Elemental building blocks of biological molecules

WEBVTT
Kind: captions
Language: en

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- [Instructor] What we have here is just

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a small sample of the types of molecules

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that you will see in a biological system.

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At the top left right over here,

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you have an example of an amino acid.

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Amino acids are the
building blocks of proteins.

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And if we were to take a look

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at what an amino acid is made up of,

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in this dark gray color,
those are carbon atoms,

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in the white, you see hydrogen atoms,

00:00:28.910 --> 00:00:33.910
in the red you see oxygen
atoms, and this blue

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right over here, that is a nitrogen atom.

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And as you can see, a
lot of these elements

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keep showing up in
these various molecules,

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especially carbon and hydrogen,

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but also you see a lot
of oxygen and nitrogen,

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and as we're about to
see, phosphorous also

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pops up a lot.

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Now this isn't a comprehensive list,

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you'll also see other elements,

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but these tend to show
up fairly frequently.

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For example, this is a model of ATP,

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adenosine triphosphate,
as we study biology,

00:01:07.320 --> 00:01:09.010
you'll see that it's often viewed

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as the currency of energy,
the molecular currency

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of energy in biological systems.

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And once again, we see a lot of carbons

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in the dark gray, we see the hydrogens

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in this off white color, or the light gray

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I guess you could say, you
see your oxygens again,

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here the nitrogen is in
this light blue color,

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and then you see the
phosphoruses right over there

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in that yellow color, phosphorus.

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This is a model of a triglyceride,

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often known as a fat molecule,

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fat molecules are used for energy storage,

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and once again, you see many
carbons in the dark gray,

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and then you see these hydrogens,

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and then a few oxygens.

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This is a model of DNA,
a small segment of DNA,

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and this is a much more complex molecule

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than the other ones we've seen,

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in fact, this could extend
far beyond our screen

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in either direction.

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But once again, you see
these same familiar elements.

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You see the carbon in the dark gray,

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the hydrogen in that white color,

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you see the oxygens in the red,

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the nitrogens in the blue, and
the phosphorus in the yellow.

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So the big takeaway here is
that biological molecules

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tend to be made up of the same set

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of elemental building blocks,

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and in fact, it isn't just
at the elemental level,

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it can even be at the molecular level.

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For example, in ATP you have what's known

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as a nitrogenous base right over here,

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you have a five carbon
sugar right over here,

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and you have three phosphate groups,

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or a triphosphate group.

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In DNA you have something very similar,

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the nitrogenous bases are hard to see,

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they're kind of the
rungs of the ladder here,

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you have your five carbon
sugars, also hard to see,

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and then you have these
phosphates as well.

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In fact, the backbone of DNA is made up

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of these five carbon sugars
and these phosphates.

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Now why do these elements keep showing up?

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Well these are elements that
you will see a lot in Earth.

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For example, nitrogen makes
up most of our atmosphere.

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We have a lot of water on
the surface of our planet,

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which is made up of oxygen and hydrogen.

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Carbon actually makes
up a surprisingly small

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percentage of our atmosphere, about 0.04%

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of our atmosphere, but
photosynthetic organisms,

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like plants, are good at fixing carbon

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and storing energy in carbon bonds,

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and when we eat those, those
become part of our bodies.

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And just to get an appreciation
of what we are made up of,

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in terms of elements, we
can look at this chart

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right over here where we see that we are

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primarily made up of
oxygen, percentage in body,

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and that's because we're primarily

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made up of water and
water is primarily oxygen.

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It also has hydrogen.

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Now second to oxygen is
carbon, and then you see

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nitrogen, phosphorous, we of
course have a lot of calcium,

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calcium of course used in bones,

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but it's also used for things
like muscle contractions.

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And I could keep on going down this list,

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and you will see these other elements

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in your study of biology,
but the big picture is

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that even though biological systems

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can get fairly complex, they're made up

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of similar building
blocks, and these elemental

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building blocks come from the environment

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in which these biological
systems exist and evolved.


Importance of water for life

WEBVTT
Kind: captions
Language: en

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- [Instructor] When we
look out into the cosmos

00:00:02.370 --> 00:00:06.480
for alien life, many folks
look for signs of water

00:00:06.480 --> 00:00:08.600
on moons or planets.

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And that's because life as we know it

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is dependent on water.

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And to understand that,

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we just have to take a closer look

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at some of the properties of water.

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So what you see here are
some molecules of water.

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This might be a review for you.

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Every water molecule has one oxygen atom.

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And it is bonded to two hydrogens.

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So that is a hydrogen, and
that is a hydrogen as well.

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And the nature of that bond,

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it is a covalent bond,

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which means that the
oxygen shares electrons

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with each of the hydrogen atoms.

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But oxygen is more electronegative,

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and that's just a fancy way of saying

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that even though those
electrons are shared,

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they're going to be spending more time

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around the oxygen than
around the hydrogens.

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One way to think about it

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is oxygen likes to hog electrons
more than hydrogen does.

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And since the electrons
will spend more time

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around the oxygen than
around the hydrogen,

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and because it's a bent molecule

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with the hydrogens on
one side of the molecule,

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what happens is the side
where the oxygen is,

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where the electrons spend more time,

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that gets a partially negative charge.

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So this is the lowercase
Greek letter delta.

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That just means partially negative charge.

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And then the sides
where the hydrogens are,

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those acquire a partial positive charge.

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And so what you see here

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is that a water molecule is
not charged in aggregate.

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But either side has a partial charge,

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so it is a polar molecule.

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And so you can imagine when you put

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a bunch of water molecules together

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what might happen?

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Well, the partially positive side

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of one water molecule
where the hydrogens are

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would be attracted to the
partially negative side

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of another water molecule.

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And so they would be attracted,

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and this is known as a hydrogen,

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hydrogen, hydrogen bond.

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And I could keep drawing that.

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This is going to be
partially positive here.

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This is going to be partially negative.

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They will attract.

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This oxygen end is going to be attracted

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to that hydrogen end.

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This oxygen end is going to be attracted

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to the that hydrogen end as well.

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And so it's this hydrogen bonding

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that gives water a lot of the properties

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that make it special
that, as far as we know,

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for harboring life or for even
allowing life to be possible.

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Life as we understand it
needs a fluid environment.

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Things move around and
bump into each other.

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And it's these hydrogen bonds,

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when the temperature and
conditions are appropriate,

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that allow water to be in that liquid form

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where they're strong enough

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so that the water stays together,

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but they're weak enough so that they allow

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the water molecules to
flow past each other.

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And not only does it provide
a good fluid environment,

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it's a very good solvent.

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Water is often known as the universal,

00:03:04.810 --> 00:03:09.490
universal solvent, but it's
worth putting a disclaimer here.

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Even though people say it
is a universal solvent,

00:03:12.150 --> 00:03:14.600
that does not mean that
it dissolves everything.

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Water does dissolve more
things in its liquid state

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than anything else we know about.

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But there are many molecules
that it cannot dissolve well.

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The things that it does dissolve well

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are polar molecules or
things that have a charge.

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For example, when sodium
chloride dissolves in water,

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a sodium ion is positive,

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so that is positively charged.

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And so you can imagine
it might be attracted

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to the side of the water molecules

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where the oxygen is.

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But it dissolves well.

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But things that don't have charge

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don't tend to dissolve well in water.

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But even the property

00:03:52.210 --> 00:03:54.110
that there's certain things
that it does not dissolve

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is also good for life.

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Later on in biology we're going to study

00:03:58.372 --> 00:04:01.660
phospholipid bilayers where
you have these molecules

00:04:01.660 --> 00:04:04.110
where one end is hydrophilic,

00:04:04.110 --> 00:04:06.340
which means it's attracted
to water molecules.

00:04:06.340 --> 00:04:08.380
And then the other ends are hydrophobic,

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which means they're not
attracted to water molecules.

00:04:11.070 --> 00:04:13.550
And many evolutionary biologists believe

00:04:13.550 --> 00:04:15.910
that this property of having one side

00:04:15.910 --> 00:04:18.400
that's hydrophilic and one
side that's hydrophobic

00:04:18.400 --> 00:04:20.490
would have allowed these molecules

00:04:20.490 --> 00:04:22.470
to start collecting into membranes,

00:04:22.470 --> 00:04:25.300
eventually forming these
spherical membranes

00:04:25.300 --> 00:04:28.910
which could be the containers
for early cellular life.

00:04:28.910 --> 00:04:30.570
Now, another property of water

00:04:30.570 --> 00:04:32.910
which makes it very suitable for life

00:04:32.910 --> 00:04:37.043
is it's high heat capacity.

00:04:38.080 --> 00:04:39.330
Sometimes you'll hear people say

00:04:39.330 --> 00:04:40.720
it has a high specific heat.

00:04:40.720 --> 00:04:44.200
The specific heat is the
amount of energy needed

00:04:44.200 --> 00:04:48.690
to raise one gram of water
by one degree Celsius.

00:04:48.690 --> 00:04:51.420
And you might say why
does that matter for life?

00:04:51.420 --> 00:04:54.140
Well, many life forms can only operate

00:04:54.140 --> 00:04:56.160
within a certain range of temperatures.

00:04:56.160 --> 00:04:59.320
And so if it was really easy
to raise the temperature

00:04:59.320 --> 00:05:03.530
of water really high or very
low temperatures very fast,

00:05:03.530 --> 00:05:04.840
well, that would make it much harder

00:05:04.840 --> 00:05:07.360
for life to operate within water,

00:05:07.360 --> 00:05:09.850
or even life to be made up of water.

00:05:09.850 --> 00:05:11.670
A related idea to this

00:05:11.670 --> 00:05:16.670
is that water also has a
high heat of vaporization.

00:05:19.070 --> 00:05:21.620
We talk more about this
in detail in other videos,

00:05:21.620 --> 00:05:23.140
but this is talking about how much energy

00:05:23.140 --> 00:05:25.990
does it take for water to
go from its liquid form

00:05:25.990 --> 00:05:27.470
to its gas form.

00:05:27.470 --> 00:05:30.060
And this has proven
valuable in many life forms

00:05:30.060 --> 00:05:33.090
for a form of cooling
where the vaporization

00:05:33.090 --> 00:05:34.910
of water, evaporative cooling,

00:05:34.910 --> 00:05:37.290
can take heat away from an organism

00:05:37.290 --> 00:05:39.150
so that it doesn't overheat.

00:05:39.150 --> 00:05:42.100
Other properties that
are important about water

00:05:42.100 --> 00:05:46.900
include cohesion and adhesion.

00:05:46.900 --> 00:05:50.020
Cohesion is the property
of water molecules

00:05:50.020 --> 00:05:52.370
that is attracted to
other water molecules.

00:05:52.370 --> 00:05:54.600
And you saw it here
with the hydrogen bonds.

00:05:54.600 --> 00:05:56.360
But then when you look at a macroscale,

00:05:56.360 --> 00:05:58.820
you'll see things like
water droplets form.

00:05:58.820 --> 00:06:02.120
You've all seen water
droplets, or dew droplets.

00:06:02.120 --> 00:06:03.640
These droplets couldn't form

00:06:03.640 --> 00:06:05.830
if not for the cohesion of water.

00:06:05.830 --> 00:06:08.720
And even one drop can be an environment

00:06:08.720 --> 00:06:12.700
in which thousands of
microorganisms can live.

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Adhesion is the property of water

00:06:14.580 --> 00:06:17.650
where it can adhere to other things.

00:06:17.650 --> 00:06:20.680
You might have seen this
in a glass test tube

00:06:20.680 --> 00:06:22.460
where it looks like the water is

00:06:22.460 --> 00:06:26.060
kind of crawling up the top of the sides.

00:06:26.060 --> 00:06:28.270
And that's because some of the polarity

00:06:28.270 --> 00:06:30.870
of the glass molecules of the test tube.

00:06:30.870 --> 00:06:33.340
But this property,
along with the cohesion,

00:06:33.340 --> 00:06:36.510
is what allows water
to transport nutrients,

00:06:36.510 --> 00:06:38.450
say, from the roots of a tree

00:06:38.450 --> 00:06:40.580
all the way to the top of a tree.

00:06:40.580 --> 00:06:42.640
These properties are also an action

00:06:42.640 --> 00:06:44.440
in our own blood vessels, when you get

00:06:44.440 --> 00:06:47.400
to the really small blood
vessels, the capillaries.

00:06:47.400 --> 00:06:49.260
And that is called capillaries

00:06:49.260 --> 00:06:52.080
'cause you have capillary action of water,

00:06:52.080 --> 00:06:55.680
which is due to its
cohesion and its adhesion.

00:06:55.680 --> 00:06:56.677
A last property of water,

00:06:56.677 --> 00:06:58.740
and this is not an exhaustive list,

00:06:58.740 --> 00:07:01.520
is that it is less dense as a solid.

00:07:01.520 --> 00:07:03.020
So another way to think about it is

00:07:03.020 --> 00:07:06.110
ice, which is solid water, is less,

00:07:06.110 --> 00:07:11.110
less dense than liquid water.

00:07:11.910 --> 00:07:15.440
Now, you might be thinking
why does that matter for life?

00:07:15.440 --> 00:07:16.830
Well, imagine the environments

00:07:16.830 --> 00:07:18.620
where we think life first arose.

00:07:18.620 --> 00:07:20.680
If you imagine some type of a pond,

00:07:20.680 --> 00:07:22.620
and this is the cross-section of it,

00:07:22.620 --> 00:07:25.270
if ice was more dense than liquid water,

00:07:25.270 --> 00:07:27.250
and for many substances that is the case,

00:07:27.250 --> 00:07:29.020
a solid form tends to be more dense,

00:07:29.020 --> 00:07:30.220
then what would happen?

00:07:30.220 --> 00:07:32.280
If it's cold up here in the air,

00:07:32.280 --> 00:07:35.240
say, in the winter, then
this part would freeze.

00:07:35.240 --> 00:07:36.630
But then as it got more dense

00:07:36.630 --> 00:07:39.210
it would sink to the
bottom right over there.

00:07:39.210 --> 00:07:41.280
Then the next surface water would freeze

00:07:41.280 --> 00:07:42.490
and sink to the bottom.

00:07:42.490 --> 00:07:45.790
And then over time, the
entire lake or the entire pond

00:07:45.790 --> 00:07:48.570
would freeze over, and
life would not be able

00:07:48.570 --> 00:07:50.230
to live in that pond.

00:07:50.230 --> 00:07:51.690
Because when water freezes,

00:07:51.690 --> 00:07:54.800
it breaks membrane-bound
structures as we know it.

00:07:54.800 --> 00:07:57.540
And so that would not
be suitable for life.

00:07:57.540 --> 00:08:00.510
But because ice is less dense than water,

00:08:00.510 --> 00:08:04.090
what typically happens is
just that top layer freezes.

00:08:04.090 --> 00:08:05.840
And then it'll freeze down as things

00:08:05.840 --> 00:08:07.380
get colder and colder.

00:08:07.380 --> 00:08:08.930
But you have an entire environment

00:08:08.930 --> 00:08:10.910
where life can continue to thrive

00:08:10.910 --> 00:08:13.240
even when the air is much colder

00:08:13.240 --> 00:08:15.040
than what is suitable for life.

00:08:15.040 --> 00:08:17.350
And because of water's high specific heat,

00:08:17.350 --> 00:08:19.540
that temperature variation in that water

00:08:19.540 --> 00:08:20.620
is going to be much less

00:08:20.620 --> 00:08:23.160
than the temperature variation
outside of the water,

00:08:23.160 --> 00:08:25.840
either in the air or on the land.

00:08:25.840 --> 00:08:27.450
So this is just an introduction,

00:08:27.450 --> 00:08:29.030
but hopefully it makes you appreciate

00:08:29.030 --> 00:08:29.980
water a little more.

00:08:29.980 --> 00:08:31.810
And remember, and I've
said this in other videos,

00:08:31.810 --> 00:08:33.870
we are mostly water.

00:08:33.870 --> 00:08:35.050
One way to think about it is

00:08:35.050 --> 00:08:38.110
that each of us is made
up of trillions of cells

00:08:38.110 --> 00:08:40.300
which are primarily made up of water

00:08:40.300 --> 00:08:43.400
and exist in a water-based environment.

00:08:43.400 --> 00:08:44.700
They coordinate with each other

00:08:44.700 --> 00:08:47.280
and eventually have emergent complexity

00:08:47.280 --> 00:08:50.763
that thinks that it is a
sentient being like each of us.


Comparing European and Native American cultures

WEBVTT
Kind: captions
Language: en

00:00:00.140 --> 00:00:02.070
- [Instructor] In the
first years of interaction

00:00:02.070 --> 00:00:04.510
between Native Americans and Europeans,

00:00:04.510 --> 00:00:07.480
there were a lot of aspects
of each other's cultures

00:00:07.480 --> 00:00:11.020
that each group found,
well, just plain weird.

00:00:11.020 --> 00:00:14.960
Europeans and Native
Americans looked, dressed,

00:00:14.960 --> 00:00:18.000
and thought differently
in fundamental ways

00:00:18.000 --> 00:00:20.240
that lead to misunderstandings

00:00:20.240 --> 00:00:22.550
and even violence between them.

00:00:22.550 --> 00:00:26.550
So let's take some time
to compare some ways

00:00:26.550 --> 00:00:29.730
in which Native American
cultural ideas differed

00:00:29.730 --> 00:00:31.940
from European cultural ideas.

00:00:31.940 --> 00:00:36.000
So how is it possible to
make a direct comparison

00:00:36.000 --> 00:00:39.830
between Native American
cultures and European cultures?

00:00:39.830 --> 00:00:43.310
One way is to choose a few categories

00:00:43.310 --> 00:00:45.650
of social interaction and belief

00:00:45.650 --> 00:00:49.340
and identify how each
group conceived of them.

00:00:49.340 --> 00:00:53.340
Here, I've chosen ideas about
land and property ownership,

00:00:53.340 --> 00:00:57.210
gender roles, and religion
as areas to compare.

00:00:57.210 --> 00:01:01.080
Now before we start, I wanna
put a big asterisk here

00:01:01.080 --> 00:01:04.000
and say that these are generalizations,

00:01:04.000 --> 00:01:08.360
just as the English,
French, Spanish, Dutch

00:01:08.360 --> 00:01:10.730
didn't have all exactly the same religion

00:01:10.730 --> 00:01:13.660
or a concept of proper gender roles.

00:01:13.660 --> 00:01:16.100
The Algonquians, Iroquois, Pueblos,

00:01:16.100 --> 00:01:18.370
and Mississippians
weren't identical either,

00:01:18.370 --> 00:01:22.520
but there were some similarities
among European groups

00:01:22.520 --> 00:01:25.800
and among Native American
groups that allow us

00:01:25.800 --> 00:01:28.610
to compare and contrast them more broadly.

00:01:28.610 --> 00:01:31.670
So let's start identifying
these differences

00:01:32.650 --> 00:01:35.910
and exploring what
effect they may have had

00:01:35.910 --> 00:01:39.160
on how the two groups
perceived and interacted

00:01:39.160 --> 00:01:40.250
with each other.

00:01:40.250 --> 00:01:43.680
One major difference between
Europeans and Native Americans

00:01:43.680 --> 00:01:46.700
was in their ideas about land ownership.

00:01:46.700 --> 00:01:50.040
To Europeans, land was
owned by individuals

00:01:50.040 --> 00:01:52.120
and passed down through families.

00:01:52.120 --> 00:01:55.010
They had the right to
fence off a plot of land

00:01:55.010 --> 00:01:56.530
and prevent trespassing.

00:01:56.530 --> 00:02:00.070
For Native Americans, land
ownership was less defined

00:02:00.070 --> 00:02:01.860
and more temporary.

00:02:01.860 --> 00:02:05.800
One tribe might claim
control of a hunting range

00:02:05.800 --> 00:02:09.410
or one family might farm a
plot of land for a season

00:02:09.410 --> 00:02:11.410
but they didn't own it forever.

00:02:11.410 --> 00:02:15.220
Most land was free for everyone to use

00:02:15.220 --> 00:02:17.260
but not to own.

00:02:17.260 --> 00:02:21.080
So when Europeans arrived,
Native Americans might agree

00:02:21.080 --> 00:02:23.920
to let them farm and
hunt in their territories

00:02:23.920 --> 00:02:27.360
but they didn't expect that
Europeans would then fence off

00:02:27.360 --> 00:02:30.050
that land and prevent
others from using it.

00:02:30.050 --> 00:02:33.640
Likewise, Europeans were
confused when Native Americans

00:02:33.640 --> 00:02:36.620
continued to use land that they thought

00:02:36.620 --> 00:02:39.150
they had purchased to own forever.

00:02:39.150 --> 00:02:41.500
Native Americans also tended to have

00:02:41.500 --> 00:02:45.370
a more communal approach
to property and trade.

00:02:45.370 --> 00:02:48.220
To them, trading
relationship were important

00:02:48.220 --> 00:02:51.150
and they require a lot of
feasting and gift giving

00:02:51.150 --> 00:02:53.870
to cement ties between tribes.

00:02:53.870 --> 00:02:56.900
Europeans were frequently
frustrated by the amount

00:02:56.900 --> 00:03:00.140
of pomp and circumstance
Native Americans demanded

00:03:00.140 --> 00:03:03.740
to complete what they saw as
a simple business transaction.

00:03:03.740 --> 00:03:05.820
Partly, this had to do
with how Native Americans

00:03:05.820 --> 00:03:07.350
viewed property in general.

00:03:07.350 --> 00:03:10.600
While Europeans gained
high status in society

00:03:10.600 --> 00:03:13.780
by owning a lot of things
and therefore being rich,

00:03:13.780 --> 00:03:16.880
Native Americans achieved
high status by giving

00:03:16.880 --> 00:03:20.810
a lot of things away, being a
source of riches for others.

00:03:20.810 --> 00:03:23.300
So unlike in Europe where
there were huge gaps

00:03:23.300 --> 00:03:26.170
between the rich and the poor,
Native American societies

00:03:26.170 --> 00:03:28.431
were comparatively egalitarian.

00:03:28.431 --> 00:03:30.810
It was pretty rare for
someone to go hungry

00:03:30.810 --> 00:03:32.930
if their neighbor had food to spare.

00:03:32.930 --> 00:03:35.440
Europeans couldn't tell
if Native Americans

00:03:35.440 --> 00:03:38.870
were just naturally generous, kind people

00:03:38.870 --> 00:03:42.090
or if they maybe just didn't
get how business worked

00:03:42.090 --> 00:03:45.920
and to Native Americans,
Europeans seemed greedy

00:03:45.920 --> 00:03:50.470
and selfish, allowing others
to starve and do without

00:03:50.470 --> 00:03:52.860
so that they could enrich themselves.

00:03:52.860 --> 00:03:56.420
Differences in gender roles
also confused the groups.

00:03:56.420 --> 00:03:59.660
In European societies, men
were the heads of household

00:03:59.660 --> 00:04:02.610
and they were in charge of outdoor labor.

00:04:02.610 --> 00:04:05.500
Women took care of the
home but they also have

00:04:05.500 --> 00:04:07.650
relatively few rights.

00:04:07.650 --> 00:04:09.690
They couldn't participate politically,

00:04:09.690 --> 00:04:12.260
own property, or get divorced.

00:04:12.260 --> 00:04:16.280
In Native American societies,
men hunted and fished

00:04:16.280 --> 00:04:18.940
and conducted warfare which often meant

00:04:18.940 --> 00:04:22.140
that they were away from
home for weeks or months.

00:04:22.140 --> 00:04:23.940
Consequently, women did the farming

00:04:23.940 --> 00:04:26.160
since they were home to tend the crops.

00:04:26.160 --> 00:04:28.970
Native women also had a lot more freedom

00:04:28.970 --> 00:04:30.140
than European women.

00:04:30.140 --> 00:04:32.280
They could get divorced, they could give

00:04:32.280 --> 00:04:34.230
political advice to councils.

00:04:34.230 --> 00:04:37.180
Many Native American
societies were matrilineal

00:04:37.180 --> 00:04:39.860
so children belonged to
their mother's family

00:04:39.860 --> 00:04:43.070
rather than their father's
and when a couple got married,

00:04:43.070 --> 00:04:45.370
the man moved in with his wife's family,

00:04:45.370 --> 00:04:46.850
not the other way around.

00:04:46.850 --> 00:04:49.860
To Europeans, gender
roles in Native society

00:04:49.860 --> 00:04:52.880
almost seemed like they
were flipped upside down

00:04:52.880 --> 00:04:54.130
and they took this as evidence

00:04:54.130 --> 00:04:56.370
that Native people were uncivilized.

00:04:56.370 --> 00:04:58.940
To Native Americans, it
looked like Europeans

00:04:58.940 --> 00:05:01.110
could barely care for themselves.

00:05:01.110 --> 00:05:03.740
They had to be taught
how to farm, how to fish,

00:05:03.740 --> 00:05:06.820
even how to hunt effectively
in the new world.

00:05:06.820 --> 00:05:10.880
Finally, Native and European
religious practices differ,

00:05:10.880 --> 00:05:12.330
at least, on the surface.

00:05:12.330 --> 00:05:14.150
Native Americans tended to believe

00:05:14.150 --> 00:05:17.250
that one great creator had made the world

00:05:17.250 --> 00:05:20.460
and that nature was imbued with spirits

00:05:20.460 --> 00:05:22.390
who would reward or punish them based

00:05:22.390 --> 00:05:24.240
on how well they took care of the land.

00:05:24.240 --> 00:05:26.640
In fact, this actually
wasn't that much different

00:05:26.640 --> 00:05:29.210
from the Catholicism of Europeans

00:05:29.210 --> 00:05:33.220
who believed in a single god
but also many helpful saints.

00:05:33.220 --> 00:05:36.450
But where they differed
was in exclusivity.

00:05:36.450 --> 00:05:39.570
When Europeans introduced
them to Jesus and Mary

00:05:39.570 --> 00:05:42.160
and the saints, many
Native Americans were happy

00:05:42.160 --> 00:05:45.800
to include them in their
pantheon of helpful spirits.

00:05:45.800 --> 00:05:48.420
But this angered Europeans who insisted

00:05:48.420 --> 00:05:51.810
on exclusive worship of the Christian god.

00:05:51.810 --> 00:05:55.370
All of this differences
lead to fraught interactions

00:05:55.370 --> 00:05:57.580
between Europeans and Native Americans.

00:05:57.580 --> 00:06:00.680
But despite these
differences, they also adopted

00:06:00.680 --> 00:06:03.940
many useful aspects of each
other's culture over time

00:06:03.940 --> 00:06:06.110
especially in terms of trade.

00:06:06.110 --> 00:06:08.970
Native Americans were
keen to get their hands

00:06:08.970 --> 00:06:12.630
on the metal implements
for cooking and farming

00:06:12.630 --> 00:06:15.120
and hunting that Europeans possessed

00:06:15.120 --> 00:06:17.470
as well as guns and
horses which were great

00:06:17.470 --> 00:06:20.920
for transportation and
also for making war.

00:06:20.920 --> 00:06:24.000
Europeans were also willing to take part

00:06:24.000 --> 00:06:26.450
in the social rituals and trading rituals

00:06:26.450 --> 00:06:29.520
of Native Americans,
sometimes even marrying

00:06:29.520 --> 00:06:32.630
into Native American families
so they could get access

00:06:32.630 --> 00:06:35.980
to furs hunted by Native Americans

00:06:35.980 --> 00:06:39.200
and to Native Americans as allies

00:06:39.200 --> 00:06:42.460
in their wars against
rival European powers

00:06:42.460 --> 00:06:43.520
and the Americas.

00:06:43.520 --> 00:06:45.660
So as we wrap up, I encourage you

00:06:45.660 --> 00:06:47.930
to take a closer look at this chart.

00:06:47.930 --> 00:06:50.920
Is there anything you find
particularly surprising

00:06:50.920 --> 00:06:52.270
about these differences?

00:06:52.270 --> 00:06:55.250
Where do you think that
Europeans and Native Americans

00:06:55.250 --> 00:06:58.930
were most likely to find
common ground between them?

00:06:58.930 --> 00:07:01.870
And lastly, which of
these cultural aspects

00:07:01.870 --> 00:07:05.200
do you think was the most
significant difference

00:07:05.200 --> 00:07:08.543
between Europeans and
Native Americans and why?


Unadopted amendments to the Bill of Rights

WEBVTT
Kind: captions
Language: en

00:00:00.270 --> 00:00:02.310
- [Kim] Hi, this is Kim from Khan Academy.

00:00:02.310 --> 00:00:06.340
Did you know that what we
call the First Amendment today

00:00:06.340 --> 00:00:08.710
was actually the third amendment

00:00:08.710 --> 00:00:11.900
in the original draft
of the Bill of Rights?

00:00:11.900 --> 00:00:15.820
In fact, there were more
than 200 proposed amendments

00:00:15.820 --> 00:00:18.330
which were whittled down to just 12.

00:00:18.330 --> 00:00:21.020
That's right, 12, not 10.

00:00:21.020 --> 00:00:24.640
So what were those two proposed amendments

00:00:24.640 --> 00:00:27.450
that weren't ratified
along with the other 10?

00:00:27.450 --> 00:00:29.330
The unadopted amendments.

00:00:29.330 --> 00:00:31.850
To learn more, I talked
to Fergus Bordewich.

00:00:31.850 --> 00:00:33.680
He's a writer and a historian,

00:00:33.680 --> 00:00:36.020
and the author of The First Congress:

00:00:36.020 --> 00:00:38.350
How James Madison, George Washington,

00:00:38.350 --> 00:00:42.090
and a Group of Extraordinary
Men Invented the Government.

00:00:42.090 --> 00:00:45.260
These unadopted amendments
which weren't included

00:00:45.260 --> 00:00:47.610
in the Bill of Rights
aren't nearly as well known,

00:00:47.610 --> 00:00:49.700
so what were they?

00:00:49.700 --> 00:00:51.790
- [Fergus] Well, to put it in context,

00:00:51.790 --> 00:00:55.070
there were more than 200
amendments originally proposed

00:00:55.070 --> 00:00:57.050
during the First Congress.

00:00:57.050 --> 00:00:59.140
James Madison had the responsibility

00:00:59.140 --> 00:01:03.650
of winnowing those 200 down
to a manageable number.

00:01:03.650 --> 00:01:05.900
He compressed them finally down to 19,

00:01:05.900 --> 00:01:09.290
then to 17, and finally, to 12.

00:01:09.290 --> 00:01:12.950
Twelve were approved
by the First Congress.

00:01:12.950 --> 00:01:15.800
Ten of them are the
ones that we today call

00:01:15.800 --> 00:01:19.040
the Bill of Rights, but
nobody then referred to them

00:01:19.040 --> 00:01:20.460
as the Bill of Rights.

00:01:20.460 --> 00:01:22.710
Madison and other members
of the First Congress

00:01:22.710 --> 00:01:26.150
referred to them as adjustments
of the Constitution,

00:01:26.150 --> 00:01:28.487
alterations of the Constitution,

00:01:28.487 --> 00:01:32.685
and sometimes as amendments,
but the term Bill of Rights

00:01:32.685 --> 00:01:36.180
only came into use in the 20th century.

00:01:36.180 --> 00:01:38.110
- [Kim] Really, I had no idea.

00:01:38.110 --> 00:01:39.520
- [Fergus] Members of the First Congress

00:01:39.520 --> 00:01:44.483
often talked about the
lack of a Bill of Rights,

00:01:45.410 --> 00:01:49.580
and they referred to Bills of
Rights that some states had,

00:01:49.580 --> 00:01:51.660
but the first ten amendments

00:01:51.660 --> 00:01:55.030
to the Constitution were not
treated as a Bill of Rights.

00:01:55.030 --> 00:01:57.960
In fact, those who most
wanted a Bill of Rights

00:01:57.960 --> 00:01:59.560
said this isn't one.

00:01:59.560 --> 00:02:02.900
- [Kim] Okay, so we end
up with 12 adjustments

00:02:02.900 --> 00:02:06.400
to the Constitution, but
in today's Bill of Rights,

00:02:06.400 --> 00:02:07.770
there are only 10.

00:02:07.770 --> 00:02:09.700
So what were those other two?

00:02:09.700 --> 00:02:12.000
- [Fergus] One of them had
to do with the apportionment

00:02:12.000 --> 00:02:15.240
of seats in Congress, how
many seats would there be,

00:02:15.240 --> 00:02:17.900
and how many people would each

00:02:17.900 --> 00:02:20.770
member of the House of
Representatives represent.

00:02:20.770 --> 00:02:22.030
That was one amendment.

00:02:22.030 --> 00:02:25.650
The other had to do with the
method of providing salaries

00:02:25.650 --> 00:02:29.300
for members of the Senate and
the House of Representatives.

00:02:29.300 --> 00:02:30.690
- [Kim] All right, so we have the text

00:02:30.690 --> 00:02:34.440
of these two unadopted amendments here.

00:02:34.440 --> 00:02:37.410
One says, after the first enumeration

00:02:37.410 --> 00:02:40.780
required by the first
article of the Constitution,

00:02:40.780 --> 00:02:44.400
there shall be one
Representative for every 30,000,

00:02:44.400 --> 00:02:47.590
until the number shall
amount to one hundred,

00:02:47.590 --> 00:02:50.650
after which the proportion shall
be so regulated by Congress

00:02:50.650 --> 00:02:53.660
that there shall not be less
than 100 Representatives,

00:02:53.660 --> 00:02:57.240
nor less than one Representative
for every 40,000 persons

00:02:57.240 --> 00:02:58.590
until the number of Representatives

00:02:58.590 --> 00:03:01.360
shall amount to 200,
after which the proportion

00:03:01.360 --> 00:03:03.270
shall be so regulated by Congress,

00:03:03.270 --> 00:03:06.610
that there shall not be less
than 200 Representatives,

00:03:06.610 --> 00:03:10.423
nor more than one Representative
for every 50,000 persons.

00:03:11.600 --> 00:03:15.780
Okay, so it seems like
the general gist here is

00:03:15.780 --> 00:03:18.350
setting up a proportional arrangement

00:03:18.350 --> 00:03:20.350
about the House of Representatives.

00:03:20.350 --> 00:03:21.850
The other one's a little bit shorter.

00:03:21.850 --> 00:03:26.080
It says, no law varying the
compensation for the services

00:03:26.080 --> 00:03:29.270
of the Senators and
Representatives, shall take effect,

00:03:29.270 --> 00:03:33.200
until an election of Representatives
shall have intervened.

00:03:33.200 --> 00:03:38.200
So you can't change how much
Senators and Representatives

00:03:38.850 --> 00:03:41.570
get paid without an election in-between,

00:03:41.570 --> 00:03:43.720
so they can't raise their own salaries.

00:03:43.720 --> 00:03:46.359
So why did these two amendments

00:03:46.359 --> 00:03:48.840
end up on the cutting room floor?

00:03:48.840 --> 00:03:50.700
- [Fergus] Well, bear in
mind that both of these

00:03:50.700 --> 00:03:53.040
were approved by Congress.

00:03:53.040 --> 00:03:54.420
Then they went out to the states,

00:03:54.420 --> 00:03:56.640
they had to be ratified by the states.

00:03:56.640 --> 00:03:58.340
The states ratified the other ten

00:03:58.340 --> 00:03:59.920
that we're all familiar with.

00:03:59.920 --> 00:04:03.710
They almost ratified the amendment

00:04:03.710 --> 00:04:06.930
having to do with the
apportionment of seats in Congress.

00:04:06.930 --> 00:04:11.560
That ratification fell short by one state.

00:04:11.560 --> 00:04:14.248
The other one having to do
with the salaries of Congress,

00:04:14.248 --> 00:04:16.785
although it was very uncontroversial,

00:04:16.785 --> 00:04:20.260
simply didn't generate enough
interest to be ratified.

00:04:20.260 --> 00:04:23.370
The two amendments which
failed to be ratified,

00:04:23.370 --> 00:04:24.450
were the only two that

00:04:24.450 --> 00:04:26.493
strictly do not have to do with rights.

00:04:27.530 --> 00:04:30.710
I don't think that there
was a very passionate

00:04:30.710 --> 00:04:33.530
concern for them among the voting public.

00:04:33.530 --> 00:04:36.390
Did the Constitution need to be amended

00:04:36.390 --> 00:04:40.850
in order to establish a process
for setting member salaries?

00:04:40.850 --> 00:04:41.792
Well no, it didn't.

00:04:41.792 --> 00:04:44.320
We know that it did not.

00:04:44.320 --> 00:04:46.970
Was it necessary to
amend the Constitution to

00:04:48.520 --> 00:04:50.930
set a principle of apportionment?

00:04:50.930 --> 00:04:52.750
Well, apparently not.

00:04:52.750 --> 00:04:57.750
I think, by and large, Americans
and our Representatives

00:04:58.960 --> 00:05:03.030
recognize principles
that rise to the level

00:05:03.030 --> 00:05:06.030
of Constitutional amendment.

00:05:06.030 --> 00:05:07.763
With respect to these two amendments,

00:05:07.763 --> 00:05:10.730
neither of them really
has to do with rights,

00:05:10.730 --> 00:05:14.300
and that's why we somewhat
misunderstand them

00:05:14.300 --> 00:05:17.290
if we're always referring
to a Bill of Rights,

00:05:17.290 --> 00:05:19.213
because these two are not rights.

00:05:20.490 --> 00:05:22.000
They're essentially more on the order of

00:05:22.000 --> 00:05:23.710
Congressional housekeeping.

00:05:23.710 --> 00:05:27.180
There was virtually no
debate in Congress at all

00:05:27.180 --> 00:05:29.256
about the proposed amendment

00:05:29.256 --> 00:05:32.822
that would enable Congress to

00:05:32.822 --> 00:05:35.280
provide salaries for members.

00:05:35.280 --> 00:05:38.245
Everybody thought this
is a pretty good idea.

00:05:38.245 --> 00:05:41.200
In point of fact, as we all know,

00:05:41.200 --> 00:05:43.903
in the 200 years plus since then,

00:05:44.890 --> 00:05:47.980
Congressional salaries have been raised by

00:05:47.980 --> 00:05:49.970
legislation when needed.

00:05:49.970 --> 00:05:51.200
It turned out that the amendment

00:05:51.200 --> 00:05:53.110
absolutely wasn't necessary,

00:05:53.110 --> 00:05:56.830
even though it was
finally ratified in 1992.

00:05:56.830 --> 00:06:00.060
Now, there was a great
deal of debate, however,

00:06:00.060 --> 00:06:02.079
over the apportionment of seats

00:06:02.079 --> 00:06:05.210
in the House of Representatives.

00:06:05.210 --> 00:06:06.950
In the first House of Representatives,

00:06:06.950 --> 00:06:09.100
there were only 59 members.

00:06:09.100 --> 00:06:14.100
They represented districts
of widely varying size.

00:06:14.540 --> 00:06:18.640
For example, one
representative from Georgia

00:06:18.640 --> 00:06:20.790
represented 16,000 people.

00:06:20.790 --> 00:06:24.870
A representative from the Maine
district of Massachusetts,

00:06:24.870 --> 00:06:29.153
Maine was not a separate state
then, represented 96,000.

00:06:30.820 --> 00:06:35.820
The sharpest debate was
over how many individuals

00:06:35.930 --> 00:06:38.600
would a given member
of the House represent.

00:06:38.600 --> 00:06:39.740
They had to come up with a number.

00:06:39.740 --> 00:06:41.843
It wasn't obvious what
the number should be.

00:06:41.843 --> 00:06:44.470
The debate really was over whether

00:06:44.470 --> 00:06:49.140
each Representative would
represent 30,000 or 40,000.

00:06:49.140 --> 00:06:51.210
This doesn't sound important today,

00:06:51.210 --> 00:06:54.750
but our country was much
smaller, obviously much smaller,

00:06:54.750 --> 00:06:57.723
and these were fairly
big numbers for the time.

00:06:58.740 --> 00:07:03.660
Those who argued for each
Representative representing

00:07:03.660 --> 00:07:08.130
30,000, wanted a larger
House of Representatives.

00:07:08.130 --> 00:07:10.910
It was a more populist kind of idea.

00:07:10.910 --> 00:07:13.390
The people who argued most
forcefully for it were

00:07:13.390 --> 00:07:15.610
anti-Federalists, that's to say,

00:07:15.610 --> 00:07:16.650
those were the people who

00:07:16.650 --> 00:07:18.730
really didn't like the
Constitution at all.

00:07:18.730 --> 00:07:20.160
They didn't even want it.

00:07:20.160 --> 00:07:25.070
They wanted what they
saw as a more democratic

00:07:25.070 --> 00:07:27.200
House of Representatives.

00:07:27.200 --> 00:07:31.210
More conservative members argued for

00:07:31.210 --> 00:07:33.570
a smaller House of Representatives

00:07:34.800 --> 00:07:37.430
based on the idea that
the larger it would be,

00:07:37.430 --> 00:07:39.203
the less manageable it would be.

00:07:40.460 --> 00:07:43.626
James Madison himself was
very hostile to the idea

00:07:43.626 --> 00:07:47.060
of a larger House of Representatives,

00:07:47.060 --> 00:07:49.750
arguing that it would be
a step towards tyranny

00:07:49.750 --> 00:07:54.320
because a body too large would
fall victim to demagogues.

00:07:54.320 --> 00:07:55.490
- [Kim] This is really fascinating,

00:07:55.490 --> 00:07:59.741
because even if we had
gone with 30,000 or 40,000,

00:07:59.741 --> 00:08:01.700
today the House of Representatives

00:08:01.700 --> 00:08:04.480
would have more than 10,000 people in it.

00:08:04.480 --> 00:08:09.480
But today, we only have 435
Representatives in the House.

00:08:09.740 --> 00:08:11.740
How did we get from there to here?

00:08:11.740 --> 00:08:13.420
- [Fergus] Well, Congress did provide

00:08:13.420 --> 00:08:15.910
for the incremental increase in

00:08:16.752 --> 00:08:19.390
the size of congressional districts,

00:08:19.390 --> 00:08:21.470
knowing that population would increase.

00:08:21.470 --> 00:08:23.230
Everybody knew it was going to increase.

00:08:23.230 --> 00:08:27.920
Nobody in 1789 or 1790 could imagine

00:08:27.920 --> 00:08:30.680
a country of two hundred million people.

00:08:30.680 --> 00:08:34.130
The outermost number
that they contemplated

00:08:34.130 --> 00:08:36.950
in 1790 was about 200.

00:08:36.950 --> 00:08:39.200
We now know it's 435.

00:08:39.200 --> 00:08:41.340
Over time in the 19th century,

00:08:41.340 --> 00:08:43.150
as we admitted more states,

00:08:43.150 --> 00:08:47.280
we added more population
and more representatives.

00:08:47.280 --> 00:08:50.280
The politics of stopping it at 435

00:08:50.280 --> 00:08:51.860
is frankly a little intricate.

00:08:51.860 --> 00:08:54.060
But at any rate, the number
continued to increase

00:08:54.060 --> 00:08:57.620
through the 19th century
into the 20th century.

00:08:57.620 --> 00:09:02.030
There was no reapportionment
after the census of 1920.

00:09:02.030 --> 00:09:06.050
The Republicans who dominated
in Congress at the time

00:09:07.170 --> 00:09:12.170
worried that reapportioning after 1920

00:09:12.370 --> 00:09:14.509
would increase the number of Democrats.

00:09:14.509 --> 00:09:16.580
It became a partisan issue.

00:09:16.580 --> 00:09:18.273
There was no reapportionment

00:09:18.273 --> 00:09:23.273
until later in the 1920s,
when it was stopped at 435.

00:09:25.050 --> 00:09:27.300
Since then, there's
basically been a consensus

00:09:27.300 --> 00:09:29.700
that this is a manageable number.

00:09:29.700 --> 00:09:32.440
- [Kim] One of these
amendments actually reappeared

00:09:32.440 --> 00:09:36.110
and was passed in 1992.

00:09:36.110 --> 00:09:38.980
Can you tell us a little
bit about the story

00:09:38.980 --> 00:09:41.650
of this lost amendment?

00:09:41.650 --> 00:09:43.400
- [Fergus] Yeah, it's a cute story.

00:09:44.665 --> 00:09:47.310
A student at the University
of Texas in the 1980s

00:09:48.190 --> 00:09:51.920
was writing a paper for history class

00:09:51.920 --> 00:09:56.920
and stumbled across this
long forgotten amendment,

00:09:57.361 --> 00:10:01.260
and wrote about it, and was given,

00:10:01.260 --> 00:10:04.810
I believe, a C grade for
it because his professor

00:10:04.810 --> 00:10:09.333
considered the subject
irrelevant and inconsequential.

00:10:10.210 --> 00:10:12.253
His name was Gregory Watson.

00:10:13.674 --> 00:10:16.250
He was so, I think,
frustrated by the grade

00:10:16.250 --> 00:10:21.250
but also inspired by the story
of this forgotten amendment

00:10:21.580 --> 00:10:25.880
that he began to wage initially a one-man,

00:10:25.880 --> 00:10:28.053
a one-student lobbying campaign.

00:10:29.580 --> 00:10:31.970
Astonishingly enough, within a decade,

00:10:31.970 --> 00:10:34.110
nearly every state
ratified that amendment,

00:10:34.110 --> 00:10:35.300
all but four states.

00:10:35.300 --> 00:10:37.401
So it has now since '92,

00:10:37.401 --> 00:10:39.850
been an amendment to the Constitution.

00:10:39.850 --> 00:10:42.040
Frankly, a not very relevant one

00:10:42.040 --> 00:10:45.320
because Congress has raised
congressional salaries

00:10:45.320 --> 00:10:48.392
by ordinary legislation
for more than 200 years.

00:10:48.392 --> 00:10:51.810
They didn't really need
the amendment to do so.

00:10:51.810 --> 00:10:53.890
- [Kim] Looking back over the history

00:10:53.890 --> 00:10:55.940
of Constitutional amendments,

00:10:55.940 --> 00:10:59.020
you see that they kind of come in bunches.

00:10:59.020 --> 00:11:03.230
There are the ten that
come immediately after

00:11:03.230 --> 00:11:05.320
the adoption of the Constitution.

00:11:05.320 --> 00:11:08.640
Then there are the
Reconstruction amendments

00:11:08.640 --> 00:11:10.820
that come right after the Civil War.

00:11:10.820 --> 00:11:13.280
Then there are the
Progressive-era amendments,

00:11:13.280 --> 00:11:16.240
ones like Prohibition or
women's right to vote.

00:11:16.240 --> 00:11:19.190
Then there's been kind of a lull

00:11:19.190 --> 00:11:21.510
in Constitutional amendments

00:11:21.510 --> 00:11:26.300
This 1992 amendment is the 27th and final.

00:11:26.300 --> 00:11:29.040
So are there more amendments coming

00:11:29.040 --> 00:11:32.650
and if so, what might they be about?

00:11:32.650 --> 00:11:34.630
- [Fergus] Well, it's very difficult

00:11:34.630 --> 00:11:36.060
to amend the Constitution.

00:11:36.060 --> 00:11:37.970
That's one reason there are so few.

00:11:37.970 --> 00:11:39.660
There are other countries which have

00:11:39.660 --> 00:11:43.470
immensely long Constitutions
and amend them all the time.

00:11:43.470 --> 00:11:47.990
We're extremely conservative
as a nation historically

00:11:47.990 --> 00:11:52.440
in tampering with or
altering our Constitution.

00:11:52.440 --> 00:11:54.040
Let's look at a couple of recent ones.

00:11:54.040 --> 00:11:55.649
There was the Equal Rights Amendment,

00:11:55.649 --> 00:11:59.000
an amendment to guarantee,
across the board,

00:11:59.000 --> 00:12:01.440
equal rights to women,
which almost passed.

00:12:01.440 --> 00:12:04.220
I believe it fell short by only one state,

00:12:04.220 --> 00:12:06.470
back in the 1970s.

00:12:06.470 --> 00:12:10.240
That came within a hair of being ratified.

00:12:10.240 --> 00:12:13.400
Another amendment that
had some vigor in it

00:12:13.400 --> 00:12:16.810
in recent years was one to provide

00:12:16.810 --> 00:12:20.280
a voting member for the
District of Columbia.

00:12:20.280 --> 00:12:23.050
The District of Columbia is not a state.

00:12:23.050 --> 00:12:25.160
It's a unique entity.

00:12:25.160 --> 00:12:27.348
The Constitution does not provide

00:12:27.348 --> 00:12:30.810
for the seat of government to be a state.

00:12:30.810 --> 00:12:33.760
So it's very tricky, legally
and constitutionally,

00:12:33.760 --> 00:12:36.300
what is the District of Columbia.

00:12:36.300 --> 00:12:39.079
There was a proposed
amendment that would enable

00:12:39.079 --> 00:12:41.450
D.C. to have a voting member.

00:12:41.450 --> 00:12:44.240
I think both of these amendments,

00:12:44.240 --> 00:12:48.640
which were proposed but were
not ratified, may return.

00:12:48.640 --> 00:12:52.030
I do think at some point, D.C. will

00:12:52.030 --> 00:12:53.840
be given a status that enables it

00:12:53.840 --> 00:12:56.260
to have voting representation in Congress.

00:12:56.260 --> 00:12:58.080
I'm not sure what the formula will be.

00:12:58.080 --> 00:13:01.840
There is a renewed
effort underway currently

00:13:01.840 --> 00:13:04.730
to reintroduce the Equal Rights Amendment.

00:13:04.730 --> 00:13:09.730
I think as women increasingly
have a higher profile

00:13:10.260 --> 00:13:12.900
and more influence politically

00:13:12.900 --> 00:13:14.590
that the possibility of that

00:13:14.590 --> 00:13:17.040
one day becoming an amendment

00:13:17.040 --> 00:13:19.960
to the Constitution is foreseeable.

00:13:19.960 --> 00:13:22.570
- [Kim] One thing that we
haven't discussed so far

00:13:22.570 --> 00:13:25.810
is that when the Bill of
Rights originally was passed,

00:13:25.810 --> 00:13:28.000
it only applied to the federal government,

00:13:28.000 --> 00:13:29.670
not to the states.

00:13:29.670 --> 00:13:33.950
How does that intersect with
these unadopted amendments?

00:13:33.950 --> 00:13:35.898
- [Fergus] Very important point.

00:13:35.898 --> 00:13:40.700
James Madison, who did more

00:13:40.700 --> 00:13:42.510
than any other member of Congress

00:13:42.510 --> 00:13:45.483
to shape what we now
call the Bill of Rights,

00:13:46.540 --> 00:13:49.380
Madison argued that these amendments

00:13:49.380 --> 00:13:53.640
should also apply, and
especially the protections

00:13:53.640 --> 00:13:57.520
of civil rights that we
find in the First Amendment

00:13:57.520 --> 00:14:00.210
and others, that they
should apply to states.

00:14:00.210 --> 00:14:03.790
He argued vigorously
that they should be meant

00:14:03.790 --> 00:14:04.810
to apply to states.

00:14:04.810 --> 00:14:08.269
He failed, he wanted that to be explicit

00:14:08.269 --> 00:14:09.680
in the Bill of Rights.

00:14:09.680 --> 00:14:13.550
It is not, because the
power of states rights

00:14:13.550 --> 00:14:17.350
within Congress was
still so great in 1790,

00:14:17.350 --> 00:14:19.560
that states would not accept it.

00:14:19.560 --> 00:14:21.330
When did that change?

00:14:21.330 --> 00:14:23.670
The Reconstruction-era amendments,

00:14:23.670 --> 00:14:27.670
designed initially to provide
rights for black Americans,

00:14:27.670 --> 00:14:31.260
for African Americans
coming out of slavery,

00:14:31.260 --> 00:14:34.231
made clear that the Bill of Rights

00:14:34.231 --> 00:14:37.790
had to be applied across
the board in states.

00:14:37.790 --> 00:14:39.760
Was it, practically speaking?

00:14:39.760 --> 00:14:40.610
No, it wasn't.

00:14:40.610 --> 00:14:43.930
In point of fact, those
Reconstruction amendments

00:14:43.930 --> 00:14:47.820
were largely disregarded
and ignored for many years,

00:14:47.820 --> 00:14:50.670
until the 20th century
civil rights movement,

00:14:50.670 --> 00:14:53.440
particularly beginning in the 1950s,

00:14:53.440 --> 00:14:54.990
began to put federal muscle

00:14:54.990 --> 00:14:57.697
behind the enforcement
of those amendments.

00:14:57.697 --> 00:14:59.790
- [Kim] And here, we're
specifically discussing

00:14:59.790 --> 00:15:02.730
the 14th Amendment and its
equal protection clause,

00:15:02.730 --> 00:15:04.710
which was passed after the Civil War

00:15:04.710 --> 00:15:07.770
to guarantee citizenship
rights to African Americans

00:15:07.770 --> 00:15:12.030
but was really, as we know
from the Jim Crow laws,

00:15:12.030 --> 00:15:15.140
something that existed on
paper but not in reality.

00:15:15.140 --> 00:15:17.580
It took the work of civil rights groups

00:15:17.580 --> 00:15:20.320
and federal enforcement
to make these rights

00:15:20.320 --> 00:15:23.095
that existed on paper, a reality.

00:15:23.095 --> 00:15:25.110
- [Fergus] Absolutely correct.

00:15:25.110 --> 00:15:27.310
It's really a modern notion.

00:15:27.310 --> 00:15:30.230
When I say modern, I mean
a 20th century notion,

00:15:30.230 --> 00:15:34.290
that all Americans should expect to have

00:15:35.320 --> 00:15:37.903
equal rights in practice under the law.

00:15:39.260 --> 00:15:42.250
In the 19th century, equal
rights were not enforced,

00:15:42.250 --> 00:15:44.500
regardless of what the Constitution

00:15:44.500 --> 00:15:47.870
or the Bill of Rights says.

00:15:49.730 --> 00:15:51.620
Without a federal
government committed to it,

00:15:51.620 --> 00:15:53.250
they won't be enforced.

00:15:53.250 --> 00:15:54.540
- [Kim] So we've learned that

00:15:54.540 --> 00:15:57.380
there were more than
200 proposed amendments

00:15:57.380 --> 00:15:58.740
to the US Constitution,

00:15:58.740 --> 00:16:01.694
that James Madison
whittled down to just 12.

00:16:01.694 --> 00:16:05.420
Of those, only ten were ratified
at the time of the Framing.

00:16:05.420 --> 00:16:07.216
The unadopted amendments show us

00:16:07.216 --> 00:16:11.320
just how important ratification
is to the amendment process.

00:16:11.320 --> 00:16:14.980
Even if an amendment is
proposed and passed by Congress

00:16:14.980 --> 00:16:16.970
or a special convention of the states,

00:16:16.970 --> 00:16:20.330
to become law, three-quarters
of the states must ratify it,

00:16:20.330 --> 00:16:22.080
which is really hard to do.

00:16:22.080 --> 00:16:24.820
What do you think the next
Constitutional amendment will be?

00:16:24.820 --> 00:16:26.120
The Equal Rights Amendment?

00:16:26.120 --> 00:16:28.450
Representation for the
District of Columbia,

00:16:28.450 --> 00:16:30.120
or something completely different?

00:16:30.120 --> 00:16:31.840
To learn more about the Bill of Rights,

00:16:31.840 --> 00:16:33.990
check out the National
Constitution Center's

00:16:33.990 --> 00:16:36.960
interactive Constitution,
and Khan Academy's resources

00:16:36.960 --> 00:16:38.753
on US government and politics.


Dred Scott v. Sandford

WEBVTT
Kind: captions
Language: en

00:00:00.170 --> 00:00:02.290
- [Narrator] Hi this is
Kim from Khan Academy.

00:00:02.290 --> 00:00:04.540
Today we're learning
more about the landmark

00:00:04.540 --> 00:00:08.000
Supreme Court case Dred
Scott versus Sandford.

00:00:08.000 --> 00:00:11.680
Decided in 1857, the ruling
in the Dred Scott case

00:00:11.680 --> 00:00:14.370
inflamed sectional tensions over slavery,

00:00:14.370 --> 00:00:16.220
which had been growing ever more heated

00:00:16.220 --> 00:00:18.090
over the course of the 1850s.

00:00:18.090 --> 00:00:21.590
Originally a case about whether
one man ought to be free,

00:00:21.590 --> 00:00:24.940
Dred Scott versus Sandford
transformed into a case

00:00:24.940 --> 00:00:27.020
about African-American citizenship

00:00:27.020 --> 00:00:30.330
and the future of the
institution of slavery itself.

00:00:30.330 --> 00:00:33.200
To learn more, I sought
out help of two experts.

00:00:33.200 --> 00:00:35.630
Christopher Bracey is a Professor of Law

00:00:35.630 --> 00:00:38.490
at the George Washington
University School of Law.

00:00:38.490 --> 00:00:42.550
He's an expert in US race
relations, individual rights

00:00:42.550 --> 00:00:44.410
and criminal procedure.

00:00:44.410 --> 00:00:47.470
Timothy Huebner is the Irma O. Sternberg

00:00:47.470 --> 00:00:49.950
Professor of History at Rhodes College

00:00:49.950 --> 00:00:53.120
and the author of Liberty
and Union: The Civil War Era

00:00:53.120 --> 00:00:55.400
and American Constitutionalism.

00:00:55.400 --> 00:00:57.170
Professor Bracey can you
take us through a little bit,

00:00:57.170 --> 00:01:01.550
just who was Dred Scott and
why did he bring this case?

00:01:01.550 --> 00:01:04.363
- [Christopher] So Dred
Scott was born around 1800

00:01:04.363 --> 00:01:07.790
and was the slave of Peter
and Elizabeth Taylor Blow.

00:01:07.790 --> 00:01:10.880
In 1818, Peter Blow
decides to move his family

00:01:10.880 --> 00:01:13.000
and Dred Scott to Alabama

00:01:13.000 --> 00:01:15.020
where he'd bought a cotton plantation.

00:01:15.020 --> 00:01:16.740
That didn't go so well,

00:01:16.740 --> 00:01:19.280
so he sells the plantation
and moves the family

00:01:19.280 --> 00:01:21.350
and Dred to St. Louis, Missouri,

00:01:21.350 --> 00:01:22.930
where he'd purchased a
boarding house called

00:01:22.930 --> 00:01:24.807
The Jefferson Hotel.

00:01:24.807 --> 00:01:27.090
- [Timothy] And that
period really was a period

00:01:27.090 --> 00:01:30.260
during which the nation was arguing over

00:01:30.260 --> 00:01:35.260
the status of slaves and
the rights of slaveholders

00:01:35.480 --> 00:01:39.430
and the future of slavery
in new western territories.

00:01:39.430 --> 00:01:42.597
And this issue came up
in a very significant way

00:01:42.597 --> 00:01:45.230
and a very controversial
way in the question

00:01:45.230 --> 00:01:48.380
of the future of slavery in the territory

00:01:48.380 --> 00:01:50.700
and ultimately the state of Missouri.

00:01:50.700 --> 00:01:53.100
After two years of arguing over this,

00:01:53.100 --> 00:01:57.610
finally in 1820 and 1821,
a sort of compromise

00:01:57.610 --> 00:02:01.030
was set out by members of Congress.

00:02:01.030 --> 00:02:04.310
North of the southern border of Missouri,

00:02:04.310 --> 00:02:08.260
with the exception of
the state of Missouri,

00:02:08.260 --> 00:02:10.260
slavery would be banned.

00:02:10.260 --> 00:02:13.450
- [Christopher] In 1830,
Elizabeth Taylor Blow dies

00:02:13.450 --> 00:02:15.390
and Peter himself dies two years later.

00:02:15.390 --> 00:02:18.450
But before he does, he
makes an arrangement to sell

00:02:18.450 --> 00:02:21.650
Dred to an Army physician
by the name of Dr. Emerson.

00:02:21.650 --> 00:02:24.290
Dr. Emerson is an Army
physician, so he's gonna be

00:02:24.290 --> 00:02:26.140
stationed in a lot of different places,

00:02:26.140 --> 00:02:28.210
not just in the slave state of Missouri.

00:02:28.210 --> 00:02:30.920
In fact, it turns out that
Dr. Emerson's first posting

00:02:30.920 --> 00:02:33.340
with Dred takes him to Fort Armstrong,

00:02:33.340 --> 00:02:35.560
which is located in Rock Island, Illinois

00:02:35.560 --> 00:02:37.550
and Illinois is of course a free state.

00:02:37.550 --> 00:02:40.050
Under both federal law and Missouri law

00:02:40.050 --> 00:02:42.630
as understood at the
time, Dred would have lost

00:02:42.630 --> 00:02:45.010
his slave status and become a free man

00:02:45.010 --> 00:02:47.540
as soon as he stepped
foot onto free territory.

00:02:47.540 --> 00:02:49.890
This was known as the Extra-territorial

00:02:49.890 --> 00:02:51.440
Emancipation Doctrine.

00:02:51.440 --> 00:02:54.470
- [Timothy] It was perfectly
legal and perfectly possible

00:02:54.470 --> 00:02:59.290
for a slave sojourner, a
slave who had been taken

00:02:59.290 --> 00:03:03.280
into a free state or free territory,

00:03:03.280 --> 00:03:05.040
to file suit for his freedom.

00:03:05.040 --> 00:03:06.410
- [Christopher] Dr. Emerson marries

00:03:06.410 --> 00:03:09.480
Eliza Irene Sandford of St. Louis.

00:03:09.480 --> 00:03:12.590
Dr. Emerson eventually
dies in 1843 and he leaves

00:03:12.590 --> 00:03:16.500
the entire estate, including
the Scotts, to Mrs. Emerson.

00:03:16.500 --> 00:03:19.670
Mrs. Emerson decides she
would like to hire Dred out

00:03:19.670 --> 00:03:21.900
to make some money for herself.

00:03:21.900 --> 00:03:24.710
Rather than be hired out,
Dred offers to purchase

00:03:24.710 --> 00:03:28.320
his own freedom, and the
freedom of his entire family.

00:03:28.320 --> 00:03:31.610
But Mrs. Emerson refuses
to allow Dred to buy out

00:03:31.610 --> 00:03:33.250
the freedom of his family.

00:03:33.250 --> 00:03:35.920
So Dred Scott files a civil lawsuit,

00:03:35.920 --> 00:03:38.140
what was called a Freedom Suit back then,

00:03:38.140 --> 00:03:40.574
in the Missouri State court.

00:03:40.574 --> 00:03:42.860
And his claim was that
Mrs. Emerson was falsely

00:03:42.860 --> 00:03:44.810
imprisoning him and his family.

00:03:44.810 --> 00:03:47.070
- [Timothy] And he was able
to do this with the help

00:03:47.070 --> 00:03:49.470
of the sons of his formers owners.

00:03:49.470 --> 00:03:52.290
- [Christopher] The lawyer
is being paid by the children

00:03:52.290 --> 00:03:54.220
of Peter and Elizabeth Taylor Blow,

00:03:54.220 --> 00:03:56.240
- [Narrator] Wow.
Dred Scott's first master.

00:03:56.240 --> 00:03:58.450
In the meantime you
have a new development,

00:03:58.450 --> 00:04:00.870
Mrs. Emerson has remarried

00:04:00.870 --> 00:04:04.650
to Republican congressman Calvin
Chaffee, from Massachusetts

00:04:04.650 --> 00:04:08.670
and he can't be a slave owner and still be

00:04:08.670 --> 00:04:12.240
a Republican congressman
from Massachusetts.

00:04:12.240 --> 00:04:15.990
So Mrs. Emerson transfers
title of the Scotts

00:04:15.990 --> 00:04:19.270
to her brother John
Sandford who is a resident

00:04:19.270 --> 00:04:22.560
of New York, with business
ties in St. Louis.

00:04:22.560 --> 00:04:24.530
- [Timothy] Now it was
eligible for the case

00:04:24.530 --> 00:04:28.550
to go into Federal Court
in that it involved people

00:04:28.550 --> 00:04:30.800
who lived in two different states.

00:04:30.800 --> 00:04:32.513
- [Christopher] So now
you might be thinking,

00:04:32.513 --> 00:04:34.550
"Well, filing a lawsuit
against your purported master,

00:04:34.550 --> 00:04:36.270
that's pretty brave stuff."

00:04:36.270 --> 00:04:38.270
But as it turns out freedoms
suits of this nature

00:04:38.270 --> 00:04:40.560
were not that uncommon,
particularly in border states

00:04:40.560 --> 00:04:42.890
where the slavery question
was hotly disputed.

00:04:42.890 --> 00:04:45.280
Indeed there were some 300
or so of these freedom suits

00:04:45.280 --> 00:04:47.300
that were filed in
Missouri during the period

00:04:47.300 --> 00:04:49.110
in which Dred Scott filed his case.

00:04:49.110 --> 00:04:52.230
Many people viewed the Missouri
Compromise as not so much

00:04:52.230 --> 00:04:55.050
of a compromise but as
something that was forced

00:04:55.050 --> 00:04:57.030
upon the slave states.

00:04:57.030 --> 00:04:59.390
And then you've got
the Kansas-Nebraska Act

00:04:59.390 --> 00:05:02.890
which gave similar autonomy
to those areas to decide

00:05:02.890 --> 00:05:05.220
the slavery question and
whether or not it would be

00:05:05.220 --> 00:05:07.140
introduced into those territories.

00:05:07.140 --> 00:05:09.080
- [Narrator] Interesting,
so people in the North

00:05:09.080 --> 00:05:11.600
who opposed slavery or at the very least

00:05:11.600 --> 00:05:14.730
didn't want slavery to expand,
would have been looking

00:05:14.730 --> 00:05:17.140
in the 1850s and saying,
"Hey I thought we already

00:05:17.140 --> 00:05:20.990
decided this, there wouldn't
be slavery north of this line

00:05:20.990 --> 00:05:23.600
and now you're saying
maybe Kansas and Nebraska

00:05:23.600 --> 00:05:24.880
could be slave states."

00:05:24.880 --> 00:05:27.070
- [Timothy] Right and
that was a huge issue

00:05:27.070 --> 00:05:29.350
in national politics because
northerners are starting

00:05:29.350 --> 00:05:34.290
to grow very suspicious of
southerners on the slavery issue.

00:05:34.290 --> 00:05:36.420
They're starting to
speak of what they called

00:05:36.420 --> 00:05:38.080
the slave power,

00:05:38.080 --> 00:05:43.080
that southern slaveholders
held all of this power

00:05:43.520 --> 00:05:47.930
in Washington and that
they were running the show.

00:05:47.930 --> 00:05:51.400
And that this 1854 act
had made it possible

00:05:51.400 --> 00:05:56.131
for slavery to potentially
expand into an area

00:05:56.131 --> 00:05:59.360
where previously it had been banned.

00:05:59.360 --> 00:06:01.940
- [Christopher] And you
really do get this escalation

00:06:01.940 --> 00:06:05.100
of tension and the
Fugitive Slave Act of 1850

00:06:05.100 --> 00:06:08.870
which basically forced
requirements upon free states

00:06:08.870 --> 00:06:13.410
to ensure the longevity
of the slave states

00:06:13.410 --> 00:06:15.930
by requiring them to
undertake certain behaviors

00:06:15.930 --> 00:06:19.140
and the return of fugitive
slaves only escalated

00:06:19.140 --> 00:06:22.730
the tension and concern
about the status of slavery

00:06:22.730 --> 00:06:24.220
in American life.

00:06:24.220 --> 00:06:27.270
- [Narrator] Alright so we're
in this incredibly tense time

00:06:27.270 --> 00:06:32.270
of the 1850s with the slavery
question yet unanswered

00:06:32.290 --> 00:06:37.233
and Dred Scott and his case
gets to the Supreme Court.

00:06:37.233 --> 00:06:40.040
So how does the Supreme
Court rule on this?

00:06:40.040 --> 00:06:41.560
- [Christopher] In a seven to two ruling,

00:06:41.560 --> 00:06:46.110
the Supreme Court held that
Dred Scott was not a citizen

00:06:46.110 --> 00:06:49.190
of the United States, and so therefore

00:06:49.190 --> 00:06:52.780
he could not bring his freedom
suit before federal court,

00:06:52.780 --> 00:06:55.640
which is really a jurisdictional question.

00:06:55.640 --> 00:06:59.380
But then the Court also
goes on to invalidate

00:06:59.380 --> 00:07:02.810
the Missouri Compromise, despite finding

00:07:02.810 --> 00:07:05.980
that it lacked jurisdiction
to hear the case.

00:07:05.980 --> 00:07:08.530
- [Timothy] What happens
when the case is being argued

00:07:08.530 --> 00:07:11.220
is that one of the
arguments that's introduced

00:07:11.220 --> 00:07:15.940
is this idea that when
Scott had been taken

00:07:15.940 --> 00:07:20.920
into free territory, he
wasn't necessarily free

00:07:20.920 --> 00:07:25.920
because the Missouri Compromise
was unconstitutional.

00:07:26.040 --> 00:07:28.490
And so what the Court
ends up doing is not only

00:07:28.490 --> 00:07:31.650
ruling on the status of Scott, but also on

00:07:31.650 --> 00:07:35.880
the status of slavery in
these federal territories

00:07:35.880 --> 00:07:40.350
in the west and the extent
of the powers of Congress

00:07:40.350 --> 00:07:43.040
over slavery in the west.

00:07:43.040 --> 00:07:47.400
- [Narrator] Interesting so
Chief Justice Roger Taney

00:07:47.400 --> 00:07:51.300
is then leading the Supreme
Court and he, I guess,

00:07:51.300 --> 00:07:53.540
leads the reasoning about this case.

00:07:53.540 --> 00:07:57.230
So what were some of the arguments that he

00:07:57.230 --> 00:08:00.898
eventually accepted and
made in his decision?

00:08:00.898 --> 00:08:03.620
- [Timothy] Chief Justice Taney's
a very interesting figure.

00:08:03.620 --> 00:08:06.740
He had been on the court for many years.

00:08:06.740 --> 00:08:11.470
He, in his early years, had
been moderately anti-slavery,

00:08:11.470 --> 00:08:14.850
had freed most of his
own slaves, and had made

00:08:14.850 --> 00:08:16.550
anti-slavery statements.

00:08:16.550 --> 00:08:21.550
But by 1857 Taney
reflected the larger change

00:08:21.690 --> 00:08:24.690
that had taken place
within his political party,

00:08:24.690 --> 00:08:26.480
Taney was a Democrat.

00:08:26.480 --> 00:08:29.880
And the Democratic party
had become more Southern

00:08:29.880 --> 00:08:32.430
dominated and more pro-slavery.

00:08:32.430 --> 00:08:37.170
And Taney then, by
1857, really is a symbol

00:08:37.170 --> 00:08:40.660
of pro-slavery Southern thought.

00:08:40.660 --> 00:08:42.590
- [Christopher] Justice Taney's opinion

00:08:42.590 --> 00:08:44.480
is somewhat notorious.

00:08:44.480 --> 00:08:47.150
He makes a series of arguments and

00:08:47.150 --> 00:08:50.880
one is legal, the others are
really not legal arguments

00:08:50.880 --> 00:08:52.300
as I'll explain.

00:08:52.300 --> 00:08:55.780
What he starts out by
saying is that just because

00:08:55.780 --> 00:08:58.270
you're a citizen of a state,
that does not make you

00:08:58.270 --> 00:09:00.850
a citizen of the United States.

00:09:00.850 --> 00:09:03.378
He says basically the federal government

00:09:03.378 --> 00:09:08.060
has exclusive authority
to decide who is a citizen

00:09:08.060 --> 00:09:09.640
of the United States.

00:09:09.640 --> 00:09:11.690
Then he makes a second
argument and he says

00:09:11.690 --> 00:09:16.690
even if Dred Scott were a
citizen of the state of Missouri

00:09:17.150 --> 00:09:20.130
he would not be a citizen
of the United States

00:09:20.130 --> 00:09:22.370
because he's black.

00:09:22.370 --> 00:09:25.570
And what he meant by that
is that the word citizen

00:09:25.570 --> 00:09:27.740
as used in the Constitution

00:09:27.740 --> 00:09:31.250
and the Declaration of
Independence categorically excluded

00:09:31.250 --> 00:09:33.780
members of the Negro race.

00:09:33.780 --> 00:09:35.690
- [Narrator] This is fascinating
because it seems to me

00:09:35.690 --> 00:09:39.926
like Justice Taney may have
been ignoring a long history

00:09:39.926 --> 00:09:43.390
of free people of color
in the United States

00:09:43.390 --> 00:09:47.140
who had voting rights,
who had property rights.

00:09:47.140 --> 00:09:50.890
- [Timothy] He was and that
was part of the criticism

00:09:50.890 --> 00:09:54.330
of the majority opinion that comes in,

00:09:54.330 --> 00:09:57.850
especially the dissent written
by Justice Benjamin Curtis.

00:09:57.850 --> 00:10:01.650
Curtis had the lengthier
of the two dissents

00:10:01.650 --> 00:10:04.907
and the more thorough legal argument

00:10:04.907 --> 00:10:08.590
because, as you point
out, that in five states

00:10:08.590 --> 00:10:11.810
at the time of the founding,
that African-Americans

00:10:11.810 --> 00:10:15.528
did exercise the right to vote

00:10:15.528 --> 00:10:18.990
that was a sign or some
sort of an indication

00:10:18.990 --> 00:10:21.130
of their status as citizens.

00:10:21.130 --> 00:10:26.130
And so the argument made
by Justice Curtis then,

00:10:26.130 --> 00:10:30.990
is that Taney's reading of
history was that the founders

00:10:30.990 --> 00:10:35.990
had not intended for
African-Americans to be part of

00:10:36.610 --> 00:10:41.300
the people or the citizens
that were referred to

00:10:41.300 --> 00:10:44.070
in the text of the US Constitution.

00:10:44.070 --> 00:10:47.110
- [Christopher] What
Justice Taney has done here

00:10:47.110 --> 00:10:51.570
has basically created a
blind spot for himself

00:10:51.570 --> 00:10:55.660
and he goes on to point out
that this is not his belief,

00:10:55.660 --> 00:10:58.500
this belief in Negro inferiority,
but he said that it was

00:10:58.500 --> 00:11:02.090
a fixed and universal belief
within the civilized portion

00:11:02.090 --> 00:11:05.220
of the white race, he said
it was an axiom, a truth.

00:11:05.220 --> 00:11:07.610
But what's interesting
is that he says this

00:11:07.610 --> 00:11:09.767
without a citation.

00:11:09.767 --> 00:11:12.360
He says that these aren't his
views, these are the views

00:11:12.360 --> 00:11:15.390
of the framers, the
great men who were high

00:11:15.390 --> 00:11:18.100
in literary accomplishment,
high in their sense of honor.

00:11:18.100 --> 00:11:20.470
He said that they perfectly
understood the language

00:11:20.470 --> 00:11:23.690
that they used, and how it
would be understood by others.

00:11:23.690 --> 00:11:27.090
And there's this great
quote in the opinion

00:11:27.090 --> 00:11:30.750
where he says that they,
the framers, knew that

00:11:30.750 --> 00:11:33.530
it would not in any part
of the civilized world

00:11:33.530 --> 00:11:36.180
be supposed to embrace the Negro race,

00:11:36.180 --> 00:11:38.520
which by common consent had been excluded

00:11:38.520 --> 00:11:41.560
from civilized governments
and the family of nations

00:11:41.560 --> 00:11:44.193
and doomed to slavery.

00:11:44.193 --> 00:11:45.870
What Justice Taney has done here,

00:11:45.870 --> 00:11:48.700
is he's attempted to rewrite history.

00:11:48.700 --> 00:11:52.120
- [Narrator] So how the
American people respond to the

00:11:52.120 --> 00:11:53.750
Dred Scott decision at large?

00:11:53.750 --> 00:11:58.750
Where they generally
for it, or aghast by it?

00:11:59.130 --> 00:12:01.070
- [Timothy] Well as you might expect,

00:12:01.070 --> 00:12:02.960
things were split exactly down the middle.

00:12:02.960 --> 00:12:07.210
What we see in the South
is white Southerners

00:12:07.210 --> 00:12:12.000
believe that the ruling is a vindication

00:12:12.000 --> 00:12:14.460
of what they had been arguing.

00:12:14.460 --> 00:12:16.800
Southerners had been
arguing for many years

00:12:16.800 --> 00:12:21.000
going back to John C.
Calhoun, that Southerners

00:12:21.000 --> 00:12:24.520
and that Southern slave
holders had a bundle of rights.

00:12:24.520 --> 00:12:27.860
And they argued that they
had the right to own slaves

00:12:27.860 --> 00:12:30.330
as property in the southern states.

00:12:30.330 --> 00:12:32.940
They argued that they
had a right to recapture

00:12:32.940 --> 00:12:35.350
fugitive slaves who escaped into the north

00:12:35.350 --> 00:12:37.470
and they also argued that they had a right

00:12:37.470 --> 00:12:39.650
to take slaves into the west.

00:12:39.650 --> 00:12:42.680
And so Southerners then
feel that the Court

00:12:42.680 --> 00:12:45.260
and the US Constitution are on their side.

00:12:45.260 --> 00:12:49.660
You see a lot of folks in
the north who are hostile

00:12:49.660 --> 00:12:52.880
to what the Court has done,
because once again they

00:12:52.880 --> 00:12:55.060
see it as further evidence that the Court

00:12:55.060 --> 00:12:59.320
is dominated by the Democratic
party, by the slave power.

00:12:59.320 --> 00:13:03.270
And many of these folks
then are going to be

00:13:03.270 --> 00:13:06.480
members of a new party,
and that was of course

00:13:06.480 --> 00:13:08.810
the Republican Party.

00:13:08.810 --> 00:13:11.770
- [Christopher] I think the
abolitionists were furious

00:13:11.770 --> 00:13:15.340
and I think Frederick
Douglas' statement calling it

00:13:15.340 --> 00:13:17.880
a brazen misstatement of facts of history,

00:13:17.880 --> 00:13:21.570
a scandalous and devilish
perversion of the Constitution

00:13:21.570 --> 00:13:25.420
resonated and even future
Presidential candidate

00:13:25.420 --> 00:13:29.460
Abraham Lincoln, that same
summer that the case was decided,

00:13:29.460 --> 00:13:31.970
went out and denounced it publicly.

00:13:31.970 --> 00:13:35.440
- [Narrator] So Lincoln of
course wins the election

00:13:35.440 --> 00:13:38.135
of November 1860 which becomes

00:13:38.135 --> 00:13:41.720
a precipitating event of the Civil War.

00:13:41.720 --> 00:13:46.030
Do you see the Dred Scott
decision as being a really

00:13:46.030 --> 00:13:48.353
important cause of the Civil War?

00:13:49.209 --> 00:13:51.470
- [Timothy] Yeah so these things
are all linked, absolutely.

00:13:51.470 --> 00:13:55.840
Think about the ruling by
Taney in Dred Scott ruling that

00:13:55.840 --> 00:13:57.640
slave-holders rights are absolute.

00:13:57.640 --> 00:14:00.320
Taney rules African-Americans
have no rights,

00:14:00.320 --> 00:14:02.560
slaveholders have total rights.

00:14:02.560 --> 00:14:07.550
This makes it possible for Lincoln to rise

00:14:07.550 --> 00:14:10.940
as a political leader in the north because

00:14:10.940 --> 00:14:15.940
he has something that he
can strongly criticize.

00:14:16.160 --> 00:14:20.210
Lincoln basically makes the
argument that the founders

00:14:20.210 --> 00:14:24.180
had hoped for slavery
to disappear ultimately.

00:14:24.180 --> 00:14:27.470
And Taney's making exactly
the opposite argument.

00:14:27.470 --> 00:14:30.510
So the interesting thing
is, if you think about

00:14:30.510 --> 00:14:35.510
how this story ends, it
ends in March of 1861

00:14:37.470 --> 00:14:41.580
when Abraham Lincoln is
sworn-in as the 16th President.

00:14:41.580 --> 00:14:42.830
And who swears him in?

00:14:42.830 --> 00:14:45.243
Of course Roger B. Taney.

00:14:46.729 --> 00:14:48.580
So between the time
when Lincoln was elected

00:14:48.580 --> 00:14:51.880
in November of 1860 and
the time when he takes that

00:14:51.880 --> 00:14:54.800
oath of office in March of 1861,

00:14:54.800 --> 00:14:56.830
seven Southern slave-holding states,

00:14:56.830 --> 00:15:00.280
those are the states that
leave the Federal Union first.

00:15:00.280 --> 00:15:03.050
Four other states of
course will join them,

00:15:03.050 --> 00:15:06.830
but not until after the Civil
War has already started.

00:15:06.830 --> 00:15:09.300
- [Narrator] So there's
no Compromise of 1860,

00:15:09.300 --> 00:15:13.770
instead what we get is a
four-year long Civil War

00:15:13.770 --> 00:15:18.770
where more than 620,000
Americans are killed.

00:15:19.960 --> 00:15:24.465
And at the end of that war,
the North, the United States

00:15:24.465 --> 00:15:29.450
is victorious and slavery
in the 13th Amendment

00:15:29.450 --> 00:15:32.120
is abolished forever.

00:15:32.120 --> 00:15:35.230
How does the end of the
Civil War relate back

00:15:35.230 --> 00:15:37.000
to the Dred Scott case?

00:15:37.000 --> 00:15:39.931
- [Timothy] The 13th
Amendment ends slavery,

00:15:39.931 --> 00:15:44.010
the 14th Amendment has
to undermine or overturn

00:15:44.010 --> 00:15:47.450
the other part of the
Supreme Court's ruling

00:15:47.450 --> 00:15:51.190
which was this issue
of the rights of those

00:15:51.190 --> 00:15:54.270
who previously had been held as slaves.

00:15:54.270 --> 00:15:58.150
And the 14th Amendment
is going to do that work

00:15:58.150 --> 00:16:02.730
by stating that all who
were born in this country,

00:16:02.730 --> 00:16:05.770
by virtue of their birth here are citizens

00:16:05.770 --> 00:16:10.770
and that they have rights
that will be protected

00:16:10.890 --> 00:16:12.650
by the Federal government.

00:16:12.650 --> 00:16:16.170
And if you think about
it, what has changed,

00:16:16.170 --> 00:16:21.070
what has shifted, is the whole
national discourse of rights,

00:16:21.070 --> 00:16:23.830
from the emphasis on the
rights of slaveholders

00:16:23.830 --> 00:16:28.000
that we see in 1857, to
an emphasis on the rights

00:16:28.000 --> 00:16:31.510
of those who previously
had been held as slaves.

00:16:31.510 --> 00:16:35.490
And arguably then what we
see during the Civil War

00:16:35.490 --> 00:16:40.490
and Reconstruction is the
advent of a new discourse

00:16:41.150 --> 00:16:44.110
focusing on human rights.

00:16:44.110 --> 00:16:46.773
And that I would argue is
profoundly significant.

00:16:47.640 --> 00:16:50.800
- [Narrator] So what happened
to Dred Scott after this?

00:16:50.800 --> 00:16:53.070
Did he and his wife live to see the end

00:16:53.070 --> 00:16:55.040
of the Civil War and the end of slavery?

00:16:55.040 --> 00:16:57.950
- [Christopher] Unfortunately
Dred Scott did not.

00:16:57.950 --> 00:17:02.480
The Supreme Court renders
its decision in 1857

00:17:02.480 --> 00:17:06.410
but he dies, unfortunately in 1858.

00:17:06.410 --> 00:17:11.410
His wife Harriet though,
lives on to about 1876.

00:17:11.590 --> 00:17:15.940
So she did live to see
the end of the Civil War

00:17:15.940 --> 00:17:17.193
and the end of slavery.

00:17:18.586 --> 00:17:21.140
The Dred Scott case
made clear, at the time,

00:17:21.140 --> 00:17:24.780
that the struggle for
citizenship and of course

00:17:24.780 --> 00:17:27.590
the later struggle for civil rights,

00:17:27.590 --> 00:17:30.530
is about the desire to be
treated with equal dignity,

00:17:30.530 --> 00:17:33.900
to be viewed as possessing equal humanity.

00:17:33.900 --> 00:17:36.601
And what is perhaps most moving, I think,

00:17:36.601 --> 00:17:39.810
about the Dred Scott case
is the dignity with which

00:17:39.810 --> 00:17:43.670
the Scotts carried themselves
throughout the entire ordeal,

00:17:43.670 --> 00:17:46.250
despite the Court's best
efforts to deprive them

00:17:46.250 --> 00:17:47.920
of that dignity.

00:17:47.920 --> 00:17:50.930
It was ultimately Dred and
Harriet who gained the respect

00:17:50.930 --> 00:17:51.903
of the nation.

00:17:53.118 --> 00:17:54.480
And it was the inhumanity of the Court

00:17:54.480 --> 00:17:56.870
and the institution of
slavery that was laid bare

00:17:56.870 --> 00:17:57.943
for all to see.

00:17:59.048 --> 00:18:01.000
- [Narrator] So we've learned
that the ruling in Dred Scott

00:18:01.000 --> 00:18:04.440
helped bring about the Civil
War by further dividing

00:18:04.440 --> 00:18:07.060
the North and South over
the issue of slavery.

00:18:07.060 --> 00:18:09.590
Opposition to the case's outcome propelled

00:18:09.590 --> 00:18:12.200
Abraham Lincoln to the
national political stage

00:18:12.200 --> 00:18:15.340
and opposition to Abraham
Lincoln propelled slave states

00:18:15.340 --> 00:18:17.760
to secede after his election as President.

00:18:17.760 --> 00:18:21.520
But the Dred Scott case was
also about the lives and fates

00:18:21.520 --> 00:18:23.150
of one man and his family.

00:18:23.150 --> 00:18:26.090
Although Dred didn't survive
to see the end of slavery

00:18:26.090 --> 00:18:28.060
and the passage of the 14th Amendment

00:18:28.060 --> 00:18:30.740
granting equal citizenship
to African-Americans,

00:18:30.740 --> 00:18:33.040
his family lived to see the rewards

00:18:33.040 --> 00:18:34.480
of the struggle he began.

00:18:34.480 --> 00:18:36.680
To learn more about the Dred Scott case,

00:18:36.680 --> 00:18:38.780
visit the National Constitution Center's

00:18:38.780 --> 00:18:41.170
interactive Constitution
and Khan Academy's

00:18:41.170 --> 00:18:42.753
resources on US history.


Worked Phillips curves free response question

WEBVTT
Kind: captions
Language: en

00:00:00.150 --> 00:00:01.990
- [Instructor] Assume that
the United States economy

00:00:01.990 --> 00:00:04.460
is currently in a short run equilibrium

00:00:04.460 --> 00:00:07.430
with the actual unemployment rate above

00:00:07.430 --> 00:00:10.160
the natural rate of unemployment.

00:00:10.160 --> 00:00:14.550
Part A says draw a single
correctly labeled graph

00:00:14.550 --> 00:00:16.840
with both the long run Phillips curve

00:00:16.840 --> 00:00:19.140
and the short run Phillips curve.

00:00:19.140 --> 00:00:23.780
Label the current short
run equilibrium point P.

00:00:23.780 --> 00:00:25.220
So like always, pause this video,

00:00:25.220 --> 00:00:26.230
get a pencil and paper out

00:00:26.230 --> 00:00:27.760
and see if you can sketch this yourself

00:00:27.760 --> 00:00:29.240
before we work through this together.

00:00:29.240 --> 00:00:31.600
You'll get more out of this video.

00:00:31.600 --> 00:00:32.720
Alright, now let's do this together.

00:00:32.720 --> 00:00:34.580
So if we're thinking
about Phillips curves,

00:00:34.580 --> 00:00:36.950
we're going to, we're gonna have two axes.

00:00:36.950 --> 00:00:41.720
Our horizontal axis is going
to be the unemployment rate.

00:00:41.720 --> 00:00:46.210
Unemployment rate,

00:00:46.210 --> 00:00:49.130
which is going to
expressed as a percentage.

00:00:49.130 --> 00:00:53.590
And our vertical axis is going
to be our inflation rate,

00:00:53.590 --> 00:00:58.470
which is going to be
expressed inflation rate,

00:00:58.470 --> 00:01:01.640
which is also going to be
expressed as a percentage.

00:01:01.640 --> 00:01:05.130
So let's start with the
long run Phillips curve.

00:01:05.130 --> 00:01:06.460
So the long run Phillips curve,

00:01:06.460 --> 00:01:08.410
that's just going to be fixed

00:01:08.410 --> 00:01:10.360
at the natural rate of unemployment,

00:01:10.360 --> 00:01:12.480
so that's just going
to be a vertical line.

00:01:12.480 --> 00:01:15.310
So let's just put that right over there

00:01:15.310 --> 00:01:16.210
and let me label it.

00:01:16.210 --> 00:01:20.370
That is our long run Phillips curve

00:01:20.370 --> 00:01:23.080
and now let's do the
short run Phillips curve.

00:01:23.080 --> 00:01:24.720
Well, the short run Phillips curve

00:01:24.720 --> 00:01:27.230
sews this association
between our inflation rate

00:01:27.230 --> 00:01:28.380
and our unemployment rate.

00:01:28.380 --> 00:01:30.400
High rates of inflation are associated

00:01:30.400 --> 00:01:32.410
with low unemployment,

00:01:32.410 --> 00:01:35.130
and low rates of inflation are associated

00:01:35.130 --> 00:01:37.970
with high rates of unemployment.

00:01:37.970 --> 00:01:39.550
And so our short run Phillips curve

00:01:39.550 --> 00:01:44.510
is going to look something,
something like that,

00:01:44.510 --> 00:01:48.400
and so let me just label
that short run Phillips curve

00:01:48.400 --> 00:01:50.160
and now they want us to label

00:01:50.160 --> 00:01:54.250
the current short run equilibrium point P.

00:01:54.250 --> 00:01:57.730
So a lot of times when people
talk about equilibrium points,

00:01:57.730 --> 00:01:59.720
it's tempting to just
look at the intersection

00:01:59.720 --> 00:02:01.270
of these two curves,

00:02:01.270 --> 00:02:03.130
but that wouldn't be the case here.

00:02:03.130 --> 00:02:06.230
The equilibrium point is
going to be some point

00:02:06.230 --> 00:02:07.740
along our short run Phillips curve.

00:02:07.740 --> 00:02:11.230
In fact, every point on our
short run Phillips curve

00:02:11.230 --> 00:02:13.770
represents a potential equilibrium point.

00:02:13.770 --> 00:02:15.410
If we were looking at aggregate demand

00:02:15.410 --> 00:02:16.920
versus aggregate supply,

00:02:16.920 --> 00:02:18.710
well then our equilibrium point would be

00:02:18.710 --> 00:02:20.950
at the intersection of
the aggregate demand

00:02:20.950 --> 00:02:23.070
and short run aggregate supply,

00:02:23.070 --> 00:02:25.530
but here, our equilibrium
point could be any point

00:02:25.530 --> 00:02:27.520
along our short run Phillips curve,

00:02:27.520 --> 00:02:29.780
and they say that we're
currently in a place

00:02:29.780 --> 00:02:32.380
where the actual unemployment rate

00:02:32.380 --> 00:02:34.930
is above the natural rate of unemployment,

00:02:34.930 --> 00:02:37.130
so the natural rate of
unemployment is here,

00:02:37.130 --> 00:02:39.610
the actual rate of unemployment is higher,

00:02:39.610 --> 00:02:41.580
but we're going to be on our
short run Phillips curve,

00:02:41.580 --> 00:02:43.870
so we could be at a point just like that.

00:02:43.870 --> 00:02:47.330
So let's just label that point P.

00:02:47.330 --> 00:02:51.820
So part B says assuming no
policy actions are taken,

00:02:51.820 --> 00:02:55.130
will the short run Phillips
curve shift to the right,

00:02:55.130 --> 00:02:57.850
or upward, shift to the left and downward,

00:02:57.850 --> 00:03:00.110
or remain the same in the long run.

00:03:00.110 --> 00:03:01.440
Explain.

00:03:01.440 --> 00:03:02.670
So pause this video again

00:03:02.670 --> 00:03:03.900
and see if you could work through that

00:03:03.900 --> 00:03:05.990
before I do that with you.

00:03:05.990 --> 00:03:08.100
So the way to think about this is

00:03:08.100 --> 00:03:13.100
when aggregate output,
aggregate output is less than,

00:03:18.160 --> 00:03:23.160
less than full employment output,

00:03:27.720 --> 00:03:32.720
you have higher unemployment
rate and lower inflation.

00:03:33.130 --> 00:03:38.130
You have a higher unemployment
rate above the natural rate,

00:03:42.190 --> 00:03:47.190
higher unemployment rate,
and lower inflation.

00:03:51.940 --> 00:03:55.570
This decreases inflation expectations.

00:03:55.570 --> 00:04:00.570
This decreases inflation expectations.

00:04:03.740 --> 00:04:04.700
So one way to think about it,

00:04:04.700 --> 00:04:06.500
at a given unemployment rate,

00:04:06.500 --> 00:04:09.640
you will over time have
a lower inflation rate

00:04:09.640 --> 00:04:12.320
because of the lowered
inflation expectations.

00:04:12.320 --> 00:04:14.920
And so instead of our inflation
rate being right over there,

00:04:14.920 --> 00:04:16.640
it might be right over here.

00:04:16.640 --> 00:04:19.050
And so for this point on
our short run Phillips curve

00:04:19.050 --> 00:04:20.960
instead of the inflation rate being there,

00:04:20.960 --> 00:04:22.640
it might be over there.

00:04:22.640 --> 00:04:26.260
And so it would actually shift
the short run Phillips curve

00:04:26.260 --> 00:04:29.420
to the left and downwards.

00:04:29.420 --> 00:04:31.070
Now, they're not asking us to draw that

00:04:31.070 --> 00:04:32.510
so I don't wanna do that here.

00:04:32.510 --> 00:04:35.910
I just did that to hopefully
help explain the intuition,

00:04:35.910 --> 00:04:38.700
but I will just answer their
question right over here.

00:04:38.700 --> 00:04:43.700
So this, so this shifts, shifts
the short run Phillips curve

00:04:46.750 --> 00:04:51.750
left slash downward, downward.

00:04:52.970 --> 00:04:54.510
Alright, part C.

00:04:54.510 --> 00:04:58.460
If the Federal Reserve Bank
wants to lower unemployment,

00:04:58.460 --> 00:05:03.270
what expansionary open market
operation should it use?

00:05:03.270 --> 00:05:06.060
So pause the video again and
see if you can answer that.

00:05:06.060 --> 00:05:08.520
Well, there's several tools
that the Federal Reserve Bank

00:05:08.520 --> 00:05:11.080
can use to lower unemployment.

00:05:11.080 --> 00:05:14.010
It could change the reserve
requirements for banks,

00:05:14.010 --> 00:05:16.220
but here they're explicitly talking about

00:05:16.220 --> 00:05:18.230
open market operations,

00:05:18.230 --> 00:05:20.890
and so the typical open market operation

00:05:20.890 --> 00:05:23.020
that the Federal Reserve Bank would do

00:05:23.020 --> 00:05:24.710
if it wants to lower unemployment,

00:05:24.710 --> 00:05:28.210
it wants to inject more
money into the economy.

00:05:28.210 --> 00:05:31.240
It wants to increase the
amount of reserves in banks

00:05:31.240 --> 00:05:33.610
which will of course
increase the money supply.

00:05:33.610 --> 00:05:35.430
And so to do that,

00:05:35.430 --> 00:05:39.520
they will go out into the
open market and buy bonds.

00:05:39.520 --> 00:05:44.520
So the Federal Reserve
Bank will buy bonds.

00:05:44.800 --> 00:05:46.490
Remember, when they're buying bonds,

00:05:46.490 --> 00:05:48.820
the people who sell those bonds will take

00:05:48.820 --> 00:05:52.600
those Federal Reserve Notes,
deposit them in banks,

00:05:52.600 --> 00:05:55.070
that will increase the
reserves of the banks,

00:05:55.070 --> 00:05:56.300
the banks will be able to lend more,

00:05:56.300 --> 00:05:59.130
and the money supply will increase.

00:05:59.130 --> 00:06:02.080
Part D, how will the open market operation

00:06:02.080 --> 00:06:05.840
you identified in part C
affect each of the following,

00:06:05.840 --> 00:06:08.370
federal funds rate, explain.

00:06:08.370 --> 00:06:09.460
So I just touched on it.

00:06:09.460 --> 00:06:14.460
We can say buying bonds
will increase bank reserves,

00:06:20.710 --> 00:06:25.340
bank reserves, which will lead

00:06:25.340 --> 00:06:27.230
the federal funds rate to go down.

00:06:27.230 --> 00:06:32.230
So the fed funds rate will decrease.

00:06:35.100 --> 00:06:36.880
Remember, the federal
funds rate is the rate

00:06:36.880 --> 00:06:39.320
which banks borrow
reserves from each other.

00:06:39.320 --> 00:06:42.000
If there is a total of more reserves now,

00:06:42.000 --> 00:06:44.320
well then there's less demand to borrow

00:06:44.320 --> 00:06:46.500
and there's more supply of reserves,

00:06:46.500 --> 00:06:49.190
so the cost of borrowing,
which is the interest rate,

00:06:49.190 --> 00:06:51.550
the federal funds rate, will decrease.

00:06:51.550 --> 00:06:54.380
Real interest rate in the short run.

00:06:54.380 --> 00:06:56.150
Well, this will also decrease.

00:06:56.150 --> 00:06:58.883
Also decrease.

00:07:00.570 --> 00:07:02.520
An increase in the money supply,

00:07:02.520 --> 00:07:05.193
so I could say an increase,

00:07:06.340 --> 00:07:11.340
increase in reserves slash
money supply, money supply,

00:07:16.080 --> 00:07:21.080
will decrease nominal
and real interest rates,

00:07:27.240 --> 00:07:32.240
interest rates in the short
run, in the short run.

00:07:33.110 --> 00:07:35.870
There is a situation where maybe you have

00:07:35.870 --> 00:07:38.480
run away inflation, the
nominal rates go down,

00:07:38.480 --> 00:07:40.840
but somehow that doesn't
affect the real rate as much,

00:07:40.840 --> 00:07:43.720
but in the short run, we
can pretty confidently say

00:07:43.720 --> 00:07:45.450
that if nominal interest
rates are going down

00:07:45.450 --> 00:07:49.020
that real interest rates
will go down as well.

00:07:49.020 --> 00:07:51.940
And then there's a last part
here that is off the screen

00:07:51.940 --> 00:07:55.070
and it says given your
answer in part D two,

00:07:55.070 --> 00:07:57.440
this last part, what is the effect on

00:07:57.440 --> 00:08:00.670
real gross domestic product,
GDP, in the short run?

00:08:00.670 --> 00:08:02.440
Explain.

00:08:02.440 --> 00:08:07.440
Well, lower real interest
rates, interest rates,

00:08:11.670 --> 00:08:16.670
lead to more interest, interest sensitive,

00:08:20.150 --> 00:08:24.083
interest sensitive
consumption, consumption

00:08:26.670 --> 00:08:30.060
and investment, investment,

00:08:30.060 --> 00:08:31.750
and we're talking about investment,

00:08:31.750 --> 00:08:36.240
we could talk about plant
and equipment, equipment,

00:08:39.040 --> 00:08:43.380
which should increase GDP, real GDP.

00:08:43.380 --> 00:08:48.380
Which should increase
real GDP in the short run,

00:08:53.003 --> 00:08:57.883
in the short run, and we are done.