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Sustainability 2018, 10(1), 201; doi:10.3390/su10010201
Spatially Explicit Assessment of Agricultural Water Equilibrium in the Korean Peninsula
Department of Environmental Science and Ecological Engineering, Korea University, Seoul 02481, Korea
Institute of Life Science and Natural Resource, Korea University, Seoul 02481, Korea
Ecosystem Services and Management Program, International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA), Schlossplatz 1, A-2361 Laxenburg, Austria
Correspondence: Tel.: +82-2-3290-3016; Fax: +83-2-3290-3470
Received: 21 November 2017 / Accepted: 10 January 2018 / Published: 15 January 2018
In agriculture, balancing water use and retention is an issue dealt with in most regions and for many crops. In this study, we suggest agricultural water equilibrium (AWE) as a new concept that can facilitate a spatially explicit management of agricultural water. This concept is based on the principle of supply and demand of agricultural water, where the virtual water content of crops (VWC) can be defined as the demand, and cropland water budget (CWB) as the supply. For assessing the AWE of the Korean Peninsula, we quantified the CWB based on the hydrological cycle and the VWC of rice, a key crop in the Peninsula. Five factors, namely crop yield, growing season evapotranspiration, annual evapotranspiration, runoff, and annual precipitation, were used to assess the AWE, of which the first four were estimated using the spatially explicit large-scale crop model, Geographical Information System (GIS)-based Environmental Policy Integrated Climate (GEPIC). The CWB and VWC were calculated for a period of three decades, and the AWE was computed by deducting the VWC from the CWB. Our results show a latitudinal difference across the Korean Peninsula. On analyzing the AWE of the major river basins, we found most basins in North Korea showed very low values inferring unsustainable overconsumption of water. The latitudinal difference in AWE is a reflectance of the latitudinal changes in the VWC and CWB. This can be explained by decoupling the demand and supply of agricultural water. Although the AWE values presented in this study were not absolute, the values were sufficient to explain the latitudinal change, and the demand and supply of agricultural water, and establish the usefulness of the indicator.
Keywords:agricultural water equilibrium; virtual water content; cropland water budget; GEPIC; agricultural water demand and supply
Striking a balance between water retention and water use is a challenge faced by most industries that use water, and is one of the most pressing issues in agriculture [1,2,3]. As climatic and socio-economic changes progress, the decoupling between water retention and usage widens [4,5]. Earlier studies have demonstrated both scientifically and socio-scientifically, how climate change causes shortages of water and how consumption of water increases owing to increased consumption and production of goods [6,7,8].
Climate change does not refer to changes in temperature alone, but also to changes in all other climatic factors. This includes hydrological changes, which could result in droughts or floods, and such extreme natural events could be disastrous, affecting the growth of plants, and causing price fluctuations of agricultural products [9,10,11]. From the perspectives of production and consumption, the industry that is most sensitive to water retention and water consumption rates is agriculture [12,13]. The land water budget, determined from the hydrological cycle, has exerted the most extensive influence on the agricultural production regardless of the emergence of diverse irrigation methods and new technologies [4,14,15]. To explain the volume of water retained in the soil and available for agriculture, it is possible to utilize concepts such as water balance, water budget, and water resource among others [16,17,18]. These values have been estimated annually by using various variables in appropriate models.
The volume of water consumed is determined by the rate of evapotranspiration. Usually, the actual rate of evapotranspiration that occurs during the growing phase of a crop is defined as the water consumption level for that crop [19,20,21]. Recently, a virtual water concept has been applied to crop production that presents the volume of water used per unit crop yield .
To specify the water retention and the water consumption in the agricultural sector, Liu et al.  estimated the consumptive water use (CWU) for various crops across the world under potential climate change using the Geographical Information System (GIS)-based Environmental Policy Integrated Climate (GEPIC) model. Zhao et al.  calculated the virtual water contents of crops in China using the same model. Furthermore, Fader et al.  presented renewable water resources for each country based on the LPJmL (Lund–Potsdam–Jena managed Land) model, and Shen et al.  estimated the cropland water balance based on field measurements. Likewise, many studies have effectively used crop models to estimate water retention and water consumption in agriculture to investigate their relationship.
Such crop models have predominantly been utilized across various agricultural systems for estimating crop yield besides externalities such as hydrological cycle, soil organic matter turnover, and soil erosion of agricultural lands [4,24,25,26]. Within the wide range of crop models developed across the world, each has its unique characteristics . For example, the EPIC model is effective for studying supply and demand of agricultural water, as it estimates a comprehensive number of variables related to crop productivity, the hydrological cycle, and soil erosion [28,29]. Studies on crop productivity and water use that utilize the EPIC model have been conducted widely compared to other models [22,23,30].
Although the balance between the demand and supply is a fundamental part of economics, there have been very few studies on the demand and supply of water in agriculture [31,32]. In particular, there has been no prior research to determine the precise demand and supply of water based on spatial data. Recently, there have been many cases reporting the loss of the water balance owing to excessive usage of water in the process of food production across the world. In addition, a decoupling phenomenon has also occurred, wherein the food production has been increasing, but the volume of water available for agriculture has been decreasing [4,33]. To investigate such phenomenon, crop models can be used effectively to estimate the water budget in an agricultural land and the volume of water consumed by crops in that land, and thus check the supply and demand of water [18,22]. Although not explored in earlier studies, if it is possible to calculate the volume of supply and that of demand, then even the equilibrium state of agricultural water can be assessed on the basis of the difference of the two values.
In this study, we address this and assess the spatially explicit agricultural water equilibrium (AWE) of the Korean Peninsula by using the widely applied crop model GEPIC, which has prior been set up and evaluated for the study region . To this end, the volume of supply and demand of agricultural water were quantified by estimating the cropland water budget (CWB) based on the natural hydrological cycle and the virtual water contents (VWC) of rice, a key crop in the Korean Peninsula and representative high-water-demand crop. Variables required for this calculation were estimated using the GEPIC model, which was also used to check the time-series change and annual average level in the Korean Peninsula during the past 30 years. Using the results of our assessments, we tested for latitudinal difference in the agricultural water equilibrium for the Korean Peninsula.
2. Data and Method
2.1. The Concept of Assessing Agricultural Water Equilibrium
The concept of agricultural water equilibrium is used to explain the balance between non-anthropogenic water budget of agricultural land and the volume of water consumed by crop. It is an assessment criterion of sustainable agricultural water consumption, based on the principle of supply and demand. Traditionally, many attempts have been made to assessment of water balance in agriculture [8,14,17,31,32]. However, in most existing studies, the supply-oriented assessment [16,20,35,36,37] and the demand-oriented assessment [19,21,22,23] were suggested independently, and the spatially explicit assessment was not easy to find. Assessing agricultural water demand and supply in spatially explicit conditions is a major advantage of the AWE concept. The overall process of calculating these AWEs is shown in Figure 1.
To calculate the water budget of agricultural land, the cropland water budget (CWB) was estimated based on annual precipitation, annual actual evapotranspiration (AET), and runoff (Equation (1)). Annual precipitation is defined as the total volume of water supplied to the agricultural land every year, the AET is the portion of this put into the atmosphere from the soil and the plants, while runoff is that portion not used in agriculture and is drained off [35,36,37]. Hence, by using these three factors, it is possible to quantify and understand the water budget of agricultural land in non-anthropogenic condition.
To estimate the volume of water consumed by crop, the concept of virtual water content (VWC) was utilized. VWC is defined as the ratio between CWU (consumptive water use) and crop production volume, whereas CWU refers to the volume of actual evapotranspiration during the growing season of each crop (growing season evapotranspiration, GET) (Equation (2)) [23,38]. VWC is inversely related to the crop water productivity and hence can be used as an indicator of the same .
In agricultural land, the available volume of water is CWB, and that used in crop production is VWC. Thus, by subtracting VWC from CWB, we can get AWE (Equation (3)). The CWB (mm) and VWC (mm t−1) are different from each other in unit, but assume that they produce 1 ton of crop and calculate after removing ton from VWC. The higher the AWE value, the better is the water balance.
The AWE can effectively describe changes in water balance resulting from agricultural activities and climatic changes, which this study aims to verify. However, there are some duplicated volumes of evapotranspiration used in calculating the CWB and VWC. Though using both the AET and GET values could duplicate the total amount of annual evapotranspiration, as they differ conceptually, therefore, AWE is assessed in relative terms rather than in absolute terms. In other words, AWE should be used as a concept of indicator rather than total amount. In addition, as the presented VWC is the quantity of water required to produce a ton of the relevant crop, the water equilibrium is assessed by spatial difference based on the amount of water used when 1 ton of representative crop is produced.
Of the five factors used to estimate AWE, except annual precipitation, the remaining variables (crop yield, GET, AET, and runoff) were estimated by using the GEPIC model.
2.2. GEPIC Modeling of Each Variable
The EPIC (Erosion Productivity Impact Calculator) model was developed by the USDA for figuring out soil loss and productivity relationship, and was continuously refined and developed by supplementing the additional modules to improve the simulation of plant growth [39,40]. The model was renamed to Environmental Policy Integrated Climate model, combining environmental assessment of pesticides and water quality . The EPIC is mainly composed of plant growth and crop yield, inter-plant competition, soil and hydrology, nutrient and carbon cycling, soil moisture and temperature, soil erosion, tillage, and plant environment control .
We used the modified GEPIC model, which integrates of a Geographical Information System (GIS) into the EPIC version 0509 to improve simulation to be spatially explicit [43,44]. By integrating the GIS and the EPIC model through data transition, the GEPIC can use all the functions of the EPIC model . GEPIC has been extensively used for the last decade to simulate crop productivity, water use of crop, and agro-environment over wide areas [22,34,43,45].
In this study, we estimated four variables (crop yield, GET, AET, and runoff) using the GEPIC model for each grid cell of size 1 sq. km. Rice was used as a model crop since it is the key food crop in the Korean Peninsula and has a high water demand [22,46,47]. The key crop parameters were set following Xiong et al. , and Tan and Shibasaki’s  calibration result for rice using the EPIC model. The biomass–energy ratio was set to 30 kg MJ−1, optimum temperature to 25 °C, base temperature to 10 °C, harvest index to 0.60 mg mg−1, and potential heat unit (PHU) range to 1300–1800 °C, depending on the specific grid cell climate.
The calculation of evapotranspiration in the GEPIC model can be using the Penman–Monteith method, the Priestly–Taylor method, the Hargreaves method, or the Baier–Robertson method [30,49]. In this study, the Penman–Monteith method, the more widely used precision estimation method, was used to estimate GET and AET. In the case of runoff, the GEPIC model follows the GLEAMS (Groundwater Loading Effects of Agricultural Management System) model equation, which is the standardized equation used to estimate the volume of runoff in agriculture [50,51].
2.3. Study Region
The study area was the Korean Peninsula, which includes the entirety of South and North Korea located between latitudes of 33.23° N and 43.01° N and longitudes of 124.14° E and 130.93° E (Figure 2). The spatial resolution was set at approximately 1 km for the raster datasets that were used as input data and all results are reported at the same spatial scale.
In South Korea, the area under agriculture is approximately two million ha, accounting for 20% of the total land area. Of this, over 48% are presently under rice cultivation. In North Korea, the land use patterns are similar to that in South Korea, with over three million hectares, accounting for 25% of the total land area, under agriculture. Rice fields account for 49% of this.
The topographic profile of Korean Peninsula is high mountains to the north and east, and lower plains towards the south and west. The average annual temperature is approximately 10–16 °C with about 1200 mm of annual rainfall .
2.4. Input Data
The data that was used in the GEPIC model included daily meteorological data (minimum and maximum temperature, solar radiation, precipitation, relative humidity, and wind speed), monthly statistical weather data, PHU, soil data, land cover data, fertilizer amount, irrigation level, elevation, slopes, planting dates by crop phenology, and crop parameters.
Daily meteorological data were acquired from online climate data portal system of KMA (Korean Meteorological Administration) using 102 weather stations for the period 1984–2013. For points for which there were no records, the parameters were determined using the inverse distance weighted (IDW) and Kriging interpolation methodologies for 1 km spatial resolution. The IDW method was used for precipitation, wind speed, solar radiation, and relative humidity, and the Kriging method was applied to the interpolating minimum and maximum temperature [52,53]. The monthly statistical weather data were disaggregated to daily information with a MODAWEC weather converter .
GEPIC required PHUs estimation using accumulated by a crop phenology from the time of sowing to maturity, and it used a detailed regional identification of crop management practices. We used the PHU calculator developed by Texas Blackland Research and Extension Center for PHUs of Korean Peninsula .
Soil parameters (sand (%), OC (%), silt (%), pH, bulk density (t m−3), electrical conductivity (mS cm−1), cation exchange capacity (cmol kg−1), and layer depth (m)) were acquired from the ISRIC-WISE database and geographical connected to the Digital Soil Map of the World [56,57].
Land cover information was taken from an EGIS (Environmental Geographic Information Service) system developed by Ministry of Environment in South Korea using Landsat 7 satellite images. Terrain information was derived from the USGS’s Global Multi-Resolution Terrain Elevation Data 2010. Slope data was constructed from the elevation dataset using the software ArcGIS 10.2. These datasets were then resampled to 1 km for unification of spatial resolution.
Data on fertilizer application rates were obtained from FertiStat database, the South Korea amount was 255 kg ha−1 (N) and 87 kg ha−1 (P), North Korea was 129 kg ha−1 (N) and 14 kg ha−1 (P) . Data on irrigation level was obtained from the IFPRI-SPAM database . The planting and harvest dates of rice were calculated for each grid using crop phenology.
2.5. Evaluation of Model Performance
Before assessing the agricultural water equilibrium, the four variables estimated using the GEPIC model were verified to evaluate the performance of the model. However, GET was estimated by same algorithms of AET, and observational data on river basins were used in the case of runoff, due to which there were some limitations in verifying the grid-based estimates in cropland. Thus, in this study, we verified the estimates made based on the crop yield, which were then used to calculate the VWC and the AET, which were further used to calculate the CWB.
The estimates were calculated for the period between 1984 and 2013, and temporal points at which detailed data were available were used for verifying each variable. In the case of crop yield, statistical data of North Korea were available only at the national level, and hence the estimates were verified in South Korea. The validation period was set between 1996 and 2013, for which period statistical survey data of rice production were available from the local government. In case of AET, for which large-scale observations are not available, verification was done using evapotranspiration data estimates based on remote sensing for the period between 2000 and 2013, for which MODIS (Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer) images were available. The rice production data were referred from KOSIS (Korea Statistical Information System), and for water budget, MOD16 Product from NTSG (Numerical Terradynamic Simulation Group) based on MODIS satellite images.
3. Result and Discussion
3.1. Evaluation of Model Performance
3.1.1. Evaluation of Crop Yield
First, during the validation period for rice production, the statistical data showed annual average values of 4.27–5.19 t ha−1, while estimates were 4.47–5.16 t ha−1, which showed a quantitatively similar trend. The RMSE values were <1, indicating only small differences between the statistical data and estimates. The NSEC values were generally good and ranged between −1.61 and 0, though in Year 3, it was less than −1, which showed that there was discrepancy. The results of RE modeling showed errors less than 10% in every year, and less than 5% in most years, implying that the modeling results were at low level of error (Table 1). Lim et al.  have made similar evaluations in Korea, and Balkovič et al.  in Europe.
3.1.2. Evaluation of AET
MODIS AET values were between 745 mm and 855 mm during the validation period, and the AET values estimated by using the GEPIC model were 628–702 mm (Table 2). Thus, it appears that the GEPIC model tended to underestimate compared to the MODIS product. Standard deviations also showed differences of two times the average, and deviation of the MODIS in the areas of focus was twice larger than that of the GEPIC. It was further confirmed using statistical verification that the difference of the two values was larger than that of the rice yield, though the difference could be recognized as having sufficient similarity. Although the RMSE values were over 80, the similarity between the values was comparable to that of the rice yield. The NSEC values were higher than those of rice yield, but their values also have sufficient significance. The RE showed that the level of error was 10–17%, which implied that the MODIS AET was overestimated (Table 2).
Since both AET values are estimates, their comparison can here only serve for an approximation of model performance. The small errors and good performance indicators allowed us to conclude that the GEPIC estimates are adequate for agricultural water consumption studies in the region.
3.2. Estimation of the Virtual Water Content and Water Balance
3.2.1. Estimates of Water Balance-Related Variables
To calculate AWE, CWB, and VWC, four variables were estimated annually at a high spatial resolution for a period of 30 years (from 1984 to 2013). The average data across the 30-year period showed that, spatially, in case of the crop yield, the productivity was higher in South Korea, which tended to become lower towards the northeast (Figure 3). This is an effect of climatic factors, which corresponds to the actual agricultural productivity . The GET results showed that the values in the coastal plains were relatively lower, and appeared higher towards interior of the region. Since such higher GET values indicate large water consumption by crops, it is a negative factor in terms of the water balance (Figure 3). In the southwest part of the Korean Peninsula where crop productivity is high and water consumption low, it was expected that the volume of water consumed for crop production would be smaller.
The AET results explained the differences in latitude and topography. They showed a similar pattern as that of temperature distribution (Figure 3). It appeared that the higher the latitude, the lower the AET became, which showed that the volume of water put into the atmosphere was reduced. The runoff estimates were influenced considerably by topographical factors. Agricultural lands located in the inland mountainous areas showed higher runoff, while those in coastal plains tended to have smaller runoff. The runoff values showed a large discrepancy especially in the agricultural lands of North Korea (Figure 3). Results indicate that the lower the latitude, or the closer the pixel is to the inland mountainous areas, the higher the loss of water in agricultural lands becomes.
3.2.2. Virtual Water Content in the Past Three Decades
The average VWC of rice in the Korean Peninsula during the 30-year period, calculated by using the rice yield and the GET data, was 118.8 mm/t. The average VWC was 124.9 mm/t in the 1980s, and reduced to 116.6 mm/t in the 1990s. This further reduced, although slightly, to 114.9 mm/t in the 2000s. It was confirmed that the volume of water required for rice production has reduced slightly over time, thus changing the water balance in a positive direction when assuming a constant extent of rice harvest area. The cause of such decrease in VWC was explained by the slight increase of crop yield owing to changes in temperature and solar radiation, rather than by changes in GET .
In the 1980s, the VWC in South Korea was 113.2 mm/t, while North Korea was 132.1 mm/t for the same period, which showed that the quantity of water consumed for crop production in the two regions differed considerably. However, this difference became smaller over time. In the 1990s, in South Korea the VWC was 115.9 mm/t, and in North Korea, 116.9 mm/t; though in the 2000s, South Korea recorded a VWC of 113.6 mm/t, and North Korea 115.7 mm/t (Figure 4). It was confirmed that the above changes over time were caused by the improved potential crop productivity in North Korea following the rise in temperature. However, the actual food productivity of North Korea was not seen to improve in the same period, largely owing to social influence [63,64].
Spatially, although there were no big differences in most regions during the 30-year period, it was expected that the northeast region of the Korean Peninsula would show a high level of VWC. This is because crops in this region need longer growth periods owing to the lower temperatures, which in turn decreases the productivity. However, it appears that the productivity in the northeast region improved significantly, and the change in the region caused the decrease of VWC in North Korea (Figure 5).
3.2.3. Cropland Water Budget in the Past Three Decades
The average CWB in the Korean Peninsula in the 30-year period, estimated based on precipitation, AET, and runoff, was 6.9 mm. It was 17.8 mm in the 1980s, −47.8 mm in the 1990s, and 50.9 mm in the 2000s, indicating very large deviations over time. It was confirmed that the cause of this phenomenon was the variability of precipitation. While the AET changed progressively over time, and the runoff showed spatial differences, the precipitation showed large variability in both space and time, and hence, can be considered the major factor causing changes to the water budget.
When comparing South Korea and North Korea, it was seen that, in the 1980s, South Korea had larger CWB with 80.4 mm compared to −20.8 mm in North Korea. While this difference became larger in the 1990s with 53.7 mm in South Korea and −110.3 mm in North Korea, in the 2000s, the gap became narrower with a CWB of 88.1 mm in South Korea and 27.9 mm in North Korea. One of the reasons was the higher precipitation across the Korean Peninsula in the 2000s. The 1990s witnessed lower precipitations than the other years, and severe droughts were reported in North Korea . Since the precipitation is the only input factor in the water budget, the Korean Peninsula shows large annual variability in precipitation and large fluctuations in the water budget (Figure 6).
Spatially, CWB appeared higher in the southern regions, which receive more precipitation traditionally and the coastal regions show smaller runoff. On the other hand, central mountainous areas and northeast regions showed lower CWB (Figure 7).
When comparing with the VWC, the values showed large deviations both temporally and spatially. From the perspective of the theory of demand and supply, it was understood that the demand was relatively stable, but the supply showed larger variability.
3.3. Assessing the Agricultural Water Equilibrium in the Past Three Decades
AWE over the 30-year period was computed by deducting VWC, which indicates the water demand in croplands, from CWB, which indicates the water supply (Figure 8). In the 1980s, the average AWE value in the Korean Peninsula was −107.2 mm, which reduced to −164.4 mm in the 1990s, and then considerably improved to −64.0 mm in the 2000s. The average AWE in the 30-year period was −111.8 mm. The major factor influencing such differences over time was precipitation. Higher amounts of precipitation across the Korean Peninsula in the 2000s resulted in the higher AWE values.
When comparing South Korea and North Korea, it was confirmed that the AWE for South Korea has been higher at all times. In the 1980s, AWE for South Korea and North Korea were −32.7 mm and −152.8 mm, respectively; while in the 1990s, South Korea was 62.1 mm and North Korea was −227.2 mm. In the 2000s, South Korea was −25.5 mm, and North Korea was −87.7 mm. Over the entire three decades, the AWE for South Korea was −40.2 mm, and for North Korea was −155.9 mm (Figure 9).
At the national levels, it could be confirmed from Figure 9 that North Korea had considerably lower AWE. In the 1990s, the AWE was generally very low except for the southern part of the Korean Peninsula. In the same period, North Korea suffered severe food shortage called the ‘March of Ordeal’. In the 2000s, western and eastern plains of North Korea showed AWE values similar to those of South Korea, so it was expected that the use of water in agriculture were much improved than before (Figure 10).
3.4. Agricultural Water Equilibrium at the Main River Basin Level
When sorting AWE data by the major river basins of the Korean Peninsula, it was confirmed that the values showed considerable discrepancies by latitude. In particular, most river basins in North Korea showed very low levels. The Yalu river basin, the longest and broadest in the Korean Peninsula, showed −275 mm on average, which meant that it was in the most non-equilibrium state. In river basins of the Youngsan River and the Sumjin River in South Korea, most areas showed positive AWE values, so it was confirmed that these river basins are those that have the most reserves of water, sufficient for agricultural use (Figure 11).
Since the 11 major river basins presented in Figure 11 show the agricultural centers, which are the representative regions producing food crop in the Korean Peninsula, the assessment of AWE in these regions could be connected to the actual characteristics of agricultural environment, which are more meaningful than the assessment based on administrative divisions.
3.5. Virtual Water Content, Cropland Water Budget, and Agricultural Water Equilibrium Along the Latitude
The AWE value showed a large difference with latitude. As shown in Figure 12, the difference across latitudes was larger than across longitude, and this is reflected in the difference in AWE between South Korea and North Korea.
Furthermore, this difference in AWE across latitudes is the result of the latitudinal differences in VWC and CWB. Spatially, there is relatively small difference in water consumption of crop (Figure 13a). Since in higher latitudes, the crop productivity is reduced and the growth duration becomes longer, the water consumption tends to increase. On the other hand, water supply (retention) in agricultural land tends to drop considerably from low latitudes to high latitudes. Such significant differences with latitude tend to make a larger difference to the AWE values, and the decoupling of the demand and supply of agricultural water can explain this.
A more fundamental cause is that, at higher latitudes, both precipitation and AET drop concurrently, though there is a difference in the rate of decrease (Figure 13b). Thus, at a certain point of time, there are areas in which the precipitation exceeds the AET, which supply sufficient water to land [36,37]. However, regions above 40 °N in latitude in the Korean Peninsula—that is, North Korea—the relationship is reversed, so that negative conditions for the fundamental water balance appear. Such climatic characteristics may differ by region, but in East Asia, which experiences a temperate monsoon climate, there is a good possibility of seeing a similar pattern .
AWE values over the 30 years were computed by deducting VWC, which showed demands in croplands, from the CWB, representing the water supply. The GEPIC model was used for successfully estimating on key variables (rice yield, GET, AET, and runoff) in the whole Korean Peninsula. The AWE results showed a vertical difference between South and North Korea. When analyzing the AWE value by major river basin level in the Korean Peninsula, most river basins in North Korea also showed very low values. Especially, AWE has described minutely food shortage of North Korea in the 1990s. The cause of this latitudinal difference seen in AWE is the differences seen in the VWC and CWB values with latitudinal change. This can be explained by the decoupling phenomenon of the demand and supply of agricultural water. A more fundamental cause is that, with an increase in latitude, both precipitation and annual evapotranspiration drop concurrently, though there is a difference in the rate of decrease. There were some limitations in our study. Duplicated volumes of evapotranspiration (from AET and GET) were used in calculating CWB and VWC. Furthermore, the presented VWC is the quantity of water required to produce a ton of relevant crop. Thus, we need an aggregated overall equilibrium for the total crop production. Although the AWE values presented in this study were not absolute, these values appeared sufficient to explain the latitudinal change and the demand and supply of agricultural water, and have been meaningful in establishing the concept of AWE.
This study was supported by the Korea Forest Service (Project Number: 2017044B10-1719-BB01), Korea Meteorological Administration Research and Development Program (See-At grant KIMPA 2015-6140) and Korea University Grant.
Chul-Hee Lim designed this research, analyzed the result, and wrote the paper; Yuyoung Choi and Moonil Kim participated in analyzing the result and the data work. Christian Folberth supported the technical part and reviewed the manuscript. All authors, including Woo-kyun Lee and Soo Jeong Lee, gave comments and approved the final manuscript.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
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Figure 1. The concept and flow of this study. GIS, Geographic Information System; EPIC, Environmental Policy Integrated Climate model; GET, growing season evapotranspiration; AET, annual actual evapotranspiration; VWC, virtual water content; CWB, cropland water budget.
Figure 2. Study area including South and North Korea.
Figure 3. Three decades average value of each estimated variables ((a) rice yield; (b) GET; (c) AET; (d) runoff).
Figure 4. Comparison of the virtual water content for South and North Korea over a 30-year period.
Figure 5. Spatial distribution and change of virtual water content in the Korean Peninsula over three decades.
Figure 6. Comparison of the cropland water budget for South and North Korea over a 30-year period.
Figure 7. Spatial distribution and change of the cropland water budget in the Korean Peninsula over three decades.
Figure 8. Spatial integration of (a) the cropland water budget (CWB) and (b) virtual water content (VWC) for assessing (c) the agricultural water equilibrium (AWE).
Figure 9. Comparison of the Agricultural Water Equilibrium (AWE) between South and North Korea over three decades.
Figure 10. Spatial distribution and change of Agricultural Water Equilibrium over three decades.
Figure 11. Assessing the Agricultural Water Equilibrium on the main river basins level (A: Tumen; B: Yalu; C: Cheongcheon; D: Daedong; E: Yeseong; F: Han; G: Sapgyo; H: Geum; I: Nakgong; J: Sumjin; K: Youngsan).
Figure 12. Aggregated Agricultural Water Equilibrium along the longitude and latitude.
Figure 13. Latitudinal comparison of each indicator. (a) Virtual Water Content—Cropland Water Budget; (b) AET—Precipitation.
Table 1. Evaluation of model performance in estimating rice yield.
|Year||Reported (t ha−1)||Estimated (t ha−1)||RMSE||E (NSEC)||RE (%)|
Table 2. Evaluation of model performance in estimating AET.
|Year||MODIS (mm)||EPIC (mm)||RMSE||E (NSEC)||RE (%)|
© 2018 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).


Seeds are the mature ovules. They contain the developing embryo and the nutritive tissue for the seedling. Seeds are surrounded by one or two integumentswhich develop into a seed coat that is usually hard.
A seed is an embryonic plant enclosed in a protective outer covering. The formation of the seed is part of the process of reproduction in seed plants, the spermatophytesincluding the gymnosperm and angiosperm plants. Seeds are the product of the ripened ovuleafter fertilization by pollen and some growth within the mother plant.
Most priming studies have been conducted on commercial seed lots of unspecified uniformity and maturity, and subsequent seed longevity has been reported to both increase and decrease. Here a seed lot of Digitalis purpurea L. The shortest lived seeds in the control population showed slightly increased life spans; the longer lived seeds showed reduced life spans.
The closer a food is to the right edge of the map, the more essential nutrients per calorie it contains. For a more nutritious diet, select foods that fall on the right half of the map. The closer a food is to the top edge of the map, the more likely it is to fill you up with fewer calories.
Orchidaceae is one of the most endangered plant families, and in vitro propagation techniques play an irreplaceable role in its conservation. While some orchids germinate readily in asymbiotic conditions in vitro, many are reluctant for no obvious reason. The latter group includes Pseudorchis albidaa green terrestrial orchid whose populations are in considerable decline throughout its distribution range.
In mature seeds of Arabidopsis thaliana the embryo is surrounded by a single cell layer of endosperm. FA2-type seed. Arabidopsis seeds exhibit, as tobacco and Lepidiuma two-step germination process with distinct testa rupture and endosperm ruptureas first described by the group of Hiroyuki Nonogaki Liu et al.


Written by Amanda Blair
Ever since I started working for Dana in April, I have become inspired to make my diet as high vibe as it can be. Gone are last minute stops to whatever bodega was closet to me and in it’s place, my favorite Sunday activity; strolling through my local famers market to pick up supplies for the week. I love the leisurely pace of pursuing each stall and getting to know the farmers. Plump heirloom tomatoes, springy greens and hydrating watermelon have been my go-tos all summer long. Though fall is upon us (the fall equinox is today), I can’t help but hold on to the last of summer for one salad longer. Luckily, at the market I managed to scoop up the last of the heirloom tomatoes and watermelon that are the stars of this meal. The watermelon especially balances out the spicy tang of wild arugula and combines so beautifully with the juicy tomato. The succulent cucumber anchors the salads texture with a delicious crunch and the nutty hemp seeds pack a protein punch, while also grounding the whole situation. I wanted the flavors of the nutrient packed ingredients to shine so, the dressing is simple and to the point- lemon, a dash of maple syrup and good dollop of mustard. Every time I eat this salad, I feel the things Dana preaches about a high vibe diet- nurtured, satisfied and beautiful from the inside out.


This is about our garden plot. We cut down all those trees earlier this year (read: had professionals cut them down for us). Then we had the stumps ground out on a Thursday (I forget which Thursday, but it was in February). Then Chris borrowed a roto-tiller from his boss and we cleared a 20' by 15' section of ground to the right of our deck (looking out from the house). It's behind the garage, and receives TONS of sun now that the pesky diseased tree that was there is gone. It's sort of flat; close enough at least. Anyway over that weekend we hacked out all the remaining tree roots with the cutter-maddock and the axe (that was super annoying; there were tons of surface root clumps). We tilled the plot, and then tamped it down. We laid down 300 square feet of landscaping fabric, and using 8 treated 2"x8"x8's we made 4 raised beds, each 4' square. Then we filled the beds with a mix of topsoil ($14 for a half ton, I think?), Miracle Gro garden soil, mushroom compost, and cow manure compost. I have had a garden plan laid out for ages, and I finally got to start planting things according to the frost date guidelines. We used the mulch from the ground up stumps to cover the paths, and we will probably add a low fence at some point. I have to check with Chris, who has waged a war against the squirrels, but more on that later.
Here's how it looks from the front yard looking over the chain link fence. Not many plants yet; just a few onions. The structures are all in, though. I made trellises out of EMT (metal tubing usually used for electrical work) and remesh (big sheets of wire grid that are used to reinforce concrete). The pea trellis (left) is at an angle; the peas will grow to shade the spinach and kale. The potato towers (far left) are still empty; the cherry tomato trellis (right) is set up but there are no tomatoes yet.
Here is an excerpt of my plan. This is always subject to change, and will evolve as we harvest spring and summer vegetables and replant with fall veggies.
This was taken March 31st, the day I had been using as my spring frost date. Technically it's April 14th or something, but whatever. It's been a warm spring. Never mind that today is April 12th and it was 40 degrees last night...
Anyway, the near bed holds squash and zucchini. I still don't have plant markers finished (I'm spraypainting paint stir sticks yellow on one side and chalkboard painting the other side to write in varieties) so I forget which are yellow crooknecks and which are zucchini. Oops. I guess we'll find out in a few months! Chris bought too many pepper plants so he tried to salvage them with the white buckets. The orange bucket holds carrots (which grow too deep for our shallow raised beds). You can see the peas starting to climb the trellis on the left. The potato towers are growing well (they've gone nuts in the past two weeks, too, it's awesome!). The tomato cages are assembled to the right; I got organic tomatoes (some heirlooms) from Pike Nurseries, so I have 6 different types of tomatoes growing. I can't wait to try them all! I have 4 in cages and the 2 cherry varieties will go up the trellis. I planted shortest in front, tallest in back (or shortest to the west, tallest to the east). They will all get tons of sun, regardless.
We volunteered at a Crop Mob (weekend gatherings of volunteers to help a local gardener or farmer with specific tasks in the fields) and I got some cuttings of a lemon balm plant. It has since died and I shelled out $3 at Home Depot to get a replacement. I planted it in a bucket to try to control it, as well as the two mint varieties. They are known for taking over gardens. I also tried to grow lavender from seed (hah, how ambitious) but that failed too. The mint and lavender I got at half off, though, so $1.50 each. Not bad. I can't wait to make homemade popsicles with fresh sweet mint!
Here are my tomatoes. We have:
Juliet (cherry) Sweet 100 (cherry)
Brandywine Red Strawberry
Park's Whopper La Roma II
I made an oops, and La Roma II is actually a determinate variety, meaning it bushes; the others are indeterminate, which is what most people grow in cages. We'll see how it grows, though. This garden is one big fun experiment to me!
The beans have popped out of the soil now so we can expect beans in a month or so! They grow so quickly! The squirrels got one of the bell peppers, and last night when I came home from gymnastics I saw some chicken-wire contraption in the garage. I'll have to see what Chris is up to when I get home from work today.
And that is our garden so far! There was a little monetary investment, on the order of $150 or so, but I hope the returns are worth it. I would love to finally successfully grow zucchini and tomatoes and peppers and everything. I hope our new, sunny garden will bathe our little veggie babies in light and warmth and they will grow big and strong so we can eat them! Nom nom nom.


Date: 13 - 16 February 2019
Location: 90471 Nuremberg, Germany
The Organic Valley is participating on Biofach Germany 2019.
Products on displays are Ginger, Turmeric,
Black Cardamom, Himalayan Pepper, etc.
Date: 4 - 8 June, 2019
Location: Meghalaya, India
The Organic Valley along with GIZ Nepal through its ongoing project "The Taste of Nepal" is organizing an exposure visit of ginger farmers to enhance their knowledge on ginger cultivation and processing.
16 ginger farmers from Surkhet, Kailali, Rukum and Salyan will be participating in the exposure visit to Meghalaya, India.


"Sri Raga Peat" is a brand name of Sri Ragavendra Coir Factory, an ISO Certified Company having its Unit I at Tiruppur and Unit II at Karur, Tamilnadu, India. Established in the year 2010 and today has the capacity of over 12000 MT of Coir Products per annum involved in the Coco Peat based Growing Technologies, Geo-Textile for Erosion Control, Fibre bales and Coir yarn.
For Soilless cultivation both in the open and under protected environment (Green House). The products are marketed under the brand name "SRI RAGA PEAT".
To create a name for itself in the manufacturing of specialized products from coir pith. Assured quality and guaranteed delivered time are the strengths of the company.


When I create a sales order for a material, the plant is automatically determined. I have 2 plants, US05 and US06.
If a material XYZ is marked for deletion in plant US05, VA01 should automatically take US06. This is done in userexit_move_field_to_vbap (Include MV45AFZZ). So, when I save the sales order, the plant is getting overwritten.
Now, when I save the sales order, for the material XYZ, it has plant US06, but the remaining plant master data like Strategy group, requirement type is still from US05. To copy these two fields I have used 2 function modules 'MATERIAL_READ' and 'RV_SCHEDULING_TYPE_DETERMINE'.
Now the problem is: it is copying Plant, Strategy group, and requirement correctly, but for some materials, sales order application is giving some messages and for some other, it is done correctly. VA01 is not consistent for all the materials.
Is there any way to copy the entire plant master data for a material. i.e, if material XYZ is marked for deletion in US05, I need to copy the entire plant master data of US06 and then create a sales order...
Points will be awarded...........
At what level, you have enabled the deletion indicator. It should ideally be done at Sales org/Distribution channel/Plant combination level. If you have not done this, please set the deletion indicator for the material at sales org/distribution channel/plant level.
If this is done, then the master data will not be picked from this level. Instead it will pick up the material master from the correct combination of Sales org/D.C./Plant level.
Another point to note : May be the plant and other details are determined even before the user exit is called. And when the user exit is called only the plant is getting determined. This kind of problems is rampant when user exits are used. So I advise you to debug with the help of the technical consultant and find out what actually happens? Whether the user exit determines teh plant first or standard SAP determines the plant and other details first followed by the user exit just overwritting the plant. If the second case is true, then you may have to find out the correct user exit to determine the plant before the system determines other data based on the plant information.
Hope this approach will help youto solve the problem
You can reward if the approach helps.


Energy dynamics in eucalyptus tereticornis smith plantations in western uttar pradesh. the english giant rape had a significantly higher ( ) longest leaf at wap. third among vegetable crops consumed fresh in puerto rico, reached 4. however, english giant rape growth rate started on higher threshold levels and then subsequently declined as the harvest progressed, whereas hobson rape showed the opposite results, it started at low levels and then increased as the harvesting progressed. ( wallingford, uk) pp:. spring crops of soil- grown greenhouse tomatoes ( lycopersion lycopersicum ( l. thompson and kellyand gould et al.
nucleic acids resea– 6535. ( ) market basket survey for some heavy metals in egyptian fruits and vegetables. in ‘ vegetable crops’. alegbejo md ( ) whitefly transmitted plant viruses in nigeria. the observations on crop were recorded for growth characters, yield attributes and fruit yield under different treatments. ( mcgraw– hill book company: new york) williams jgk, kubelik ar, livak kj, rafalski ja, tingey svdna polymorphisms amplified by arbitrary primers are useful as genetic markers. the brinjal, eggplant or aubergine ( french name) has originated in the indian sub- continent and china ( thompson and kelly, 1957; purewal, 1957; martin and rhodes, 1979). ) : a crop and a weed, p. * free* shipping on qualifying offers.
5% n) fertilizer application rates ( 200 kg/ ha, 300 kg/ ha, 350 kg/ ha, and 400 kg/ ha) as factors. the selection of the “ best” cropping systems is difficult because of the complex interacting factors involved. such gains are likely to catalyze economic gro. ao a1 a2 a3 perlakuan jumlah bunga gambar 3 jumlah bunga pada setiap perlakuan 0 0. , new york, 451 pp. li, “ effects of nitrogen and phosphorus fertilization on plant growth and nitrate accumulation in vegetables, ” journal of plant nutrition, vol. the controlled fermentation of turnip slices using lactobacillus plantarum or leuconostoc mesenteroides as starter cultures led to earlier acid production and earlier and more pronounced inhibition of enterobacteriaceae than with uninoculated ( natural) fermentation.
indexmundi, “ zimbabwe population growth rate, ”, indexmundi. a study was carried out in the zvimba smallholder farming area of zimbabwe, from november to february, to investigate the performance of two rape ( brassica napus) cultivars under different nitrogen fertilizer management levels. horticulture potagère. russet burbank, which is predominant in the pacific northwest of the united states of america, short- duration shortages in water supply during early tuber bulking induced losses in tuber grade ( robins and domingo, 1956; salter and goode, 1967; thompson and kelly, 1957) and internal quality directly related to market value ( eldredge et. using a closed- loop solar collection/ storage system, crops could be co 2- enriched for 76– 77% of the. all the tested an application rates ( 300 kg/ ha, 350 kg/ ha, and 400 kg/ ha) had a significant greater ( ) longest leaf length than the standard ( 200 kg/ ha) at all the assessment times ( 5, 7, and 9 wap).
van nostrand reinhold, ny. an experiment was set up in a randomized complete block design, replicated three times, with two rape varieties, hobson and english giant, and 5 ammonium nitrate ( an) ( 34. there were no varietal effects on the leaf length ( ), in- season yield and total leaf yield ( ), and there we. vegetable growing handbook organic & traditional. has been cited by the following article: title: evaluation of six modern varieties of potatoes for yield, plant growth parameters and resistance to insects and diseases.
see in references. heavy metals in soil, vegetables and fruit in the endemic upper gastrointestinal. fluted pumpkin ( telfeiria occidentalis) is one of the important edible vegetables in most tropical regions in africa. brinjal or eggplant ( solanum melongena l.
there were no significant ( ) longest leaf length differences between the 350 kg/ ha and 400 kg/ ha treated plants at 5, 7, and 11 wap. subjects: vegetable gardening - - united states. brunt aa, crabtree k, dallwitz mj, gibbs aj, watson lviruses of plants- description and lists from the vide database. harr ington, seed. the heavy metal concentrations of cu, ni, zn, co, pb and fe in fruits – eggplant ( solanum melongena), lemon ( citrus limon), tomato ( solanum lycopersicum) and green leafy vegetables ( glv) – pumpkin leaves ( telfairia occidentalis), rape ( brasicca napus), were analyzed.
food chem toxicol 44:. rape growth increased as levels of increased nitrogen concentration was increasing with the thompson and kelly 1957 vegetable crops mcgraw hill pdf increase in the nitrogen rate from 0 to 400 kg/ ha in spite of the time of application showing that there are additional yield benefits that could be realized if higher levels of n are applied to both varieties. view at: google scholar see in references ]. the experiment was carried out from november to february in a communal area, in ward 4 of chegutu district in the mashonaland west province of zimbabwe, where the main economic activity is agriculture. in this regard, potato can play an important role as an alternative and a multipurpose food crop of bangladesh. world crops 21: 270 ( soil requirements, sowing, manuring, irrigation, weeding, and extraction of opium in india). j sust agri 17: 99. this drives home the point that the higher growth rate thompson and kelly 1957 vegetable crops mcgraw hill pdf and yield are obtained when nitrogen fertilizer is applied in large quantities.
see in references ]. potato is used as food crop as well as vegetable by both the poor and rich people. all data collected were processed, tabulated and analyzed statistically as per procedure suggested by panse and sukhatme ( 1957). selection of sugary sweet melons by ancient farmers would have required a climate allowing expression of sweetness ( thompson and kelly, 1957; yawalkar, 1980). mcgraw‐ hill book company, inc. chervil is sometimes used as a trap crop by gardeners to protect vegetable plants from slugs ( spalik, 1997; philbrick and gregg, 1967). thompson and william c. the girl with no past ebook pdf summary: leah mills lives a life of a fugitive – kept on the run by one terrible day from her past.
as argued by kant et al. other uses: plant extract from centuries, serves to be the best remedy against various disorders ( alam et al. also, the results showed no cultivar effect on growth thompson and kelly 1957 vegetable crops mcgraw hill pdf and yield of rape vegetable. ward 4 of chegutu district is located 95 km southwest of the city of harare, about 60 km southeast of chegutu, at an altitude of 11280 m [ 31 1. harper, academic press, new york. new delhi: mcgraw thompson and kelly 1957 vegetable crops mcgraw hill pdf hill publishing company. chapman and hall. theory and problems of genetics. kelly thompson, homer columbus.
thompson hc, kelly wcroot crops. brinjal is an important vegetable crop of the far east, bangladesh. earlier, urentius hystricellus richter commonly known as lace wing bug, was recorded on brinjal ( patel et al. pdf | the aim of present research was to study the genetic diversity among asparagus species and its cultivars using morphological characteristics and. supporting courses* * *. additional physical format: online version: thompson, homer columbus, 1885- vegetable crops.
new delhi: mcgraw hill publishing company ltd; 199067. we also wish to thank all of the past authors and participants that have helped to refine and continually improve this handbook. search the infography advanced search page through the infography alphabetically. 5 ao a1 a2 a3 perlakuan jumlah. crop was raised with recommended package of practices under irrigated condition. h c thompson; william cary kelly: publisher: new york, mcgraw- hill, 1957. a new species urentius echinus ( distant) ( family: tingidae),. there are, however, opportunities in increasing agricultural output and profitability through promoting the use of improved and adaptable hybrids and through the application of site- specific rates of nutrient sources. , ), viable for horticultural. the experimental site lies in the natural agro- ecological region 2b of zimbabwe, where the climate is characterized by an annual rainfall that ranges from 750 to 1000 mm in the months of november to march and a mean annual rainfall of 819 mm [ 31 1. the negative aspects of crop rotation are often overlooked.
mulching has been used for altering the agricultural soil ( chalker- scott, ) and soil temperatures ( lamont, ), conserve soil moisture ( bandyopadhyay et al. rothstein, “ understanding plant response to nitrogen limitation for the improvement of crop nitrogen use efficiency, ” journal of experimental botany, vol. mcgraw hill publications in the agricultural sciences ( 2). it also recommended that further research should be done to ascertain the hazards of nitrat. farw cultivars m o and tr- ve 23) were provided with three levels of nitrogen addition with and without added co 2. vegetable crop handbook for southeastern united states i the handbook was prepared and reviewed by the following authors at their respective institutions. see full list on hindawi. the two rape varieties, hobson and english giant, had no significant ( ) effect on the longest leaf length differences at 7 and 9 wap.
in that same fiscal year, more than half of the production was exported to the united states. considered as a “ king of vegetables”, with origin from india ( thompson and kelly, 1957). it is a lonely life, without a social life or friends until – longing for a connection – she meets julian. generally, longest leaf dimensions increased with the increasing levels of an fertilizer from 200 to 400 kg/ ha. 2 the identification of cultivars showing. the results showed that the highest vegetative growth rates, as measured by the longest leaf, as well as the highest fresh leaf yield were obtained from the 400 kg/ ha an- treated plots. bioaccumulation of heavy metals in leafy vegetables is known to be a common occurrence, depending on where they are planted. nitrogen fertilizer application levels had significant effects on both in- season and total fresh leaf yield. sweet melons, cucumis melo, would be a crop that first reached the westernmost mediterranean from central asia, as a result of islamic conquest, trade and agricultural development.
according to wang and li [ 34 1. tăźrkdogan mk, kilicel f, kara k, tuncer i, uygan i. minor courses* * 1 vsc606 abiotic stress management in vegetable cropstotalc. ) is an important solanaceous crop of sub- tropics and tropics. edition/ format: print book: english : 5th edview all editions and formats: rating: ( not yet rated) 0 with reviews - be the first. 5th edition mcgraw- hill.
recently, the government has been trying to diversify food habits and encourage potato consumption to reduce pressure on rice. there were no significant variety × fertilizer application level interaction effects ( ) on the longest leaf length at all the assessment times ( 5, 7, 9, and 11 wap). chivinge, production and marketing of horticultural crops in zimbabwe: a survey of smallholder farmers in the mashonaland east province, ciifad, ny, usa, 1999. suggested good in- ternal colour, minimal locular volume, firm even exterior, small smooth core, lack of stylar- end deformities, low ph, high soluble and total solids, and absence of fibre are of great significance for processing. hamer c, thompson chvegetable crops mcgraw- hill co. pp 721 advanced vegetable production. world vegetables. this paper reports the development and nutrient absorption of plants of the onion cultivar southport white globe, growing in the field.
mcgraw hill book company inc. there were significant ( ) an fertilizer application rate effects on the longest leaf length at 5, 7, 9, and 11 weeks after transplanting ( table 1). principles, production, and nutritive value. mcgraw hill book company, new york. glv and fruits were purchased from four different market locations.
both varieties indicated that they perform very well under high nitrogen levels. breeding of thompson and kelly 1957 vegetable crops mcgraw hill pdf vegetable cropsvsc 509 fundamentals and processing of vegetable cropsvsc 507 production technology of underexploited vegetable cropstotalb. 1 vsc - 501* production technology of cool season vegetable crops 2+ 1= 3 2 vsc - 502* production technology of warm season vegetable crops 2+ 1= 3 3 vsc - 503* breeding of vegetable crops 2+ 1= 3 4 vsc - 504* growth and development of vegetable crops 2+ 1= 3 5 vsc - 505 seed production technology of vegetable crops 2+ 1= 3. the an fertilizer appl. a festschrift for john l.
the current food production in southern africa and specifically in zimbabwe is inadequate. there is need to find new efficient ways to meet these growing food needs without undermining our futures. the neccessity for uigh— quality vegetable hort science. the raw and processed data used to support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon request. with the population of 17 million, expected to double in, the demand for food will more than double as a result of urbanization [ 1 1. series: mcgraw- hill publications in the agricultural sciences.
the authors declare that there are no conflicts of interests regarding the publication of this paper. view at: publisher site| google scholar see in references ], vegetable yields are increased continuously to a certain threshold rate, and any excess input of fertilizer more or less reduced plant growth, leading to yield decline harvests. 143 in studies on plant demography. mcgraw‐ hill book co. crop response to fertilizer application depends on the physiological and morphological characteristics of the cultivars, thus causing cultivar differences in growth rate and final yield. vegetable crops / by homer c.
zimbabwe is currently importing much of its food, and most of the basic commodities and agriculture produce are imported and yet there are vast tracts of land in farms and small suitable pockets in the smallholder sector where food production can be practiced. the purpose of this paper is not to discourage crop rotation, but to identify some of the potential negative factors so that the best rotation schemes can be developed. it is recommended that farmers should be encouraged to grow either of the two varieties as they showed that they have no effect on the growth rate and yield of rape. proso millet ( panicum miliaceum l. | find, read and cite all the research you. growth curves for leaf number, plant height, plant fresh and dry weight, and per cent dry matter are presented. an economic study of potato preservation in cold storage in some selected areas of bangladesh. ; kelly, william c.
new york, mcgraw- hill, 1931 ( ocolc: document type:. be cause of favorable climatic and market con ditions, most of the local production is mainly from january to april. seed storage and longivlty. thompson] on amazon. crop profile for bok choy in arizona.
nitrogen fertilizer rates had a significant ( ) effect on leaf length at 6 wap and 7 wap.


The agribusiness industry provides continual support to the economy and includes a variety of subsectors, including crop production, forestry, livestock, logging and agricultural chemicals.
Having adequate insurance for your agribusiness is essential to your company’s long-term financial health. The agents at Boyer insurance in Zanesville, Ohio, are ready to help you evaluate your options and choose the coverages most likely to benefit your agribusiness.
What Is Agribusiness?
Agribusiness is the sector that includes all farming-related commercial activity. It encompasses growing (production), harvesting, processing and distributing farm products. Each subset of the agribusiness industry focuses on operating efficiently to keep prices as low as possible.
Companies in agribusiness include every business in the industry responsible for getting a food product or byproduct to market. Examples include John Deere, which produces farm equipment necessary for planting and harvesting crops, and Archer-Daniels-Midland (ADM), which processes corn into corn syrup, transports crops and produces soy and canola oil.
Are Smaller and Organic Farms Part of Agribusiness?
While the term agribusiness may bring to mind large corporations, there are many smaller and potentially sustainable producers and global conglomerates involved in the agribusiness industry.
Even small farms and organic operations are run as a business. They may choose to use different methods to raise and process animals or grow and harvest crops, but their ultimate goal is to turn a profit so they can continue to provide goods to the marketplace.
There are a few major subsectors of agribusiness:
· Agricultural chemicals. These businesses formulate, mix and manufacture pesticides, fertilizers and agricultural chemicals. Bayer, CropScience and Syngenta are major companies in the agricultural chemicals sector.
· Agricultural commodities. These businesses produce crops such as corn and soybeans. Cargill, John Deere and ADM are large agricultural commodity companies.
· Aquaculture. Businesses in this sector cultivate aquatic organisms in controlled marine and freshwater environments. Nearly 70% of all aquaculture operations are freshwater catfish and trout farms.
· Forestry and logging. Companies in this sector establish, manage and use forests and trees to meet marketplace demands for related products. The two largest forestry companies are Weyerhaeuser and Masco.
· Livestock. These businesses produce animal goods such as dairy, meat, wool and leather. The largest pork producer in the United States is Smithfield Foods, a subsidiary of WH Group of China. The largest beef producer is Tyson. Other major livestock producers include Land O’ Lakes, Cargill and New Hope Grup[MR1] .
Where to Get Agribusiness Insurance
When you need to insure your agribusiness operation, trust the agents at Boyer Insurance. We can help you get the insurance you need to help protect your company today.


The Institute for Plant Protection and Environment (IPPE) is a scientific research organization, accredited as a research and development institute with a 75-year tradition of research in the field of plant protection. Primary research areas of the Institute for Plant Protection and Environment include biotech and natural sciences, i.e. phytopathology, herbology, chemistry, entomology, nematology, ecology and environment protection.
Research topics are diverse including:
PlantaRum – Repository of the Institute for Plant Protection and Environment
Institutional digital repository of the Institute for Plant Protection and Environment
Teodora Drajzera 9, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia (RS)
Public Legal Entity


So Tony Hadley likes to do a bit of gardening these days — he’s getting on a bit, the touring has taken its toll, and he enyoys growing fruit trees. He has a young apple tree that didn’t really take when he planted it last year and it needs some attention, so he goes to the garden centre to get some mulch.
When he gets there he picks up a couple of sacks at a decent price, but when he gets home and opens them up he finds that he’s been sold manure instead. Not what he needed at all.
So back to the garden centre he goes, and complains to the manager. The manager takes a look, crumbles it between his fingers, and says “Nah, I don’t think so mate, it seems right to me”.
And Tony Hadley says, “No, it’s manure, smell it!”
And the manager says “Mate, trust me: this is perfectly good mulch”.
And Tony Hadley says “Ah haha, ha ha. I know this, mulch is, poo.”


fall paid internship
High Ridge Farm is seeking a Fall intern.
We are a small (two person) farm in Montville, Maine. We raise woodland hogs, pastured chickens, vegetables, and flowers. We harvest, press, and ferment cider in our barn winery. We also host weekly events like taco night and supper club where we cook and serve the foods we grow.
We are looking to hire an intern for September - November to work 10 - 20 hours a week with us. Work will include caring for pigs, building shelters, installing fences, helping with castration, harvesting apples, pressing apples and grapes, bottling cider, working in the cellar, harvesting vegetables, and more. You will learn about raising pigs in the woods and on pasture, making cider with wild and heirloom apples, putting up winter food, butchery, salumi making, and cooking farm tacos. A stipend will be provided, commensurate with experience.
Please contact us to submit a letter of interest or to learn more.


Bio Poland products are entirely made of fruit and vegetables grown on Polish ecological plantations. Bio Poland are fully organic and natural products containing no sugar, preservatives or artificial additives.
We offer organic juices, energy smoothies and other organic products such as jams, juice concentrates and honey.
Our products are made entirely from fruits and vegetables grown on Polish ecological plantations. Bio Poland is a
completely organic and natural product with no sugar, preservatives, or artificial additives. Our catalog includes products from chokeberry, a Polish super fruit, such as juices, extracts, jams, kinds of honey, and lyophilizes. Chokeberry is the richest source of antioxidants in nature, which allows you to protect the body from many civilization diseases as well as a natural smog detox.


Visit Hilbers Inc. Northern California Agricultural Building Contractor at the Colusa Farm Show.
Hilbers Inc., a Northern California agricultural building contractor who will be attending the Colusa Farm Show, has seen an increase in the amount of agricultural facilities being built over the last year. In Sutter, Butte, Colusa, and Yuba County, Hilbers has built walnut huller facilities, storage facilities, shelling facilities, processing facilities, and fumigation facilities. These buildings are being used for commodities such as rice, walnut and almonds. These agricultural facilities have been constructed using steel building construction techniques and also concrete tilt up construction.
Come by Etchepare Hall at that Colusa Farm Show and see how Hilbers Inc. can help your productivity with new Pre-Engineered Steel Agricultural Buildings at the Colusa Farm Show on Feb 4th – 6th. Colusa County Fairgrounds.


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We have created a series of five treatments to keep your lawn healthy,weed free and looking beautiful all year round.
It's that time of year to start cutting your lawn.We apply an organic fertiliser to get your grass growing.We also apply a strong weedkiller to attack the weeds that are in your lawn.
Early Summer Treatment
Summer can be harsh on lawns, with a high risk of drought it is important your lawn is given the right nutrients to keep its vigour and freshness. Early summer feeding will prepare your lawn for the summer months, helping your lawn grow strong and healthy as the temperature rises and build its resistance to drought and weeds. The early summer fertiliser we use has zero phosphate and additional magnesium to provide a fresh summer colour to your lawn.
Summer is here and your Lawn is now looking great.We increase the nitrogen and this will make your lawn grow even quicker.This time of year you start getting weeds like lesser trefoil which is an irritating little yellow weed.We change our weedkiller to spray for these weeds.
Autumn is all about preparing your lawn for the cold months ahead when grass growth slows.Our Autumn Treatment is where we spray a mixture of seaweed and iron onto the lawns.We have seen some outstanding results from this treatment.
As you well know moss in a lawn is a nightmare.In winter when it's wet,cold and limited light this is where moss thrives.In no time at all you will find moss in your lawn.We apply a liquid moss killer that will not only kill the moss but it will also give your lawn a dark green colour throughout the winter months.
Lawn Treatment: Services
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Designed and developed by Hexagro, “Living Farming Tree” is a novel vertical garden inspired by the principles of biophilic design. Cutting-edge ideas demand cutting-edge materials and solutions. Hexagro and LATI have teamed up to introduce thermally conductive plastics into the manufacturing of stand-alone heat sinks used to house control electronics, support elements and LED lights for plant life, while reducing weight, complexity and carbon footprint compared with traditional solutions.
Hexagro and the dream of giving anyone, anywhere, access to healthy food
Hexagro’s mission is to guarantee everyone access to healthy food. How? Through vertical farming technologies. This start-up’s dream is to allow food production in urban settings, in places that once would never have been considered suitable. Basically, it is all about putting people back in touch with nature, through technology.
Diversity, multiculturalism and a mix of skills are the ingredients that make the Hexagro team unique: its engineers, designers, project managers, marketing experts, agronomists come from more than six countries.
The company is very aware of the social implications of what it does. Poty, the bigger version of Living Farming Tree, is a modular vertical garden system with automatic irrigation. For each Poty its sells, the company installs new modules through Hexagro Siembra Vertical Social, an affiliated company that works to support disadvantaged communities in Colombia.
Thanks to its commitment and activity, Hexagro received important awards from the Ellen MacArthur Foundation and the Solar Impulsa Foundation.
Living Farming Tree: the first vertical garden inspired by the principles of biophilic design
Thanks to the use of sophisticated technologies, the Living Farming Tree makes it possible to grow, indoors, highly nutritious varieties of plants. It is a modular solution, suitable in any setting, that allows nature and well-being to be introduced anywhere, even the office. No soil is required: using aeroponic technology, water and nutrients are sprayed directly on the roots of the plants ensuring optimal use of resources. The level of automation is such that this vertical garden is ideal even if you haven’t got green fingers. What is more, the combination of automatic irrigation and correct intensity of the LED lights ensures optimised, safe and rapid plant growth.
The part played by LATI technical compounds in the Living Farming Tree
The heat sink for the lamp is one of the main components of the Living Farming Tree. This part is structurally connected to the joint, which is also made of polymer, and it houses the PCB for the LED lights, lenses and electronics. Hexagro was looking for a lighter weight, more manageable material with a better carbon footprint than traditional aluminium solutions. So, it turned to Protool, a British injection moulder, active on the UK, EU and global markets, that also specialises in the production of heat sinks made of engineering polymer. Protool advised Hexagro to use LATICONTHER 62 GR/50, the thermally conductive material formulated and produced by LATI that it itself already uses in several of its current products.
By using this material, consisting of a PA6 matrix reinforced with 50% graphite, the start-up has managed to reduce the weight of the component and increase its dissipative capacity, while also gaining greater freedom with regard to the shapes and design. The main pluses of the plastic solution are, in fact, the density of the material, which is half of that of aluminium, itself already very light, and the exceptional thermal conductivity, which allows the radiant element to safely disperse the heat produced by the LEDs, ensuring a low working temperature.
Furthermore, it has significantly reduced the costs of the project since not only is the polymer lighter and less expensive than metal, its processing uses a fraction of the energy used to process aluminium and it does not require any post-processing after injection moulding.
Scalability is also a key issue for Hexagro, and LATI’s product meets this need. Indeed, it is not aggressive for the equipment and ensures that moulds have a long life even when they are used for large production runs.
LATI technical assistance service for Hexagro
LATI’s technical assistance team enthusiastically took up the challenge laid down by Hexagro: to verify the feasibility of the transition from aluminium to polymer and thus simplify the original structure of the heat sink. Initially, in fact, the project entailed the assembly of several materials and a more complex structure. The LATI team therefore helped the start-up to select the most efficient material, and optimise the geometry of the part, recommending the necessary improvements, such as the addition of fins and reinforcements where needed.
Verification, in numerical terms, of the cooling effectively provided by the plastic radiator was followed by the moulding simulation step: the injection gate position, cooling system and mould layout were all evaluated to ensure there were no deformation that might compromise the coupling between the heat sink and the PCB and therefore the effectiveness of the cooling. The validity of the solution was first tested on prototypes and then confirmed on injection-moulded pieces.
Sharing the dream of a greener and healthier community
“Replacing traditional metal solutions with plastic compounds is a complex challenge that only bold, visionary designers can take on. Our task is to offer specific and cutting-edge technological expertise to resolve difficulties and doubts. The most satisfying thing for us is seeing the results of many different collaborations materialising in the form of smart, high-performing and competitive products” says Luca Posca, Technical Assistance and Marketing Director at LATI.
“Thanks to the cross collaboration between Hexagro, LATI and Protool Plastics, we have addressed different challenges with a unique solution. Using the new LATICONTHER electrically conductive material we have managed to produce our heat sink by injection moulding, reducing the number of parts, the weight and the costs and optimising the dissipation of the heat produced by our Living Farming Tree’s LED horticultural lights. We have achieved better performances in terms of energy consumption and production scalability, while respecting the aesthetics of the product.”
Expertise, technology and vision are the basis of this collaboration, which looks to the future with hope and optimism. Who could possibly not want a Living Farming Tree to hand?
Find more news from LATI here.


With harvest season for many crops approaching, farms in Arizona need workers to help bring the crops in.
But that help is getting harder to find, farmers say, as patchwork immigration laws and federal visa issues often get in the way.
CQ TODAY ONLINE NEWS
By Ellyn Ferguson, CQ Staff
Forty-six groups armed with speeches and “Farm Bill Now” buttons plan to lay out the case this week for Congress to pass a five-year reauthorization before the current law expires Sept. 30.
Source: Delta Farm Press
There's a different sort of drought plaguing California, the nation's largest farm state. It's $38 billion agricultural sector is facing a scarcity of labor. "This year is the worst it's been, ever," said Craig Underwood, who farms everything from strawberries to lemons to peppers, carrots, and turnips in Ventura County.
House GOP leaders are readying a one-year extension of farm and nutrition programs that includes disaster aid for drought-affected farmers, lawmakers said Thursday.


MUPP Students and Prof. Sutton Develop Indoor Urban Agriculture Plan for Grow Greater Englewood and Englewood Village Farmers
During COVID Summer 2020, a team of Master of Urban Planning and Policy students working with Professor Stacey Sutton developed an urban agriculture adaptive reuse plan and feasibility study for Grow Greater Englewood and the Englewood Village Farmers. The plan and feasibility study aim to transform the abandoned Bon-Temps Elementary School building into a sustainable indoor urban agriculture ecosystem that includes farm cultivation, food processing, renewable energy, workforce development, learning and community enterprise called the Bon-Temps Campus.
The Bon-Temps Campus will reclaim the space as an integrated and experiential training ground for urban agriculture and become a hub of innovation and exploration on Chicago’s South Side. Located at the literal heart of the Englewood Trail, Bon-Temps will once again be a campus - a community anchor that supports the needs of existing Englewood farmers, trains future generations of urban farmers, cultivates and sustains the local food system, incubates community-wealth through social enterprise grounded in community ownership, and bolsters the Englewood Urban Agricultural District.


I am so excited to share a recent DIY (do it yourself)
project that I completed...one that I have been wanting
to do for a while, and one that is easy with great results.
I created a succulent muffin tin planter, using a vintage muffin tin
that I found at a local antique shop, and succulents from a local nursery.
Use your hammer and nail to create a small hole in the bottom of
each of the muffin holes. This will allow the succulent to
drain water and for the roots to breath a little.
Pull the succulents out of their existing planters and organize them
according to where you would like to plant them. Add soil to the muffin tin
(the amount of soil will depend on the kind of succulent you are using).
If you are using a succulent with long roots, you will not need as much soil.
Play around with the amount and the roots to make sure they fit comfortably.
Once the succulents have been placed and planted,
take the small, light colored pebbled (the smaller, the better!)
and place them underneath the succulents, above the soil.
After you add the pebbles, go back through and make sure
that each succulent has enough to cover the dark soil. It makes
a big difference having the light colored pebbles peeking through
the succulent plants. Sweep off extra pebbles, water and voila!
You have your very own Succulent Vintage Muffin Tin Planter!
Etsy has some great options for Vintage Muffin Tins, you can peruse their


Cabbage Family Vegetables
Still life with assortment cabbages on wooden background.
The Brassicaceae family is a medium sized and economically important group of flowering plants. They are informally known as the mustards, crucifers or the cabbage family. Within this family is the species Brassica oleracea. It contains ten of the most common cruciferous vegetables eaten by people today and establishes these vegetables as a very important human food source.
This course gives you the information you need to maintain the quality of these vegetables from the time they arrive at the store until they are wheeled out the door. You will also learn tips and guidelines that you can relay to your customers so they can get the most from these vegetables.
This course has the following objectives:
• Identify cabbage family vegetable characteristics.
• Identify how to store and handle cabbage vegetables.
• List how to select and store cabbage vegetables at home.
• List how to troubleshoot cabbage vegetable problems.
Course Duration: 30m


Community Supported Agriculture (CSA) is a partnership between farmers and their local community, in which the responsibilities, risks and rewards of farming are shared. communitysupportedagriculture.org.uk Ropsley Market Garden is Lincolnshire’s first CSA - the first of many: the English CSA moment is now here: people increasingly recognise the need for sustainable, resilient, healthy, local food, and… Continue reading Ropsley Market Garden CSA
Kate Bell, Climate Change Manager for City of Lincoln Council, and Matthew Davey, Environment & Community Projects Officer for Lincolnshire County Council, talked with us about the council's engagement with local communities and their growing projects, with lots of useful information and tips on how to how to find out more and get involved. In… Continue reading Connecting with Your Council on Community Growing Projects
Care Farming is the therapeutic use of farming practices – where service users regularly attend the care farm as part of a structured health or social care, rehabilitation or specialist educational programme. The powerful mix of being in nature, being part of a group and taking part in meaningful nature based activities is what makes care farming so successful.
Guest blog, by Annabel Britton, from All Good Market in Stamford There are more organisms in a handful of soil than there are people on Earth. It’s the foundation of all terrestrial life and civilisation. And it’s a finite resource: its loss and degradation cannot be recovered within a human lifespan. The soil crisis Photo… Continue reading 60 Harvests Left
Kirsty’s Lincoln allotment turned around her mental health, ignited a passion for growing, and over the past four years has inspired thousands of people, through her social media following. I talked to Kirsty about what motivates her, and how her experience as an allotment holder has transformed her life.


Latin Name : Olea Europaea
LIOPETRA is a single varietal extra virgin olive oil produced from the finest olives grown in selected areas in southwestern Greece, famed for its fertile soil and favorable climate. It is obtained by cold extraction, exclusively from hand-picked olives of the Koroneiki variety, one of the oldest olive tree varieties in Greece that gives one of the finest olive oils worldwide.
Featuring low acidity and unique sensory characteristics, it is ideal for those looking for a superior quality natural product with high nutritional value and antioxidant activity.
Exquisite flavour, excellent quality; our olive oil has a lovely, velvety texture, bright golden-green colour, full-bodied taste and superb aroma of fresh olives. A perfectly balanced olive oil of exceptional quality, fruity and moderately bitter and spicy, it seals in it an integral part of the Greek gastronomic tradition and the Mediterranean diet.