compensate for emissions made elsewhere, like the emissions created from ordering something online. EcoCart calculates the emissions created from your online orders and donates the exact amount required to reduce those emissions directly to these projects on your behalf.
Did you know?
The average person in the UK is responsible for 5.5 tonnes of carbon dioxide emissions a year.* When yo/u include other factors such as overseas flights, UK consumption of imports and the impact of other greenhouse gases, this figure may effectively double.
Trees eat carbon dioxide for breakfast!
Credit: David Hockney and his never ending inspiration and talents too.
We are huge fans of David Hockney too! Let's embrace Spring and hope :-)


| < November >
|Normal Max/ High Temperature
|Min/ Low Temperature
|Average Daylight per day
|Sun altitude at solar noon on the 21st day.
- The average temperature in Tacna in November is somewhat warm at 18.55 °C (65.39 °F).
- Afternoons can be fairly hot with average high temperatures reaching 24 °C (75.2 °F).
- Overnight temperatures are generally mild with an average low of 13.1 °C (55.6 °F).
- In November the mean daily temperature variation/ range is 10.9 °C (19.6 °F).
- The weather in November is bone dry. An airy 0.5mm (0in) of H2O descends.
- The shortest day is 12:47 long and the longest day is 13:07 long with an average length of 12:58.
Check the distance to and compare the Tacna November averages with somewhere beginning with:
A | B | C | D | E | F | G | H | I | J | K | L | M | N | O | P | Q | R | S | T | U | V | W | X | Y | Z | All
Weather Trend Graph for November in Tacna, Peru
Navigate to November Weather in Locations Surrounding Tacna:
- Puerto Maldonado, Peru - 616.4 kms (383 miles) N
- Juliaca, Peru - 287.5 kms (178.7 miles) N
- La Paz, Bolivia - 279.3 kms (173.5 miles) NE
- Visviri-Tenencia, Chile - 94.2 kms (58.5 miles) ENE
- Santa Cruz, Bolivia - 750 kms (466 miles) E
- Codpa-Reten, Chile - 102.4 kms (63.7 miles) SSE
- Camina-Tenencia, Chile - 166.5 kms (103.4 miles) SSE
- Iquique-Diego Aracena, Chile - 277.8 kms (172.6 miles) S
- Huatacondo, Chile - 343.5 kms (213.5 miles) SSE
- La Quiaca Obs, Argentina - 663.5 kms (412.3 miles) SE
- Oran, Argentina - 839.5 kms (521.7 miles) SE


Deadly Lightning Linked to Climate Change Kills 1,697 in India in a Year
Lightning strikes have killed nearly 147 people in just ten days in Bihar, leading to a surge in deaths from climate change-fueled lightning strikes. It is reported that climate change has sparked more lightning strikes across the world in the past decade or so.
In India, specifically, there has been an increase of 34 percent of lightning incidents compared to the previous year, with at least 13.8 million strikes recorded between April 1 2019 to March 31, 2020. The lightning incidents differed in frequency in different states. Andra Pradesh, Bihar, and Odisha recorded the maximum incidents in 2019.
Lightning strikes are common throughout India, especially during the monsoon season between June to September, which indicates more precaution over alarming thunderstorms.
It is estimated that an increase of one degree Celsius would accelerate the rate of lightning strikes by 12 percent. The number of lightning strikes soared from 18,000 in 2010 to 150,000 by 2020.
According to research published in the journal Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, it was found 15-50 percent increase in intensity and 10-25 percent increase in frequency this century, with coastal areas being highly vulnerable. This deadly trend is fueled by rising temperatures caused by climate change.
The excessive heat and increased humidity have caused an imbalance in the atmospheric pressure, which fuels thunder and lightning. The last decade recorded some of the hottest years in India, with temperatures going up by 0.36 degrees more than usual. This increase is caused by the rising heatwaves followed by delayed yet intense monsoons.
The CROPC-IMD mentioned in their report that the reason for the high number of deaths is because people are unaware, with 70% of deaths as a result of standing under isolated trees, while 25% of the people were struck in open.
The report also states that rapid degradation of the environment, climate change, deforestation, and rising pollution have a combined effect on the environment and have pushed incidents of lightning to an extreme.
Climate Resilient Observing-Systems Promotion Council ( CROPC), National Disaster Management Authority, India Meteorological Department (IMD), Union Ministry of Earth Science, World Vision India, UNICEF among others released a joint initiative called Lightning Resilient India Campaign (LRIC).
The campaign, with the engagement of national and state-level governments, communities, and NGOs, has been successful in reducing deaths by more than 60 percent within two years.
Via: Down To Earth


Hurricane Rick was the fifth named storm and fourth hurricane to make landfall along the Pacific coast of Mexico in 2021. The seventeenth named system and the eighth hurricane of the 2021 Pacific hurricane season, Rick formed as a low pressure system and was quickly upgraded to a tropical depression on October 21. Late on October 22, the storm was designated as a tropical storm and was given the name Rick. A few hours later, on October 23, the storm was upgraded to a hurricane. Rick continued to intensify and reached peak intensity early on October 25, making landfall as a Category 2 hurricane at 10:00 UTC that morning.
Rick caused one confirmed fatality in Mexico, and caused over $10 million (2021 USD) in damages.
On October 18, the National Hurricane Center (NHC) started highlighting the chances of development of a low pressure area offshore the Pacific coast of Mexico. An area of disturbed weather became identifiable south of the coast of Guatemala and El Salvador on the next day. Shower and thunderstorm activity was initially scattered, and only gradual development was expected, although the NHC noted that the system would likely become a tropical depression by October 24. On the afternoon of October 21, a broad area of low pressure developed just south of the Gulf of Tehuantepec. Shower activity gradually became better organized, although an advanced scatterometer pass early on October 22 revealed that the system had not developed a closed wind circulation. However, a rapid increase in organization soon occurred, and following a Dvorak classification of T2.0/35 mph (55 km/h), the NHC upgraded the low pressure system into a tropical depression at 15:00 UTC on October 21.
At the time of genesis, the depression was moving briskly to the west under the influence of a ridge to its north. Situated within an environment of little vertical wind shear, high moisture, and of warm sea surface temperatures near 86 °F (30 °C), the depression was upgraded into a tropical storm that evening after an increase in curved band features and upper-level outflow in all directions. A central dense overcast subsequently developed, and microwave imagery indicated the development of an ring of deep convection, which is often a precursor to an eye, which prompted the NHC to re-assess the intensity of Rick at 70 mph (110 km/h) and forecast rapid deepening at 09:00 UTC on October 23. That afternoon, Rick attained hurricane status as the cyclone began to curve north-northwestward in response to a weakness in the ridge. An eye briefly became apparent in visible satellite imagery and following measurements from a Hurricane Hunter aircraft, the NHC set the intensity of the storm at 85 mph (140 km/h). During the next 18 to 24 hours, the hurricane exhibited little change in organization as it tracked north; the cause of this arrested development phase was 15 to 25 mph (30 to 35 km/h) of wind shear and an environment of less than 50% relative humidity. However, microwave imagery showed a 25 mi (35 km) wide closed eyewall had re-developed by the evening of October 23, a sign that Rick had resumed intensification. Based on wind measurements from a Hurricane Hunter aircraft, Rick was upgraded into a Category 2 hurricane on the Saffir-Simpson scale at 06:00 UTC on October 25. The storm also attained its peak intensity of 105 mph (165 km/h) at the same time along with a minimum barometric pressure of 977 mbar (28.9 inHg). At 10:00 UTC, Rick made landfall between Lázaro Cárdenas and Zihuatanejo while at its peak intensity. The system then rapidly weakened while it moved further inland, towards the mountainous terrain of Mexico. Early on October 26, Rick dissipated.


Click to Watch in HD > Satellite video shows Hurricane Mathew roaring through Bahamas
Watch Hurricane Matthew is continuing to roar its way along the Caribbean coast towards the US with satellite photos revealing just how intimidating the powerful storm looks from space.
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The Bureau of Meteorology has warned that tropical cyclone Debbie is expected to slam into Townsville earlier than first forecast.
Currently a Category 2 storm, Debbie is expected to become a Category 4 sometime before it makes landfall.
Winds of up to 100km/h are expected to develop in the city as early as 4pm today based on Cyclone Debbie's current path, Queensland Police said.
The cyclone is sitting north-east of Townsville in the Coral Sea and is expected to track west-south west and cross the coast somewhere between Townsville and Proserpine.
An emergency alert has been issued for Cungulla and Cleveland Palms, around 40 minutes south-east of Townsville, warning residents to evacuate the area before 6am today.
Read more at [Only registered and activated users can see links. ]


Thailand, a captivating tropical country in Southeast Asia, boasts a diverse landscape ranging from lush jungles to pristine beaches. Despite its captivating geography, one question often arises: Does it snow in Thailand?
In this article, we delve into the science behind snow formation, explore Thailand’s unique climate, and uncover why snow remains an elusive phenomenon in this enchanting land.
- 1 The Science of Snow: How Does it Emerge?
- 2 Does it Snow in Thailand?
- 3 The Only Time It Snowed in Thailand:
- 4 Why Doesn’t it Snow in Thailand?
- 5 What is the Winter Weather Like in Thailand?
- 6 Can I Still Enjoy Winter in Thailand?
- 7 Conclusion:
- 8 FAQs
- 8.1 1. Are there regions in Thailand where snowfall is more likely to occur?
- 8.2 2. Can I experience cooler temperatures in Thailand during the winter months?
- 8.3 3. How should I pack for a winter trip to Thailand?
- 8.4 4. Are there any specific festivals or events during Thailand’s winter months?
- 8.5 5. Are there any precautions to take during Thailand’s winter season?
The Science of Snow: How Does it Emerge?
To understand the absence of snow in Thailand, it’s crucial to comprehend the science behind this delicate precipitation. Snow emerges when water vapor in the atmosphere condenses and freezes, culminating in intricate ice crystals.
For this process to occur, temperatures must plummet below freezing, and the air should be rich in humidity. In colder environments, the air can hold more moisture, significantly enhancing the probability of snowfall.
Does it Snow in Thailand?
In a brief answer, no, Thailand does not experience snowfall. The nation’s lowest recorded temperature, a modest 2 degrees Celsius (35 degrees Fahrenheit), fails to meet the conditions required for snow to develop.
Across the country, average temperatures range between 25 to 35 degrees Celsius (77 to 95 degrees Fahrenheit) throughout the year, reinforcing Thailand’s reputation as a tropical paradise.
The Only Time It Snowed in Thailand:
A remarkable event marks Thailand’s closest encounter with snow—the purported snowfall on January 7, 1955, in Chiang Rai. Over around 14 hours, the city witnessed what many describe as snowfall.
However, some debate lingers, attributing the phenomenon to hail rather than snow. The Thai government officially recognizes this occurrence as a rare snowfall event, etching it into the country’s meteorological history.
Also read: Can You Live in Thailand Without Speaking Thai?
Why Doesn’t it Snow in Thailand?
Several interwoven factors clarify the absence of snow in Thailand. Firstly, the nation’s equatorial location engenders consistently warm temperatures, rendering the chilly conditions necessary for snow formation a rarity.
Also, Thailand’s air lacks the requisite humidity for significant snowfall. Lastly, the country’s mountains, including the highest peak, Doi Inthanon, at 2,565 meters (8,415 feet), fail to reach the altitude needed for snow to grace their slopes—a minimum of 2,000 meters (6,562 feet) above sea level.
What is the Winter Weather Like in Thailand?
Thailand’s winter climate veers toward the milder side, distinguishing it from the more robust winters experienced in other parts of the globe.
From November to February, Bangkok witnessed average temperatures of 28 to 30 degrees Celsius (82 to 86 degrees Fahrenheit). This period ushers in dry, sunny weather with minimal rainfall, making exploring the country’s myriad attractions ideal.
Can I Still Enjoy Winter in Thailand?
Certainly! While snow may not blanket Thailand’s landscapes, winter presents an excellent opportunity to revel in the country’s unique offerings. Here are some enticing options to consider:
- Beaches and Islands: Thailand’s inviting shores are perfect for swimming, water sports, and basking in the sun’s embrace.
- Mountain Adventures: Embark on invigorating hikes through cooler mountainous regions, treating yourself to breathtaking vistas and tranquility.
- Cultural Immersion: Discover Thailand’s rich heritage by visiting its ornate temples and grand palaces, which retain their allure even during winter.
- Culinary Exploration: Enroll in a cooking class to master crafting traditional Thai dishes, enriching your culinary repertoire.
- Retail Therapy: Explore bustling markets and charming boutiques, indulging in a shopping spree for unique souvenirs at budget-friendly prices.
In conclusion, while snow remains a rarity in Thailand’s tropical expanse, the country’s winter months promise a blend of warmth, cultural exploration, and diverse activities. The absence of snow in Thailand is merely a footnote in a symphony of experiences waiting to be cherished.
Whether wandering along sun-kissed beaches or venturing into lush mountains, Thailand’s winter beckons with open arms, inviting you to uncover the wonders of its enchanting landscapes.
1. Are there regions in Thailand where snowfall is more likely to occur?
No, snowfall in Thailand remains an extremely rare phenomenon regardless of the region. The country’s equatorial location and generally warm climate create conditions that are not conducive to snow formation. While there was an isolated incident in Chiang Rai in 1955, it’s an exception rather than the norm. Most of Thailand’s landscape, including its highest mountains, does not experience the necessary combination of temperature and humidity for snowfall to occur.
2. Can I experience cooler temperatures in Thailand during the winter months?
You can certainly experience warmer temperatures in Thailand during the winter months. While snow may not be a part of the equation, regions with higher altitudes, such as the country’s northern parts, can offer a respite from the tropical heat. Popular destinations like Chiang Mai and Pai experience milder temperatures, making them popular for travelers seeking a break from the heat.
3. How should I pack for a winter trip to Thailand?
When packing for a winter trip to Thailand, it’s essential to prioritize lightweight, breathable clothing. While temperatures might be cooler compared to the rest of the year, they are still relatively warm by global standards. Opt for comfortable layers you can easily shed during the day when the sun is out. Also, don’t forget to include swimwear and sun protection, as you can still enjoy the country’s beautiful beaches and outdoor activities.
4. Are there any specific festivals or events during Thailand’s winter months?
Yes, Thailand’s winter months coincide with several vibrant festivals and events that add a layer of cultural richness to your visit. One notable event is the “Loy Krathong” festival, usually in November. During this festival, people release decorative floating lanterns into the sky and onto rivers, creating a breathtaking spectacle. New Year’s Eve celebrations are also vibrant and exuberant, especially in major cities like Bangkok and Chiang Mai.
5. Are there any precautions to take during Thailand’s winter season?
While Thailand’s winter is generally mild and pleasant, there are a few precautions to consider. Despite cooler temperatures, the sun can still be intense, so don’t forget to apply sunscreen and stay hydrated. Mosquitoes might be less active during the winter, but it’s still a good idea to use insect repellent, especially if you’re spending time in rural areas. Additionally, while the chances of rain are lower, it’s wise to pack a small umbrella or rain jacket just in case of unexpected showers.


Right at the end of this piece we are told:-
Meanwhile, as half of the country's 310 million residents sizzle, states in the north-western region of the country were experiencing abnormally cool temperatures.
"I didn't know it could be this cold in July. It is absolutely freezing here in Seattle," said one user of the micro-blogging website Twitter.
During the past month, Seattle has only experienced three days with temperatures hitting the 27C (80F) mark, with most days falling in the mid-60s, according to the city's Sea-Tac Airport measuring station.
High temperatures - the number one weather-related killer in the US - claim 162 lives on average in the country each year.
The most severe heatwave in modern North American history took place during the Great Depression in 1936. The heat that summer was blamed for more than 5,000 deaths in the US and Canada.


International Day of Clean Air for Blue Skies
The air surrounding us consists of a mixture of various gases which facilitate life on Earth. Respirable carbon dioxide supports the plant kingdom in photosynthesis, which largely supplies the oxygen that we breathe, thus upholding the Earth’s life cycle. The cleaner the air, the healthier life on Earth can be. Read on to gain insight into the importance of breathable air for all living things.
According to the Executive Director of the United Nations Environmental Programme, Inger Andersen, “Air pollution is a global problem, which impacts human health, planetary health and climate change.” “Clean” air has no harmful levels of pollutants, such as chemicals and other contaminants, which allow people and animals to breathe easily. Environmental dialogue is often focused on the natural phenomenon that we can see. After all, it’s hard to ignore campaigns that show discarded plastic waste on the beach. But what’s harder to show are the harmful effects of poor air quality. On a hot, windless day, polluted air can feel heavy and have a bad odor. The warm, dry and thick air may lead to lung irritation, discomfort, and coughing. When too much particulate matter and toxic chemicals get into the air, humans and animals inhale these substances along with the air they breathe. Therefore, clean air saves lives. It also contributes to economic prosperity, by reducing healthcare costs and boosting productivity in every sector. With the increasing demands of mankind, the trajectory of debasement of the environment has escalated to unprecedented levels over time. To curb the ever rising contamination of our air, new legislation has been implemented by developed and developing countries alike to combat air quality degradation and purify ambient air quality.
Air pollution can be defined as changes in air quality that can be detected by measurements of chemical, biological or physical pollutants in the air. Thus, air pollution refers to the unwanted presence of pollutants or an abnormal rise in the concentration of certain atmospheric substances. It can be classified into 2 categories: visible and invisible air pollution. Out of many natural causes, such as volcanic eruptions, dust storms, and wildfires, air pollution is backed by many anthropogenic causes starting with combustion of fossil fuels, emissions from industries and factories, agricultural activities, and waste management. Sulphur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) contribute 85% of all particulate matter (PM) emissions in the atmosphere. Within the energy sector, energy production and industry are major sources of SO2. The fuel used for transportation, primarily diesel, makes up more than half of the world's NOx emissions, which can cause respiratory problems and the formation of other harmful particles and pollutants, including ozone. These pollutants are linked to industry and urbanization, and coal and oil are key sources (natural gas emits less air pollution than other fuels, or biomass) and processing the discharge is subject to a large number of PMs reaching the atmosphere. Fine particulate matter (PM2.5), sulphur and nitrogen oxides (also known as pre-ozone) are very dangerous to human health and are associated with various diseases and environmental degradation. Unchecked coal and oil fires in power stations, industrial plants, and automobiles are a major cause of environmental pollution associated with the premature death of about 3.5 million people each year.
The U.S. Air Quality Index, or AQI, is the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)’s daily air quality communication tool. It provides color-coded measures of air quality that explain local air quality, who may be affected (such as patients with lung conditions and other sensitive groups), and steps you can take to reduce your risk of exposure to pollution. It is also used as the basis for air quality forecasts and current air quality reporting. The five major pollutants regulated by the Clean Air Act of the United States are ozone, particulate matter, carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide and sulphur dioxide. AQI information is based on scientific data for each individual category of pollution.
World Health Organization (WHO) Director-General Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus called air pollution a “silent public health emergency” during the First World Health Organization Global Conference on Air Pollution and Health convened under the theme Improving Air Quality, Combating Climate Change: Saving Lives. His speech underscored the interlinkages between climate change and air pollution, and said that completing guidelines for implementation of the Paris Agreement and ensuring that countries fulfil their financial pledges to support the climate regime will also help combat air pollution and achieve the 2030 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Participants acknowledged the urgent need to scale up the global response to prevent diseases and deaths from air pollution, which claims seven million lives a year, is a major driver of non-communicable diseases (NCDs), such as heart attacks, strokes and lung cancer, and accelerates climate change. The SDGs are a collection of 17 goals and 169 targets set by the United Nations, which were adopted by all Member States in 2015 as part of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. They address global challenges including poverty, inequality, economic growth, climate change, environmental degradation, peace, and justice. The subject of air quality is directly highlighted in three SDGs, where it is attributed to health and environmental sustainability. Strategies aimed at improved air quality are directly linked to climate change objectives, access to clean energy services, waste management, and other aspects of social and economic development. Many sustainability targets are unlikely to be achieved in the next two decades: emissions can cause as much as a 40% increase in premature deaths from outside air pollution today, carbon emissions could rise globally by 0.4% per year, while nearly two billion people will not have access to clean fuel for cooking. Efforts to combat air pollution will, inter alia, contribute to SDG number 3 (good health and well-being), SDG target 7.2 on access to clean energy in the home, SDG target 11.6 on air quality in cities, SDG target 11.2 on access to sustainable transport and SDG number 13 (climate action), as well as the goals of the Paris Agreement on climate change.
The World Health Organization and the government of the United Kingdom recognize that air pollution is a major environmental health hazard. With this in mind, we at Greenstand believe we all have a role to play in keeping our air clean. Developed countries have greatly improved their air quality in recent years but many developing countries, still relying on wood and other solid fuels for cooking and heating, are lagging behind. As a result, many socioeconomically vulnerable people suffer from the effects of severe air pollution. The particular matter of daunting concern was put forward earlier during the COVID-19 outbreak, with details suggesting that air pollution could put people at a higher risk of infection. The pandemic led to a temporary reduction in air pollution and an increase in air quality, as air traffic and traffic flows dropped during economic shutdowns.
The Clean Air Scenario (CAS) sets out a plausible strategy based on existing technologies and proven policies, to cut 2040 pollutant emissions by more than half compared with New Policies Scenario (NPS). This policy path is one in which the energy sector takes determined action, coordinated effectively with others, to deliver a comprehensive improvement in air quality.
Key areas for policy actions to achieve clean air objectives include the following:
- Setting ambitious long-term air quality goals that allow for the assessment of various pollution mitigation options
- Implementing a variety of clean air policies drawing on an efficient mix of best available practices, direct emission controls, and strict regulations
- Ensuring effective monitoring, enforcement, evaluation and communication between all stakeholders, while recognizing the need for reliable, transparent data
Global Action Plan International, a NGO started in the United States and Netherlands in 1989 had a motto to mandate education for sustainable development which encourages changes in knowledge, skills, values and attitude to enable a just society for all. As its tagline says “Small changes to the choices we make every day make a big difference when widely adopted”. The UK's Global Action Plan was introduced in its current form in the UK by founder and former Director, Trewin Restorick. The UK's first program covered 30,000 households and was supported by thousands of volunteers, who participated and received action packages that provided practical strategies for energy efficiency, waste minimization, and cut-off water use in their homes for procurement. The United Kingdom is well known for their moxie initiatives, such as Clean Air Day and Transform Our World campaigns.
As a matter of prompt action, Global Action Plan has detailed their top three actions to lower air pollution:
- Improve public understanding of air pollution.
- Build awareness of how air pollution affects our health.
- Explain the easy actions we can all take to tackle air pollution, helping to protect the environment and our health.
Another way to reduce air pollution is to consume less. While a lot of the focus is on shopping more sustainably and opting for more eco-friendly produce and goods, the very best thing you can do is to lower your consumption overall. This can include the amount of water- and energy-intensive food, clothes and other items we buy. In addition, choosing the lowest emission form of transportation when possible is another actionable step people can take to help reduce atmospheric emissions.
At its core, Greenstand’s mission is to support global reforestation efforts while alleviating extreme poverty. We support tree planting organizations by providing verification of each tree’s existence, location, and attributes; we also account for tree growers’ efforts so that they are compensated fairly for their works of stewardship.
Our Treetracker platform consists of 4 core components:
- The Treetracker mobile app, designed to track & monitor trees for users residing in rural regions with low digital literacy
- The Web Map, which allows anyone in the world to explore over 1 million tree photos taken by growers, and the Admin Panel, which provides tree and grower management tools to organizational leaders
- The Impact Wallet, which stores Impact Tokens, a digital representation of each tree’s relative value that can be sold or traded with other users
- The forthcoming Tree Value Matrix will be Greenstand’s rubric for assigning Relative Impact Values (RIV) to each tree capture photo
With these tools, reforestation efforts can be sustainable and transparent. Trees come with countless co-benefits to local communities; they provide animal habitats, flood mitigation, enhanced soil health, and, of course, sequestration of atmospheric carbon resulting in better air quality. However, these benefits are not truly seen until a tree reaches adulthood. By paying tree growers to care for trees over time, our planting partners provide incentives to ensure that the world can reap the benefits of fully-grown trees.
Climate change has arrived at our doorsteps, but we know that the most vulnerable communities on our planet, particularly those in developing countries, face the brunt of the climate crisis and will continue to live in peril if we do not take bold, global action. If you’re interested in supporting one of our tree planting projects, please check out our Treetrackers page.
Anusreeta Dutta | Communications Contributor | email@example.com
Erin Baker | Communications Lead | firstname.lastname@example.org


A 30 percent chance of showers and thunderstorms. Mostly cloudy, with a high near 80. East northeast wind around 11 mph. New rainfall amounts of less than a tenth of an inch, except higher amounts possible in thunderstorms.
Showers and thunderstorms likely, mainly after 1am. Cloudy, with a low around 63. Northeast wind around 10 mph. Chance of precipitation is 60%. New rainfall amounts between a half and three quarters of an inch possible.
Showers and thunderstorms likely, mainly before 4pm. Cloudy, with a high near 74. East wind 8 to 14 mph becoming west in the afternoon. Winds could gust as high as 20 mph. Chance of precipitation is 70%. New rainfall amounts between a quarter and half of an inch possible.


Last week's podcast of CBC's Quirks and Quarks discusses the radical idea of blocking the sun's rays to mitigate climate change. Bob McDonald interviews Dr. David Keith, the Canada Research Chair in Energy and the Environment at the University of Calgary. Keith is not necessarily recommending the idea but he does believe we should put it on the research agenda. One option -- a pretty shocking one -- is to release sulfur into the upper atmosphere. From volcanic activity in the past, we already know this would have an immediate cooling effect on the climate.
Nobel Prize winning atmospheric chemist Paul Crutzen^ also recommends looking into such research [PDF]. But he warns:
I must stress here that the albedo enhancement scheme should only be deployed when there are proven net advantages and in particular when rapid climate warming is developing, paradoxically, in part due to improvements in worldwide air quality. Importantly, its possibility should not be used to justify inadequate climate policies, but merely to create a possibility to combat potentially drastic climate heating.Keith says in the podcast that many climate scientists are reluctant to discuss this because it would only treat the symptoms of climate change and not the cause. At the same time, he found policy-makers who were all too eager to deploy such a program.
In this panel discussion on geoengineering, Harvard geochemist Dan Schrag^ points out:
If we're going to use the Earth as an experiment -- which we're already doing by adding greenhouse gases -- if we're going to do an experiment by testing injection of reflective material, say, sulfur, into the stratosphere, we don't have a control. And so if something happens, it's almost impossible, given the complexity of the system, to attribute it either to the CO2 or the sulfur.Sulfur injection into the upper atmosphere, says Keith, is within the power of poorer nations and even within the power of the richest individuals. And like the current trend in climate change, there would be winners and losers. Since we are already altering the atmosphere, is this something we should consider? And if so, who would be responsible? Who should be allowed to fiddle with the global thermostat?


|Wind Pressure Sys.||Structure of a Depression||Anticyclone||Weather Services||TRS|
Atmosphere and Atmospheric Pressure
Most of the weather changes take place in the lower layer of the atmosphere, which is known as the TROPOSPHERE.
This layer extends about 11 miles-high over the
equatorial regions and about 5 miles high over the
The layer above the troposphere is known as the STRATOSPHERE where there is little water vapour and the lower part appears to be isothermal.
There is a rise in temperature towards its upper limit.
The boundary between the troposphere and the stratosphere is known as the TROPOPAUSE.
About 20 miles above the earth the stratosphere gives way to the OZONOSPHERE, where there is a high concentration of ozone which absorbs ultra violet radiation.
The IONOSPHERE starts about 50 miles above the earth.
The density of the atmosphere decreases with height.
Approximate percentage volumes of the various gases forming dry air in the troposphere are nitrogen 78%, oxygen 21%, argon 0.9%, carbon dioxide 0.03%, with the balance being made up of traces of hydrogen, helium, neon, krypton, radon, xenon and ozone.
As most of the weather changes take place in the troposphere, it is in this region that the changes in temperature arc most important.
As altitude increases, air pressure decreases due to the decreased weight of air above. With less pressure, the density decreases. More than three-fourths of the air is concentrated within a layer averaging about 7 statute miles thick, called the troposphere. This is the region of most “weather,” as the term is commonly understood.
The top of the troposphere is marked by a thin transition zone called the tropopause, immediately above which is the stratosphere. Beyond this lie several other layers having distinctive characteristics. The average height of the tropopause ranges from about 5 miles or less at high latitudes to about 10 miles at low latitudes.
Sun as energy source
The sun, at a distance of about. 93,000,000 miles and at a temperature of about 6,000°C, is the principal source of light and heat for the earth. The heat from the sun travels to the earth in the form of short wave radiation, which passes through the atmosphere without appreciably warming it.
On striking the earth some of the heat will be absorbed to warm the earth. The heat received at the earth from the sun is known as INSOLATION.
The amount of insolation per unit area varies with latitude. It can be seen in the sketch below that a band of rays has to heat a very much larger area in a high latitude than it does in a low latitude.
The increase in the temperature of the earth will depend, amongst other things, on the amount of insolation and the specific heat of the earth.
Assuming that the insolation is constant, a surface with a high specific heat warms and cools les s quickly than a surface with a low specific heat.
For instance, the sea temperature in non-tidal waters hardly changes in the 24 hours.
A contributing factor to this small change is its depth. It will be found that, in general, sea temperatures are less than the temperatures of adjacent land by day and greater by night. There is a similar difference in summer and winter.
The amount of insolation will depend on the sun’s altitude and the degree of cloud cover. It may be noted that the SOLAR CONSTANT, which is the intensity of solar radiation at the outer boundary of the atmosphere, is 1.39kw/m2.
The height of the station under consideration above sea level will be a factor influencing the heating, as will the prevailing wind. Air which his flowed over warm surfaces will have a smaller cooling effect than air which has flowed over cold surfaces.
As the earth is a warm body it radiates heat. This radiation will cool the surface.
If the earth is radiating heat at a greater rate than it is receiving it, the net result will be a cooling of the surface. The converse is also true.
In the diagram below the curves of insolation and radiation are shown to increase and decrease at a regular rate for case of illustration.
Quite clearly the temperature falls until point A is reached when it begins to rise. The rise continues to point B and then, once again, the temperature falls.
It will be noted that the lowest temperature occurs shortly after sunrise whereas the maximum temperature occurs about 1400 hours local time, and not when insolation is minimum and maximum. A similar lag takes place on an annual basis. In northern latitudes the lowest temperatures do not usually occur until February and the maximum temperatures occur in July and early August.
The sea temperature lags even further behind the sun. The minimum occurring in March and the maximum in September.
It must be understood that all the above general statements can be considerably modified by local weather conditions, particularly cloud amounts.
Nature of solar radiation
Heat is transferred to the air surrounding the Earth by one or more of the following means: -
The sun’s rays being in the shorter wavelength do not appreciably heat up the air, rather the heating is done of the water vapour particles in the atmosphere,
The sun does however heat the Earth, and the Earth after getting heated up re-radiates heat. This earth heat is in the form of long waves. If there is no cloud cover then the heat is transferred to space, but with a cloud cover the heat is radiated back on the earth.
Thus on a cloudless night the heat radiated out by the Earth is considerable and a lot of surface cooling takes place.
The heat is transferred from particle to particle. Thus, air, which is in contact with a warm surface, is warmed; this occurs by day when the sun is shining. Air, which is in contact with a cold surface, is cooled; this occurs on clear nights.
Air masses acquire their characteristics by the same process.
Air, which is warmed, expands and consequently its density decreases. This makes it lighter than the un-warmed air surrounding it and the warmer air rises.
Convectional processes take large amounts of warm air and water vapour from the surface to the upper levels. When the water vapour condenses into water drops and precipitation occurs, the latent heat remains. Most of the atmospheric heating takes place in this way.
Conversely, air, which is colder than the surrounding air, has a greater density, and as it is heavier, it sinks. An example of this is the Katabatic wind.
Air, which flows over a rough surface tends to be deflected upwards. The Rising air will be replaced by some air from levels up to 600m giving an interchange of air between the surface and 600m.
The rising air carries its warmth (acquired by conduction) with it, and the falling brings its coolness.
Increase of height above sea level generally means a decrease of temperature. The rate at which the temperature changes with height is known as the lapse rate, an average value being about 0.7°C/100m.
ENVIRONMENT LAPSE RATE
The lapse rate can vary and the environment lapse rate will be referred to when a particular air mass is under consideration. This rate will be dependent on many factors and will vary with the altitude, although it is usually between the S.A.L.R. and D.A.L.R. Plotting temperatures of the air at various heights will give environment curves.
ADIABATIC TEMPERATURE CHANGE
If a volume of air rises to a region of lower pressure, the volume will increase and following the gas laws the temperature of the volume will fall. The change of temperature is solely due to expansion or contraction and no heat has been given to or received from the adjacent air. This change of temperature is known as an Adiabatic Temperature Change.
DRY ADIABATIC LAPSE.RATE (D.A.L.R.).
When dry air is forced to rise it has been found that it decreases its temperature by 1°C/100m and this is known as the Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate. With dry air, which is forced down, an increase at a similar rate is found.
Dry air is any air, which is not saturated.
SATURATED ADIABATIC LAPSE RATE (S.A.L.R.)
Latent heat is the heat necessary to change 1 kilogram of water to 1 kilogram of Vapour at saturation temperature. If a quantity of water changes to vapour an amount of latent heat will have been required.
This sort of thing will happen with air at a temperature above dew point (note however that the higher the temperature of the air the more water vapour it will normally contain- unless some artificial means have been employed to reduce the water vapour content).
The latent heat that has been originally required to change the water to its vapour state has not been lost but is retained in the mass of the water vapour. Now when the water vapour is cooled and the water condenses back the latent heat is released and this is known as the latent heat of condensation.
The latent heat of vapourisation is generally accepted as 540 calories/gramme of water.
When the cooling of the air to its dew point temperature is caused by the air rising the latent heat released will modify the overall cooling rate.
For the air that is rising:
D.A.L.R. (-) 1.0°C/100m
Latent Heat (+) 0.5°C/100m (average for sea level in middle latitudes)
S.A.L.R. (-) 0.5°C/100m
The S.A.L.R. is a variable quantity depending on the
latent heat of the condensing water vapour. The S.A.L.R. is low near the
equator and high in
It will also increase with height.
If air, which his been forced to rise (or fall) from its initial level tends to return to that level it is said to be stable. This condition occurs when the environment lapse rate is less than the S.A.L.R.
The figure shows in black the environment curve of some tropical air, whose lapse rate is about 0.3°C/100m.
Suppose some dry air at point A is forced upwards, it will cool at the D.A.L.R. and follow the red line.
When the rising air reaches the level BB1 it will be much colder than the environment or surrounding air.
As it is colder it is denser, and will want to return to A, a tendency shown by the dotted line.
If instead of the air rising from A, it fell, then at the level CC, the failing air would have warmed adiabatically to a considerably higher temperature than the environment or surrounding air.
It would then be less dense and the tendency would be for it to return to A as indicated.
If the air forced to rise or fall from A were saturated instead of dry, the path indicated by the green line would be followed. Again, for the same reasons as are given above, the tendency is for the air to return to A.
If air, which has been forced to rise (or fall) from its initial level tends to continue its upward (or downward) movement, it is said to be unstable. This condition occurs when the environment lapse rate is greater than the D.A.L.R.
The figure shows in black the environment curve of some polar air whose lapse rate is about 1.2°C/100m.
Suppose some saturated air at point A is forced upward it will cool at the S.A.L.R. and follow the green line. When this rising air reaches the level BB1, it will be warmer than the environment or surrounding air. As it is warmer it will be less dense and the tendency is for it to continue upwards.
If, instead of the air rising from A, it fell, then at the level CC1, the falling air would be at a lower temperature than the environment or surrounding air. It would then be denser and it would continue to fall.
If the air forced to rise or fill from A were dry instead of saturated, the path indicated by the red line would be followed. Again, for the reasons given above, the rising or falling air continues to rise or fall.
This condition occurs when the environment lapse rate is the same as the D.A.L.R., if dry air is under consideration, or the. S.A.L.R. in the case of saturated air. The air which has been forced to rise or fall will have no tendency to continue its upward or downward movement nor will it have any tendency to return to its original position.
This occurs when stable conditions exist for dry air and unstable conditions exist when the air is, saturated. The figure illustrates this.
The environment curve has a lapse rate between the S.A.L.R. and the D.A.L.R. The red line representing dry air forced up or down follows a similar pattern to earlier figure for stable air, whilst the green line representing saturated air forced up or down follows a similar pattern to figure for unstable air.
This conditionally unstable condition is quite common, the air below the condensation level being stable and that above being unstable
The usual tendency for the temperature to fall with height is sometimes reversed. When the temperature increases with height an inversion is said to exist. An inversion also exists if a layer of air is isothermal.
Inversions may occur at any level at all. They frequently, occur at ground level on clear nights. They also occur just above cloud layers.
As an inversion gives rise to very stable conditions, convection and turbulence are damped out and there will be no upward movement of air through the inversion.
Inversions may be caused in anticyclone conditions by subsiding air warming adiabatically to a temperature above that of the lower layers of air.
The figure shows a curve for the environment where there is an inversion above the surface.
Dry and saturated air forced up from A will clearly return showing stable conditions, whereas if forced up from B (or down from A) unstable conditions exist.
The atmosphere by reason of its weight exerts a pressure on the surface of the earth. This pressure is normally measured in millibars, the mean value at sea level being around 1013 mb.
This pressure is in certain places semi-permanently above the mean, while in other places it is semi permanently below the mean. These places are referred to as regions of high and low pressure respectively. There are also temporary areas of high or low pressure.


The Landfill Methane Outreach Program is a program run by the EPA to encourage landfill owners to harness the landfill gas produced by municipal solid waste for electricity generation, with the goal of reducing national methane emissions. Over a 20-year period, 1 ton of methane causes 72 times more global warming than 1 ton of carbon dioxide. The landfills participating in the program today produce approximately 15 million MWh of electricity annually, about enough to power 12 million homes. Despite efforts to decrease methane emissions, burning landfill gas for energy produces harmful contaminants, making the benefits of these programs contested.
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