Seed Library sprouts at Central Ridge Library Earlier this year, the Friends of the Central Ridge Library were proud to assist with the opening of a fourth Seed Library at the Central Ridge branch in Beverly Hills. The concept of a Seed Library is simple yet powerful. It provides a free platform for members of the community to borrow and exchange seeds, encouraging sustainable gardening practices and fostering a sense of community. The Seed Library at Central Ridge Library is located near the checkout desk and is easily accessible to all library visitors. It offers a wide variety of seeds, including flowers, vegetables, herbs, and fruits. Anyone with a library card can borrow up to three packets of seeds at a time, with the expectation that they will save and return some seeds from their harvest at the end of the growing season. Members can find helpful resources on gardening and seed-saving techniques, as well as information on the specific characteristics and requirements of each seed variety available in the library. The library also hosts workshops and events related to gardening and seed saving, providing opportunities for members to learn and share their knowledge. The Seed Library initiative aligns with the library's mission to promote community engagement and lifelong learning. It encourages individuals to connect with nature, learn about the growing process, and develop horticultural and environmental literacy. Sustainable gardening practices are becoming increasingly important in a world faced with environmental challenges. By offering a Seed Library, the Central Ridge Library not only supports sustainable gardening but also promotes biodiversity conservation and food security. The Seed Library concept has gained popularity in recent years, with many libraries across the country adopting similar initiatives. It is a testament to the growing interest in sustainable and eco-friendly practices within communities. By participating in the Seed Library, individuals can reduce their carbon footprint and contribute to the preservation of heirloom varieties. Seed saving allows gardeners to select and save seeds from the plants that perform best in their specific environment, resulting in plants that are better adapted to local conditions over time. Additionally, the Seed Library serves as a valuable resource for individuals interested in starting their own gardens. It provides an opportunity to experiment with different seed varieties before committing to purchasing larger quantities. The Friends of the Central Ridge Library played a crucial role in the establishment of the Seed Library. They raised funds to purchase an initial collection of seeds and provided ongoing support to maintain and expand the library's offerings. The Friends group is comprised of volunteers dedicated to supporting the Central Ridge Library and its programs. They organize various fundraising events throughout the year, including book sales and community auctions, to raise funds for library resources and initiatives. The success of the Seed Library at the Central Ridge branch is a testament to the hard work and dedication of the Friends of the Central Ridge Library. Their efforts have created a valuable community resource that promotes sustainable practices and fosters a sense of belonging. In addition to the Seed Library, the Central Ridge Library offers a range of services and resources for community members. It provides access to a vast collection of books, e-books, audiobooks, DVDs, and digital resources through its online catalog. The library also hosts various educational and recreational programs for all ages, including storytimes, book clubs, crafting workshops, and computer classes. It serves as a hub for learning, creativity, and community engagement. Visitors to the Central Ridge Library can also take advantage of the library's public computers, Wi-Fi access, and meeting rooms. The library staff is always available to assist with research inquiries, reference questions, and technology support. The Central Ridge Library is a valuable community asset that continues to evolve and adapt to meet the changing needs of its patrons. The addition of the Seed Library is just one example of how the library listens to and responds to the interests of its community members. As the demand for sustainable gardening practices and environmental awareness grows, initiatives like the Seed Library become increasingly important. They provide individuals with the tools and resources they need to make a positive impact on their local environment and community. The Seed Library at the Central Ridge Library serves as an inspiration to other libraries and communities who may be considering implementing similar initiatives. It demonstrates the power of collaboration and the potential for positive change that can result from a shared vision. By promoting sustainable gardening practices and fostering a sense of community, the Seed Library at the Central Ridge Library is helping to create a greener and more connected future for Beverly Hills and beyond.
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Caplor: Contributing to a vibrant and sustainable community
Wherever possible we aim to work in partnership with others so that we can build an exemplar business that is inclusive and open. We aim to develop, diversify and positively contribute towards enhancing a sustainable community with a ‘triple bottom line’ approach.
Caplor Energy is proud to have developed a renewable energy installation business, which supplies and designs green energy systems – such as solar PV – for domestic, community and commercial clients.
We have diversified into construction, property development, renovation and the provision of rental accommodation, operating in the West Midlands, South Wales and Poland.
We farm approximately 400 acres of combinable crops and grow 150 acres of potatoes annually.


By John Anthony Considine,Elizabeth Frankish
As the wine has skilled a interval of quick international growth, there's a renewed emphasis on caliber and consistency even in the small vineyard undefined. Written for the small construction software, A entire advisor to caliber in Small-Scale Wine Making is for the beginner to intermediate point winemaker looking foundational info in chemistry and sensory technological know-how as they relate to wine caliber at a technical point.
Drawing from own event in addition to medical literature, this e-book introduces the middle thoughts of winemaking sooner than delving into tools and research to supply functional insights into growing and preserving caliber within the wine product.
- Understand the chemistry and sensory technology on the origin of caliber wines
- Explore real-world examples of key research and alertness of concepts
- Practice tools and routines for hands-on experience
Read or Download A Complete Guide to Quality in Small-Scale Wine Making PDF
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A Complete Guide to Quality in Small-Scale Wine Making by John Anthony Considine,Elizabeth Frankish


Explore the Future of Food on a free trip to Europe
In July 2017, recipients of our annual Global Citizen Scholarship will travel for free to our Global Leadership Summit addressing the Future of Food. Selected students will experience Europe through the lens of food and collaborate with other globally-minded students at the two-day leadership conference in Milan, Italy, to design solutions to help feed our growing world -- and compete for a chance to have their idea featured in the Nobel Museum in Stockholm, Sweden.
Check out the highlights from last year's Summit to see what all the hype is about.
Food excites us, brings us together, and ultimately sustains us. And yet people all over the world struggle daily with food-related challenges such as extreme hunger, obesity, limited access to healthy food choices, and food waste.
As we struggle to find solutions to these challenges, we also struggle with divisive views on sustainable farming and innovative food-processing techniques. Finding a solution to food production and consumption challenges us to examine how the future of food will impact our world.
With that in mind, create a video, digital media project, or essay that addresses these questions:1. Think about food issues you see in your community, as well as across the globe.
Which one is most significant to you? Why do you feel strongly about it?
2. Share one idea you have for addressing this issue.
What impact will your solution have in your own community and around the world?


In my opinion this technology is the most powerful yet invented by humankind, and our enthusiasm overwhelms good judgment and respectful caution. I am euphoric about the new insights I can teach in my genetics classes. Examples of different genetic interactions arrive with each new journal issue. Identifying similar genes in vastly different organisms and determining their effects has been beyond the capabilities of traditional genetic analysis.
Advertisement In Brief The vast majority of the research on genetically modified GM crops suggests that they are safe to eat and that they have the potential to feed millions of people worldwide who currently go hungry. Yet not all criticisms of GM are so easily rejected, and pro-GM scientists are often dismissive and even unscientific in their rejection of the counterevidence.
A careful analysis of the risks and benefits argues for expanded deployment and safety testing of GM crops. Robert Goldberg sags into his desk chair and gestures at the air.
He is expressing despair at the relentless need to confront what he sees as bogus fears over the health risks of genetically modified GM crops. Particularly frustrating to him, he says, is that this debate should have ended decades ago, when researchers produced a stream of exonerating evidence: But now anyone in this field knows the genome is not a static environment.
Inserted genes can be transformed by several different means, and it can happen generations later. Williams concedes that he is among a tiny minority of biologists raising sharp questions about the safety of GM crops. But he says this is only because the field of plant molecular biology is protecting its interests.
Funding, much of it from the companies that sell GM seeds, heavily favors researchers who are exploring ways to further the use of genetic modification in agriculture. He says that biologists who point out health or other risks associated with GM crops—who merely report or defend experimental findings that imply there may be risks—find themselves the focus of vicious attacks on their credibility, which leads scientists who see problems with GM foods to keep quiet.
Whether Williams is right or wrong, one thing is undeniable: To researchers such as Goldberg, however, the persistence of fears about GM foods is nothing short of exasperating. When we look carefully at the evidence for both sides and weigh the risks and benefits, we find a surprisingly clear path out of this dilemma.
Benefits and worries The bulk of the science on GM safety points in one direction. Take it from David Zilberman, a U. Berkeley agricultural and environmental economist and one of the few researchers considered credible by both agricultural chemical companies and their critics.
He argues that the benefits of GM crops greatly outweigh the health risks, which so far remain theoretical. It has raised the output of corn, cotton and soy by 20 to 30 percent, allowing some people to survive who would not have without it.
If it were more widely adopted around the world, the price [of food] would go lower, and fewer people would die of hunger. The United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization estimates that the world will have to grow 70 percent more food by just to keep up with population growth.
GM crops, Zilberman says, could produce higher yields, grow in dry and salty land, withstand high and low temperatures, and tolerate insects, disease and herbicides. Jen Christiansen Despite such promise, much of the world has been busy banning, restricting and otherwise shunning GM foods.
Nearly all the corn and soybeans grown in the U. Approval of a few new GM corn strains has been proposed there, but so far it has been repeatedly and soundly voted down. Throughout Asia, including in India and China, governments have yet to approve most GM crops, including an insect-resistant rice that produces higher yields with less pesticide.
In Africa, where millions go hungry, several nations have refused to import GM foods in spite of their lower costs the result of higher yields and a reduced need for water and pesticides. Kenya has banned them altogether amid widespread malnutrition. No country has definite plans to grow Golden Rice, a crop engineered to deliver more vitamin A than spinach rice normally has no vitamin Aeven though vitamin A deficiency causes more than one million deaths annually and half a million cases of irreversible blindness in the developing world.
Other Latin American countries are pushing away from the plants. And even in the U. In the U. The fear fueling all this activity has a long history.
The public has been worried about the safety of GM foods since scientists at the University of Washington developed the first genetically modified tobacco plants in the s.
In the mids, when the first GM crops reached the market, Greenpeace, the Sierra Club, Ralph Nader, Prince Charles and a number of celebrity chefs took highly visible stands against them.
Consumers in Europe became particularly alarmed: In Europe, skepticism about GM foods has long been bundled with other concerns, such as a resentment of American agribusiness.Nov 18, · Agricultural research news. From fertilizers and organic farming to maximizing crops and hybridization, read about advancements in agriculture.
RETRACTED: Long term toxicity of a Roundup herbicide and a Roundup-tolerant genetically modified maize. The Truth about Genetically Modified Food.
Proponents of genetically modified crops say the technology is the only way to feed a warming, increasingly populous world. The Truth about Genetically Modified Food. Proponents of genetically modified crops say the technology is the only way to feed a warming, increasingly populous world.
The Biotechnology Myths. The agrochemical corporations which control the direction and goals of agricultural innovation through biotechnology claim that genetic engineering will enhance the sustainability of agriculture by solving the very problems affecting conventional farming and will spare Third World farmers from low productivity, poverty and hunger (Molnar and Kinnucan , Gresshoft .
Genetically modified foods or GM foods, also known as genetically engineered foods, bioengineered foods, genetically modified organisms, or GMOs, are foods produced from organisms that have had changes introduced into their DNA using the methods of genetic engineering.


Select the school where you want to attend your Italian Cooking Course in Basilicata
Basilicata is a mountainous region in southern Italy, nestled between Apulia and Campania. Garlic, olive oil and pepperoncino appear frequently in the regional soups, pastas and sausages.
Baslicata is known for its rich agricultural traditions. Olives are grown from the Ionian Sea up to the Metaponto plain. Flavorful vegetables and legumes are also cultivated in Basilicata, including Sarconi beans and Senise peppers.


Coir as a Component of Growing Media | PRO-MIX
2021-6-28 · There are three types of coir produced: Coir Fiber. Coir Pith. Coir Chunks. Coir fiber is stringy and often used to make hanging basket liners, brooms, mats, etc. and has limited applications in growing media. Coir pith is short fibered, resembling coffee grounds, and is used in combination with sphagnum peat moss for growing media applications.


Spring has sprung again! After having cold, cold weather for a few days we’re back into warmer Spring days. Unfortunately, all of those early budding trees had their blossoms killed off but that’s what happens when things warm up too early. Right now the henbit and dandelions are in full bloom and I’ve got a fierce case Spring Fever.
It’s been a slow week on the farm. Dad went from feeling a little under the weather to being full blown sick, he hasn’t done much all week so most of the farm chores have been left up to me (except milking the goats, we all know how well that goes 🙂 ). I’ve had some spare time on my hands since I’ve only been doing the basic chores so I’ve been making garden plans, working on my seed and plant orders (I know I’m a little late on that), and I taught myself how to knit and crochet (with the help of a few YouTube videos).
For my plant order, I’ve ordered two Granny Smith apple trees, one Honeycrisp apple tree, one Golden Delicious apple tree, two Patriot blueberry bushes, two seedless Concord grapes, and two Somerset seedless grapes. And, yes, I still have 175 bare root seedlings to plant. I’m going to have to spend a week planting all these things, stay tuned for pictures of my soon-to-be fruit orchard and persimmon grove. 🙂
Here are some pics that I’ve snapped this week:
One day I caught a coyote stalking the ducks on our pond, in the middle of the day! I ran him off, little stinker.


5 Reasons Why You Should Buy Indonesian Coffee
Indonesian coffee has been gaining global recognition for its unique flavors and diverse profiles, making it a favorite among coffee lovers. As coffee enthusiasts around the world increase, here are five reasons why you should choose Indonesian coffee as your main coffee supplier!
1. Indonesian Coffee is Rich with Cultural Heritage
Indonesia boasts a rich and diverse coffee culture deeply rooted in its history. It was first introduced by Dutch East Indian Company (VOC) back in the 17th century. Due to its volcanic soils and suitable microclimate, coffee plants in Indonesia grow abundantly. In the beginning, the plantation was done across the Java island. Hence, Java at that time was so famous for its coffee, and always associated with the “high quality coffee” remarks. Not long after that, coffee beans spread across the other archipelago in Indonesia, such as Sumatera, Bali, and Sulawesi. Later, these coffee types will be known as Arabica coffee.
However, in the late 19th century, there was a coffee leaf rust disease outbreak. This event made almost all of Arabica coffee farming experiencing crop failure. But the VOC came back again to solve the problem, they then introduced another type of coffee: Robusta. It reached its success too, due to its resistance to coffee pest attacks. As a result, Robusta coffee beans then become a competitor for Arabica type on the market in the future.
After Indonesia’s independence from Dutch colonialism in 1945, all coffee plantations were taken over by the government. Coffee then became one of the biggest commodities in this country. From Central Aceh, North Sumatera, Lampung, Bali, Papua, Flores, West Java, East Java, South Sulawesi and many other areas have succeeded in becoming the largest coffee producing areas in the archipelago.
2. Indonesian Coffee’s Distinctive Flavors
Indonesian coffee is celebrated for its distinctive and bold flavor profiles. The archipelago’s unique geography, with its volcanic soil and diverse microclimate, contributes to the cultivation of coffee beans that carry a characteristically full-bodied taste.
For example, Gayo Sumatera green coffee beans have this unique earthy, deep, and rich taste. This type is famous among the coffee lovers around the globe. Why? Because it’s mild in acidity, has caramel fruity tastes, while also bittersweet spicy. Even though planted on the same island, Mandheling coffee beans can differentiate themselves. If we compare it, Mandheling coffee beans have lower acidity levels than Gayo Sumatera coffee beans. This somehow makes it more tolerable for sensitive-stomach people. The neighbor island, Java, also has its own characteristic of coffee that you need to take notes on. Coming from the high altitude of East Java land, Ijen Mountain coffee beans offer a sweeter after-taste. It is one of the rarest varieties in the world, because its origin is from Jamaican blue mountain coffee. A lot of coffee lovers looked for this coffee bean type too because of the strong jasmine fragrance, juicy body, and a sugar-cane flavor.
3. Sustainable and Ethical Practices
Many Indonesian coffee producers are committed to sustainable and ethical practices. The country’s coffee industry is making strides in environmentally friendly cultivation methods, focusing on organic farming and fair trade principles.
One of them is shade-grown coffee. Numerous coffee farms in the country have adopted shade-grown methods, a traditional practice that entails cultivating coffee amidst taller trees’ canopies. This technique aids in safeguarding forest ecosystems, replicating natural forest conditions, and fostering a diverse array of plant and animal life. By providing habitats for numerous bird species and wildlife, shade-grown coffee plantations play a pivotal role in conserving biodiversity.
4. The Unique Processing Technique
Indonesia is known for its unique coffee processing methods, such as the famous Luwak coffee or Civet cat coffee. These beans are sourced from civets inhabiting their natural environment. Civet cat or best known as “Luwak” in Indonesia naturally gravitates towards coffee cherries. The type of Civet Cat that can produce this is the Asian Palm civet. They choose only the ripest and highest quality coffee cherries to consume. Subsequently, the cherries undergo digestion, initiating a distinctive fermentation process within the coffee beans. Later, the Civet Cat’s stomach enzymes break down a protein found in coffee beans, which is the main cause of bitterness in regular coffee. Through digestion, this bitterness is eliminated, resulting in the uniquely smooth and well-balanced flavor of Civet Coffee. Finally, the beans are retrieved from the feces, meticulously cleaned, and expertly roasted to achieve perfection.
In the wild, civets play a vital role in dispersing coffee plant seeds by consuming coffee cherries. The undigested seeds are then spread in their feces, promoting the growth of new coffee plants. This natural process supports coffee ecosystem biodiversity and sustainability. Moreover, this coffee production occurs in small-scale, traditional farms using organic and sustainable farming methods. These practices reduce reliance on synthetic pesticides and fertilizers, promoting healthier ecosystems and preserving civets’ natural habitats.
5. The breathtaking Diversity of Indonesian Coffee
Indonesia’s vast archipelago is home to a remarkable diversity of coffee-growing regions, each with its own microclimate and terroir. From the highlands of Sumatera to the Java Estate island, the diversity in growing conditions results in an array of coffee flavors that cater to various preferences. Indonesian coffee truly offers something for everyone, making it an exciting choice for those seeking variety and exploration in their coffee journey.
Where to Buy Indonesian Coffee? – A Direct-trade Coffee Supplier
To summarize, there are numerous compelling reasons to choose Indonesian coffee, from its rich cultural heritage to the distinctive flavor profiles and commitment to sustainable practices. Indonesian coffee stands out as a flavorful and culturally rich choice that not only satisfies the palate but also supports ethical and sustainable practices in the coffee industry.
Then, where to buy the best Indonesian coffee beans? Well, you visit the right website. Wallacea Coffee serves as a direct-trade coffee supplier, We pride ourselves as a direct-trade coffee supplier, ensuring that our green coffee beans come straight from the source. Hailing from Indonesia, we offer an impressive selection of green coffee beans, each boasting its unique flavor profile. From the renowned Gayo Sumatra Arabica to the bold Mandheling Sumatra Arabica, we’ve got you covered. Not to mention our premium Indonesian Robusta beans that pack a punch.
Why settle for anything less when you can source directly from the origin? Take advantage of our direct-trade system today! Simply request a customized quote through our convenient BYOC (Build Your Own Container) platform or drop us a line at [email protected]. Join us in revolutionizing your coffee experience today!


Young Farmers Challenge 2019
Do you have 4 mates ??
Would you like to take part in a fun obstacle course based on farming skills ?
Get you team together for the
YOUNG FARMERS CHALLENGE
at the Pittsworth Show Saturday 8th March 2019
Contact Tracey Puschmann on 0427 255 702
Please register at the Show Office on the day
All entrants must complete an Entry & Indemnity/waiver form.
If a competitor is under the age of 18 years on the Event day, a parent or guardian must sign a declaration.
The young farmers challenge is an obstacle course where your teams complete a number of problems solving tasks designed around agricultural and farming skills


G E N E R A L I N F O R M A T I O N
Teaching staff: 689
Emeritus professors: 28
Senior lecturers: 83
Assistant lecturers: 229
Preparatory assistant lecturers: 68
Enrolled students: 4037
Doctoral candidates: 488
Library volumes: 450,000
At present the University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine has six faculties. It also organises post-graduate and doctoral training.
Scientific research plays an important role in the activity of the University.
The topics of basic and applied research are numerous and varied due to the specific nature of the faculties and of the research teams working in faculties or departments.
At the Faculty of Agronomy, pluridisciplinary teams conduct research on improving cultural technologies for the main crops grown on reddish-brown soil, under conditions of reduced soil pollution and lower material and energy consumption. Complex studies on the suitability and better ways of pesticides usage and on the effects of these substances on the trophic chain have been made. Scientists study the possibilities of developing new varieties of some cultural plants; the following varieties and hybrids have been homologated: the Ilfov Soya; several corn hybrids; four bean lines; three rape lines, four medicinal herb lines, etc. Using radioactive isotopes, fundamental research on some aspects of plant mineral nutrition has been done. Electron-microscopic research, as well as studies on rural economics, on agricultural production organization and improvement (with special emphasis on specific zones, priority crops etc.) have been also carried out.
At the Faculty of Horticulture, the range of research work includes technologies of growing horticultural crops in the field and in protected areas, plant breeding and the development of new varieties and hybrids. Many new varieties have been developed: "Export 2", "Sincron", "Vitamina" (tomatoes), "Augusta" (grapes), "Aniversare", "Start", "Rubin" "Raza de soare" (flowers). Moreover, the flora of the Danube Delta, as well as the industrial use of tinctorial plants and of "in vitro" cell and tissue cultures for plant-breeding purposes have been studied.
At the Faculty of Animal Science, a special interest in developing productive animal lines and hybrids and improving the breeding technologies has been shown. The results may be seen in goose hybrids for foie gras, sheep and pig lines, the Romanian "Semigreu" horse breed, a Romanian "Baltata" cattle line etc. Basic research is conducted on perfecting the techniques of semen conservation with various species, studies on ovogenesis, the effect of ionisation on animals etc.
At the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, clinical and pharmaco-dynamic studies on new pharmaceutical products used against a number of surgical, obstetrical, parasitic and microbial disease have been made. New drugs have been created, such as: the inactivated vaccine against pig infections pleuropneumonia, the vaccine against listeriosis in sheep; the vaccine against aviary cholera, etc. Research on several microbial enzymes used in the food industry has also been done. At the same time, morphological studies on some diseases prevailing in animal breeding forms have been fulfilled.
At the Faculty of Land Reclamation and Environmental Engineering research has been carried out on interrelations within the soil-water-climate-plant system, under conditions of reducing water and energy consumption in hydrotechnical amelioration schemes. Studies on problems associated with anti erosion works, the effect of structured and activated water in inorganic binder setting processes and on the use of secondary materials have been done. In current land reclamation works have been made, small-size pumps for individual consumers have been designed, and investigations regarding pollution with fluid percolation from farm land, and regarding the feasibility of using sludge and waste water have been conducted.
Many of the research results are applied on a million hectares of reddish-brown soil, while others are of great use to the Romanian agriculture all over the country. A lot of results have been patented as innovations and have been included in the production standards of the Romanian Ministry of Agriculture and Food. Some students are involved in the research work, too.
At the Faculty of Biotechnology the research work is focused on agricultural, industrial and veterinary biotechnologies.
At present, the University is headed by the Senate, a Rector, three Pro-rectors and a Science Secretary. Every faculty is run by the Faculty Board, the Dean, the Vice-Dean and the Science Secretary. Mandated by both the University Senate and the Faculty Boards, the Senate Bureau together with the Board Bureau run the current activity.
departments: [ Agronomy] [Animal
Science] [Biotechnology] [Horticulture]
[Land Reclamation] [Veterinary
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(a) Low Shade
-external 6ft x 14ft long
-Internal 4ft x 12ft
-Top shade height 4ft
It is good for small-scale grower use locally available material. It is cheap to construct in terms of labour and material costs. The plants will take less time to mature
(b) High shade
-External 8ft x 16ft
-Internal 4ft x 12ft
-Top shade height 7ft.
NB: Allow a ventilation of 1ft at the top in low shade.
-Arrange the sleeves in the nursery bed such that every 200 sleeves occupy 2ft x 4 ft.
Involves initial preparation and secondary land preparation
-If the area has big trees or forested, ring barking is recommended. This will cause slow drying of the tree hence reduces food reserves in the roots thereby reducing risks of armillaria infection.
-Fell the trees and uproot the stumps.
-Plough and harrow the land. The thrash collected after felling and uprooting stumps should be burnt away from where tea is planted.
4ft x 2.5ft (4356) – Newly recommended
5ft x 2.5ft (3485) - Conventional
9” x 18”. Double size for infilling i.e. 18” x 36”
Separate topsoil from sub-soil. Mix the top soil with 15gm D.A. P. or 30 gm of S.S.P before filling it into the hole.
This is any operation aimed at forming a permanent branch system from the time the plants are in the nursery to the time they are tipped-in to form a plucking table.
A) Formative pruning:
NB: This method limits roots development in relation to branch system. Do not pluck in between formative prunes.
B) Tipping Method:
NB: This method encourages extensive root development to march the branch frame and fast table formation.
(a) Physical Methods:
b) Chemical Method:
NB: Incase of wondering jew, uproot and bury them to the depths of at least two feet or put them on the roads, it is resistant to chemicals.
No matter how well a grower may have looked after his tea, if he does not do as well during plucking, then he would be wasting the fruits of his labour and his sweat.
2. Plucking Standard:
KTDA standard is 2 leaves and a bud. A very soft banjhi is also acceptable. The finer the plucking the better the quality of the Tea, but:
i) Pluck all the mature 2 leaves and a bud appearing above the plucking table, but leave the fish leaf on except occasionally when it can be plucked to even out the table. Use the plucking stick all the time.
ii) After plucking table must be broken back without delay. With proper timing of plucking round breaking back should be at a minimum.
iii) A good plucker must use both hands and carry a plucking basket on his back. Leaving the basket at one end and moving to and fro carrying leaves in the hands waste plucker’s time and causes heating up of leaf. Every plucker should aim at plucking at least 30kgs green leaf a day.
iv) Banjhi shoots above the table must be plucked in order to stimulate new actively growing plucking points.
v) Plucking Round:
a) The frequency of plucking or the plucking round is variable depending on the rate at which the tea produces new shoots after plucking. This may vary from 5 to 10 days. A grower should make all necessary effort to know when his tea is ready for plucking.
b) Growers with large holdings should divide up their plots into 2 or more portions such that each portion can conveniently be plucked in one day. This would also help to even out daily deliveries of leaf to the factories. A factory receiving too much leaf in one day is likely to make poor tea.
This occurs when the plucking round is too long, allowing more than 2 leaves and a bud to appear above the table, thus resulting in wastage of leaf. Breaking back becomes a big task and if neglected, as is often the case, the table rises quickly becoming too high and inconvenient to pluck long before the pruning is due.
Continuous hard plucking results in a condition known as :crows feet”. To avoid serious reduction in yields, this is corrected by allowing the plucking table to rise up by 1”-2”. Allow shoots to grow 3 true leaves and a bud and then pluck 2 leaves and a bud, leaving the third leaf to form the new plucking surface. This is referred to as “Plucking over a leaf”.
c) Uneven table
Results from poor table management. Yields decrease as shoots in depressions grow slowly due to shading and are also missed during plucking. Only minor corrections should be attempted until the next prune.
d) Plucking side shoots
Must never occur as the aim is always to encourage maximum lateral prune.
e) Hail Damage
After this pluck over a leaf.
Reasons for Pruning
Pruning knife, file, graded/marked stick.
Should coincide with the end of the peak-growing period (July – August) when there is still adequate moisture in the soil.
-The pruning should be a rim lung to the slope of the ground
-The cut on each stem should slope slightly
-To achieve the correct pruning height, a stick clearly marked at the required height is
placed vertically at the center of the bush.
-On sloping ground use a horizontal stick will be parallel to the ground at the correct
-The pruning MUST NEVER be removed from the field.
a) If pruning is carried out during hot sunny weather, the pruning should be
Placed over the pruned bushes immediately to avoid sun scorch.
b) The speed of recovery of a bush depends on the plant’s starch reserves in the roots.
c) Since the starch reserves are used during the dry season to sustain the rest of the bus, the end of the dry season is a bad time to prune.
-The first normal pruning is done 5 years after the field planting at 16”
-The duration of the successive prune depends on style of plucking, the nutrient status of the plant and the locality. Normally 3-4 years.
-The second pruning is done at 20”. Subsequent pruning are done 2” above the previous.
-After 28” down-prune at 21”. The pruning height should never go below 20”.
-Use a pruning knife and not a panga.
Done after pruning to produce a dense and upper level surface for efficient
Plucking and leave an adequate depth of maintenance foliage on the bush.
-Normal plucking should not start until the shoots are 6”-8” above pruning height. This ensures replacement of all food reserves used up in the development of new shoots.
-Tipping in height is best at 4” above pruning height.
-Use a tipping board or two pegs and a plucking stick to achieve an even plucking level.
-At least three rounds of tipping-in are carried out at the same level before normal plucking is introduced.
-Delay in tipping-in will result in buds just below tipping-in height becoming mature and thus will take longer to develop into new shoots.
Cause of death of tea bushes
Reasons for infillings:
a) For maximum utilization of land under tea
b) To reduce cost of weeding
-Done immediately after pruning or planting, incase of the young tea.
Hole size – twice the normal hole size of new planting i.e. 18th deep by 18” diameter.


Mulch plays protective and functional roles in your garden while adding to its aesthetics. With the vast range of different textures and materials on offer, it can be challenging to know which to choose. One possibility is pebbles or crushed stone. Here are some benefits of using this kind of mulch.
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Organic mulches decompose and thus require you to replace the covering every year or so to keep your garden looking fresh.
Many people consider sandy soil to have unfavorable properties when it comes to gardening. However, this is not always the case. When mixed with clay soil, organic matter and enough nutrients, it's the perfect soil for gardening, as it allows water to flow deep into the soil structure, penetrate the roots, aerate the soil and, most importantly, help your garden look good due to its unique appearance. Below are three desirable characteristics of sandy soil that will not only give your garden a unique look but also increase the productivity of your flowers and vegetables.
Containerised vertical garden systems provide an easy gardening solution to homeowners who don't have adequate gardening space on their yard. Planting in pots allows you to change plants easily and move them to different positions as the need arises. What's more, you achieve your gardening targets without using up much of the space in your yard. However, successful containerised gardening requires you to get the right soil for your plants. This will promote growth and increase the yield of the plants.
A lawnmower should be considered an investment in the upkeep of your lawn, and isn't a purchase that you should make too hastily. A mower should work well for the type of grass that grows on your property, and should be the right size for your lawn, while also being able to fit in your garage or storage shed. You also want something you can handle easily! Note a few common mistakes you should avoid when buying a new lawnmower, so you know you get the best choice for your property and are happy with that choice for years to come.
If your garden has become overgrown and neglected then you may be considering giving it an overhaul. Removing dead trees and plants, trimming back hedges and foliage, and clearing out garden beds that are overrun with weeds are all tasks that you'll probably need to undertake.
These tasks can transform a garden, creating a tidy and enlarged space out of what was once cluttered, rangy, and unsightly. However, with this transformation also comes green waste.


This photo was taken in Dec 2010. Note in the right corner the small plants.
Two years later in November 2012 that small corner is awash with shrubs - the bird bath hasn't been moved it's still in the same place. The Apricot tree is a new addition - only one year old. No apricots on it this year yet.
Back to 2010 and all along the fenceline are small shrubs..
2010 and the front door rock garden. You can barely see the plants..
Rock on to today, November 2012 and the plants are nicely grown contrasting nicely on the red brick. That's a sprinkler going to try and keep my lawn nice and green.
My vege garden in December 2012...
And today. I've planted lettuce, cucumber, garlic, peas, peppers, basil, spring onion, parsnip, carrots, spring onions and courgette. I'm only picking lettuce so far!


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Lawn Maintenance Practice
There are few surroundings that carry along as much joy to the heart and mind relaxation than a personal and well-maintained lawn. Unlike the bustling town life characterized by frequent sirens and horns, a well-maintained lawn can be a source of quietness and enable one escape from the hum of life. Bright and striking grass, blooming with life and innovativeness, can resuscitate an individual’s health and quietness in the presence of difficulties. The conserved yard can transform life significantly. There are benefits which can be attested from keeping the lawn well-maintained.
Some of the most striking things in a neighborhood are the beautiful yard that groom s the home. Grassy scenes act as an aphrodisiac carrying comfort and serenity. Flourishing flowers full of color attracts natural light to the house while exuding the interior and exterior of a home. A the conserved lawn may draw the prospective customers and rise the value of the property.
More than an improved appearance there are more benefits accredited to a well-maintained garden. After the yard has been maintained, it draws the mind to serenity. It also, grants a safe area for the kid to do gaming without fear of them getting hurt. The grass can curtail the extent of the shock of a fall and give protection. This can result in free time with friends and family a joyful moment.
To be able to enjoy the perfect lawn, yard maintenance is necessary for eliminating the weeds before they can sprout or grow. Weeds are undesirable and are removed by hands from ground. The householder necessitates the utilization of herbicides before the weed grows to incapacitate the weed from thriving. These herbicides are best applied during spring or early mornings when there is sufficient moisture. The moisture is crucial in aiding the herbicide to stick to weed leaves. An individual’s safety should be placed on priority when using herbicides.
Trimming the grass short can alter the lawns general beauty and encourage
the weed to thrive. A large number of individuals have the notion that clipping down the grass will free them the resources and time as well as the oftenness of mowing the lawn. The grass should be maintained long and regularly mowed. It is essential that the blade be sharp to prevent and preserve the grass terrain. When the grass is frayed and shredded after it has been mowed that would be an indicator of that blade is blunt.
The yard areas where the grass is thin ,reseeding is encouraged. Resseding can be essential in conserved in the grass. Often watering and feeding the yard in morning hours can be rewarding. Offering water in the morning can ensure the lawn are well watered while giving water at night can result in long period of moisture yielding in promotion of plant diseases. Feeding the lawn with fertilizers nourishes the grass and keeps it healthy. Nitrogen is most required nutrients to the grass.


Organization of Field Cultivation
In making a record of the basic elements that comprise the labor farm—the family and land—we can also pass on to the organization of the farm itself, the cultivation of its fields, meadows, livestock, and other sectors. The organizer ought naturally to begin his work by arranging that sector which is the dominant item in his income. For a suburban dairying area, this will be cattle; for market garden areas, it will be vegetable raising. Since for the overwhelming majority of Russian farms field crops are the most important sector, we put that at the basis of our considerations.
In order to organize cultivation of the fields, it is essential for us to find the best system, i.e.:
1. To select crops and forms of exploiting them which will give the highest and most stable payment for labor. Moreover, not only commodity crops have to be selected but also crops to meet the family's needs in kind, if this is more advantageous than acquiring the produce on the market by expanding the commodity area. In taking account of the advantageousness of commodity crops, one should, as Filippovskii rightly points out, also pay attention to commodity circulation costs, i.e., the overheads and outlays in kind and in money connected with the sale and purchase of goods.
2. To combine them with other auxiliary crops in a relationship and crop rotation which would not exhaust the soil but would restore its fertility.
3. To establish a rotation and relationship of crops that would give the most convenient distribution of labor throughout the year, i.e., a smooth distribution without excessive bunching in critical periods and without obligatory unemployment in other seasons.
4. Having established the best system of field cultivation in accordance with the tasks mentioned above, we must determine the desired size (volume) of field cultivation (arable) applicable to our farm family and its work force.
Having information at our disposal on the yields of individual crops, the labor and capital expenditure they need, as well as data on the state of the market situation in the area of our farm and the means of communication, it is not difficult to make clear which crop and what form of exploitation give the highest labor payment and are thus the most desirable for the farm. Our budget literature enables us to establish the rates of such payment for certain areas, as is seen from Table 4-13.
The rates of labor payment we have quoted vary extremely by crops and by areas, and no less over time. It is not difficult to trace the factors that cause this variation. First of all, there is the soil and the
The Organizational Plan of the Peasant Farm 135
Payment by Cost of Produce Excluding Outlays on Materials per Working Day (Kopeks)
Uezd Rye Oats Flax Clover per Working Day
Starobel'sk ......... - — — — 133.0
Volokolamsk ....... 84.6 109.6 157.1 256.0 138.0
Gzhatsk ........... 45.1 - 110.1 - 137.0
Porech'e ........... 54.3 63.7 115.7 - 123.0
Sychevka .......... 63.8 94.3 115.2 672.0 156.0
Dorogobuzh ....... 71.0 106.9 97.0 507.5 147.0
Vologda ........... 87.0 83.0 91.0 - 86.0
climatic conditions which influence the harvest and work forms. It is sufficient to trace the influence of categories of soil, even if only by the inquiries on Saratov guberniya, to become convinced of this factor's significance. The location of the farm in relation to the market, i.e., the means of communication which connect them, has no less, if not greater, significance.
Thus, for example, in his work Die Rentabilität der Wirtschaftssystem nach Thünens isolirtem Staat und in unserer Zeit (Berlin, 1909), which is based on concrete material, Professor F. Waterstradt calculates the influence of distance from the market (by railway) for four farms, each of 250 hectares with the following systems:
1. A farm with alternate husbandry, sugar beet, and cattle-raising (80 cows).
2. A fodder farm with increased cattle-raising (160 cows).
3. A farm with permanent natural pasture.
4. A sugar beet farm (26 percent of the area under sugar beet).
According to Professor F. Waterstradt's calculations, the net income of these farms, depending on degree of fertility, will change in the way shown in Table 4-14 with distance from sales point.
Net Income of Two-Hundred-Fifty Hectare Farm (Thousand Marks) D- . , First Category of Fertility Third Category of Fertility
Market by Railway Farm System Farm System
(Kilometers) I II III IV I II III IV
0 ........... 45.7 42.4 42.7 50.1 20.6 20.9 24.9 20.6
25 ........... 41.3 39.2 39.7 44.5 17.3 18.2 22.4 16.1
50 ........... 39.3 37.1 37.8 41.5 15.4 16.5 20.8 13.6
75 ........... 36.2 34.8 35.7 37.3 13.0 14.6 19.1 10.3
100 ........... 34.2 32.8 33.8 34.6 11.5 13.0 17.6 8.2
300 ........... 23.6 21.1 22.6 21.6 6.2 9.9 14.9 2.1
200 ........... 18.0 18.9 21.2 13.8 1.4 7.4 12.9 4.5
400 ........... 12.5 17.1 19.9 6.3 3.3 5.1 11.1 10.8
136 THE THEORY OF PEASANT ECONOMY
Distance to Sales Point Long-Fallow Fallow as Percentage of Area Sown Pigs per 100 Desyatinas Sown
0 ....... 24.0 1.0 2.7
0-25 ..... 27.4 3.6 4.2
25-50 ) 39.7 0.3 2.8
50-100j '" *'
>100..... 283.5 0.0 0.5
are the factors on which spatial differences depend; differences over time, however, depend on yield and price levels. We can see from the following calculations how great are fluctuations of this type.
A desyatina of flax in 1900-1910 in Volokolamsk uezd, depending on these factors, gave the rates of labor payment shown in Table 4-16.
1901 1902 1903 1904 1905 1906 1907 1908 1909 1910 Average
desyatina (puds) . 18.9 25.8 18.1 20.0 20.3 32.2 25.8 14.9 17.5 14.2 20.8
per pud) ........ 400 295 491 418 405 420 302 328 415 460 393
Gross income per
desyatina (rubles) 75.6 76.1 88.7 83.5 82.1 135.0 77.9 48.9 72.5 65.3 80.6
Gross income per desyatina with constant yield of
20 puds ........89.0 59.0 98.2 83.6 81.0 84.0 60.4 65.6 83.0 92.0 78.7
Gross income per desyatina with constant price of
4 rubles a pud ..75.6 103.2 72.4 80.0 81.2 128.8 103.2 59.6 70.0 56.8 83.6,
Looking at the table relating to the first, highest, category of fertility, we see that with distance from the market not exceeding 100 kilometers the farm of type IV is first in income. At a greater distance, up to 250 kilometers, first place passes to farms of type I, and at a distance of 300 kilometers or more type III begins to take the lead. At a lower level of fertility (third category), the picture changes and the type III farm predominates all the time. According to F. Water-stradt's calculations, the farm's distance from the railway station is of still greater significance.
No less interesting are the results of an investigation by one of the most outstanding Russian statisticians, G. I. Baskin, on the influence of distance from produce sales point on peasant farms in the south of Samara guberniya (in A. N. Chelintsev's version) (Table 4-15). Such
The Organizational Plan of the Peasant Farm 137
Instability (Average Deviation
from the Average) of
Harvest per Gross
Desyatina Price Income
Rye .......... .... 33.4% 26.0% 15.4%
Spring wheat .., .... 31.1% 19.1% 32.6%
If the yield had remained the same for this period, let us say 20 puds of flax per desyatina, under the influence of price changes alone we would get gross income fluctuations as shown in row 4. If the price always remained at 4 rubles a pud, gross income depending on harvest fluctuations would be as in row 5.
Calculating for each of the series quoted the average arithmetic deviation from the general average of the figures for individual years, we obtain the following coefficients for each series.
Instability of harvest per desyatina......... 20.6%
Instability of price per pud of flax......... 13.0%
Instability of gross income per desyatina .... 16.6%
We see that prices are the most stable; the explanation is that for flax they are not determined by any one uezd and its harvest but by the whole world total flax production. In view of prewar Russia's almost monopolistic situation on the world market, however, these prices were somewhat inversely proportional to the Russian harvest, and thanks to this they smoothed out fluctuations in gross income compared with harvest per desyatina. In this case, the flax market, despite its world significance for Russian flax-growing, might be considered a local market, since it was almost entirely determined by the Russian harvest.
In all local market produce, where price fluctuations are connected with and counterposed to harvest ones, fluctuations in labor payment and income will, in general, be less sharp than those in prices and harvest taken separately. For produce with a wider (world) market, for which local prices determined by the world harvest are completely unconnected with local harvests, these fluctuations do not correspond, and income is frequently more unstable than prices or harvests.
Thus, for example, if we take the average fluctuations in Poltava guberniya in harvest, prices and gross incomes for rye, as local market produce, and for spring wheat, as world market produce, we obtain the measurement of instability shown in Table 4-17.
Looking at these figures, we see that, despite great fluctuations in
138 THE THEORY OF PEASANT ECONOMY
rye harvests and prices, gross income from rye is more stable than the gross income from the world market crop, wheat. All the phenomena of these annual fluctuations which have been noted must undoubtedly be taken into account in estimating the advantageousness of individual crops. However, not the annual but the longer term fluctuations in the market situation are of still greater interest to us.
The chief importance for us is that long-term changes in the market situation completely alter the comparative advantageousness of crops, and frequently one which paid very well subsequently falls out of the rotation as a completely disadvantageous crop. Our institutes concerned with market forecasting, observing the state of the market and frequently foreseeing its fluctuations, ought in future to be responsible for a constant watch on the probable profitability of different crops, and by this comparative analysis give a pointer to the practical workers in agriculture as to the selection of the annual direction of their economic work.
Information on the comparative expected income from various spring grains is for us practical workers in agriculture immeasurably more important than any sort of barometer and index of the market situation for 20 or 60 commodities, which, unfortunately, the workers in these market forecasting institutes have not yet mastered. These are the conditions in which our farm, according to its soil, climatic, and market data, may select its most advantageous crops. To cultivate them as field crops, it is essential to analyze them from the viewpoint of agricultural science, putting them into a particular system of crop rotation and restoration of soil fertility.
For our part, it would be naive to attempt in these pages to expound the basic laws of contemporary agricultural science. It is enough for us to know that with a very small number of exceptions the repeated cultivation of one plant from year to year on one spot is impossible, since it causes so-called soil "exhaustion" for this crop, drains away the nutrient juices specifically essential for this crop, fills the soil with toxins, i.e., with plant secretions harmful to its cultivation, and sox)n. Therefore, from the viewpoint of agricultural science it is absolutely essential to alternate crops; moreover, numerous agricultural experiments have established the most favorable crop sequence. Thus, we know that in the northern area flax does very well after clover, that root crops provide for a following crop of grains, and so on. All these observations and scientific rules lead to a system of well-known crop rotations which guarantee the most stable and highest soil fertility.
The Organizational Plan of the Peasant Farm 139
Having determined what are, from an economic viewpoint, our most advantageous crops and those required to meet certain farm needs in kind (fodder, etc.), we should connect them in a particular crop rotation, often adding auxiliary crops, not very advantageous in payment for labor but essential for reasons of agricultural technique. The combinations of different crops are extremely varied. Some theoreticians of farm organization usually treat them as a series of typical field-cropping systems, distinguishing them mainly by the methods they use to restore soil fertility.
In one of our early works (1911), we investigated the various forms of field-cropping systems encountered in Russia. Making use of Professor A. F. Fortunatov's enormous library, we were able to reduce all the local statistical and agricultural studies to six types: (1) three-course, (2) two-course, (3) irregular cropping, (4) the Perm' system of irregular cropping, (5) the long-fallow system, and (6) various systems with manuring by grazing the stubble. The map in Figure 4-1 gives us an idea of the distribution of these systems, according to our summary, for the area of former European Russia toward the start of the twentieth century. In working out this map, all the field-cropping systems were divided into the following basic types listed above.
1. Three-course. In this case, three-course means not so much the classical rotation of fallow, winter sown, and spring sown, as the economic system of three-course cropping in Russia, i.e., the division of the arable into transferable areas common to all proprietors, with obligatory common grazing after harvest—in a word, the communal three-field system of cropping. On the basis of painstaking investigations, we have succeeded in establishing the southern boundary of the area where the three-course system in this sense predominates; this is shown on the map in Figure 4-2.
Thus, here are included three-field farms with a rotation of fallow, spring sown, and partial leys, and, on the other hand, cases of three-course rotation—fallow, winter sown, spring sown—on one or two fields, or on several independent of one another and not connected with neighboring ones by a common and obligatory crop (the Perm' system of irregular cropping). I have also considered it not possible to include in this section three-field and abandonment rotations of the Siberian type—i.e., a long-fallow system in which a three-course rotation is worked three or four times and the area then abandoned for a long period.
2. Two-course. A crop rotation of fallow, winter sown, or fallow, spring sown on two fields, with obligatory common grazing after har-
140 THE THEORY OF PEASANT ECONOMY
Peasant Field Systems in Russia at the End of the Nineteenth Century
THREE COURSE TWO-COURSE LONG FALLOW IRREGULAR CROPPING
PERM' IRREGULAR CROPPING
\ \ MANURING BY GRAZING THE STUBBLE
[ggjgjl IRREGULAR CROPPING AND THREE COURSE
HUI IRREGULAR CROPPING AND GRAZING THE STUBBLE
vest, this system is in its general arrangement close to the three-course rotation.
3. Irregular cropping. Included in this section are all "systems" characterized by the fact that the individual farm fields have no connection with one another and their cycle of sowings is carried out completely independently, sometimes by the irregular sowing of grain following grain, but sometimes having a certain periodicity, including common grazing on the stubble after a certain interval of years.
The Organizational Plan of the Peasant Farm 141
Probable Southern Limit of Area with Peasant Three-Course System in the Late Nineteenth Century
We have considered it convenient to separate from this group the Perm' system of irregular cropping, as it is called, in which the periodicity is definitely sustained and amounts to a usual three- or four-course rotation. It differs from the other systems only in that each piece of land proceeds quite independently without any dependence on the others. Thus, there is no spatial system, and only the temporal one is observed.
4. The long-fallow system. This section consists of systems in which the exclusive use of abandonment as a method for restoring fertility makes it necessary for land used as arable to pass to other categories—steppe, forest, and so on. Here the period of abandonment much exceeds the period as arable. One of the determinants of this system is that the time to plow up the abandoned land is not deter
142 THE THEORY OF PEASANT ECONOMY
mined by the time spent without sowing but by the land's "ripeness"; this is judged by the vegetational cover. Strictly speaking, this system is close to the irregular cropping system we have established, since while having a sequence (system) in time, it has no spatial one. However, the fact of transition from one land category into another obliges us to treat it as an independent section.
5. The system of grazing the stubble. This group is very broad and includes a number of varied forms; it is purely artificial in character. Its determining characteristics are the presence of two or more annual grazings on the stubble and, chiefly, together with a sequence in time, the presence of some elements of a spatial system which connects the separate farm fields.
In the two decades that have passed, certain changes have naturally been noted in the geography of field-cropping systems. First of all, the so-called ley systems have developed and continue to develop with exceptional rapidity in the Moscow area and in all western guberniyas. In these systems, in which fallows are retained as a method for restoring soil fertility, sowings of annual or perennial grasses are introduced and make the crop rotation into a system of semialternate husbandry, restore the structure of the field, and, if legumes are included in the grass mixture, directly enrich the soil with nitrogen. In many areas, particularly in the sugar beet-sowing areas of the Ukraine and in patches in other guberniyas, genuine alternate husbandry systems without fallow have also been included in our systems of field cropping and have acquainted us with the sowing of root crops.
Such a subdivision is somewhat different from the usual one, and so we consider we may say a few words about the classification system as a whole and its themes. We dare suppose that every system—and, in general, any theory—is something artificial, and its significance is always only temporary and pedagogic. It aims to enable the thinking mind to perceive with as little effort as possible the whole mass of factual material and to grasp it as clearly as possible. In view of this, there may be a great number of classification systems; they are all "correct," and the whole question is which is simplest and most convenient. We personally ascribe great significance to the purposive evaluation of the systems—i.e., evaluation of any system according to how convenient it is for a particular purpose—supposing that for different purposes the material we have may be grouped into different systems.
Taking this into account, to classify raw material still not fully studied we ought to dwell on a system that rests on concrete, easily
The Organizational Plan of the Peasant Farm 143
established features (of a morphological character). Mainly, we should try to avoid introducing into the structure of the system any trace of a theory or hypothesis with historical, geographical, or any other content, i.e., of the sort that should, in any event, appear as the last stage of the work, the last conditional feature, but by no means be posed a priori.
In grouping the raw material, I have not considered that I had the right to use so-called "historical" systems which are so widespread among us. First, this would introduce an a priori premise about the specific historical sequence of systems. Second, the existing "historical" systems are, from a historical point of view, the crudest simplification of the development process of field-cropping systems and are also essentially morphological systems, and ones with poor morphological features, moreover.
Let us take for analysis the usual series (Ludogovskii): (1) long-fallow, (2) grain, (3) improved grain, (4) alternate husbandry, (5) free. For Russia, it has no historical significance. Thus, our southern irregular cropping with plant following plant, frequently according to the demands of the market, should, strictly speaking, be put in system 5. But at the same time, in the. reality of Russia—in Saratov guberniya, for example—irregular cropping follows immediately after a long-fallow; in Poltava it precedes three-course; and, finally, in Kursk it arises on the ruins of three-course system. Systems involving abandonment, which evidently should be put in the long-fallow section, both precede irregular cropping and also follow it, and in many cases they arise on the ruins of a three-course system (Chernigov and Vladimir guberniyas).
Within the limits of the field-cropping systems we have reviewed, various forms of sequence of crops or crop rotations are possible. Their variety is so great that the painstaking researchers could write a large, multivolume study on them. Unfortunately, such a work was written by Ermolov in his day only as regards the advantages of the large-scale landlord farms. Peasant crop rotations are still waiting to be studied. Of course, within the limits of this book we cannot make such a summary. Therefore, in speaking of crop rotations and wishing to explain the peculiar features of rural activities, we limit ourselves merely to a review of our northern ley rotations.
The first form of clover-sowing on the peasant farm is the so-called partial ley. In its most widespread type, one or two zones in the winter field are allocated, and the rye is undersown with clover. The following year, now the spring-sown field, the first year's mowing of clover
144 THE THEORY OF PEASANT ECONOMY
Partial Ley Rotation
1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th
1 ..... ... WCW FCe wc3cw SFlCa FC,
II ..... ... s F wcw sc1 FQ, wc3cw
Ill ..... ... F wcw scx FC2 wc3cw SF1CX
W—winter-sown field. S—spring sown. F-fallow. Fl-Flax.
Ci—first year's mowing of clover, and so on.
We see that from the fifth and sixth years, when the rotation has been established, clover is mown each year on part of each of the three fields, and flax following on clover occupies part of the spring-sown field. We should recognize that this rotation is very flexible and convenient; though it lacks regularity, the proprietor is always able, without violating the sequence of crops, to adapt the fodder area according to his wishes. It is easy to pass from this crop rotation to a correct six-course rotation: it requires only the annual sowing of the winter course with clover—not an arbitrary part but half of it. Then each of the three fields is split into two, and we will have a six-field rotation with a six-year sequence of crops.
Six-field Crop Rotation, Type I WCW - Cx - C2 - C3 - S - F/WCW, and so on
This rotation is found very rarely, since it reduces the grain area too much and, by bringing the clover area up to 50 percent, causes clover to be sown too frequently on the same ground, which leads to clover sickness. Therefore, the third clover crop (C3) is retained in the rotation only where there is a large market demand for timothy.
will be on these sections. In the third year, the clover sections are in the fallow field and are fenced off from the livestock. In the fourth year, the clover is usually left, in the winter-sown field the third year's mowing of clover is taken, and the rye in the other part of the same field is undersown with clover. In the fifth year, the sections where the clover has been are under flax. Since with this form of ley the clover is sown annually in the winter field, the rotation is as shown in Table 4-18.
The Organizational Plan of the Peasant Farm 145
TABLE 4-19 Yaroslavl' Four-Field Crop Rotation
1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th
I .... .. WCW Cx c2 S F W S F
II .... .. s F wcw c2 s F W
Ill .... .. F W s F wcw Cx c2 S
IV .... ft S F W S F wcw Cx
We see that clover in this rotation is sown alternate years and cropped for two years, so that the clover field, too, is not sown to spring grains annually but in alternate years. This is very inconvenient on a flax-growing farm, since in years when the spring sown follows winter sown the flax does badly, and in years when clover is being grown part of its area should be devoted to oats and potatoes, thus causing a loss for flax-growing. Because of this, despite its advantages (the harmonious combination of winter and spring sown and fallow approximating to a three-course rotation, small number of fields, and so on), this rotation is inconvenient for flax-growing areas.
Moreover, the rotation is so complicated that the slightest deviation causes terrible confusion which is difficult to correct, and deviations occur very frequently. Sometimes, they forget to undersow the
Usually, however, flax is put in place of the third clover crop, and this gives the favorite Volokolamsk rotation.
Six-field Crop Rotation, Type II WCW - d - C2 - Fl - S -F/WCW, and so on
This rotation, which gives a considerable fodder area (33 percent), allows an equally considerable area of spring-sown grains to be grown. Flax following after clover is one-sixth of the whole rotation. At the same time, the fallow and winter sown is reduced, but the farm is not much concerned with the winter sown, since in any event its grain is enough for only six months, and the labor used in growing rye achieves a minimal payment compared with that for other crops, as we saw in Chapter 1. Therefore, this rotation is very popular and is rarely rejected, which cannot be said of the Yaroslavl' rotation favored by agricultural officers.
The Yaroslavl' rotation, as is well known, is an eight-course rotation on four fields, so that each year one field is under rye, one under clover, one is spring sown, and one fallow. Table 4-19 shows the crop sequence in this quite complicated rotation.
146 THE THEORY OF PEASANT ECONOMY
clover and sow the first spring grain in place of the clover; more frequently, they simply long for a third year's clover crop. The result is complete confusion. In Volokolamsk uezd, this rotation is most frequently rejected, and in 1910 two-thirds of the settlements with Yaroslavl' rotations had finally abandoned them.
The eight-year sequence on eight fields, called the Shipovo Volokolamsk eight-field rotation, is in somewhat better condition.
The Volokolamsk Eight-field Rotation WCW -Ci-Cs-S-F-W-S-F
Despite its title, this crop rotation is not very widespread in Volokolamsk uezd, although it enables flax to follow after clover each year.
I shall not deal with the peasant farm seven-field, nine-field, and five-field rotations with a ten-year sequence, since they differ from those treated only in that clover is cropped not two but three years. In conclusion, I shall describe one curious rotation created by the peasants of Kholmets, a hamlet in Volokolamsk uezd. This rotation is an eight-field one, and each fallow is linked with a particular cycle of crops (Table 4-20). A new item here, as compared with the preceding rotations, is pasture, which we have indicated with a P.
Field 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th
I .. II . wcw ..w s ?•! P w
c, F 1 c2 [ P wcw w
111 I TV] • p wcw w s c2)
F 1 p w
ct F 1
c2 ( p
VI .. ..F \
..c2 ( p wcw w c, s c2|
F s p w
VII .. VIII .. ..s
Q F \
c2 \ p wcw w Q s C2|
F f p w
From this, it can be seen that each year a quarter of the area is under winter sown, a quarter is pasture, and an eighth is under spring-sown grain. This rotation is a complete contrast to the typical spring-sown Volokolamsk six-field, type II. It is an excellent cattle-farming rotation, since the three-year clover and the two-year fallow give ideal abundant pasture, and after this the livestock go over to the first-year fallow, which is then producing abundant grass. Unfortunately, according to the Kholmets peasants, sowings of flax do badly, and this rotation is hardly likely to become widespread in flax areas.
The Organizational Plan of the Peasant Farm 147
3 Editor's note.—The meaning of this sentence is not entirely clear in the Russian version.
As regards pasture, peasant crop rotations proposed recently by A. G. Doyarenko at the Timiryazev Agricultural Academy Experimental Station are still more interesting and are based on an entirely new principle. The academy's experimental station has tenaciously and successfully worked on the problem of early fallows that give an appreciable increase in yields. Despite the obvious income to be gained from this, early fallows have not become accepted on the peasant farm because of the lack of pasture to which the livestock can be transferred from the fallow tilled in May or April. The task for the experimental station, then, was to find pasture. The answer was found by forming an abundant area of special fallows sown with pasture mixtures and especially of quick pasture crops between harvest and sowing which, undersown to rye along the boundaries, at harvest give a dense, low growth used for grazing throughout the autumn and in spring until the late potatoes are sown.3 These are the methods for creating a fodder area and its ensiling, with other elements of field husbandry.
Crop rotations, as we have seen, provide a very flexible technical solution to the tasks that natural conditions, market situation, and internal economic factors set before the family farm. In addition, the intensity of the factors of cultivation which constitute the content of man's agricultural activity is important in describing the field-cropping system adopted.
Tillage, cultivation, and even harvest methods may be changed in their labor and capital intensity. For example, the same potato crop can be grown by using 40 or 120 workdays, with a corresponding harvest; a desyatina of fallow may have 1,000 or 3,000 puds of dung spread on it, and so on. The intensity of cultivation factors on each farm depends on price levels and local natural conditions. As we saw at the end of Chapter 3, the on-farm factors of the family undertaking determine this intensity to a considerable degree, sometimes making it rise above the optimal level for farms based on hired labor. Unfortunately, empirical studies of agricultural production technique are so insignificant that we are not in a position even to fully illustrate these statements.
After determining the most advantageous crops and linking them in a rational crop rotation from the viewpoint of agricultural science, we ought to check this rotation from the aspect of labor organization
148 THE THEORY OF PEASANT ECONOMY
in time. Each crop has its own individual features as regards labor organization, and their labor intensive periods occur at different times. Table 4-21 and Figure 4-3, which we have calculated for Volokolamsk uezd, give quite a clear picture of this. As is seen from the work
Labor Expenditure (Working Days) for Various Crops in Volokolamsk Uezd by Half-Monthly Periods
distribution over time, rye is predominantly a summer crop, potatoes and especially spring-sown grains are spring and autumn crops, while flax, unlike the others, involves expending energy in winter on the primary processing of the fiber.
For the peasant farm, the task is to compose its field cultivation of such crops and proportions that the critical moments characteristic of their labor organization do not coincide, and the general labor intensity on the farm should be more or less uniform. In this respect, the labor farm's tasks differ sharply from those of the capitalist farm,
The Organizational Plan of the Peasant Farm 149
10 20 30 40 50
time scale in weeks
It is clear that such a development curve for peasant farm labor intensity is quite senseless, since at critical periods the farm family would be worn out and for the rest of the year would be unemployed. Hence, on peasant farms there is a more uniform distribution of labor, as is seen from the diagram of a Volokolamsk farm (Figure 4-5).
Thus, by means of a series of repeated estimates we establish the field-cropping system best for the particular area and market situation; we introduce the necessary corrections if required for the specific features of this particular farm. We should then proceed to establish the volume of field-cropping activities, starting from the family labor force and the conditions present for land use. As we
which solves the critical moments of its labor organization with the help of temporary labor, frequently from outside. The capitalist farm is, therefore, not merely unconcerned about distributing work as evenly as possible over the year, but even aims at making it uneven in principle and at timing the greatest blocs of labor for the cheap wage periods. Studies of a number of Austrian farms give us characteristic examples of labor distribution over time and we show one of these (Figure 4-4).
FIGURE 4-4 Number of Workers per 100 Hectares on a Beet Farm in Lower Austria (The two peaks indicate the planting and harvesting periods)
Labor Expenditure (Working Days) for Certain Crops in Volokolamsk Uezd by Half-Monthly Periods
Desyatina Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. Total
of 12 12 12 12 1212
Rye _______ 15.3 3.1 1.7 6.5 10.4 7.7 - - - - - 45.0
Oats ........... - - - - 3.6 3.6 - - - - - - 5.3 9.1 - - - - 21.6
Potatoes ........ - - - - 3.5 21.4 3.3 - - - - - - 25.4 - 58.2
Flax ...........10.5 - - 2.9 5.0 - - - - - 14.5 14.2 6.5 - 8.8 14.2 10.5 87.2
The Organizational Plan of the Peasant Farm 151
121212121212121212121212 I I IEII1MEIEXI
t 1 FLAX GROWING WMi EARNINGS OFF FARM
I 1 OTHER FIELD WORK B| HOUSEHOLD WORK
I I MOWING
Editors' note —This figure appears to be the same as Fig 3—4
know, this question is finally solved by the equilibrium of the on-farm factors we have studied; yet we can give its objective maximum and minimum limits, called the labor and consumer rates.
At one time, much attention was devoted to both these rates in our agrarian literature. From the extensive literature of the question, most interesting are the works of N. P. Makarov, who summed up all preceding work in his report to the Second Congress of the Agrarian Reform League in 1917. In this case, the amount of arable which uses the family's whole labor force with normal intensity is taken as the labor rate. To determine this, it is necessary to take the labor intensity curve for the chosen crop rotation and analyze the number of desyatinas that our family can cope with in the period of greatest labor intensity.
If harvesting is taken as this period, the map (Figure 4-6), drawn up by N. P. Makarov, gives an approximation of the labor rate for bread grains. The considerable difference between north and south is
FIGURE 4-5 Distribution of Work by Half-Monthly Periods
152 THE THEORY OF PEASANT ECONOMY
FIGURE 4-6 Labor Rates for Sowing Grains
explained by differences in technology (sickle, scythe, reaper, etc.). In the chosen crop rotation, the secondary crops which give a maximum labor intensity in other periods have to be added to the grain-sown area; thus, we obtain in sum the sown area, which determines the size of the field cultivation.
If the area so calculated cannot be fully developed because of the conditions of land use, it then must be determined taking them into account. By means of reviewing the crop structure and the work methods, the farm must be somewhat intensified so that at the cost of a reduction in labor payment the family labor force can be rather fully deployed on the reduced area.
The consumer rate, of great significance in agrarian problems, has no particular value for us in view of the considerable development of
The Organizational Plan of the Peasant Farm 153
Actual land use by family .................... 9.8
Consumer rate for: medium consumption ...... 9.8
highest consumption ....... 12.8
Labor rate using in agriculture the time of those going to work in crafts and trades,
total ...................................... 15.7
One-Half .................................... 12.8
One-Fourth .................................. 11.3
For Vologda uezd we have:
Actual land use .............................. 7.8
Consumer rate: medium consumption.......... 6.0
increased consumption ......... 7.9
highest consumption .......... 10.6
Labor rate with full use on agriculture and
all time on crafts and trades ................ 10.0
Makarov's comparisons are particularly interesting in that they clearly show that the marginal labor rate cannot give the peasant the high level of consumption observed in the wealthiest village strata and founded on skilled crafts and trades or nonlabor income.
The account we have finished of field crops gives us a basis for calculating the draft power required on the farm, since nine-tenths of it is needed in field-cropping. Thus, for Starobel'sk uezd we have:
Horse Workdays Expended on Percentage
Fields .......................... 92.7
Meadows ....................... 2.3
Forest .......................... 1.0
Vegetable garden ................ 4.0
Total for farm ............ 100.0
In the north, a somewhat greater amount of horse work is spent on meadows and forest, but we have no more precise estimates.
Since we do not aim at giving practical guidance on organizing peasant farms, we will not discuss here all possible forms of draft but will limit ourselves to an estimate of horse draft as the most widespread form. The number of horses required is reckoned in the same
crafts and trades in Russian peasant activity. However, if we understand it as the area of field cultivation with which the peasant family will be able to meet its needs at the lowest observed household consumption level or other levels of well-being, according to Makarov's works, for a medium-sized farm of the central Tambov guberniya zone we will have:
154 THE THEORY OF PEASANT ECONOMY
way the labor rates of land use are determined, according to the critical period for labor organization. But here, our deliberations proceed in the opposite direction. In calculating the labor rate, we took possible family labor intensity throughout the whole critical period and calculated the area with which this labor could cope. In calculating draft power, however, the area is given, and we must say how many horses are needed to cope with a particular sown area in the critically intensive period of horse work. Dividing the total horse work required by the horse's labor productivity rate, we obtain the figure we are seeking, which we round to a whole number. Thus, for Volokolamsk uezd see Table 4-22.
TABLE 4-22 Horse Workdays per Desyatina Sown
Apr. May June July Aug. Sep. Nov. Dec. Total
Rye ...... . 0.2 0.4 11.9 2.6 10.5 0.3 0.9 26.8
Oats ...... . 2.2 7.5 — — 1.0 2.0 0.3 13.0
Flax ...... . 5.4 7.8 — — 3.1 1.8 2.6 20.7
Potatoes .. . 2.6 13.4 2.6 — — 6.1 — 24.7
Clover - - 1.0 3.4 0.1 0.3 - 4.8
Horse Workdays per Desyatina Sown JAN. FEB MAR. APR. MAY JUN. JUL. AUG.SEP. OCT. NOV. DEC.
The Organizational Plan of the Peasant Farm 155
Sown Area Sown Working Horses Desyatina
0.01-3.0 ......... 1.76 0.59 0.33
3.01-7.50 ........ 5.56 1.80 0.34
7.5-15.00 ....... 11.60 4.32 0.37
> 15.00 ....... 23.09 7.08 0.31
Average ....... 9.62 3.18 0.33
In Starobel'sk uezd, there are 3.00 desyatinas of sown per horse. For other areas, we have: Volokolamsk uezd, 2.6 desyatinas; Gzhatsk uezd, 2.6; Porech'e uezd, 3.2; Sychevka uezd, 3.3; Dorogobuzh, 2.4 desyatinas. Because the number of horses depends on the critical period in their labor organization, which is extremely unevenly distributed through time, for the greater part of the year the peasant farm horse has no work and is, in general, little used. Table 4-24, showing how horse work is distributed on the flax and clover farm of Ivan Kokush-kin in Novoselki, Sereda volost, Volokolamsk uezd, gives us a clear picture of how the farm's two horses are used.
It is obvious from the table that although the horses are used little, Ivan Kokushkin cannot manage with one horse, since in the second half of July and the first half of August his needs for draft power exceed that of one horse if we suppose that the demands amount to 12 workdays in the half-month. A comparison of these figures with data from other areas is shown in Table 4-25.
The fact that the Russian peasant horse is not used much explains why, although it is fed on hay, it endures much, serves long, and, in general, is little subject to disease. The horse's low utilization coefficient means that draft power is not cheap for our peasant farm. Table 4-26 gives a workhorse account for an average Volokolamsk uezd peasant farm with 2.52 horses.
Consequently, one working day cost 68.5 kopeks. It is self-evident that with the horse being used even less the cost of its upkeep divided by a smaller and smaller number of working days means such a high
Quite naturally, given such a method for establishing the amount of draft power required, the number of horses on the farm should be more or less proportional to its sown area. Thus, for Starobel'sk uezd see Table 4-23.
Sown Area and Workstock (Item 59) (per Farm)
Desyatinas in Terms of per
TABLE 4-24 Horse Workdays per Farm
Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. Total
12 12 12 12 12 12
Rye ................ - - - - - - - -22 - - 16- - - - - - 38
Oats ................ — — — _ — — — __ __ __ — — — —
Flax ................ - - - -8 8 - - - - - -6 - - 1 - - 23
Potatoes ............ - - - — % 2 - % % — — - 1 - - - - 4%
Clover .............. - - - - - - - - - - " 2 - - - - - - - 2
Hay meadows ....... — — — — — — — — — — 4 — — — — — — — 4
Carting firewood..... — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — 12 12
Other work ......... — — — — — — 3 — — — — — — — — — — — 3
Hire to other
farms ............. 20 - - - - - - - 2 6- - 1 - - - - 8 37
Family trips......... 6 6 6 62 22 4- 22 12 26 6 6 8 69
Total ......... 26 6 6 6 10% 12 5 4% 24% 8 8 17 9 3 6 7 6 28 192%
The Organizational Plan of the Peasant Farm
FIGURE 4-8 Horse Workdays
JAN. FEB MAR APR MAY JUN. JUL. AUG. SEP OCT. NOV DEC
PLANTING POTATOES j I SOWING CLOVER
H CARTING FIREWOOD r~~~^ MOWING
[~~j HIRE TO OTHER FARMS OTHER FARM WORK
SOWING RYE FAMILY TRIPS
[~~~ SOWING FLAX
TABLE 4-25 Work per Horse for the Farm
Uezd Total Workdays per Year Percentage Use * Horse Work days per Desyatina of Arable Horse Work days per 100 Human Workdays
Volokolamsk 48 6 16 6 12 3 29 3
Gzhatsk 48 6 13 3 14 8 27 1
Porech'e 79 6 21 8 12 6 312
Sychevka 67 6 18 5 78 32 2
Dorogobuzh 68 5 188 12 5 25 2
cost for draft power that the peasant cannot keep a horse. It is more advantageous to hire one, even though at a very high price. Thus, the cost of a horse's working day, assuming 30 days per desyatina and 50 rubles as the cost of maintenance, is as seen in Table 4-27 and Figure 4-9. These figures give us the economic basis for a more or less rational lack of horses.
Undoubtedly, in many cases the peasant whose horse has died or
158 THE THEORY OF PEASANT ECONOMY
Cost of horses at start of year ... 113.10
Horses purchased during year .. 6.70
Share in general expenses...... 18.89
Care of horses ................ 11.94
Feed ......................... 120.67
Other expenditure ........... 7.45
Total .................. 278.75
Cost of horses at end of year ..
Manure (1818.6 puds) ........
Received for manure.........
Work on own farm:
104.6 days on field work 5.1 on meadows 19.7 on general work 52.0 on services to family ..
125.75 12.76 15.93
Cost of Horse Loss or Profit
Farm Size Horses Workday Compared with Hire
(Desyatinas) Required (Kopeks) at 80 Kopeks a Day
1 ........... 1 160 -80
2 ........... 1 83 - 3
3 ........... 1 50 +30
4 ........... 1 42 +38
5 ........... 2 67 +13
6 ........... 2 56 +24
7 ........... 2 47 +33
8 ........... 2 42 +38
9 ........... 3 56 +24
has been stolen is without a horse because he is unable to allocate from his miserly income the money necessary to get a new one. But on farms without many resources, it is simply not an advantage to the
The Organizational Plan of the Peasant Farm 159
peasant family to have a horse, and they prefer to hire one, frequently with a man. On these grounds, curious cases sometimes occur, as in Vologda guberniya, when a semiproletarianized family hired a rich peasant who, in this case, was a worker not only receiving full payment for his labor but also taking a share from the labor payment of his master.
Having finished the account of the workstock, we cannot pass on to the organization of commercial livestock raising without a preliminary calculation of the farm's fodder resources. However strange it may seem to the reader who is not an agricultural officer, the organization of feed-getting is almost the center pin in farm organization.
All sectors of the farm are connected in one way or another with fodder organization, some as suppliers (meadow, pasture, field-cropping, housekeeping), others as consumers of the fodder stocks. Therefore, every change in the organization of any farm sector also reflects, to some extent, on the organization of feed-getting and, frequently, through it on other sectors of the organizational plan. Thus, for example, the literature has noted more than once the disintegrating effect of flax cultivation in the three-field peasant farm. When flax is introduced where feed-getting is overwhelmingly based on the straw from spring-sown grains, this stock of fodder is reduced. This, in turn, reduces the livestock sector, the amount of dung produced, and thus leads to soil exhaustion.
In practice, on the Russian peasant farm feed-getting is based on two different types of reckoning: (1) with a surplus of natural feed stocks, (2) with a distinctly marked lack of stocks.
In the first type, when there are huge amounts of straw from the spring grains (the southeastern extensive grain farm), many natural pastures (Siberia and the northeast of European Russia), or abundant supplies of offals from industrial production (sugar beet and distilling areas), the feed problem amounts to the fullest use of some form of commercial livestock farming. Here, feed-getting is not arranged according to the livestock required but, on the contrary, the stock are arranged according to the feed naturally obtained. One way to use the mass of heavy threshing-floor feeds and industrial offals is to transfer from horse to ox draft and to organize meat and draft production.
However, in the majority of Russia's guberniyas we meet with the directly contrary type of reckoning caused by a deficiency of feed,
160 THE THEORY OF PEASANT ECONOMY


Sustainability on Florida Dairy Farms
For Florida’s dairy farmers, sustainability is a way of life. Their livelihood depends on taking care of the cows and land. Every day they strive to use and discover innovative, greener ways to run the farm.
Their efforts are paying off too. Due to innovative practices in cow comfort, improved feed and genetics, and modern barn design, the environmental impact of producing a gallon of milk in 2017 shrunk significantly, requiring 30% less water, using 21% less land and garnering a 19% smaller carbon footprint than in 2007 nationwide.
Florida’s dairy farmers are experts at conserving and reusing water.
Fresh water is used for cows to drink and to sanitize and clean equipment like milk storage tanks. Wastewater is used to flush manure and excess sand bedding out of the barn, and then separated into solids and the now nutrient-rich water.
Solids, like sand, are washed during the flushing and recycled, used as bedding once again. Nutrient rich water is used to fertilize and irrigate crops where it turns back into wastewater, and the process begins again.
Dairy cows play an essential role in a sustainable food system. Cows are ruminants, meaning they have four stomachs! Because of their unique digestive systems, they’re able to eat agricultural byproducts that would otherwise end up in landfills like cottonseed hulls and orange peels.
“We’re talking tons and tons of stuff that these other industries would have no use for if it weren’t for the dairy industry,” local dairy farmer, Matt Lussier, said, “Byproducts are huge for dairy farmers.”
Citrus peels and pulp are common byproducts in Florida, a state known for its juice. The leftovers from fruits used to make grapefruit and orange juice are dried and converted into pellet-shaped dairy cow feed that provides a healthy source of energy and calcium for cattle.
They enjoy it too. “Citrus pulp is very palatable,” Lussier said, “That’s one of the main reasons I feed it [to my cows]. You can put the best ingredients in the world in front of a cow but if she doesn’t eat it, it doesn’t do her any good. So you put stuff in that they want to eat.”
Other common byproducts that cows love eating are almond hulls, brewers grains, cotton seeds, distillers grains, and molasses. All of these are delicious and nutritious for the cows and keeps them out of landfills.
The Future of Sustainable Dairy Farming
The future of sustainability in dairy farmers has never looked brighter, and Florida’s dairy farmers are committed to further innovation and going even greener.
Recently, Larson dairy farms in South Florida broke ground on methane digesters by partnering with global-waste solutions provider, Brightmark. The digesters will turn cow manure into renewable natural gas and will generate enough energy to power about 4,000 homes.
Dairy farmers are making changes nationwide too. U.S. dairy farmers are committed to achieving carbon neutrality or better, optimize water usage and improve water quality by 2050 in a nationwide Net Zero Initiative (NZI). They’ll achieve this by making further improvements in feed production, cow care, energy efficiency, and manure management. Partnering with new technologies and science-based research, U.S. dairy farmers are working together to reach these goals.