Monday 03 January: After a freezing cold snap, northern and northwestern India are expected to experience isolated rains and snowfall this week. Intermittent winter rains are a normal occurrence in the northern states of India and are usually brought on by Western Disturbance (WD). This week, two of those rain-bearing WDs are on their way to the northern hills, providing much-needed relief from the cold snap in the northwest plains.
On Monday, meteorologists noted the first Western disturbance on the Arabian Peninsula, which is likely to affect northwest India from today. The system will trigger widespread rainfall in the Western Himalayan region through January 7. It is also expected to produce scattered to fairly widespread rains over Delhi, Punjab, Haryana, northern Rajasthan and Uttar Prades from Wednesday.
As a result, the Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) has kept Jammu and Kashmir, Ladakh and Himachal Pradesh under control. orange alert for Tuesday and Wednesday as forecasts suggest heavy isolated rains. In addition, Uttarakhand, Punjab, Haryana, Delhi and Rajasthan are also on orange alert for Wednesday January 5. An orange alert means “be prepared” for inclement weather conditions.
In addition, a WD intense is expected to affect the region later this week, starting Jan. 7. Under its influence, rains and snowfall are expected to increase across the Western Himalayan region from Friday to Sunday, with isolated heavy falls on Saturday.
Due to consecutive WDs, an area of low pressure with relatively cold air mass over the upper layers will develop over northwest India by Friday morning and affect Delhi-RCN. In addition to scattered and moderate rainfall, isolated heavy rains, thunderstorms and hailstorms are forecast over Delhi-NCR, Rajasthan, western Madhya Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh from Friday to Friday. Sunday.
Western disturbances are low pressure systems that form over the Mediterranean Sea and are pushed towards India by high altitude westerly winds. The disturbances collect moisture from different sources along the way, including the Mediterranean, Caspian and sometimes even the Arabian Sea, and then dump it into northern India.
In addition, DEOs have a double impact on winter cold across the northern plains. They attract the humid winds from the northern Indian Ocean and limit the cold winds from the northwest of central Asia. As a result, minimum or nighttime temperatures increase. However, as clouds envelop the area, the morning sun fails to warm the area, causing daytime temperatures to drop.
On Monday morning, Delhi base station at Safdarjung recorded a minimum temperature of 5.4 ° C, two units below normal. However, as WDs begin to affect the area, nighttime mercury levels are expected to rise sharply, providing much needed relief from the ongoing cold snap. By Wednesday, January 5, the minimum temperature is expected to increase to close to 10 ° C and stay around this level until the end of the week, while the daytime high drops below 20 ° C.
IMD has confirmed that no cold snap is likely over northern and northwestern India for the next 5-7 days. IMD declares a cold snap when the minimum temperature drops to 4 ° C or when the minimum temperature is less than 10 ° C and 4.5 units below normal.
Delhi’s air quality has deteriorated to ‘severeSunday with a 24-hour average Air Quality Index (AQI) of 404, according to the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB). As the level of PM10 surpassed 300, the Air Quality and Weather Forecast and Research System (SAFAR) also issued a health advisory stating that sensitive people should consider reducing prolonged efforts or intense and heavy outdoor work. On Monday morning, SAFAR reported that Delhi’s AQI remains “very low” at 366.
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| < July >
|Normal Max/ High Temperature
|Min/ Low Temperature
|Average Daylight per day
|Sun altitude at solar noon on the 21st day.
- The average temperature in Guidonia in July is fairly hot at 24 °C (75.2 °F).
- Afternoons can be very, very hot with average high temperatures reaching 31.6 °C (88.9 °F).
- Overnight temperatures are generally very mild with an average low of 16.4 °C (61.5 °F).
- The variation/ range of diurnal average temperatures in July is 15.2 °C (27.4 °F).
- The weather in July is somewhat parched. A paltry 27.8mm (1.1in) of H2O is laid down.
- The shortest day is 14:28 long and the longest day is 15:11 long with an average length of 14:53.
Check the distance to and compare the Guidonia July averages with somewhere beginning with:
A | B | C | D | E | F | G | H | I | J | K | L | M | N | O | P | Q | R | S | T | U | V | W | X | Y | Z | All
Weather Trend Graph for July in Guidonia, Italy
Navigate to July Weather in Locations Surrounding Guidonia:
- Perugia, Umbria, Italy - 123.7 kms (76.9 miles) N
- Radicofani, Italy - 127.6 kms (79.3 miles) NW
- Viterbo, Italy - 74.4 kms (46.3 miles) NW
- Vigna Di Valle, Italy - 44.2 kms (27.5 miles) WNW
- Civitavecchia, Italy - 74.6 kms (46.3 miles) W
- Rome, Italy - 19.9 kms (12.4 miles) WSW
- Ciampino, Italy - 24.4 kms (15.1 miles) SSW
- Rome/ Fiumicino, Italy - 46.5 kms (28.9 miles) WSW
- Pratica Di Mare, Italy - 44.7 kms (27.8 miles) SSW


The writer is an expert on climate change and development. By Ali Tauqeer Sheikh
CLIMATE Change 2021: the Physical Science Basis —the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change’s (IPCC) Assessment Report 6 known as AR-6 — that was released on Monday, should send a shiver down the spine of everyone who reads it. The report has confirmed that human activities have changed our climate and are now on the verge of changing our planet forever. The report has shown that impacts will continue to increase rapidly with greater speed than scientists had predicted earlier. Only by quickly achieving net zero reductions in emissions will there be a chance of saving the world from becoming a living hell.
AR-6 is the cornerstone of climate science for the coming years. It has summarised climate change on the basis of physical science. The report has pointed out that the changes in oceans, ice-sheets, seas, and land are approaching irreversible levels and leading to abrupt changes and tipping points. The outlook is so grim that the 1.5 degrees Celsius change could happen as early as the 2030s, possibly by 2035, instead of the 2050s, as projected earlier.
The report is a sequel to IPCC’s four special reports on i) extreme events (2012), ii) global warming of 1.5°C (2018), iii) climate change and land (2019), and iv) oceans and cryosphere (2019). Providing a synthesis of 14,000 published scientific articles, and 70,000 comments, this 3,000-page report is divided into 12 chapters, based on over 100 distinct climate models by dozens of modelling groups. It includes four contributory authors from Pakistan: Irfan Tariq, Mohammad Amjad, and Mohammad Tariq, all three from the Ministry of Climate Change and Asif Khan from the University of Engineering, Peshawar. AR-6 stands out due to five key points:
The message is clear: the climate will continue to warm and weather extremes will intensify.
First, the report has resolved all major uncertainties and provided the clearest picture yet of the effect of human activities on the climate. The message is unambiguous: the climate will continue to warm and weather extremes will intensify further as long as we continue to emit CO2. AR-6 has pointed out that the temperature has been rising at a faster rate than previous IPCC assessments. The last decade was the hottest ever in centuries, not just in recorded history. A city in Sindh recorded the highest record temperature in the world.
Second, the report has increased our understanding of how quickly several worst-case scenarios will become more likely, even imminent. This is because of the tipping points, reflecting abrupt and irreversible changes. They have become more visible, resulting in non-linear reactions. Several new assessments of tipping points in the global climate system stand out in AR-6. Given the carbon stock already locked in the atmosphere, global warming will continue beyond 2100. That should not seem like a long time away, as millions of children already born during this decade should be alive well into the 22nd century. Babies born now in Pakistan, that has a huge population bulge, will experience a different world as young adults.
Third, the report has drawn attention to a global trend of compound extreme events, such as drought coupled with heatwaves, coastal flooding coupled with wind hazards, sea-level rise and storm surge, and tropical cyclones followed by heatwaves. AR-6 has confirmed, to the extent scientifically possible, what we are already experiencing in developing countries like Pakistan where climate disasters routinely alternate and coincide.
Fourth, the report has underlined the need for reduction in CO2 together with methane hitherto mostly ignored. AR-6 has underlined the importance of its reduction for improving air quality. It would counteract any future warming due to reductions in other air pollutants such as aerosols. AR-6 has highlighted a combined approach to climate and air quality that can help cleaner air while limiting climate warming. It is an urgent challenge in Pakistan where breathing clean air is becoming a rarity.
Fifth, the IPCC report has pointed out a strong link between rising temperatures and heavy precipitation, relevant particularly for Pakistan and other South Asian countries where precipitation is reported to have increased. The contributing factors include aerosols, particles, air pollutants and smoke, land-use change and water extraction. They have all impacted rainfalls from Karachi to Kolkata.
For Pakistan and for the South Asian region these global, macro-level trends result in i) wetter rainy seasons and more frequent weather events, ii) more severe wet and very dry seasons, iii) more intense heavy rains and greater flood hazards, iv) increased severity of droughts as land becomes dryer, v) increased humidity, slowing down of tropical circulation affecting warming-induced rains in monsoon regions.
In other words, the South Asian monsoon will carry substantial changes in the water cycle. AR-6 has pointed out that the Atlantic circulation, known as AMOC, that “carries heat from the tropics up to the northern hemisphere by transporting warm water masses northward at the ocean surface, and returning as a cool current southward at the bottom of the ocean”, may be approaching a tipping point. This could serve as a precursor to the weakening of the water cycle and abrupt shifts in Asian monsoon patterns that stretches from the Bay of Bengal to the Himalayas.
In all, the changes in the global systems are proportionate to carbon emissions as well as non-linear and unfairly disproportionate to global warming. AR-6 is, therefore, as much about loss & damage as about mitigation and adaptation, albeit without explicitly recognising it. L&D refers to economic and non-economic climate impacts exceeding the adaptive capacity of countries, communities and ecosystems. It is a term often associated with liability and compensation. With progress in attributive sciences where each extreme event can be attributed with fair certainty to climate-induced changes, developing countries demand retribution from developed states for the climate-triggered L&D. AR-6 has provided a compendium of long-awaited scientific evidence to back up their claim with science.
AR-6 must guide the pledges, commitments and binding agreements by the world’s largest emitters led by the US, China, India, EU, UK and others. Given the scientific evidence, Pakistan’s goal at COP-26 in Glasgow in November this year, should be to align with those who favour halving global emissions by 2030 and achieving net zero by 2050, or sooner, to limit warming to 1.5C.


IIT Kanpur Scientists And IIT Delhi Students Are Devising Ways To Use Artificial Rain In Delhi!
Post Diwali, Delhi has been suffering from drastic air pollution. It has become tough to survive and even breathe in the city. Due to the weather changes, population increase and multiple other factors, the air quality had already been on the decline and the pollution during the Diwali festivities had made it intolerable. In such times, innovative measures are required and students and faculty from two of the most prestigious institutes of the country – IIT Delhi and IIT Kanpur – have come up with solutions to our National capital’s problems.
Source - The Better India
All set to use Artificial Rain
The scientists at IIT Kanpur have decided to use artificial rain to mitigate the hazards of chronic air pollution. They have taken all the necessary measures and procured an aircraft from ISRO. They are only waiting for meteorological conditions to fall in place so that they can start their process. According to the System of Air Quality and Weather Forecasting (SAFAR) forecast, however, the Air Quality Index (AQI) was likely to remain in the 'very poor' category for next two or three days due to high relative humidity and low temperature.
"The technique has been tested before in Maharashtra as well as parts of Lucknow. However, this is the first time in India that artificial rain would be created over a big land mass to counter the damage done by air pollutants. It is easier to seed pre-monsoon and monsoon clouds and it may not be easy trying to seed clouds in winter that are not very moisture laden. However, once it is successfully done, we will evaluate its impact and take a call about whether a second attempt should be made or not," said Manindra Agarwal, Deputy Director IIT Kanpur, as per PTI.
Source - NDTV
On the other hand, a group of students at IIT Delhi are working with weathermen to monitor the air conditions and make it favourable for rain.
The process of creating Artificial Rain
This process is achieved by cloud seeding and it involves different kinds of chemical agents with existing clouds to thicken them and increase rainfall chances. The chemical agents used are silver iodide, dry ice and common salt. Using an aircraft, the process can be carried out. Other countries like China, US, Israel, South Africa and Germany have used this technique successfully.
Source - StudyTonight
The IIT Kanpur scientists want to use hygroscopic method in which salt is dispersed through flares or explosives in the lower parts of clouds. On combining, the salts grow in size.
It is the need of the hour to take some drastic measures in order to make Delhi liveable again. The efforts of the scientists and students should be appreciated. They are working in the right direction. With due support from government and after thorough research, this experiment will definitely live up to its potential.
#Education #Environment #ArtificialRain #DelhiAirPollution #Pollution #Science #Innovation #CloudSeeding #ISRO


The Vancouver Convention Centre (VCC) has been awarded a 2020 Clean Air Award by the National Air Filtration Association. The NAFA Clean Air Award recognises excellence in air filtration as well as outstanding effort in maintaining a clean and healthy indoor environment. With a comprehensive approach to maintaining and improving air quality throughout the facility, the Convention Centre received this award for attributes that include maintaining a comprehensive record-keeping programme around the regular replacing of air filters, installing gaskets between air filters to prevent bypassing, installing instrumentation to measure pressure drop across air filters and more. Notably, the upgrading of air filters to extend their lifespan from yearly to every two years provided additional benefit resulting in significant energy utilisation savings for the building's operation. This is in line with the Vancouver Convention Centre's commitment to sustainability as a double LEED Platinum certified convention centre. "2020 has shown us that there is no limit on the need to prioritise air quality when striving to create clean and healthy environments within facilities like ours. We will continue to look for ways to further these efforts as air filtration becomes even more foundational to hosting events and visitors in the future", said Craig Lehto, general manager, Vancouver Convention Centre.


The carbon dioxide level in the environment nowadays is likely more than what has been in the previous 3 million years. This increase in the carbon dioxide level, the greenhouse gas, could bring the temperatures not seen in the whole timespan, as per the new study.
The researchers of study utilized the computer model to look at the alterations in the climate amid the Quaternary time frame, which began about 2.59 million years prior and proceeds till today. In that period, the Earth has experienced various changes, however, none as quick as those happening today stated the author of study Matteo Willeit, the postdoctoral researcher on climate at the Potsdam Institute for the Climate Impact Research.
Willeit stated, “To get the climate hotter than the present-day, you essentially need to return to an alternate geological time frame.”
The sudden alteration in the climate was quite often exceedingly dangerous for life on Earth that was seen in the past, causing mass extinction, for example, end of the Triassic, Permian, or even the mid-Cambrian timeframe. The indications from those occasions (a major, fast hop in worldwide temperatures, the increasing level of seawater, and also the acidification of ocean) are altogether happening presently with the human-caused changes in climate.
Willeit said those discoveries are critical for understanding the state that decided if regions like Chicago or the New York City will be livable or will be canvassed in ice a mile high. But at the same time, they’re valuable for encircling the present climate change.
Willeit said, “It clearly demonstrates that regardless of whether you take a gander at past climatic conditions over exceptionally long timescales, what humans are doing at present in terms of the change in climate is something important and extremely quick, contrasted with what occurred in the past.”
The power of climate change appears to probably make totally new survival challenges for the species on our planet, which include humans and numerous different life forms also.


The logic behind roofs being torn off during extreme-wind conditions has everything to do with air pressure. … Atmospheric pressure is the primary component responsible for roofs blowing off. When air currents enters your house from a broken window or an open doorway it creates pressure within and pushes it upwards.
Why Roofs are blown away when it is wind?
The high wind blowing over the roof creates a low pressure in accordance with Bernoulli’s principle. The pressure below the roof is equal to the atmospheric pressure which is now larger than pressure above the roof. … Once the roof is lifted up, it is blown off with the wind along its direction.
How can you prevent your roof from being blown away by strong winds?
Make sure that the edges of your roof are properly sealed with a roofing cement to prevent gale-force winds from penetrating underneath and blowing off your shingles. Seal the decking, as well. Install windproof sheathing. When you have a new roof installed, be sure that the sheathing used is windproof.
At what wind speed do roofs come off?
Typically, winds as fast as 70-90 mph (miles per hour) are the starting point for wind that can cause roof damages. However, sometimes a gust at 50 mph can give your roof a beating.
Why do roofs fly off during hurricanes?
The Danger: As hurricane winds pass over a roof, they create powerful upward-sucking forces. If shingles or other roofing materials are not securely attached, they will simply peel off, opening avenues for water to infiltrate.
What is the best roof for high winds?
For wind protection, you want a hip roof that has four slopes, pitched ideally at about 30 degrees. The idea is that more slopes will handle high winds better, so anything more than a two-slope gable roof will be more resistant to wind damage.
Should you open windows during high winds?
The Insurance Institute for Business & Home Safety recommends that you close all interior doors and all windows for major wind storms including hurricanes. That’s because wind that enters a home through open windows creates strong upward pressure on the home’s roof.
How does the wind move during a fair weather?
Air moves from areas of high pressure to low pressure. … At the center of high-pressure areas, dry air descends from above, producing fair weather. On a smaller scale, colliding wind patterns can produce convergence, in which air also has nowhere to go but up.
How do I keep my roof from flying off?
It is strongly recommended that you put an anchor down on your roof if ever there is a strong storm that is predicted to hit. It is to everyone’s best interest if you attach each end to heavy blocks that are on the ground to prevent your roof from flying off.
How do you protect your roof from Typhoon?
Regularly check and make sure that the roof gutters aren’t clogged. Set a date once a month, even before any storms are predicted, to go up the roof and check your gutters. “Especially those who have interior gutters, which tend to be more problematic than the regular ones,” says Allen.
Can 60 mph winds break windows?
A DP 15 window can reasonably be expected to sustain winds of roughly 77 mph before shattering. A DP 50 window is expected to sustain winds up to 173 mph. Generally I guess you would start seeing windows blow out around 60 mph to 140 mph in hurricane conditions.
How bad is 50 mph winds?
Most thunderstorm winds that cause damage at the ground are a result of outflow generated by a thunderstorm downdraft. Damaging winds are classified as those exceeding 50-60 mph. … Wind speeds can reach up to 100 mph and can produce a damage path extending for hundreds of miles.
How dangerous is 75 mph winds?
Beaufort Wind Scale
|Wind Speed Estimation||Description|
|Severe begins at 58 mph||Severe begins at 50.4|
|55 – 63||47.8 – 54.7||Damage to chimneys and TV antennas; pushes over shallow rooted trees|
|64 – 74||55½ – 64.2||Rarely experienced; structural damage becomes possible|
|above 75 mph||above 65 kt’s||Very rarely experienced|
How do you hurricane proof a roof?
Use a caulking gun to apply roofing cement on the edges of roof shingles. Use construction adhesive to the rafters or trusses where they connect to the deck. One more inexpensive but effective tip is to install metal hurricane clips. These connect the interior walls of your home to the roof.
Why it is advisable not to shut all the doors and windows during a storm?
As we know that the storm is simply accompanied by strong winds(high speed) and as we know that the high-speed winds have low pressure , so if we close all the doors and windows when a storm occurs then the pressure inside the house will remain the same as before(high pressure than storm) but due to storm the pressure …
What is Bernoulli’s theorem state and prove?
Bernoulli’s principle states that an increase in the speed of a fluid occurs simultaneously with a decrease in static pressure or a decrease in the fluid’s potential energy. To prove Bernoulli’s theorem, consider a fluid of negligible viscosity moving with laminar flow, as shown in Figure.


Every day forklift operators working in warehouses are exposed to significant amounts of chemicals and pollutants. Warehouse air quality is a critical safety issue as it has an immense impact on workers’ health and their ability to work. A number of toxic gases like nitrogen oxides, NO and NO2 are emitted by diesel vehicles. Also, toxic mold growth in damp, poorly ventilated areas of the warehouse are another risk. But the most predominant toxic gas is carbon monoxide. Known as the “silent killer,” it is invisible, tasteless and odorless. Having these toxins in your warehouse presents significant risk factors to your workers. Knowing the impact poor air quality has on a person’s health and how to prevent it can improve the air quality in your warehouse.
Air pollutants can cause respiratory diseases as well as cancer. When a person is exposed to carbon monoxide for extended periods of time, organs like the brain and heart are starved. Symptoms of carbon monoxide poisoning are dizziness, headaches, visual disturbance, nausea, confusion, chest pain, weakness and unconsciousness.
To prevent poor indoor air quality in your warehouse the causing factors must be identified. With delivery trucks constantly picking up and dropping off goods exhaust fumes have a big impact on air quality. Manufacturing processes or raw materials have chemical emissions that impact air quality. When warehouses are sealed off from the cold in the winter a warehouse’s air quality is impacted by poor ventilation. Older heating and air conditioning systems are unable to keep up with the ventilation needed to maintain proper air quality in a warehouse. If your warehouse is located in an area that experiences lots of rain, high humidity and flooding, moisture and leaks will cause dampness that can lead to toxic mold. When forklifts idle for long periods, air quality in your warehouse can decline. Especially when there’s a failure to verify emission tests on rental forklifts.
To improve air quality in your warehouse you’ll want to take the following steps. If diesel forklifts are driven inside your warehouse, you shouldn’t rely on building ventilation alone to prevent carbon monoxide poisoning. Seasonal temperature changes require quarterly testing to ensure your forklifts aren’t emitting large amounts of exhaust fumes. You’ll also want to keep track of forklift usage and mechanical conditions of your fleet. Tune ups, leaking exhaust systems and worn out engines all play a part in air quality. To ensure the cleanest possible burn, adjustments should be made to the fuel delivery system and throttle. Be sure to measure carbon monoxide levels near the tailpipe.
Monitoring the air quality in your warehouse is extremely important to the health of forklift operators. Carbon monoxide detectors with automatic sensors and ventilating fans that automatically open and close dock doors is one way. Hand held carbon monoxide gas analyzers should be routinely used to perform carbon monoxide exhaust checks. For every day monitoring, consider personal electronic detectors with alarms. Be sure to pay attention to measurement accuracy, maintenance and calibration procedures. Making sure your employees recognize and control workplace air quality hazards will drastically reduce poor air quality in your warehouse. But the two most effective ways to improve air quality in your warehouse are by installing catalytic converters on propane forklifts and transitioning from diesel forklifts to electric forklifts.


Is it always rainy in Brittany? Brittany has the (wrongful) reputation of being a wetland. The current climate of Brittany is an oceanic climate with dry summers and mild but wet winters.
On the North coast, in the West and in the interior of Brittany the climate is a little more humid. On the south coast, the climate is drier.
As much sun as Biarritz
After that period come summer. It starts around mid-June and lasts untill mid-October. In high season, the average temperature is 25°C.
It is around Carnac and the Gulf of Morbihan, along the coast of South Brittany, that you will find the most hours of sunshine (more than 2000 per year, comparable with Biarritz).
Thus, in spring and autumn, holiday makers enjoy high temperatures and a pleasant time and can still take full advantage of the beaches of South Morbihan...


Business of Carbon dioxide
As per a new study, carbon dioxide can be used to produce fuels on a commercial basis.
Business of Carbon dioxide
Turning trash into an asset can make one happy. If it gives money in exchange than it is adorable. It can also happen in the case of carbon dioxide. Recent research by scientists from UCLA, the University of Oxford and five other institutions shows that captured carbon dioxide can be turned into commercial products. It can be a raw material to produce fuels and construction materials.
If this happens, the greenhouse gas emission rate can be reduced to a great extent.
The results of the research were published in the journal “Nature”. According to the research, there are 10 different ways to use carbon dioxide. It is a great achievement to establish it as a potential source of energy. It can be used as fuels and chemicals, plastics, building materials, soil management, and forestry. The subject of this study was to find out the processes to use the carbon dioxide that is produced from burnt fossil fuels and the huge amount of them gathered in the atmosphere from from the industries.
The next step of this research is to consider the processes that produce carbon dioxide biologically. Photosynthesis is given the highest priority in this regard.
The result of the experiment shows that the utilization pathways can use around 0.5 gigatonnes of carbon dioxide per year on average. This big amount of carbon dioxide fades away in the atmosphere (a gigatonne is 1 billion tonnes).
In the top case scenario, researchers see more than 10 gigatonnes of carbon dioxide are being used a year. They estimate the cost of under $100 for a tonne of carbon dioxide. The potential scales and costs varied from sector to sector.
"The analysis we presented makes clear that carbon dioxide utilization can be part of the solution to combat climate change, but only if those with the power to make decisions at every level of government and finance commit to changing policies and providing market incentives across multiple sectors," said Emily Carter, a co-author of the paper. "The urgency is huge and we have little time left to effect change."
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change has decided to keep global warming to 1.5 degrees Celsius over the rest of the 21st century. For doing this, we need to reduce 100 to 1,000 gigatonnes of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. The rate of current fossil carbon dioxide emissions is increasing 1% annually. This is the main reason behind the highest record of 37 gigatonnes of carbon dioxide in 2018.
Cameron Hepburn is the director of Oxford's Smith School of Enterprise and Environment. He is a co-author of this study. He remarks, "Greenhouse gas removal is essential to achieve net-zero carbon emissions and stabilize the climate. We haven't reduced our emissions fast enough, so now we also need to start pulling carbon dioxide out of the atmosphere. Governments and corporations are moving on this, but not quickly enough. The promise of carbon dioxide utilization is that it could act as an incentive for carbon dioxide removal and could reduce emissions by displacing fossil fuels."
As the technologies are new, mitigation strategies are needed to analyze their overall impact on the climate. Some of them are pretty attractive to fit with as a good business model. So, the good ones are getting popularity and adopted quite easily. For instance, using carbon dioxide as a feedstock has gained fame for its profitability and environment-friendly production process. It is better than using conventional hydrocarbons. It is capable of displacing up to three times as much carbon dioxide as it uses.
There are some co-benefits of using carbon-dioxide biologically. It is an alternative choice during the global decarbonization process. In this regard, we may give the example of the carbon dioxide that we use to produce fuels. It has such a great role in the processes where decarbonization is harder like in aviation.
"I would start by incentivizing the most obvious solutions -- most of which already exist -- that can act at the gigatonne scale in agriculture, forestry, and construction," said Carter. "At the same time, I would aggressively invest in R&D across academia, industry and government labs -- much more so than is being done in the U.S., especially compared to China -- in higher-tech solutions to capture and convert carbon dioxide to useful products that can be developed alongside solutions that already exist in agriculture, forestry and construction."


The eye of tropical cyclone #Freddy – captured live from the @Space_Station at 11:31 UTC today over the Indian Ocean to the east of Madagascar. Expected to make landfall there on Tuesday, Feb 21
Equivalent to a category 4 hurricane and getting stronger.
Feb 17, 2023 @WMO pic.twitter.com/q55IHD36qh
— ISS Above (@ISSAboveYou) February 17, 2023


Team up with other regional and remote schools across the state to submit important weather data to Scitech for a whole term! You will receive a four items of equipment you can use at your school; these measure your local minimum and maximum temperature, rainfall, wind direction and cloud types.
Also included are plenty of teaching resources to inspire your students to understand why weather forecasting is so important, enhancing their Science as a Human Endeavour studies, and opportunities to develop Science Inquiry Skills.
You will also have the chance to have your school name and your weather data reported on your local GWN7 weather report once a week for the whole term! The equipment and resources are also yours to keep after the term has finished.
Open to regional and remote schools only
Participating schools submit your reports here.
Join for next term
If you'd like to join in for next term's Schools' Weather Wall, fill out our Expression of interest form.
To find out more about the Schools’ Weather Wall email: email@example.com or call 9215 0740.
Information about the weather
|The Bureau of Meteorology homepage||www.bom.gov.au|
|The Bureau of Meteorology weather education portal||www.bom.gov.au/lam/|
Want to enhance your student's science learning? Why not hire a DIY science kit for your classroom!
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The weather in Raton can vary from day to day, and in some cases hour to hour, but we’re here to help you figure out what the weather will be like so you can plan accordingly. For current weather condition, view details on accuweather.com.
Generally, Spring in Raton brings budding flower, light winds and some light rains, with the season’s temperatures ranging from cool to very warm. Summer is characterized from bright, sunny days and cool evenings. The fall season is chilly and crisp, so it’s wise to wear some layers. Winter months are usually cold and snow with short days, although the sky is usually sunny and clear.


Here, according to the question, when air is pumped, more molecules are pumped and Boyle’s law is stated for situation where, mass of molecules remains constant. In this case, when air is pumped into a cycle tyre, mass of air in it increases as the number of air molecules keep increasing.
When air is pumped into a cycle TYRE?
When air is pumped into a cycle tyre, the volume and pressure of the air in the tyre, both are increased. What about Boyle’s law in this case? When air is pumped into a cycle tyre, more and more and more number of air molecules are pumped in. Boyle’s law is applicable only when number of molecules remain constant.
What happens to the air pressure inside a bicycle tire when air is released from the tire?
When air is pumped into a cycle Tyre the volume and pressure of the air in the tire both are increased.
When air is pumped into a cycle TYRE the volume and pressure of the air in the TYRE both are increased Why is Boyle’s law not applicable in this case?
According to Boyle’s law; at a constant temperature the volume of gas in inversely proportional to pressure ie it is valid only for constant mass of gas. But in this case when air is jumped continuously in tyre, so number of moles of air increases.
Why does the air pressure increase in a bicycle TYRE when more air is pumped in it?
Gas pressure is caused when gas particles hit the walls of their container. The more often the particles hit the walls, and the faster they are moving when they do this, the higher the pressure. This is why the pressure in a tyre or balloon goes up when more air is pumped in.
When air is pumped into an automobile tire the pressure is inversely proportional?
9) When air is pumped into an automobile tire, the pressure is inversely proportional to the volume. If the pressure if 35 pounds when the volume is 120 cubic inches, what is the pressure, in pounds, when the volume is 140 cubic inches?
|Rate (mi/h)||Time (h)|
How is Boyle’s law used to explain how a pump inflates a bicycle tire?
You can observe a real-life application of Boyle’s Law when you fill your bike tires with air. When you pump air into a tire, the gas molecules inside the tire get compressed and packed closer together. This increases the pressure of the gas, and it starts to push against the walls of the tire.
What happens inside when an air filled balloon is squeezed?
There are more collisions of air molecules against the wall of the balloon. When you squeeze an air-filled balloon, what happens inside? It doubles in volume.
Is Boyle’s Law valid at very high temperatures?
Answer: Boyle’s law states the inverse relationship between pressure and volume of a gas when the temperature is held constant. … At an extremely high temperature the gases in question will turn to plasma. Boyle’s law works, however, as long as the temperature range allows the gas to remain a gas.
Why does my tire keep losing air pressure?
There are Several Possibilities as to Why Your Tires Lose Air: a hole in the tread, probably from a nail or something sharp in the road. … a poor seal where the tire attaches to the wheel, which lets air escape. a loose or improperly functioning tire valve.
When we inflate cycle tubes the volume of tube as well as pressure of air inside tube increases?
Now, when we inflate the tubes then the volume as well as pressure of the tube increases because mass of the air is not constant. As mass is not constant it means the number of moles is not constant.
How is a bicycle pump an example of Boyle’s Law?
Boyle’s Law states that the pressure and volume of a gas are inversely proportional. … A bicycle pump is a great example that shoes Boyle’s Law. When you push down on the pump, the volume inside the bike pump decreases, and the pressure of the air increases so that it’s pushed into the tire.
Does tire pressure go up or down when hot?
The inflation pressure in tires generally drops by 1 to 2 psi for every 10 degrees the temperature lowers. Also, when you drive your car, and the tires warm up, the pressure in the tires will increase one psi during each five-minute interval in the first 15 to 20 minutes you drive.
Why can heating a sealed container cause it to explode?
When gases in containers are heated, their molecules increase in average speed. … The gas is therefore under greater pressure when its temperature is higher. This is why fires near sealed gas cylinders are extremely dangerous. If the cylinders heat up enough, their pressure will increase and they will explode.
What happens to gas under extremely high pressure?
However, at high pressures, the molecules of a gas are crowded closer together, and the amount of empty space between the molecules is reduced. At these higher pressures, the volume of the gas molecules themselves becomes appreciable relative to the total volume occupied by the gas (Figure 2).


Marmite switched to green energy and significantly reduces its environmental impact. From 1st July 2022, 100% of our energy comes from renewable resources.
The total reduction of GHG emissions related to our conscious decision is 8.3 thousand. tons of CO2 per year. This is as much as the forest with an area of 16 km2 absorbs annually.
Through to mid-2022, to manufacture an average composite material washbasin, Marmite had to provide electricity, which was responsible for the emission of 5 kg of CO2 into the atmosphere. Compared to the emissions related to the production of similar products made from ceramics, this 5kg of CO2 was already up to 70 times lower impact on the environment
1 tree needed about a year to absorb this amount of CO2.
Since July 2022, we have reduced our electricity related emissions by 100%.
Unlike Marmite, the production of 1 kg of ceramics in the firing process alone causes the emission of about 25-30 kg of CO2 from the combustion of natural gas.
This means that a standard ceramic washbasin is responsible for the emission of over 360kg CO2 before it reaches the customer.
It takes 60 trees to absorb this amount of greenhouse gases in a year
The basic ingredient of our material is crushed dolomite rock. It is completely natural and safe – it is a sedimentary rock that was formed 170 million years ago as a result of compression caused by the volcanic activity of the Earth.
Rock in combination with resin gives irreplaceable hardness and flexibility at the same time. This allows us to create beautiful shapes, but above all, it ensures impact resistance and durability of the product during its many years of use.
Our material is easily recyclable. It can be reused in production of building materials or in road construction. From end 2022, 100% of our technical waste will be recycled
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1. The global carbon budget
The Cancun Agreement in December 2010 captured an international commitment to limit global warming to two degrees Celsius (°C) above pre-industrial levels. It also noted the potential need to tighten this target to 1.5°C.1 This agreement provides a reference point against which global emissions scenarios can be compared to assess whether the world is on track to achieve the two degrees target. We are focused on how the world’s financial markets are aligned with this pathway as it is clear a shift to a low carbon economy needs capital markets to rise to this challenge. The Potsdam Climate Institute has calculated a global carbon budget for the world to stay below 2°C of warming.
This uses probabilistic climate change modelling to calculate the total volume of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions permitted in the first half of the 21st century to achieve the target. This revealed that to reduce the chance of exceeding 2 °C warming to 20%, the global carbon budget for 2000 -2050 is 886 GtCO2.2 (N.B. All emissions are expressed in carbon dioxide only, rather than the equivalent of the full suite of greenhouse gases.)
What have we already used since 2000?
By 2011, the global economy has already used up over a third of that 50 year budget in the first decade alone. Calculations of global emissions published in Nature indicate 282 GtCO2 have already been emitted in the first decade of this century from burning fossil fuels, with land use change contributing a further 39 GtCO2.3 This leaves a budget of around 565 GtCO2 for the remaining 40 years to 2050. This budget could be further contracted if a position is adopted to limit global warming to 1.5°C or even lower.
What are the potential emissions from global fossil fuel reserves?
The Potsdam Climate Institute also calculated the total potential emissions from burning the world’s proven fossil fuel reserves (coal, oil and gas). This is based on reserve figures reported at a country level and UNFCCC emissions factors for the relevant fossil fuel types. Oil was split into conventional and unconventional types, whilst coal was split into three different bands to reflect the range of carbon intensity.
The total CO2 potential of the earth’s proven reserves comes to 2795 GtCO2. 65% of this is from coal, with oil providing 22 % and gas 13%. This means that governments are currently indicating their countries contain reserves equivalent to nearly 5 times the carbon budget for the next 40 years. Consequently only one-fifth of the reserves could be burnt unabated by 2050 if we are to reduce the likelihood of exceeding 2°C warming to 20%.


Mata Yanna Ona - Dumal Warnakulasuriya ft. Kasun Nawarathna from ELAKIRI.COM
In the wake of the controversy surrounding the recent torching of an election stage of Common Candidate Maithripala Sirisena in Wanduramba, the officer-in-charge (OIC) of the Wanduramba Police Station Inspector Panangala Liyanage Keerthisinghe today resigned from his position. MORE..
23 Dec 2014 (1:20 AM)
Over 40,000 people have been displaced after heavy rains triggered floods across the country, the Disaster Management Center said. MORE...
21 Dec 2014 (5:41 PM)
The Department of Meteorology says that the possibility for rain is very high as the atmospheric disturbance is seen in the vicinity in Sri Lanka. Showers or thundershowers are expected to occur at times in the Northern, North-central, Eastern, Uva and Central provinces and in the Hambantota district. MORE..
22 Dec 2014 (11:21 AM)


Sea Level PressureâSea level pressure given in three digits to the nearest tenth of a millibar. However, radar only detects objects in the atmosphere that are large enough to be considered precipitation. This includes an appropriate weather briefing obtained from a specialist at an FSS, AFSS, or NWS. âTemporaryâ is used for temporary fluctuations of weather, expected to last for less than an hour. This chart is a computer prepared report that is transmitted every 3 hours and covers the contiguous 48 states and adjacent areas. Convective SIGMETs are issued for each area of the contiguous 48 states but not Alaska or Hawaii. Aviation Weather Reports (METAR) METAR (Aviation Routine Weather Report) are the most common weather reports used by pilots. DewpointâDewpoint is given in degrees Fahrenheit. The information contained in an AIRMET is of operational interest to all aircraft, but the weather section concerns phenomena considered potentially hazardous to light aircraft and aircraft with limited operational capabilities. These advisories are also available to pilots prior to departure for flight planning purposes. ModifierâModifiers denote that the METAR came from an automated source or that the report was corrected. A variety of different forecast products are produced and designed to be used in the preflight planning stage. It should be requested when a departure has been delayed or when specific weather information is needed to update the previous briefing. 2. When this is the case, the weather specialist needs to know the time and source of the previous briefing so the necessary weather information will not be omitted inadvertently. VFR Clouds and WeatherâThis section lists expected sky conditions, visibility, and weather for the next 12 hours and an outlook for the following 6 hours. If the wind is variable, it is reported as âVRB.â The last two digits indicate the speed of the wind in knots (KT) unless the wind is greater than 99 knots, in which case it is indicated by three digits. 7. The common EFAS frequency, 122.0 MHz, is established for pilots of aircraft flying between 5,000 feet AGL and 17,500 feet MSL. This report is valid for 2 hours until 2055 Zulu time. KPIR 111130Z 111212 15012KT P6SM BKN090 TEMPO 1214 5SM BR FM1500 16015G25KT P6SM SCT040 BKN250 FM0000 14012KT P6SM BKN080 OVC150 PROB40 0004 3SM TSRA BKN030CB FM0400 1408KT P6SM SCT040 OVC080 TEMPO 0408 3SM TSRA OVC030CB BECMG 0810 32007KT=. A detailed explanation of a station model is depicted in the previous discussion of surface analysis charts. Routine TAF for Pierre, South Dakotaâ¦on the 11th day of the month, at 1130Zâ¦valid for 24 hours from 1200Z on the 11th to 1200Z on the 12th â¦wind from 150Â° at 12 knotsâ¦visibility greater than 6 statute milesâ¦broken clouds at 9,000 feetâ¦temporarily, between 1200Z and 1400Z, visibility 5 statute miles in mistâ¦from 1500Z winds from 160Â° at 15 knots, gusting to 25 knots visibility greater than 6 statute milesâ¦clouds scattered at 4,000 feet and broken at 25,000 feetâ¦from 0000Z wind from 140Â° at 12 knotsâ¦visibility greater than 6 statute milesâ¦clouds broken at 8,000 feet, overcast at 15,000 feetâ¦between 0000Z and 0400Z, there is 40 percent probability of visibility 3 statute milesâ¦ thunderstorm with moderate rain showersâ¦clouds broken at 3,000 feet with cumulonimbus cloudsâ¦from 0400Zâ¦winds from 140Â° at 8 knotsâ¦visibility greater than 6 milesâ¦clouds at 4,000 scattered and overcast at 8,000â¦temporarily between 0400Z and 0800Zâ¦ visibility 3 milesâ¦ thunderstorms with moderate rain showersâ¦clouds overcast at 3,000 feet with cumulonimbus cloudsâ¦becoming between 0800Z and 1000Zâ¦wind from 320Â° at 7 knotsâ¦end of report (=). 3. Information about wind barbs which are used on a variety of weather charts. The valid time for the chart is printed on the lower left-hand corner of each panel. WindâWinds are reported with five digits (14021) unless the speed is greater than 99 knots, in which case the wind is reported with six digits. TS IMPLY SEV OR GTR TURB SEV ICE LLWS AND IFR CONDS. A 6-digit group includes the forecast temperature aloft. NONE.â, MKCC WST 221855 CONVECTIVE SIGMET 21C VALID UNTIL 2055 KS OK TX VCNTY GLD-CDS LINE NO SGFNT TSTMS RPRTD LINE TSTMS DVLPG BY 1955Z WILL MOV EWD 30-35 KT THRU 2055Z HAIL TO 2 IN PSBL. The TIBS service is available 24 hours a day and is updated when conditions change, but it can only be accessed by a TOUCH-TONEÂ© phone. At 1500 Zulu, the lowest cloud base is expected to increase to 4,000 feet AGL with a scattered layer at 10,000 feet AGL. Surface analysis, weather depiction, and radar summary charts are sources of current weather information. Surface Analysis Charts: Surface Analysis Chart; Surface Analysis Chart; Surface Analysis Charts provide a snapshot for regional/cross-country flights; Additionally, they provide a look across the country as to where weather patterns are located and how they have developed The areas are derived from the NDFD grid for weather. Areas of precipitation and thunderstorms are observed by radar on a routine basis. If youâre looking at the 4 panel view, the Surface Prog chart shows fronts, pressure areas, and areas of expected precipitation. Area forecasts are issued three times a day and are valid for 18 hours. Thunderstorms and very heavy rain showers are indicated. PIREPs are easy to file and a standard reporting form outlines the manner in which they should be filed. Figure 13 depicts a typical significant weather prognostic chart as well as the symbols typically used to depict precipitation. Figure 12: Intensity levels and contours, and precipitation type symbols. They are numbered sequentially each day from 1-99, beginning at 00 Zulu time. In this case, â2714â means the wind is forecast to be from 270Â° at a speed of 14 knots. Winds and Temperatures AloftâWinds and temperatures aloft is a report of the winds at specific altitudes for the route of flight. This is an important planning element for most flights. If necessary, it can be referenced later to file or amend a flight plan. A pilot can usually contact an EFAS specialist from 6 a.m. to 10 p.m. anywhere in the conterminous U.S. and Puerto Rico. In addition, areas of forecast precipitation and thunderstorms are outlined. The Aviation Weather Center delivers consistent, timely and accurate weather information for the world airspace system. A preflight weather briefing from an automated FSS (AFSS) can be obtained 24 hours a day by calling 1-800-WX BRIEF almost anywhere in the U.S. The heights of the cloud bases are reported with a three-digit number in hundreds of feet above the ground. How to Read Aviation Weather Charts! DFWTWA 241650 AIRMET TANGO UPDT 3 FOR TURBCâ¦ STG SFC WINDS AND LLWS VALID UNTIL 242000 AIRMET TURBCâ¦ OK TXâ¦UPDT FROM OKC TO DFW TO SAT TO MAF TO CDS TO OKC OCNL MDT TURBC BLO 60 DUE TO STG AND GUSTY LOW LVL WINDS. You might see rain clouds forming. WPC and rendered for We Review Rod Machadoâs latest eLearning Course, âUnderstanding Aviation Weather.â I donât know about you, but when I was first studying for the private pilot written exam, it was weather, not navigation or anything else, that I dreaded the most.I clearly remember reading the same page on fronts four or five times without retaining any of it. At times, RVR, or runway visual range is reported following the prevailing visibility. Observations of upper air weather prove to be more challenging than surface observations. 5. NDFD Rain (Likely) - Measurable rain (â¥0.01") is likely at the valid time. A weather brief should be part of any preparation for flight. ATC DelaysâThis is an advisory of any known air traffic control (ATC) delays that may affect the flight. 14-16Z BECMG AGL SCT030. 3. They are issued 3 times a day, amended as needed, and are valid for a 24-hour period. 9. Weather watchesâSevere weather watch areas for tornadoes and severe thunderstorms are depicted by boxes outlined with heavy dashed lines. A âZâ is appended to the end of the time to denote the time is given in Zulu time (UTC) as opposed to local time. The heading indicates that this FD was transmitted on the 15th of the month at 1640Z and is based on the 1200 Zulu radiosonde. Each TAF is valid for a 24-hour time period, and is updated four times a day at 0000Z, 0600Z, 1200Z, and 1800Z. If the word âAUTOâ appears in the report, it means the report is automated from WSR-88D weather radar data. Other helpful information is whether the flight is visual flight rule (VFR) or instrument flight rule (IFR), aircraft identification and type, departure point, estimated time of departure (ETD), flight altitude, route of flight, destination, and estimated time en route (ETE). Winds and temperature aloft forecast (FD). Typically, only one type of cloud will be depicted with the station model. NON MSL HGTS DENOTED BYAGL OR CIG. The network is made up of government run facilities and privately contracted facilities that provide up-to-date weather information. The last two digits state the windspeed in knots as denoted by the letters âKT.â Like the METAR, winds greater than 99 knots are given in three digits. Aviation Weather Reporting: This page will help the pilot to get an overview of the common sources of aviation weather reporting and how to read them. This forecast is not used for the first 6 hours of the 24-hour forecast. Hail up to 2 inches in size is possible with the developing thunderstorms. An aviation routine weather report, or METAR, is an observation of current surface weather reported in a standard international format. Many U.S. and international airlines have equipped their aircraft with instrumentation that automatically transmits in-flight weather observations through the DataLink system to the airline dispatcher who disseminates the data to appropriate weather forecasting authorities. Figure 9: Sample station model and weather chart symbols. They report weather forecasts that include severe icing not associated with thunderstorms, severe or extreme turbulence or clear air turbulence (CAT) not associated with thunderstorms, dust storms or sandstorms that lower surface or in-flight visibilities to below 3 miles, and volcanic ash. These conditions will be beginning after 0200 Zulu and will continue beyond the forecast scope of this SIGMET of 0530 Zulu. A Convective SIGMET (WST) is an in-flight weather advisory issued for hazardous convective weather that affects the safety of every flight. Telephone numbers for NWS facilities and additional numbers for FSSs/AFSSs can be found in the Airport/Facility Directory (A/FD) or in the U.S. Government section of the telephone book. If the wind varies more than 60Â° and the windspeed is greater than 6 knots, a separate group of numbers, separated by a âV,â will indicate the extremes of the wind directions. Surface aviation weather observations (METARs) are a compilation of weather elements of the current weather at ground stations across the United States. EFAS provides a pilot with weather advisories tailored to the type of flight, route, and cruising altitude. Standard symbols are used to show fronts and pressure centers. Pressure Change/TendencyâPressure change in tenths of millibars over the past 3 hours. This type of briefing should be obtained prior to the departure of any flight and should be used during flight planning. Also shown on this panel are areas of VFR, IFR, and MVFR. In areas not served by an AFSS, National Weather Service facilities may provide pilot weather briefings. 10. No winds are forecast when a given level is within 1,500 feet of the station elevation. To decode this type of data group, the reverse must be accomplished. 07:12 PM Pacific | The forecasts are made twice a day based on the radiosonde upper air observations taken at 0000Z and 1200Z. Maximum top of precipitation and location. It calls for occasional moderate or greater clear air turbulence between 28,000 and 35,000 feet due to the location of the jetstream. The current date is the 22nd of the month and it was issued at 1855 Zulu. The second method requires a modem and a communications program supplied by a DUATS provider. 3. Convective SIGMETs are issued for the eastern (E), western (W), and central (C) United States. No significant thunderstorms are being reported, but a line of thunderstorms will develop by 1955 Zulu time and will move eastward at a rate of 30-35 knots through 2055 Zulu. Prognostic charts are an excellent source of information for preflight planning; however, this chart should be viewed in light of current conditions and specific local area forecasts. Between 1400 Zulu and 1600 Zulu, the cloud bases are expected to increase to 3,000 feet AGL. Each of these reporting points is illustrated by a station model. Time is always given in UTC as denoted by the Z following the number group. Aviation weather packages should always include SIGWX SIGWX charts provide an accurate visual presentation of what weather hazards an aircrew can expect to encounter while en route. Forecast Significant WeatherâWeather phenomenon is coded in the TAF reports in the same format as the METAR. It does, however, contain several limitations for the usage of the chart. The third type of radar commonly used in the detection of precipitation is the FAA airport surveillance radar. Because of the increasing need for worldwide weather services, foreign weather organizations also provide vital input. They join together places with the same mean sea level air pressure (weight per square area of air above). RemarksâComments may or may not appear in this section of the METAR. For example, when the data appears as â731960,â subtract 50 from the 73 and add 100 to the 19, and the wind would be 230Â° at 119 knots with a temperature of â60Â°C. The last line indicates the intensity of the precipitation, for example in grid QM the intensity is 3 or heavy precipitation. The elevation at Amarillo, TX (AMA) is 3,605 feet, so the lowest reportable altitude is 6,000 feet for the forecast winds. The second is the aviation selected special weather report (SPECI). Here are the precipitation types: NDFD Rain (Chance) - There is chance of measurable rain (â¥0.01") at the valid time. www.free-online-private-pilot-ground-school.com,
These reports may also include direction and speed of the area of precipitation as well as the height and base of the precipitation in hundreds of feet MSL. The first issuance of a SIGMET is designated as a UWS, or Urgent Weather SIGMET. The types of clouds, specifically towering cumulus (TCU) or cumulonimbus (CB) clouds, are reported with their height. A standard briefing provides the following information in sequential order if it is applicable to the route of flight. Weather observers use three types of radar to provide information about precipitation, wind, and weather systems. In-flight weather advisories, which are provided to en route aircraft, are forecasts that detail potentially hazardous weather. 15Z AGL SCT040 SCT100. ICAO Station IdentifierâThe station identifier is the same as that used in a METAR. When the modifier âCORâ is used, it identifies a corrected report sent out to replace an earlier report that contained an error. For example, when the data appears as â7799,â subtract 50 from 77 and add 100 to 99, and the wind is 270Â° at 199 knots or greater. Cloud bases and tops, ceilings, and visibility are not detected by radar. 3. 1. Those that are not MSL will be above ground level (AGL) or ceiling (CIG). To access the weather information and file a flight plan by this method, pilots use a toll free telephone number to connect the userâs computer directly to the DUATS computer. Aviation hazard of fog: Fog in aviation is not just a source of frustration for any VFR pilot, but a hazard to be taken seriously. Movement of cellsâIndividual cell movement is indicated by an arrow pointing in the direction of movement. Type of ObservationâA round model indicates an official weather observer made the observation. If the windspeed is forecast to be 200 knots or greater, the wind group is coded as 99 knots. Areas of IFR conditions (ceilings less than 1,000 feet and visibility less than 3 miles) are shown by a hatched area outlined by a smooth line. A free ground school seminar presented by Jonathan Walter of Walter Aviation Inc., covering basic aviation weather. After 1900 Zulu, the cloud bases are expected to continue to increase to 5,000 feet AGL and the outlook is VFR. Areas of moderate or greater turbulence are enclosed in dashed lines. Weather charts are graphic charts that depict current or forecast weather. SIGMETs (WSs) are in-flight advisories concerning non-convective weather that is potentially hazardous to all aircraft. Sky ConditionâSky condition (BKN008 OVC012CB) is always reported in the sequence of amount, height, and type or indefinite ceiling/height (vertical visibility). shaded in colors depending on the type and likelihood of precipitation. Aviation Weather Center Homepage provides comprehensive user-friendly aviation weather Text products and graphics. Transcribed Information Briefing Service (TIBS). The 3 day forecast is actually a 3 1/2 day forecast. This is a special report that can be given at any time to update the METAR for rapidly changing weather conditions, aircraft mishaps, or other critical information. Flight Service Stations also provide in-flight weather briefing services, as well as scheduled and unscheduled weather broadcasts. This chart is issued only two times a day. Direction of movement of the pressure center is depicted by an arrow. Surface observations provide local weather conditions and other relevant information. foundation of weather knowledge that continues to grow over the course of oneâs career through experience and personal study. VIS 3-5SM BR. 4. Area (AREA)âA group of echoes of similar type and not classified as a line. Any additional information requested is also provided at this time. An FSS may also furnish weather advisories to flights within the FSS region of authority. Freezing level height contours for the highest freezing level are drawn at 4,000-foot intervals with dashed lines. This radar is used primarily to detect aircraft; however, it also detects the location and intensity of precipitation which is used to route aircraft traffic around severe weather in an airport environment. I think a lot of people are seeing practice questions like this from the FAAâs sample UAG exam, and theyâre trying to figure it out if they really need to be able to interpret a Sectional Chart during the UAG Part 107 Aeronautical Knowledge Test. Pilot reports are easily decoded and most contractions used in the reports are self-explanatory. The FAA is the source for all data and information utilized in the publishing of aeronautical charts through authorized publishers for each stage of Visual Flight Rules (VFR) and Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) air navigation including training, planning, and departures, enroute (for loâ¦ If the notation âAUTOâ is listed in the METAR, the report came from an automated source. This Convective SIGMET provides the following information: The WST indicates this report is a Convective SIGMET. Radar weather reports are issued by radar stations at 35 minutes past the hour, with special reports issued as needed. While the METAR code has been adopted worldwide, each country is allowed to make modifications to the code. An example of a remark regarding weather phenomenon that does not fit in any other category would be: OCNL LTGICCG. It is valid until the 10th day of the month at 0530 Zulu time. For lines and areas, there will be two azimuth and range sets that define the pattern. A short barb is equal to 5 knots of wind, a long barb is equal to 10 knots of wind, and a pennant is equal to 50 knots. It displays areas of precipitation as well as information regarding the characteristics of the precipitation. Aviation Weather Support Products TERMINAL FORECASTS (FT) contain information for specific airports. TOPS FL200. Single Cell (CELL)âA single isolated convective echo such as a rain shower. Published NOTAM information is provided during the briefing only when requested. Areas of VFR (no ceiling or ceiling greater than 3,000 feet and visibility greater than 5 miles) are not outlined. The information gathered for the surface observation may be from a person, an automated station, or an automated station that is updated or enhanced by a weather observer. 4. SYNOPSISâ¦LOW PRES TROF 10Z OK/TX PNHDL AREA FCST MOV EWD INTO CNTRL-SWRN OK BY 04Z. The phone numbers for the TIBS service are listed in the A/FD. This type of forecast gives information vital to en route operations as well as forecast information for smaller airports that do not have terminal forecasts. The weather depiction chart is prepared and transmitted by computer every 3 hours beginning at 0100 Zulu time, and is valid at the time of the plotted data. Adverse conditions includes significant weather, such as thunderstorms or aircraft icing, or other important items such as airport closings. Stations located offshore give data from ships, buoys, or offshore platforms. States. Forecast Change GroupâFor any significant weather change forecast to occur during the TAF time period, the expected conditions and time period are included in this group. It is the pilotâs decision whether or not to continue the flight under VFR, but this advisory should be weighed carefully. Some typical reports are aviation routine weather reports (METAR), pilot weather reports (PIREPs), and radar weather reports (SDs). Probability ForecastâThe probability forecast is given percentage that describes the probability of thunderstorms and precipitation occurring in the coming hours. Aviation weather reports are designed to give accurate depictions of current weather conditions. A surface analysis chart shows the areas of high and low pressure, fronts, temperatures, dewpoints, wind directions and speeds, local weather, and visual obstructions. The intensity may be light (-), moderate ( ), or heavy (+). - Interpret Aviation Weather - Duration: 22:57. Only cumulonimbus (CB) clouds are forecast in this portion of the TAF report as opposed to CBs and towering cumulus in the METAR. Temperatures below 0Â°C are preceded by the letter âMâ to indicate minus. A terminal aerodrome forecast is a report established for the 5 statute mile radius around an airport. A service specifically designed to provide timely enroute weather information upon pilot request is known as the enroute flight advisory service (EFAS), or Flight Watch. Statements made here regarding height are given in MSL, and if given otherwise, AGL or CIG (ceiling) will be noted. This translates as occasional lightning in the clouds, and from cloud to ground. 08:12 PM Mountain | For weather specialists to provide an appropriate weather briefing, they need to know which of the three types of briefings is neededâa standard briefing, an abbreviated briefing, or an outlook briefing. Date and Time of OriginâTime and date of TAF origination is given in the six-number code with the first two being the date, the last four being the time. âLMâ indicates little movement. Automated weather sources such as automated weather observing systems (AWOS) and automated surface observing systems (ASOS), as well as other automated facilities, also play a major role in the gathering of surface observations. Echo configurationâEchoes are shown as being areas, cells, or lines. RVR is the distance a pilot can see down the runway in a moving aircraft. This SIGMET is for Oregon and Washington, for a defined area from Seattle to Portland to Eugene to Seattle. When a pilot weather report is filed, the ATC facility or FSS will add it to the distribution system to brief other pilots and provide in-flight advisories. Present WeatherâOver 100 different weather symbols are used to describe the current weather. VFR clouds and weather information on this area forecast is valid until 2200 hours on the 12th and the outlook is valid until 0400 hours on the 13th. This is depicted directly below the sea level pressure. Here it is important to know your way around aviation weather reporting - what is available and how is it read. Together, pilot reports and radiosonde observations provide information on upper air conditions important for flight planning. 8. Pilot weather reports provide valuable information regarding the conditions as they actually exist in the air, which cannot be gathered from any other source. Aviation Weather Center Homepage provides comprehensive user-friendly aviation weather Text products and graphics. The first three indicate the direction of the wind in reference to true north. 4. It typically contains forecast positions and characteristics of pressure patterns, fronts, and precipitation. Forecast Sky ConditionâForecast sky conditions are given in the same manner as the METAR. A standard briefing is the most complete report and provides the overall weather picture. Weather Forecasting for Aviation. Forecast VisibilityâThe forecast visibility is given in statute miles and may be in whole numbers or fractions. Some have numbers on them showing this value in hectoPascals. The echo pattern for this radar report indicates a line of echos covering 8/10ths of the area. If the ceiling is below 5,000 feet, or visibility is at or below 5 miles, ATC facilities are required to solicit PIREPs from pilots in the area. Winds and temperatures aloft forecasts provide wind and temperature forecasts for specific locations in the contiguous United States, including network locations in Hawaii and Alaska. Report was corrected for example in grid QM the intensity pilots as a UWS or... 0Â°C are preceded by the Z following the prevailing visibility this is SIGMET Romeo 2, chart. Charts with an âHâ in the flight plan Moon Bay observation is from automated! To gain essential knowledge about flying conditions network is made up of government facilities. 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Severe Storms in Queensland
Severe storms can occur anywhere in Australia and cause more damage than any other natural hazard.
Severe storms normally occur in localised areas and don't usually affect areas as large as cyclones or floods.
Severe storms are the most frequently occuring hazard in Australia, particualarly Queensland. Most severe storms in Queensland occur between the months of September and March, and can be divided into two categories - severe thunderstorms and land gales.
Follow this link to the QLD State Emergency Service Website for more information on Storm Safety in QLD
Follow this link to the QLD Government Sate Disaster Management Group Website for more information on Storm Safety in QLD


Gas Pressure and Respiration
The respiratory process can be better understood by examining the properties of gases. Gases move freely, but gas particles are constantly hitting the walls of their vessel, thereby producing gas pressure.
Air is a mixture of gases, primarily nitrogen (N2; 78.6 percent), oxygen (O2; 20.9 percent), water vapor (H2O; 0.5 percent), and carbon dioxide (CO2; 0.04 percent). Each gas component of that mixture exerts a pressure. The pressure for an individual gas in the mixture is the partial pressure of that gas. Approximately 21 percent of atmospheric gas is oxygen. Carbon dioxide, however, is found in relatively small amounts, 0.04 percent. The partial pressure for oxygen is much greater than that of carbon dioxide. The partial pressure of any gas can be calculated by:
Patm, the atmospheric pressure, is the sum of all of the partial pressures of the atmospheric gases added together,
× (percent content in mixture).
The pressure of the atmosphere at sea level is 760 mm Hg. Therefore, the partial pressure of oxygen is:
and for carbon dioxide:
At high altitudes, Patm decreases but concentration does not change; the partial pressure decrease is due to the reduction in Patm.
When the air mixture reaches the lung, it has been humidified. The pressure of the water vapor in the lung does not change the pressure of the air, but it must be included in the partial pressure equation. For this calculation, the water pressure (47 mm Hg) is subtracted from the atmospheric pressure:
and the partial pressure of oxygen is:
These pressures determine the gas exchange, or the flow of gas, in the system. Oxygen and carbon dioxide will flow according to their pressure gradient from high to low. Therefore, understanding the partial pressure of each gas will aid in understanding how gases move in the respiratory system.


AR-461: BUILDING SCIENCE
Department of Architecture and Planning
LECTURE NO. 05
The term mechanical may refer to as using machines instead of manual means of doing some work. The phrase static method may refer to as, a method that does not need an explicit object reference. The mechanical method is the method in which machines are used whereas; the static method is that which is based on the nature or a work done through natural means. Humidity is a term used for the amount of water vapor in air; whereas temperature is a physical property of matter that quantitatively expresses the common notions of hot and cold. Objects of low temperature are cold, while various degrees of higher temperatures are referred to as warm or hot. Thus; the theme of current lecture is quite explicit that it is a discussion about the natural and manmade methods of controlling the hot and cold air as well as moisture in the air within an internal space or in other words it is the discussion about HVAC systems.
In order to learn the mechanical and static method of humidity and temperature control at first it is important to understand some basic themes or ask some basic questions such as; what is humidity? What is temperature? How humidity and temperature is controlled in an internal space and in buildings of small and large scale? Then; what are the mechanical and static methods of humidity and temperature control? In the following all these questions shall be answered in an amicable and appropriate manner.
WHAT IS HUMIDITY?
Humidity is a term for the amount of water vapor in air, and can refer to any one of several measurements of humidity. Formally, humid air is not "moist air" but a mixture of air and water vapor, and humidity is defined in terms of the water content of this mixture, called the Absolute humidity. In everyday usage, it commonly refers to relative humidity, expressed as a percent in weather forecasts and on household humidistats; it is so called because it measures the current absolute humidity relative to the maximum. Specific humidity is a ratio of the water vapor content of the mixture to the dry air content. The water vapor content of the mixture can be measured either as mass per volume or as a partial pressure, depending on the usage.
In meteorology, humidity indicates the likelihood of precipitation, dew, or fog. High relative humidity reduces the effectiveness of sweating in cooling the body by reducing the rate of evaporation of moisture from the skin. This effect is calculated in a heat index table, used during summer weather.
TYPES OF HUMIDITY:
Absolute humidity (Volume basis)
Absolute humidity on a volume basis is the quantity of water in a particular volume of air. The most common units are grams per cubic meter, although any mass unit and any volume unit could be used. Pounds per cubic foot are common in the U.S. and occasionally even other units mixing the Imperial and metric systems are used.
If all the water vapor in one cubic meter of air were condensed into a container, the mass of the water in the container could be measured with a scale to determine absolute humidity. The amount of water vapor in that cube of air is the absolute humidity of that cubic meter of air. More technically, absolute humidity on a volume basis is the mass of dissolved water vapor, mw, per cubic meter of total moist air, Vnet:
Absolute humidity ranges from 0 grams per cubic meter in dry air to 30 grams per cubic meter (0.03 ounce per cubic foot) when the vapor is saturated at 30 °C.
The absolute humidity changes as air pressure changes. This is very inconvenient for chemical engineering calculations, e.g. for clothes dryers, where temperature can vary considerably. As a result, absolute humidity is generally defined in chemical engineering as mass of water vapor per unit mass of dry air, also known as the mass mixing ratio (see below), which is much more rigorous for heat and mass balance calculations. Mass of water per unit volume as in the equation above would then be defined as volumetric humidity. Because of the potential confusion, British Standard BS 1339 (revised 2002) suggests avoiding the term "absolute humidity". Units should always be carefully checked. Most humidity charts are given in g/kg or kg/kg, but any mass units may be used. The field concerned with the study of physical and thermodynamic properties of gas-vapor mixtures is named Psychrometrics.
Relative humidity is defined as the ratio of the partial pressure of water vapor (in a gaseous mixture of air and water vapor) to the saturated vapor pressure of water at a given temperature. In other words, relative humidity is the amount of water vapor in the air at a specific temperature compared to the maximum water vapor that the air is able to hold without it condensing, at that given temperature.
Relative humidity is an important metric used in weather forecasts and reports, as it is an indicator of the likelihood of precipitation, dew, or fog. In hot summer weather, a rise in relative humidity also increases the apparent temperature to humans (and other animals) by hindering the evaporation of perspiration from the skin as the relative humidity rises. For example, according to the Heat Index, a relative humidity of 75% at 80°F (27°C) would feel like 83.574°F ±1.3 °F (28.652°C ±1.7 °C) at ~44% relative humidity.
Specific humidity is the ratio of water vapor to air (including water vapor and dry air) in a particular mass. Specific humidity ratio is expressed as a ratio of kilograms of water vapor, mw, per kilogram of total moist air mt.
There are various devices used to measure and regulate humidity. A device used to measure humidity is called a psychrometer or hygrometer. A humidistat is used to regulate the humidity of a building with a dehumidifier. These can be analogous to a thermometer and thermostat for temperature control. Humidity is also measured on a global scale using remotely placed satellites. These satellites are able to detect the concentration of water in the troposphere at altitudes between 4 and 12 kilometers. Satellites that can measure water vapor have sensors that are sensitive to infrared radiation. Water vapor specifically absorbs and re-radiates radiation in this spectral band. Satellite water vapor imagery plays an important role in monitoring climate conditions (like the formation of thunderstorms) and in the development of future weather forecasts.
EFFECTS OF HUMIDITY ON HUMAN COMFORT:
Humans control their body temperature mainly by sweating and shivering. The United States Environmental Protection Agency cites the ASHRAE Standard 55-1992, Thermal Environmental Conditions for Human Occupancy, which recommends keeping relative humidity between 30% and 60%. At high humidity, sweating is less effective, and we feel hotter. Air conditioning works by reducing humidity in summer. In winter, heating cold outdoor air can decrease relative humidity levels indoor to below 30%, leading to discomfort such as dry skin and excessive thirst.
EFFECTS OF HUMIDITY ON BUILDING CONSTRUCTION:
Traditional building designs typically had weak insulation, and it allowed air moisture to flow freely between the interior and exterior. The energy-efficient, heavily-sealed architecture introduced in the 20th century also sealed off the movement of moisture, and this has resulted in a secondary problem of condensation forming in and around walls, which encourages the development of mold and mildew. Additionally, buildings with foundations not properly sealed will allow water to flow through the walls due to capillary action, notably cement which is a good conductor of water. Solutions for energy-efficient buildings that avoid condensation are a current topic of architecture.
Refrigeration air conditioning equipment usually reduces the humidity of the air processed by the system. The relatively cold (below the dew point) evaporator coil condenses water vapor from the processed air (much like an ice-cold drink will condense water on the outside of a glass), sending the water to a drain and removing water vapor from the cooled space and lowering the relative humidity. Since humans perspire to provide natural cooling by the evaporation of perspiration from the skin, drier air (up to a point) improves the comfort provided. The comfort air conditioner is designed to create a 40% to 60% relative humidity in the occupied space. In food retailing establishments, large open chiller cabinets act as highly effective air dehumidifying units. A specific type of air conditioner that is used only for dehumidifying is called a dehumidifier. A dehumidifier is different from a regular air conditioner in that both the evaporator and condenser coils are placed in the same air path, and the entire unit is placed in the environment that is intended to be conditioned (in this case dehumidified), rather than requiring the condenser coil to be outdoors. Having the condenser coil in the same air path as the evaporator coil produces warm, dehumidified air. The evaporator (cold) coil is placed first in the air path, dehumidifying the air exactly as a regular air conditioner does. The air next passes over the condenser coil re-warming the now dehumidified air. Note that the terms "condenser coil" and "evaporator coil" do not refer to the behavior of water in the air as it passes over each coil; instead they refer to the phases of the refrigeration cycle. Having the condenser coil in the main air path rather than in a separate, outdoor air path (as in a regular air conditioner) results in two consequences—the output air is warm rather than cold, and the unit is able to be placed anywhere in the environment to be conditioned, without a need to have the condenser outdoors.
Unlike a regular air conditioner, a dehumidifier will actually heat a room just as an electric heater that draws the same amount of power (watts) as the dehumidifier. A regular air conditioner transfers energy out of the room by means of the condenser coil, which is outside the room (outdoors). This is a thermodynamic system where the room serves as the system and energy is transferred out of the system. Conversely with a dehumidifier, no energy is transferred out of the thermodynamic system (room) because the air conditioning unit (dehumidifier) is entirely inside the room. Therefore all of the power consumed by the dehumidifier is energy that is input into the thermodynamic system (the room), and remains in the room (as heat). In addition, if the condensed water has been removed from the room, the amount of heat needed to boil that water has been added to the room. This is the inverse of adding water to the room with an evaporative cooler.
Dehumidifiers are commonly used in cold, damp climates to prevent mold growth indoors, especially in basements. They are also sometimes used in hot, humid climates for comfort because they reduce the humidity which causes discomfort (just as a regular air conditioner, but without cooling the room). They are also used to protect sensitive equipment from the adverse effects of excessive humidity in tropical countries. The engineering of physical and thermodynamic properties of gas-vapor mixtures is named Psychrometrics.
WHAT IS TEMPERATURE?
Temperature is a physical property of matter that quantitatively expresses the common notions of hot and cold. Objects of low temperature are cold, while various degrees of higher temperatures are referred to as warm or hot. Quantitatively, temperature is measured with thermometers, which may be calibrated to a variety of temperature scales. Much of the world uses the Celsius scale (°C) for most temperature measurements. It has the same incremental scaling as the Kelvin scale used by scientists, but fixes its null point, at 0°C = 273.15K, the freezing point of water. Historically, the Celsius scale was a purely empirical temperature scale defined only by the freezing and boiling points of water. Since the standardization of the Kelvin in the International System of Units, it has subsequently been redefined in terms of the equivalent fixing points on the Kelvin scale. A few countries, most notably the United States, use the Fahrenheit scale for common purposes, a historical scale on which water freezes at 32 °F and boils at 212 °F. Macroscopically, temperature is related to the thermal energy held by matter. An immediate way of sensing this is by touching the material and deciding whether it is hot, warm, or cold. A thermometer precisely measures the temperature and indicates a numerical value for the temperature.
Temperature control is a process in which change of temperature of a space and objects collectively there within is measured or otherwise detected, and the passage of heat energy into or out of the space is adjusted to achieve a desired average temperature.
A home thermostat is an example of a closed control loop: It constantly assesses the current room temperature and controls a heater and/or air conditioner to increase or decrease the temperature according to user-defined setting(s). A simple (low-cost, cheap) thermostat merely switches the heater or air conditioner either on or off, and temporary overshoot and undershoot of the desired average temperature must be expected. A more expensive thermostat varies the amount of heat or cooling provided by the heater or cooler, depending on the difference between the required temperature (the "setpoint") and the actual temperature. This minimizes over/undershoots. The process is called PID and is implemented using a PID Controller.
An object's or space's temperature increases when heat energy moves into it, increasing the average kinetic energy of its atoms, e.g., of things and air in a room. Heat energy leaving an object or space lowers its temperature. Heat flows from one place to another (always from a higher temperature to a lower one) by one or more of three processes: conduction, convection and radiation. In conduction, energy is passed from one atom to another by direct contact. In convection, heat energy moves by conduction into some movable fluid (such as air or water) and the fluid moves from one place to another, carrying the heat with it. At some point the heat energy in the fluid is usually transferred to some other object by means conduction again. The movement of the fluid can be driven by negative-buoyancy, as when cooler and therefore denser air drops and thus upwardly displaces warmer less-dense air natural convection, or by fans or pumps forced convection. In radiation, the heated atoms make electromagnetic emissions absorbed by remote other atoms, whether nearby or at astronomical distance. For example, the Sun radiates heat as both invisible and visible electromagnetic energy. What we know as "light" is but a narrow region of the electromagnetic spectrum. If, in a place or thing, more energy is received than is lost, its temperature increases. If the amount of energy coming in and going out is exactly the same, the temperature stays constant—there is thermal balance, or thermal equilibrium.
- http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humidity (retrieved April 2, 2011)
- http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humidity_control#Humidity_control (retrieved April 2, 2011)
- http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temperature (retrieved April 2, 2011)
- http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temperature_control (retrieved April 2, 2011)