  This paper explores the grounding issue concerning multimodal semantic representation from a computational cognitive-linguistic view. Five perceptual properties of groundedness are annotated and analyzed: Affordance, Perceptual salience, Object number, Gaze cueing, and Ecological Niche Association (ENA). We annotated selected images from the Flickr30k dataset with exploratory analyses and statistical modeling of their captions. Our findings suggest that a comprehensive understanding of an object or event requires cognitive attention, semantic distinctions in linguistic expression, and multimodal construction. During this construction process, viewers integrate situated meaning and affordance into multimodal semantics, which is consolidated into image captions used in the image-text dataset incorporating visual and textual elements. Our findings suggest that situated meaning and affordance grounding are critical for grounded natural language understanding systems to generate appropriate responses and show the potential to advance the understanding of human construal in diverse situations. 
Exploring the Grounding Issues in Image Caption