Jim Crow part 4

WEBVTT
Kind: captions
Language: en

00:00:00.530 --> 00:00:02.237
- [Voiceover] So we've been
talking about the system

00:00:02.237 --> 00:00:04.438
of Jim Crow segregation

00:00:04.438 --> 00:00:07.938
and in the last video we left off in 1876.

00:00:09.449 --> 00:00:14.042
And in 1876 there was a
contested presidential election

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between a Republican candidate
named Rutherford B. Hayes

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and a Democratic candidate
named Samuel J. Tilden.

00:00:31.035 --> 00:00:34.796
And in this election there
was one of the rare cases

00:00:34.796 --> 00:00:38.296
where Tilden actually won the popular vote

00:00:39.417 --> 00:00:42.500
whereas Hayes won the electoral vote.

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So there's a standoff
in Congress for months

00:00:47.184 --> 00:00:50.284
over how this presidential
election is going to end

00:00:50.284 --> 00:00:54.440
and eventually they make
kind of a backroom deal

00:00:54.440 --> 00:00:57.107
known as the Compromise of 1877.

00:00:59.293 --> 00:01:03.460
And in this compromise the
Democrats and the Republicans

00:01:06.178 --> 00:01:08.761
agree that Hayes, a Republican,

00:01:10.694 --> 00:01:13.202
will get to be President
of the United States.

00:01:13.202 --> 00:01:15.785
In exchange the military forces

00:01:16.778 --> 00:01:19.483
that have been occupying the South,

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especially the last two states

00:01:21.399 --> 00:01:23.814
of Louisiana and South Carolina

00:01:23.814 --> 00:01:26.762
and have been enforcing the 14th Amendment

00:01:26.762 --> 00:01:30.013
or the equal citizenship of
African Americans in the South

00:01:30.013 --> 00:01:31.104
they're going to leave,

00:01:31.104 --> 00:01:32.799
they're going to go back to their barracks

00:01:32.799 --> 00:01:35.493
and will no longer interfere

00:01:35.493 --> 00:01:37.757
in the political system of the South.

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So with the Compromise of 1877

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the Republican Party which
has been standing behind

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the rights of African Americans,

00:01:46.316 --> 00:01:49.393
remember the Republicans were
the Party of Abraham Lincoln,

00:01:49.393 --> 00:01:53.933
pretty much gives up as a
Party on trying to ensure

00:01:53.933 --> 00:01:57.137
the racial equality of African Americans.

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Now why did they do this?

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Well, I think mainly this
was a question of weariness

00:02:03.395 --> 00:02:05.171
and giving up on their part.

00:02:05.171 --> 00:02:09.432
Remember that the Civil War ended in 1865,

00:02:09.432 --> 00:02:12.015
now it's 12 years later in 1877

00:02:13.089 --> 00:02:15.957
and there are still Federal
troops in the South.

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So imagine if you were a
parent in Massachusetts

00:02:19.858 --> 00:02:21.738
and you thought that your son

00:02:21.738 --> 00:02:24.351
who was enlisted in the Union
Army was going to come home

00:02:24.351 --> 00:02:28.518
in 1865 and now it's 1877 and
he's still in South Carolina

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it seems like a long time to fight a war.

00:02:32.187 --> 00:02:33.646
So that's one part of it.

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The other part of it is that in 1873

00:02:38.139 --> 00:02:42.306
there is an economic panic,
this is an early Depression.

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You know we often think
of the Great Depression

00:02:45.662 --> 00:02:49.481
as the only time the
United States was stricken

00:02:49.481 --> 00:02:52.419
with an economic downturn
but before the Depression

00:02:52.419 --> 00:02:56.262
there were about 20 year
cycles of boom and bust.

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So in 1873 there was an
economic bust that meant

00:03:00.767 --> 00:03:04.934
that people had less money
to throw at the problem

00:03:05.773 --> 00:03:07.619
of reconstruction in the South.

00:03:07.619 --> 00:03:11.056
And I would say the last
part of this is a combination

00:03:11.056 --> 00:03:15.223
of racism and the new labor
movement in the North.

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So as whites in the North
got farther and farther away

00:03:20.298 --> 00:03:24.059
from the Civil War the animating spirit

00:03:24.059 --> 00:03:27.630
of abolition started to
fade among many Northerners.

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The late 19th century was an
era of increasing racialization

00:03:32.792 --> 00:03:37.122
especially as new ethnic classes
came into the United States

00:03:37.122 --> 00:03:39.108
from Southern and Eastern Europe

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and so there was a new
interpretation of race

00:03:42.092 --> 00:03:45.087
that really came to the
foreground in this time period

00:03:45.087 --> 00:03:47.002
which we call Social Darwinism

00:03:47.002 --> 00:03:49.673
and we'll talk more about
that in other videos.

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But the interpretation
of racial difference

00:03:52.912 --> 00:03:57.568
and hierarchy among the races
became more broadly accepted

00:03:57.568 --> 00:04:00.307
throughout the United States
not just in the South.

00:04:00.307 --> 00:04:03.890
So in 1877 the Federal
troops in the South,

00:04:04.743 --> 00:04:07.413
that are remaining, pack
their bags and go home

00:04:07.413 --> 00:04:09.224
meaning that African
Americans in the South

00:04:09.224 --> 00:04:13.590
have no one to protect them
from the Southern governments

00:04:13.590 --> 00:04:17.932
and so within months many of
these governments pass the laws

00:04:17.932 --> 00:04:20.788
which we now call Jim Crow laws.

00:04:20.788 --> 00:04:21.809
And these are the laws

00:04:21.809 --> 00:04:24.573
which prevent African
Americans from voting,

00:04:24.573 --> 00:04:27.754
prevent intermarriage
between whites and blacks,

00:04:27.754 --> 00:04:31.086
and also enact all of these separations

00:04:31.086 --> 00:04:33.024
of public accommodations

00:04:33.024 --> 00:04:35.184
that we now associate with Jim Crow,

00:04:35.184 --> 00:04:36.867
sitting in the back of the bus,

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using a separate water fountain.

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Now if it sounds like these sorts of laws

00:04:41.407 --> 00:04:45.564
are directly in contradiction
with the 14th Amendment

00:04:45.564 --> 00:04:49.731
which says that laws cannot
target a specific race,

00:04:51.867 --> 00:04:54.224
that there's equal
protection under the law

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for everyone born in the United States

00:04:56.523 --> 00:04:59.170
you're right that's exactly
what these laws are.

00:04:59.170 --> 00:05:01.632
They are a contradiction
of the 14th Amendment.

00:05:01.632 --> 00:05:05.715
And in 1896 a man named
Homer Plessy was arrested

00:05:08.586 --> 00:05:11.628
for sitting in a white train compartment.

00:05:11.628 --> 00:05:13.392
You thought Rosa Parks was the first

00:05:13.392 --> 00:05:15.029
but in fact it's Homer Plessy

00:05:15.029 --> 00:05:17.526
who tries to desegregate trains.

00:05:17.526 --> 00:05:20.544
In fact he's trying to
test the constitutionality

00:05:20.544 --> 00:05:24.166
of having segregated
train compartments in 1896

00:05:24.166 --> 00:05:27.092
and his case goes all the
way to the Supreme Court

00:05:27.092 --> 00:05:31.864
which rules that it is
fine to separate the races

00:05:31.864 --> 00:05:35.974
as long as separate
accommodations are equal.

00:05:35.974 --> 00:05:40.141
So this is the place where
separate but equal comes in.

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Now in theory, separate
accommodations for whites and blacks

00:05:49.674 --> 00:05:51.543
were supposed to be equal,

00:05:51.543 --> 00:05:56.164
in reality they almost never
were and in fact it was the

00:05:56.164 --> 00:06:00.587
very separation itself
that implied the inequality

00:06:00.587 --> 00:06:03.849
and that is what the
NAACP is going to argue

00:06:03.849 --> 00:06:08.006
in the Brown versus Board
of Education case in 1954

00:06:08.006 --> 00:06:11.210
which overturns this doctrine
of separate but equal.

00:06:11.210 --> 00:06:14.793
But in-between this
period of 1877 and 1954

00:06:19.070 --> 00:06:21.485
Jim Crow laws were on the books

00:06:21.485 --> 00:06:23.191
in all of the Southern states.

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But I don't want you to come away thinking

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that things were terrible in the South

00:06:27.510 --> 00:06:30.773
and that the North was a racial utopia

00:06:30.773 --> 00:06:34.940
even though segregation laws
and violence such as lynching

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to enforce segregation laws
existed mainly in the South,

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de facto segregation and
widespread racial prejudice

00:06:43.291 --> 00:06:46.356
also existed in the North
particularly in housing

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and job discrimination.

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And of course, 1954,

00:06:49.978 --> 00:06:52.555
the Brown versus Board
of Education decision

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didn't end segregation
or end racial prejudice

00:06:56.515 --> 00:07:01.228
in the United States, it's
enforcing the end of segregation

00:07:01.228 --> 00:07:04.908
and enforcing the end of
some of these de facto forms

00:07:04.908 --> 00:07:07.730
of segregation and racial
prejudice in the North

00:07:07.730 --> 00:07:10.900
that will be the real focus
of the Civil Rights Movement.

00:07:10.900 --> 00:07:14.220
So I think the real
tragedy of the Jim Crow era

00:07:14.220 --> 00:07:16.588
was that it didn't have
to be this way, in fact,

00:07:16.588 --> 00:07:20.675
it was just in this
presidential election of 1876

00:07:20.675 --> 00:07:23.589
that the Federal government
more or less gave up

00:07:23.589 --> 00:07:25.876
on protecting the rights
of African Americans.

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It's interesting to imagine
what life in the South

00:07:28.512 --> 00:07:30.032
might have been like

00:07:30.032 --> 00:07:32.552
had the Federal government not given up.

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Perhaps it would be very
different, perhaps it would not

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but it's hard not to mourn

00:07:37.196 --> 00:07:41.631
the lost opportunity of
reconstruction, this 12 year period

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where African Americans had voting rights

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and often served in public office.

00:07:47.287 --> 00:07:51.270
Instead, the United States
doomed African American citizens

00:07:51.270 --> 00:07:55.263
in the South to another almost 100 years

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of second class status in our society.


Jim Crow part 3

WEBVTT
Kind: captions
Language: en

00:00:00.283 --> 00:00:02.556
- [Voiceover] In the last
video we were talking about

00:00:02.556 --> 00:00:05.047
the era of reconstruction

00:00:05.047 --> 00:00:07.517
and how after the Civil War

00:00:07.517 --> 00:00:12.038
when the 13th Amendment to the
Constitution outlawed slavery

00:00:12.038 --> 00:00:16.188
many Southern states enacted
laws known as black codes,

00:00:16.188 --> 00:00:18.786
which in many cases were really just

00:00:18.786 --> 00:00:20.446
slavery by another name.

00:00:20.446 --> 00:00:23.511
They prevented African
Americans from voting,

00:00:23.511 --> 00:00:25.389
from owning firearms,

00:00:25.389 --> 00:00:28.083
from not being in some
kind of labor contract,

00:00:28.083 --> 00:00:31.200
or they might be enslaved
or jailed for vagrancy

00:00:31.200 --> 00:00:35.044
and the North, controlled
by a republican Congress,

00:00:35.044 --> 00:00:37.368
was outraged by these codes

00:00:37.368 --> 00:00:40.982
having just fought an
incredibly destructive war

00:00:40.982 --> 00:00:42.145
to end slavery.

00:00:42.145 --> 00:00:43.971
In response to the black codes,

00:00:43.971 --> 00:00:47.904
Congress passed the 14th
Amendment to the Constitution

00:00:47.904 --> 00:00:49.987
and the 14th Amendment...

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guaranteed that anyone
born in the United States,

00:00:54.341 --> 00:00:57.943
regardless of previous
condition of servitude,

00:00:57.943 --> 00:00:59.693
had full citizenship,

00:01:00.714 --> 00:01:03.051
meaning they're entitled to all the rights

00:01:03.051 --> 00:01:05.490
and privileges of being a citizen,

00:01:05.490 --> 00:01:08.683
and equal protection under the law.

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So a law could not target someone

00:01:12.336 --> 00:01:14.586
on the basis of their race.

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Now to enforce the 14th Amendment,

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Congress sent federal troops
to the states in the South,

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divided the Southern region
up into military zones

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and said that the South would
be occupied by federal troops

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until the states rewrote
their constitutions

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to recognize the 14th Amendment,

00:01:40.445 --> 00:01:44.302
in effect to give equal
citizenship to African Americans.

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In fact they also passed
the 15th Amendment

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two years later in 1870,

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which said voting rights

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are included among
these citizenship rights

00:02:01.939 --> 00:02:03.842
guaranteed in the 14th Amendment.

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I should mention that these voting rights

00:02:06.371 --> 00:02:09.204
were only for African American men

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as women will not get the
right to vote until 1920.

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So from the 14th Amendment until 1877

00:02:18.798 --> 00:02:22.298
there's a military occupation in the South

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and military troops are only taken away

00:02:28.670 --> 00:02:32.156
from the Southern states when
they write their constitutions

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to grant equal citizenship
to African Americans.

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Now you can imagine in the South

00:02:38.095 --> 00:02:42.262
where whites have had racial
supremacy from the 1600s,

00:02:44.034 --> 00:02:47.226
getting them to recognize social equality

00:02:47.226 --> 00:02:50.470
with African Americans
was an incredible struggle

00:02:50.470 --> 00:02:54.033
and it was a struggle that
the republicans in Congress

00:02:54.033 --> 00:02:56.320
and the federal troops really didn't win.

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This is the era of the Ku Klux Klan,

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which ran terrorist raids at night

00:03:03.586 --> 00:03:06.230
trying to prevent African
Americans from voting

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or to prevent their allies
from helping them to vote.

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This era of reconstruction
was really a continuation

00:03:14.199 --> 00:03:17.865
of the Civil War where
troops from the North

00:03:17.865 --> 00:03:20.968
tried to enforce the 14th Amendment,

00:03:20.968 --> 00:03:23.343
tried to enforce the end of slavery

00:03:23.343 --> 00:03:25.617
and the citizenship of African Americans

00:03:25.617 --> 00:03:29.486
with really implacable resistance
from white Southerners.

00:03:29.486 --> 00:03:32.569
So by 1877, only two states were left

00:03:35.004 --> 00:03:37.916
that still had troops 'cause
the rest of the states

00:03:37.916 --> 00:03:39.908
had rewritten their constitutions

00:03:39.908 --> 00:03:41.657
to acknowledge the 14th Amendment.

00:03:41.657 --> 00:03:45.310
But that is not to say
that racial equality

00:03:45.310 --> 00:03:47.800
had been achieved in the South whatsoever.

00:03:47.800 --> 00:03:50.163
So what happened in 1877?

00:03:50.163 --> 00:03:53.931
Which is generally known as
the end of reconstruction

00:03:53.931 --> 00:03:58.081
and the beginning of this
period of Jim Crow segregation.

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Well we'll get to that in the next video.


Jim Crow part 2

WEBVTT
Kind: captions
Language: en

00:00:00.378 --> 00:00:02.182
- [Voiceover] So in the last
video we started talking

00:00:02.182 --> 00:00:05.182
about the system of Jim Crow segregation,

00:00:05.182 --> 00:00:08.387
which was a legal form of segregation,

00:00:08.387 --> 00:00:12.011
and denial of voting rights
or disenfranchisement,

00:00:12.011 --> 00:00:14.267
which characterized the American south

00:00:14.267 --> 00:00:17.754
from approximately 1877 to 1954.

00:00:17.754 --> 00:00:19.592
Now we finished up by saying that,

00:00:19.592 --> 00:00:23.521
with the end of the Civil
War, the system of slavery,

00:00:23.521 --> 00:00:26.698
which had been the economic
and political system

00:00:26.698 --> 00:00:28.782
which characterized all of the south

00:00:28.782 --> 00:00:32.983
for the 200 plus years
before the Civil War,

00:00:32.983 --> 00:00:34.597
and I finished up by saying,

00:00:34.597 --> 00:00:38.764
now that the Civil War has
outlawed slavery in 1865,

00:00:39.814 --> 00:00:44.663
what is the south going to
look like without slavery?

00:00:44.663 --> 00:00:48.619
So in this video, I want to really dial-in

00:00:48.619 --> 00:00:53.586
in this period after the Civil
War known as Reconstruction.

00:00:53.586 --> 00:00:55.548
Now I don't have room here to go into

00:00:55.548 --> 00:00:58.690
a great deal of detail
about the Civil War,

00:00:58.690 --> 00:01:01.105
we'll make many more videos
about that in the future,

00:01:01.105 --> 00:01:03.016
but what I do think is important

00:01:03.016 --> 00:01:04.740
to note about the Civil War,

00:01:04.740 --> 00:01:08.484
is that for the United States of America,

00:01:08.484 --> 00:01:11.932
often called the north in the Civil War,

00:01:11.932 --> 00:01:15.862
even though the Civil War
really didn't start out

00:01:15.862 --> 00:01:19.944
as a war to end slavery,
by the end of the Civil War

00:01:19.944 --> 00:01:23.675
it had really become a war to end slavery,

00:01:23.675 --> 00:01:27.116
as northern armies became in effect

00:01:27.116 --> 00:01:29.575
armies of liberation in the south.

00:01:29.575 --> 00:01:32.075
In 1863 Abraham Lincoln issued

00:01:33.070 --> 00:01:37.082
the Emancipation Proclamation,
which ended slavery

00:01:37.082 --> 00:01:41.491
in all states that were rebelling
against the United States,

00:01:41.491 --> 00:01:44.423
and in 1865 the government ratified

00:01:44.423 --> 00:01:47.673
the 13th Amendment to the Constitution,

00:01:49.915 --> 00:01:52.157
which outlawed slavery for good.

00:01:52.157 --> 00:01:54.202
But all the 13th Amendment said

00:01:54.202 --> 00:01:56.119
was that you couldn't have slavery,

00:01:56.119 --> 00:01:58.573
it really didn't say anything about

00:01:58.573 --> 00:02:02.602
what race relations between
whites and blacks in the south

00:02:02.602 --> 00:02:04.451
would be after the Civil War,

00:02:04.451 --> 00:02:08.094
or whether not being a slave meant that

00:02:08.094 --> 00:02:11.976
an African American person in
the south had the full rights

00:02:11.976 --> 00:02:15.014
of citizenship that a
white person would have,

00:02:15.014 --> 00:02:18.058
so in the immediate
aftermath of the Civil War,

00:02:18.058 --> 00:02:22.543
states in the south began
writing new constitutions

00:02:22.543 --> 00:02:24.688
to account for the end of slavery,

00:02:24.688 --> 00:02:29.103
but the white leaders in the
south really have no conception

00:02:29.103 --> 00:02:32.752
of a world where African
Americans are equal to whites,

00:02:32.752 --> 00:02:35.492
and so the new laws that they write

00:02:35.492 --> 00:02:38.243
regulating African Americans after the war

00:02:38.243 --> 00:02:43.143
are known as the Black
Codes, and these Black Codes

00:02:43.143 --> 00:02:46.545
are in many ways slavery
by a different name.

00:02:46.545 --> 00:02:49.602
So the Black Codes acknowledged
the end of slavery,

00:02:49.602 --> 00:02:53.494
and they give some basic
rights to African Americans

00:02:53.494 --> 00:02:55.744
such as the right to marry,

00:02:57.433 --> 00:02:59.690
which enslaved people could not legally do

00:02:59.690 --> 00:03:01.339
under the system of slavery,

00:03:01.339 --> 00:03:03.839
and the right to own property.

00:03:06.445 --> 00:03:09.406
But that is pretty much it.

00:03:09.406 --> 00:03:13.793
The Black Codes did things
like prevent African Americans

00:03:13.793 --> 00:03:15.543
from owning firearms,

00:03:22.227 --> 00:03:25.227
from being without a labor contract,

00:03:26.106 --> 00:03:30.117
now remember the south is
based on these cash crops

00:03:30.117 --> 00:03:33.609
like tobacco and cotton,
and landowners are terrified

00:03:33.609 --> 00:03:38.064
that if all of the former
enslaved people leave the south,

00:03:38.064 --> 00:03:41.277
they're going to have nobody
to work in their fields,

00:03:41.277 --> 00:03:43.510
nobody to harvest these crops,

00:03:43.510 --> 00:03:45.941
and their economic system
is going to plummet,

00:03:45.941 --> 00:03:48.536
they're already in very bad
shape after the Civil War.

00:03:48.536 --> 00:03:50.536
So they say, all African Americans

00:03:50.536 --> 00:03:53.119
have to be in a labor contract,

00:03:54.921 --> 00:03:59.088
and these labor contracts
were usually very small wages

00:04:01.673 --> 00:04:03.370
for quite a bit of labor,

00:04:03.370 --> 00:04:05.480
and if they were not in a labor contract

00:04:05.480 --> 00:04:08.762
or if they left in the
middle of a year, say,

00:04:08.762 --> 00:04:11.679
then they were considered vagrants.

00:04:14.053 --> 00:04:16.344
And the most outrageous thing

00:04:16.344 --> 00:04:19.515
that these southern governments do is say

00:04:19.515 --> 00:04:22.432
that African Americans cannot vote.

00:04:25.829 --> 00:04:27.937
Now to people in the north,

00:04:27.937 --> 00:04:31.231
who had just fought a four year-long war

00:04:31.231 --> 00:04:35.641
where more than half a million
people died, to end slavery,

00:04:35.641 --> 00:04:38.822
seeing southern states pass
laws that are pretty much

00:04:38.822 --> 00:04:41.844
slavery with another name, was galling.

00:04:41.844 --> 00:04:45.891
And so the more radical
Republican elements in Congress,

00:04:45.891 --> 00:04:48.435
these are members of
Abraham Lincoln's party,

00:04:48.435 --> 00:04:52.045
who are strongly
abolitionist, who are strongly

00:04:52.045 --> 00:04:55.326
in favour of civil rights
for African Americans,

00:04:55.326 --> 00:04:58.727
and strongly in favor of a
strong central government,

00:04:58.727 --> 00:05:02.660
say "OK, this system of
Black Codes is not OK.

00:05:02.660 --> 00:05:04.306
"When we said slavery was over,

00:05:04.306 --> 00:05:07.201
"we didn't just mean that
you couldn't enslave someone,

00:05:07.201 --> 00:05:09.029
"we also meant that African Americans

00:05:09.029 --> 00:05:11.843
"had full citizenship
rights in the south."

00:05:11.843 --> 00:05:13.736
So to combat the Black Codes,

00:05:13.736 --> 00:05:17.903
Congress passes the 14th
Amendment to the Constitution.

00:05:22.125 --> 00:05:24.805
And the 14th Amendment says that anyone

00:05:24.805 --> 00:05:27.195
who was born in the United States,

00:05:27.195 --> 00:05:30.126
regardless of whether or
not they were a slave,

00:05:30.126 --> 00:05:33.009
is a full citizen of the United States

00:05:33.009 --> 00:05:36.205
eligible for all of the
benefits of citizenship

00:05:36.205 --> 00:05:38.833
and equal protection under the law,

00:05:38.833 --> 00:05:43.092
so laws must be equal for
whites and for blacks.

00:05:43.092 --> 00:05:45.602
And we'll get into what that
means, in the next video.


Jim Crow part 1

WEBVTT
Kind: captions
Language: en

00:00:00.207 --> 00:00:02.171
- [Voiceover] In this
video I want to talk about

00:00:02.171 --> 00:00:05.088
the System of Jim Crow Segregation,

00:00:06.263 --> 00:00:08.685
which was common in the United States

00:00:08.685 --> 00:00:09.935
from about 1877

00:00:12.224 --> 00:00:14.057
to approximately 1954;

00:00:15.422 --> 00:00:18.047
although, it goes a little
bit further than that.

00:00:18.047 --> 00:00:21.508
Now, you're probably familiar
with some of the aspects

00:00:21.508 --> 00:00:24.631
of Jim Crow Segregation from
the Civil Rights Movement.

00:00:24.631 --> 00:00:29.118
Jim Crow Segregation involved
the loss of voting rights

00:00:29.118 --> 00:00:30.951
for African Americans,

00:00:33.536 --> 00:00:37.119
as well as, separate
public accommodations,

00:00:41.036 --> 00:00:43.453
and by public accommodations,

00:00:44.326 --> 00:00:48.493
I mean all sorts of public
spaces in American life.

00:00:50.537 --> 00:00:53.287
So, this might be transportation,

00:00:54.304 --> 00:00:57.221
separate areas in trains and buses,

00:00:58.443 --> 00:00:59.276
or hotels,

00:01:01.919 --> 00:01:02.752
bathrooms,

00:01:05.538 --> 00:01:06.788
swimming pools,

00:01:08.500 --> 00:01:09.833
water fountains.

00:01:11.544 --> 00:01:14.211
So, these places in public life,

00:01:16.466 --> 00:01:19.585
where African Americans were put

00:01:19.585 --> 00:01:23.168
in the place of a
second-class citizenship.

00:01:24.248 --> 00:01:28.248
Where they could not experience the
full range of movement,

00:01:29.719 --> 00:01:33.201
job benefits, protection of the law,

00:01:33.201 --> 00:01:37.544
or really any of the aspects
of American citizenship,

00:01:37.544 --> 00:01:41.430
that are the benefits that
come with paying taxes

00:01:41.430 --> 00:01:42.788
and abiding by the law.

00:01:42.788 --> 00:01:44.914
And during this period of Jim Crow

00:01:44.914 --> 00:01:47.831
this kind of segregation was legal,

00:01:48.963 --> 00:01:51.463
this was not just in practice,

00:01:52.453 --> 00:01:54.370
but encoded in the law.

00:01:56.628 --> 00:01:59.326
So, where did this System
of Jim Crow come from?

00:01:59.326 --> 00:02:01.454
Well, let's start with the name Jim Crow.

00:02:01.454 --> 00:02:05.618
Jim Crow was not the name
of a specific person.

00:02:05.618 --> 00:02:09.785
Actually, Jim Crow was the
name of a stock character.

00:02:10.704 --> 00:02:15.577
A stock character is kind of
a basic well-known character,

00:02:15.577 --> 00:02:18.454
in usually a comedy, and we
still have stock characters

00:02:18.454 --> 00:02:20.376
in comedy today, in lots

00:02:20.376 --> 00:02:22.423
of different forms of entertainment;

00:02:22.423 --> 00:02:26.271
Think of, the absent-minded
professor, or more recently,

00:02:26.271 --> 00:02:29.846
the manic-pixie-dream
girl, the girl who is going

00:02:29.846 --> 00:02:33.777
to change your whole life
by being so off-the-wall.

00:02:33.777 --> 00:02:35.957
Well, Jim Crow was one of these characters

00:02:35.957 --> 00:02:40.124
in a form of entertainment
called the minstrel show.

00:02:41.115 --> 00:02:44.532
And the minstrel show was a very popular,

00:02:45.591 --> 00:02:49.008
kind of vaudeville-type live performance.

00:02:50.027 --> 00:02:51.797
The minstrel show was
actually very popular

00:02:51.797 --> 00:02:54.915
in the north of the United States,

00:02:54.915 --> 00:02:56.924
places like New York City.

00:02:56.924 --> 00:03:01.091
And in the 1830s, 1840s, kind
of this antebellum period,

00:03:02.216 --> 00:03:03.669
before the Civil War.

00:03:03.669 --> 00:03:05.397
So, this character of Jim Crow

00:03:05.397 --> 00:03:08.674
was supposed to be kind
of the stupid slave

00:03:08.674 --> 00:03:10.346
who lived on the plantation,

00:03:10.346 --> 00:03:13.509
and this character of Jim
Crow was almost always played

00:03:13.509 --> 00:03:17.149
by a white man wearing
black makeup on his face.

00:03:17.149 --> 00:03:20.064
So, it was not an actual
African American person,

00:03:20.064 --> 00:03:22.962
but rather a caricature of
an African American person

00:03:22.962 --> 00:03:26.090
by a white man who was
part of a minstrel troupe.

00:03:26.090 --> 00:03:30.721
And so the name, Jim Crow,
became kind of synonymous

00:03:30.721 --> 00:03:33.542
with African American's
and with enslaved people

00:03:33.542 --> 00:03:36.036
in the early 19th century,

00:03:36.036 --> 00:03:39.271
the way that say Patty became synonymous

00:03:39.271 --> 00:03:41.250
with an Irish person.

00:03:41.250 --> 00:03:45.771
So, the term Jim Crow Law,
or the Jim Crow System

00:03:45.771 --> 00:03:48.303
means laws that were specifically aimed

00:03:48.303 --> 00:03:50.640
at African Americans.

00:03:50.640 --> 00:03:52.742
Alright, so that's the origin of the name,

00:03:52.742 --> 00:03:54.714
but where did they system come from?

00:03:54.714 --> 00:03:57.457
And for that we're gonna
have to do fairly deep dive

00:03:57.457 --> 00:03:59.098
into American history,

00:03:59.098 --> 00:04:01.274
and I won't be able to
go into everything here

00:04:01.274 --> 00:04:05.441
but let's kind of look at this
from the thousand-foot view

00:04:06.355 --> 00:04:10.455
and get a sense of the
overall pattern of slavery,

00:04:10.455 --> 00:04:14.149
the Civil War, and race
relations after the Civil War

00:04:14.149 --> 00:04:16.047
to see where Jim Crow starts.

00:04:16.047 --> 00:04:19.563
Now, I've been daring here
and done a vertical timeline.

00:04:19.563 --> 00:04:22.071
The first thing we have on here
is the end of the Civil War.

00:04:22.071 --> 00:04:24.896
Now, before the Civil War

00:04:24.896 --> 00:04:27.625
in the southern part of the United States,

00:04:27.625 --> 00:04:30.294
which I have outlined in red here,

00:04:30.294 --> 00:04:33.544
most of these states had legal slavery.

00:04:34.915 --> 00:04:36.582
And in these states,

00:04:38.773 --> 00:04:40.977
or the colonies that preceded them,

00:04:40.977 --> 00:04:42.644
starting about 1620,

00:04:45.690 --> 00:04:49.857
they imported African
slaves to be unfree laborers

00:04:51.415 --> 00:04:53.784
on cash-crop plantations,

00:04:53.784 --> 00:04:56.451
and these might include tobacco,

00:04:57.728 --> 00:04:58.561
or cotton.

00:05:01.099 --> 00:05:03.606
And that system of slavery persisted

00:05:03.606 --> 00:05:07.538
until the balance of
power between the north,

00:05:07.538 --> 00:05:10.318
where slavery was largely illegal,

00:05:10.318 --> 00:05:13.435
and the South, where
slavery was the backbone

00:05:13.435 --> 00:05:15.657
of the economic and political system.

00:05:15.657 --> 00:05:18.722
Eventually it tore the country
apart into the Civil War.

00:05:18.722 --> 00:05:21.051
In 1863, Abraham Lincoln,

00:05:21.051 --> 00:05:23.586
the President of the United States issued

00:05:23.586 --> 00:05:26.086
the Emancipation Proclamation,

00:05:26.996 --> 00:05:29.663
saying that all enslaved people,

00:05:30.658 --> 00:05:32.754
and the states which were currently

00:05:32.754 --> 00:05:35.004
in rebellion were now free.

00:05:35.998 --> 00:05:39.665
But it wasn't until the
end of the Civil War

00:05:40.966 --> 00:05:44.093
that slavery's end was official everywhere

00:05:44.093 --> 00:05:45.157
in the United States.

00:05:45.157 --> 00:05:48.030
And the end of slavery
really posed a problem

00:05:48.030 --> 00:05:49.842
for the states of the South.

00:05:49.842 --> 00:05:51.975
Now obviously this was a wonderful thing

00:05:51.975 --> 00:05:54.025
for people who had been enslaved,

00:05:54.025 --> 00:05:57.626
now they had full freedom
to move, and work,

00:05:57.626 --> 00:06:00.653
and marry whomever they
pleased, at least in theory.

00:06:00.653 --> 00:06:03.076
But it also meant that
the system of slavery,

00:06:03.076 --> 00:06:07.126
which had dominated the
politics, the economics,

00:06:07.126 --> 00:06:11.621
the social system of the
South for more than 200 years

00:06:11.621 --> 00:06:14.772
was now over, and something
had to replace it.

00:06:14.772 --> 00:06:17.998
So, in the immediate
period after the Civil War

00:06:17.998 --> 00:06:18.831
the question is,

00:06:18.831 --> 00:06:21.664
what are race relations going
to look like in the South?

00:06:21.664 --> 00:06:24.878
How will whites and blacks
relate to each other

00:06:24.878 --> 00:06:26.652
without the system of slavery,

00:06:26.652 --> 00:06:28.739
which has dominated the entire region

00:06:28.739 --> 00:06:30.735
for more than 200 years?

00:06:30.735 --> 00:06:32.668
And we'll get into that in our next video.


Translation (mRNA to protein)

WEBVTT
Kind: captions
Language: en

00:00:00.000 --> 00:00:02.263
- [Voiceover] So we already know that

00:00:02.263 --> 00:00:06.100
chromosomes are made up of
really long strands of DNA

00:00:06.100 --> 00:00:08.903
all wound up into themselves,

00:00:08.903 --> 00:00:11.792
so something like, well
I'm just kind of drawing it

00:00:11.792 --> 00:00:14.392
as a random long strand of
DNA all wound up in itself.

00:00:14.392 --> 00:00:16.249
And on that strand,

00:00:16.249 --> 00:00:19.882
you have sequences which we call genes,

00:00:19.882 --> 00:00:22.358
so that might be one
gene right over there,

00:00:22.358 --> 00:00:25.246
this might be another gene,

00:00:25.246 --> 00:00:27.927
that might be a gene right over there.

00:00:27.927 --> 00:00:32.627
And each of those genes can
code for specific polypeptides

00:00:32.627 --> 00:00:34.770
or specific proteins.

00:00:34.770 --> 00:00:37.244
And the key question is,
is how do you go from

00:00:37.244 --> 00:00:39.682
the information encoded in these genes,

00:00:39.682 --> 00:00:41.301
encoded as sequences of DNA,

00:00:41.301 --> 00:00:43.331
how do you go from that?

00:00:43.331 --> 00:00:45.664
How do you go from the gene,

00:00:46.972 --> 00:00:48.972
which is encoded in DNA,

00:00:50.672 --> 00:00:54.184
how do you go from that to protein?

00:00:54.184 --> 00:00:56.858
Which is made up of polypeptides,

00:00:56.858 --> 00:00:59.907
which are made up of amino acids.

00:00:59.907 --> 00:01:03.125
And this is often called the
central dogma of biology,

00:01:03.125 --> 00:01:05.279
but we already saw in the
video of transcription,

00:01:05.279 --> 00:01:07.705
that the first step is to go from the gene

00:01:07.705 --> 00:01:09.122
to messenger RNA,

00:01:10.226 --> 00:01:12.956
that the RNA, the messenger RNA,

00:01:12.956 --> 00:01:14.814
you can use as a transcript,

00:01:14.814 --> 00:01:18.072
we have rewritten the
information now as RNA.

00:01:18.072 --> 00:01:20.585
And then the next step
which we're gonna dive into

00:01:20.585 --> 00:01:24.054
in this video is going from
that message RNA to protein,

00:01:24.054 --> 00:01:26.816
and this process is called translation,

00:01:26.816 --> 00:01:29.202
because we're literally
translating that information

00:01:29.202 --> 00:01:31.535
into a polypeptide sequence.

00:01:32.914 --> 00:01:34.972
And you can see a little
bit visually here,

00:01:34.972 --> 00:01:37.034
this is all review, we
covered a lot of this

00:01:37.034 --> 00:01:38.565
in the video on transcription

00:01:38.565 --> 00:01:42.450
and the overview video on
transcription and translation,

00:01:42.450 --> 00:01:44.188
is if you look at a eukaryotic cell

00:01:44.188 --> 00:01:47.327
and the bacteria in a prokaryotic cell,

00:01:47.327 --> 00:01:49.796
it's analogous, you just don't
have the nuclear membrane,

00:01:49.796 --> 00:01:51.778
and you're not gonna
do the processing step

00:01:51.778 --> 00:01:53.509
that I'm gonna talk about in a little bit

00:01:53.509 --> 00:01:55.487
and we went in detail on
the video on transcription.

00:01:55.487 --> 00:01:57.173
But you start with the DNA,

00:01:57.173 --> 00:02:00.681
you have your RNA
polymerase as the main actor

00:02:00.681 --> 00:02:05.062
that's able to transcribe
the RNA from that.

00:02:05.062 --> 00:02:06.954
If we're talking about a eukaryotic cell,

00:02:06.954 --> 00:02:09.804
what you end up with we wouldn't call mRNA

00:02:09.804 --> 00:02:11.721
we would call pre-mRNA,

00:02:13.640 --> 00:02:14.473
pre-mRNA,

00:02:17.470 --> 00:02:19.498
which then needs to be processed,

00:02:19.498 --> 00:02:21.643
the introns need to be taken out,

00:02:21.643 --> 00:02:24.031
we add a cap and a tail here,

00:02:24.031 --> 00:02:26.092
and if we're talking
about a eukaryotic cell,

00:02:26.092 --> 00:02:28.022
we then formally call that mRNA,

00:02:28.022 --> 00:02:30.571
and then it can travel,
and this is where we get

00:02:30.571 --> 00:02:32.013
into the translation step.

00:02:32.013 --> 00:02:33.832
It can travel to a ribosome,

00:02:33.832 --> 00:02:35.934
which is where it will be translated

00:02:35.934 --> 00:02:38.906
into a polypeptide sequence.

00:02:38.906 --> 00:02:41.015
And you see the analogous
thing happening here

00:02:41.015 --> 00:02:42.955
in this bacterial,

00:02:42.955 --> 00:02:45.968
or this prokaryotic cell right over here,

00:02:45.968 --> 00:02:47.908
except you don't see the nuclear membrane,

00:02:47.908 --> 00:02:49.233
because it's prokaryotic,

00:02:49.233 --> 00:02:51.366
and you don't see that processing step,

00:02:51.366 --> 00:02:53.305
so you could just consider this straight,

00:02:53.305 --> 00:02:55.805
this is mRNA right over there.

00:02:56.891 --> 00:02:59.815
So the questions are well
how does this thing happen?

00:02:59.815 --> 00:03:01.881
And what even is a ribosome?

00:03:01.881 --> 00:03:06.874
So let's zoom in a little bit
on a ribosome right over here,

00:03:06.874 --> 00:03:08.563
and there's a couple
of interesting actors.

00:03:08.563 --> 00:03:12.623
One, as you can imagine,
is the ribosome itself,

00:03:12.623 --> 00:03:15.123
and it is made up of proteins,

00:03:17.322 --> 00:03:19.655
proteins plus ribosomal RNA.

00:03:22.211 --> 00:03:23.975
So in the video on transcription,

00:03:23.975 --> 00:03:27.023
we're already familiar with messenger RNA

00:03:27.023 --> 00:03:29.703
and we often view RNA like DNA

00:03:29.703 --> 00:03:32.301
as primarily encoding information,

00:03:32.301 --> 00:03:34.572
it's acting as a transcript for a gene,

00:03:34.572 --> 00:03:37.501
but it doesn't have to
only encode information.

00:03:37.501 --> 00:03:40.262
It can also, so it's proteins plus,

00:03:40.262 --> 00:03:42.158
it's not a 'T' there, this is a plus.

00:03:42.158 --> 00:03:44.770
It can also provide a
functional structural role,

00:03:44.770 --> 00:03:47.787
which it does in ribosomal RNA.

00:03:47.787 --> 00:03:50.108
And this big, you know, this looks like a

00:03:50.108 --> 00:03:52.874
an oversized hamburger bun
or something right over here,

00:03:52.874 --> 00:03:54.529
this is super oversimplification

00:03:54.529 --> 00:03:55.852
of what a ribosome looks like

00:03:55.852 --> 00:03:57.627
and I encourage you to do a web search

00:03:57.627 --> 00:03:59.978
for image searches for ribosomes,

00:03:59.978 --> 00:04:02.008
and then you can get
more appreciation of how

00:04:02.008 --> 00:04:03.742
how beautiful these structures are,

00:04:03.742 --> 00:04:05.641
and how intricate they actually are.

00:04:05.641 --> 00:04:07.083
So this is the site,

00:04:07.083 --> 00:04:09.185
and you can broadly think of the ribosome

00:04:09.185 --> 00:04:11.706
as having this, you know,
this is the top bun,

00:04:11.706 --> 00:04:13.238
and the bottom bun.

00:04:13.238 --> 00:04:16.488
And it's going to travel along the mRNA

00:04:16.488 --> 00:04:17.837
from the five prime end,

00:04:17.837 --> 00:04:20.439
to the three prime end, reading it,

00:04:20.439 --> 00:04:22.133
and taking that information,

00:04:22.133 --> 00:04:25.676
and turning it into a
sequence of amino acids.

00:04:25.676 --> 00:04:27.995
So how does that actually happen?

00:04:27.995 --> 00:04:31.049
Well, each, each of these three,

00:04:31.049 --> 00:04:33.447
every three nucleotides,

00:04:33.447 --> 00:04:35.673
every three nucleotides there,

00:04:35.673 --> 00:04:38.441
we call that a codon, so that's a codon,

00:04:38.441 --> 00:04:41.039
this is, let me do this in a color

00:04:41.039 --> 00:04:42.971
that is visible on both white and black.

00:04:42.971 --> 00:04:47.060
So these next three
nucleotides is a codon,

00:04:47.060 --> 00:04:49.839
this is a codon, this is a codon,

00:04:49.839 --> 00:04:52.691
and what's actually the
information is actually encoded

00:04:52.691 --> 00:04:54.872
in the nitrogenous bases.

00:04:54.872 --> 00:04:57.105
So this first codon right over here,

00:04:57.105 --> 00:04:59.790
we see it's AUG, so the
nitrogenous bases are

00:04:59.790 --> 00:05:02.123
adenine, uracil and guanine.

00:05:03.014 --> 00:05:07.181
And this has, this codon,
it codes for the amino acid

00:05:08.464 --> 00:05:11.563
methionine, but this is also,
this is a good one to know,

00:05:11.563 --> 00:05:14.701
AUG, let me write it over here.

00:05:14.701 --> 00:05:17.284
AUG is know as the start codon.

00:05:19.479 --> 00:05:20.479
Start codon.

00:05:21.766 --> 00:05:24.408
This is where the ribosome
will initially attach

00:05:24.408 --> 00:05:28.236
to start translating that messenger RNA,

00:05:28.236 --> 00:05:30.424
and so we, the way this drawing is,

00:05:30.424 --> 00:05:33.649
that we are just starting to translate

00:05:33.649 --> 00:05:35.301
this messenger RNA.

00:05:35.301 --> 00:05:37.035
So how does that actually happen?

00:05:37.035 --> 00:05:38.519
How do we get from these
three letter sequences

00:05:38.519 --> 00:05:40.463
to specific amino acids?

00:05:40.463 --> 00:05:42.407
Well let's think about it, how many,

00:05:42.407 --> 00:05:45.007
how many possible three
letter sequences are there?

00:05:45.007 --> 00:05:46.340
Well, there are,

00:05:47.691 --> 00:05:51.197
there are four possible
nitrogenous bases there,

00:05:51.197 --> 00:05:54.639
so there's four possible, so
if you, if you have a codon,

00:05:54.639 --> 00:05:56.639
and it has three places,

00:05:57.652 --> 00:05:59.260
there's four possible things

00:05:59.260 --> 00:06:00.994
that could be in the first place.

00:06:00.994 --> 00:06:02.882
There's four possible things

00:06:02.882 --> 00:06:04.417
that could be in the second place,

00:06:04.417 --> 00:06:06.346
and there's four possible
things that could be

00:06:06.346 --> 00:06:07.547
in the third place.

00:06:07.547 --> 00:06:10.714
So there are 64 possible permutations.

00:06:11.714 --> 00:06:14.018
4 times 4 times 4.

00:06:14.018 --> 00:06:17.442
Permutations, so you can
think of it, there's 64

00:06:17.442 --> 00:06:20.541
different codons,
different ways of arranging

00:06:20.541 --> 00:06:22.936
the A, the U and the G.

00:06:22.936 --> 00:06:25.749
And that's good, because
there are many amino acids,

00:06:25.749 --> 00:06:27.362
and this is actually overkill,

00:06:27.362 --> 00:06:30.464
because there's actually
22 standard amino acids,

00:06:30.464 --> 00:06:31.464
22 standard,

00:06:35.030 --> 00:06:36.613
amino, amino acids,

00:06:38.611 --> 00:06:43.366
and 21 that are typically
found in eukaryotic cells.

00:06:43.366 --> 00:06:47.735
So we have more than enough,
more than enough permutations

00:06:47.735 --> 00:06:49.886
to cover the different amino acids.

00:06:49.886 --> 00:06:53.717
And it's not hard to find tables
that will actually show us

00:06:53.717 --> 00:06:58.050
what the different sequences,
what they actually code for.

00:06:58.050 --> 00:07:01.098
So you can see here, you
can take the first letter,

00:07:01.098 --> 00:07:03.114
the second letter and the third letter,

00:07:03.114 --> 00:07:05.073
figure, look at the different sequences,

00:07:05.073 --> 00:07:06.532
and you can say, okay, look at that.

00:07:06.532 --> 00:07:09.854
AUG, adenine, uracil, guanine.

00:07:09.854 --> 00:07:12.104
That codes for methanine.

00:07:12.104 --> 00:07:13.437
Right over here.

00:07:14.346 --> 00:07:16.251
You could do that with any of them,

00:07:16.251 --> 00:07:18.363
you could say cytosine, uracil, uracil,

00:07:18.363 --> 00:07:19.893
that codes for leucine.

00:07:19.893 --> 00:07:22.981
And you can see that it's
not just one amino acid

00:07:22.981 --> 00:07:26.246
per codon, but here you have four codons

00:07:26.246 --> 00:07:29.875
all code for, all code for leucine.

00:07:29.875 --> 00:07:33.177
And so it turns out that 61 of the codons,

00:07:33.177 --> 00:07:34.836
let me write this down.

00:07:34.836 --> 00:07:38.169
So 61 of the codons, of the possible 64,

00:07:39.160 --> 00:07:41.219
code for amino acids,

00:07:41.219 --> 00:07:42.219
amino acids,

00:07:45.088 --> 00:07:49.088
and three play a role
that essentially tells the

00:07:50.597 --> 00:07:54.290
the ribosome to stop, three codons,

00:07:54.290 --> 00:07:56.360
three codons are stop codons,

00:07:56.360 --> 00:07:58.053
and you can see them right over here.

00:07:58.053 --> 00:08:01.692
UAA, UAG, UGA, that's
how the ribosome knows

00:08:01.692 --> 00:08:04.047
to stop translating.

00:08:04.047 --> 00:08:06.191
So AUG, that's a start codon,

00:08:06.191 --> 00:08:08.548
and it codes for methionine.

00:08:08.548 --> 00:08:11.226
So that lets you know that
these polypeptide chains

00:08:11.226 --> 00:08:12.919
are going to start with methionine,

00:08:12.919 --> 00:08:15.267
and then these characters
tell it where to stop.

00:08:15.267 --> 00:08:17.901
But how do, how does the amino acid

00:08:17.901 --> 00:08:20.952
actually get, how do they
all get tied up together

00:08:20.952 --> 00:08:22.560
to form this polypeptide?

00:08:22.560 --> 00:08:23.922
And how do they get matched up,

00:08:23.922 --> 00:08:25.537
how do they actually get matched up

00:08:25.537 --> 00:08:27.485
with the appropriate codon?

00:08:27.485 --> 00:08:30.423
And that's where we have
another RNA based actor,

00:08:30.423 --> 00:08:31.840
and this is tRNA.

00:08:33.194 --> 00:08:36.111
So tRNA, the t stands for transfer,

00:08:39.328 --> 00:08:40.411
transfer RNA.

00:08:41.588 --> 00:08:43.527
There's a bunch of different tRNAs

00:08:43.527 --> 00:08:46.826
that each combined to
specific amino acids,

00:08:46.826 --> 00:08:48.888
and on parts of those tRNA,

00:08:48.888 --> 00:08:51.483
they have what are called anti-codons.

00:08:51.483 --> 00:08:54.168
That pair with the appropriate codon.

00:08:54.168 --> 00:08:57.262
So this tRNA, and that's
not what it looks like,

00:08:57.262 --> 00:08:59.400
I'll show you in a second
what it looks like.

00:08:59.400 --> 00:09:01.817
That's a tRNA molecule, tRNA,

00:09:03.050 --> 00:09:04.613
at one end of the molecule,

00:09:04.613 --> 00:09:07.000
it's binding to the
appropriate amino acid,

00:09:07.000 --> 00:09:09.061
methionine, right over here.

00:09:09.061 --> 00:09:11.133
And then at the other end of the molecule,

00:09:11.133 --> 00:09:14.362
though that's in the middle
of the tRNA actual chain,

00:09:14.362 --> 00:09:16.593
you have your anticodon.

00:09:16.593 --> 00:09:20.845
And your anticodon matches
up to the appropriate codon.

00:09:20.845 --> 00:09:23.561
And so this is how they bump
into each other the right way

00:09:23.561 --> 00:09:25.873
and the ribosomes going to facilitate it,

00:09:25.873 --> 00:09:29.785
that the AUG is going to be
associated with the methionine.

00:09:29.785 --> 00:09:32.520
And if we look at what
tRNA actually looks like,

00:09:32.520 --> 00:09:34.675
and this is still just a visualization.

00:09:34.675 --> 00:09:37.008
So this is a strand of tRNA,

00:09:38.014 --> 00:09:41.105
you get a sense of, okay,
it's a sequence of RNA

00:09:41.105 --> 00:09:42.306
right over here,

00:09:42.306 --> 00:09:44.338
this it's, I guess you could
say, you could think of it,

00:09:44.338 --> 00:09:46.023
it's two dimensional structure.

00:09:46.023 --> 00:09:47.961
But then it wraps around itself to form

00:09:47.961 --> 00:09:49.844
this fairly complex molecule.

00:09:49.844 --> 00:09:53.003
And the anticodon, which is right here,

00:09:53.003 --> 00:09:55.183
it's kind of in the
middle of the sequence,

00:09:55.183 --> 00:09:58.196
it forms the basis for
this end of the molecule,

00:09:58.196 --> 00:10:00.795
that's the part that's
gonna pair with the codon

00:10:00.795 --> 00:10:02.241
on the mRNA,

00:10:02.241 --> 00:10:04.960
and then at the other end of the molecule,

00:10:04.960 --> 00:10:08.220
at the other end of the molecule
is where you actually bind

00:10:08.220 --> 00:10:10.955
to the appropriate amino acid.

00:10:10.955 --> 00:10:13.142
So I know what you're thinking, alright,

00:10:13.142 --> 00:10:15.111
I see that the ribosome,
it knows where to start,

00:10:15.111 --> 00:10:16.928
it starts at the start codon.

00:10:16.928 --> 00:10:19.204
I see how the appropriate tRNA can bring

00:10:19.204 --> 00:10:20.943
the appropriate amino acid,

00:10:20.943 --> 00:10:22.794
but how does the chain actually form?

00:10:22.794 --> 00:10:24.678
And you can view this in three steps,

00:10:24.678 --> 00:10:27.083
and associated with those
three steps are three sites

00:10:27.083 --> 00:10:28.362
on the ribosome.

00:10:28.362 --> 00:10:32.112
And the three sites, we
call this the A-site,

00:10:33.676 --> 00:10:35.699
you're not gonna be able to
see it if I write it in black.

00:10:35.699 --> 00:10:37.532
A, or yellow, alright,

00:10:38.372 --> 00:10:39.856
let me write it in blue.

00:10:39.856 --> 00:10:41.689
So that is the A-site.

00:10:43.317 --> 00:10:44.900
This is the P-site,

00:10:46.206 --> 00:10:48.123
and this is the E-site.

00:10:51.377 --> 00:10:54.315
And I'll talk in a second
why we call them A, P and E.

00:10:54.315 --> 00:10:58.025
So the A-site is where
the appropriate tRNA

00:10:58.025 --> 00:11:02.810
initially bounds, the tRNA
that's bound to an amino acid.

00:11:02.810 --> 00:11:05.213
And so you can see, we're
starting the translation process,

00:11:05.213 --> 00:11:06.958
the next thing that's going to happen

00:11:06.958 --> 00:11:09.894
is another tRNA, the one
that is, that matches,

00:11:09.894 --> 00:11:13.118
that has an anticodon
that matches the UAU,

00:11:13.118 --> 00:11:15.754
that's going to bond
over here on the A-site,

00:11:15.754 --> 00:11:18.479
and it's bringing the
appropriate amino acid with it,

00:11:18.479 --> 00:11:20.868
it's bringing the tyrosine with it.

00:11:20.868 --> 00:11:23.338
So why is that called the A-site?

00:11:23.338 --> 00:11:25.598
Well A stands for aminoacyl.

00:11:25.598 --> 00:11:27.164
An easy way to remember it

00:11:27.164 --> 00:11:30.125
it's the tRNA, it's the
place where the tRNA

00:11:30.125 --> 00:11:32.474
that's bound to the amino
acid, just one amino acid

00:11:32.474 --> 00:11:35.330
is going to bind on the ribosome.

00:11:35.330 --> 00:11:36.857
And so once that happens,

00:11:36.857 --> 00:11:38.714
once this character comes here,

00:11:38.714 --> 00:11:40.741
let me draw that.

00:11:40.741 --> 00:11:44.241
Once this character comes right over here,

00:11:45.284 --> 00:11:46.784
it's gonna be AUA,

00:11:48.037 --> 00:11:51.129
and it's bound to the tyrosine.

00:11:51.129 --> 00:11:54.360
Well then you could
have a peptide bond form

00:11:54.360 --> 00:11:57.288
between the two amino
acids, and the ribosome,

00:11:57.288 --> 00:12:01.410
and the ribosome itself
can move to the right.

00:12:01.410 --> 00:12:02.910
So this, this tRNA

00:12:05.573 --> 00:12:07.591
will then be in the E-site.

00:12:07.591 --> 00:12:10.349
This tRNA will then be in the P-site,

00:12:10.349 --> 00:12:13.445
and then the A-site will be
open for another amino acid

00:12:13.445 --> 00:12:14.612
carrying tRNA.

00:12:15.588 --> 00:12:19.758
So what this, what do the
P and E sites stand for?

00:12:19.758 --> 00:12:23.045
Well you can see a little bit
more clearly right over here.

00:12:23.045 --> 00:12:25.493
So the P-site is where you
have the polypeptide chain

00:12:25.493 --> 00:12:29.326
actually forming, and,
so the P-site is often,

00:12:30.530 --> 00:12:32.714
well, one way to remember
it is is that's where

00:12:32.714 --> 00:12:35.699
you have the polypeptide
chain, and now you have a new,

00:12:35.699 --> 00:12:38.097
you have a new A-site where you can

00:12:38.097 --> 00:12:39.785
bring in a new amino acid.

00:12:39.785 --> 00:12:41.763
And then the ribosome is going to shift,

00:12:41.763 --> 00:12:44.687
once this is bound, the ribosome,

00:12:44.687 --> 00:12:49.426
the peptide bond forms,
and then the ribosome can

00:12:49.426 --> 00:12:53.053
shift to the right, when the
ribosome shifts to the right,

00:12:53.053 --> 00:12:54.733
we're gonna be in this position,

00:12:54.733 --> 00:12:58.900
where the thing that was
here, that was in the A-site,

00:12:59.782 --> 00:13:01.969
now the polypeptide is attached to it,

00:13:01.969 --> 00:13:04.969
it is now going to be in the P-site,

00:13:05.925 --> 00:13:08.224
and the thing that was in the P-site

00:13:08.224 --> 00:13:10.547
is now going to be in the E-site.

00:13:10.547 --> 00:13:12.034
It is now ready to exit,

00:13:12.034 --> 00:13:13.761
and that's why it's called the E-site.

00:13:13.761 --> 00:13:15.734
Because that's the site
from which you exit.

00:13:15.734 --> 00:13:17.554
And so this is going to keep happening

00:13:17.554 --> 00:13:21.111
until we get to one of the stop codons.

00:13:21.111 --> 00:13:23.136
And when you get to
one of the stop codons,

00:13:23.136 --> 00:13:26.434
then the appropriate polypeptide
is going to be released,

00:13:26.434 --> 00:13:28.332
and we will have created this thing

00:13:28.332 --> 00:13:29.943
that could either be a protein,

00:13:29.943 --> 00:13:33.294
or part of a protein, so
this is very exciting,

00:13:33.294 --> 00:13:36.020
because this is happening
in your cells as we speak.

00:13:36.020 --> 00:13:38.199
This is, and in fact if
you think about things

00:13:38.199 --> 00:13:40.712
like antibiotics, the
way that they work are,

00:13:40.712 --> 00:13:43.349
is that, or the way that antibiotics work

00:13:43.349 --> 00:13:46.783
is that ribosomes and prokaryotes

00:13:46.783 --> 00:13:49.510
are different enough than
ribosomes in plants and animals

00:13:49.510 --> 00:13:52.224
or in eukaryotes, that
we can find molecules

00:13:52.224 --> 00:13:55.893
that hurt the function of
ribosomes in prokaryotes,

00:13:55.893 --> 00:13:57.954
but don't do it to eukaryots.

00:13:57.954 --> 00:14:00.557
And so if you have bacteria
in your blood stream,

00:14:00.557 --> 00:14:02.285
and if you take the
appropriate antibiotic,

00:14:02.285 --> 00:14:04.423
it could disrupt this translation process

00:14:04.423 --> 00:14:06.782
in the bacteria, but not in your cells

00:14:06.782 --> 00:14:08.615
that you want to keep.


Meet the Comma

WEBVTT
Kind: captions
Language: en

00:00:00.137 --> 00:00:01.271
- [Voiceover] Hello grammarians.

00:00:01.271 --> 00:00:02.517
Today Paige and I are going to teach you

00:00:02.517 --> 00:00:06.094
all about your new best friend, the comma.

00:00:06.094 --> 00:00:10.375
It is a piece of punctuation
that has many many functions.

00:00:10.375 --> 00:00:12.990
We're just going to broadly
overview them today.

00:00:12.990 --> 00:00:16.913
The comma is an extremely
powerful piece of punctuation,

00:00:16.913 --> 00:00:18.857
can do a whole bunch of stuff.

00:00:18.857 --> 00:00:21.605
So Paige, what is the most pertinent

00:00:21.605 --> 00:00:24.193
or important thing that the comma does?

00:00:24.193 --> 00:00:25.783
- [Voiceover] I would probably say

00:00:25.783 --> 00:00:29.116
that it is separating sentence elements.

00:00:29.977 --> 00:00:33.440
- [Voiceover] So that's
like its broad super-power--

00:00:33.440 --> 00:00:34.273
- [Voiceover] Exactly.

00:00:34.273 --> 00:00:38.635
- [Voiceover] But lots of
stuff falls under that.

00:00:38.635 --> 00:00:42.277
So it's like it has laser
vision but it can not only

00:00:42.277 --> 00:00:47.230
use that laser vision to
boil water, but it can also

00:00:47.230 --> 00:00:49.281
cut through steel.

00:00:49.281 --> 00:00:50.299
- [Voiceover] Exactly.

00:00:50.299 --> 00:00:55.219
- [Voiceover] So this is a
superhero punctuation mark.

00:00:55.219 --> 00:00:58.052
I'll make that into a C for comma.

00:00:59.153 --> 00:01:01.735
So okay, so how is the comma
going to save the day today?

00:01:01.735 --> 00:01:03.644
How's it going to make
our sentences make sense?

00:01:03.644 --> 00:01:06.221
What are some of the
things that it separates?

00:01:06.221 --> 00:01:10.388
- [Voiceover] So it can
separate elements of lists.

00:01:15.152 --> 00:01:18.069
- [Voiceover] For lunch I had tofu,

00:01:20.270 --> 00:01:21.103
spam,

00:01:24.148 --> 00:01:25.148
and seaweed.

00:01:28.318 --> 00:01:29.380
A very Hawai'ian lunch.

00:01:29.380 --> 00:01:31.963
- [Voiceover] Mm-hm, delicious.

00:01:33.482 --> 00:01:34.315
- [Voiceover] So it's separating

00:01:34.315 --> 00:01:37.342
these elements of this list.

00:01:37.342 --> 00:01:40.592
I guess commas can also separate dates.

00:01:42.888 --> 00:01:44.951
- [Voiceover] That's right.

00:01:44.951 --> 00:01:47.760
- [Voiceover] So for example,
here in the United States,

00:01:47.760 --> 00:01:51.343
National Blueberry
Muffin Day is July 11th,

00:01:53.195 --> 00:01:54.947
and if we wanted to refer to a historical

00:01:54.947 --> 00:01:58.947
blueberry muffin day,
let's say July 11th, 1981.

00:02:04.204 --> 00:02:05.037
- [Voiceover] Wow.

00:02:05.037 --> 00:02:07.858
- [Voiceover] It was the
best muffin day ever.

00:02:07.858 --> 00:02:08.705
- [Voiceover] I wish I could
have been around for that.

00:02:08.705 --> 00:02:12.948
- [Voiceover] Yeah, okay, so
a comma can separate lists

00:02:12.948 --> 00:02:16.054
and it can be used for dates,
and we can also set off

00:02:16.054 --> 00:02:18.097
things at the beginning of sentences,

00:02:18.097 --> 00:02:21.097
like basically, everything is great.

00:02:25.245 --> 00:02:27.509
The comma has a bunch
of different functions.

00:02:27.509 --> 00:02:29.773
It's this super-useful multi-tool.

00:02:29.773 --> 00:02:32.162
It's the superhero of
a piece of punctuation.

00:02:32.162 --> 00:02:34.286
So we're not going to cover
all of that in this video.

00:02:34.286 --> 00:02:36.169
The most important thing
to remember about the comma

00:02:36.169 --> 00:02:39.059
is what it does is
separate sentence elements.

00:02:39.059 --> 00:02:42.182
It can separate clauses,
it can separate items

00:02:42.182 --> 00:02:45.470
in a list, it can separate dates.

00:02:45.470 --> 00:02:48.840
Usually, when you're
trying to make a separation

00:02:48.840 --> 00:02:52.189
within a sentence, you use a comma.

00:02:52.189 --> 00:02:55.612
So Paige, so what are some
things that commas can't do?

00:02:55.612 --> 00:02:56.593
- [Voiceover] That's a great question.

00:02:56.593 --> 00:03:00.287
So, commas can't go at
the end of a sentence.

00:03:00.287 --> 00:03:02.787
- [Voiceover] Okay, so I couldn't be like,

00:03:02.787 --> 00:03:05.120
I want to go swimming comma.

00:03:10.676 --> 00:03:11.591
It couldn't end a sentence that way.

00:03:11.591 --> 00:03:12.424
- [Voiceover] Right, you need to say

00:03:12.424 --> 00:03:13.421
something after the comma.

00:03:13.421 --> 00:03:15.254
- [Voiceover] So this is no good.

00:03:15.254 --> 00:03:16.534
Or you have to keep going,

00:03:16.534 --> 00:03:20.534
like I'm going to go
swimming, and then sailing.

00:03:25.104 --> 00:03:28.104
And end it with a period, like that.

00:03:29.406 --> 00:03:32.084
That's totally fine usage for a comma.

00:03:32.084 --> 00:03:34.072
If it's in the middle of a sentence

00:03:34.072 --> 00:03:35.573
but not at the end of a sentence.

00:03:35.573 --> 00:03:36.406
- [Voiceover] Right.

00:03:36.406 --> 00:03:39.222
- [Voiceover] Okay, so
commas only go in the middle.

00:03:39.222 --> 00:03:40.055
- [Voiceover] Yeah.

00:03:40.055 --> 00:03:42.244
- [Voiceover] So comma separates
stuff which therefore means

00:03:42.244 --> 00:03:45.354
it has to be in-between something.

00:03:45.354 --> 00:03:46.583
- [Voiceover] Right, there has
to be something to the left

00:03:46.583 --> 00:03:47.777
and something to the right.

00:03:47.777 --> 00:03:49.688
- [Voiceover] Cool, all right.

00:03:49.688 --> 00:03:51.004
That's a comma--

00:03:51.004 --> 00:03:51.837
- [Voiceover] Yeah--

00:03:51.837 --> 00:03:52.670
- [Voiceover] Wouldn't you say?

00:03:52.670 --> 00:03:54.621
- [Voiceover] I think we have
successfully met the comma.

00:03:54.621 --> 00:03:56.372
- [Voiceover] Cool,
you can learn anything.

00:03:56.372 --> 00:03:57.205
David out.

00:03:57.205 --> 00:03:58.070
- [Voiceover] Paige out.


Commas in space and time

WEBVTT
Kind: captions
Language: en

00:00:00.462 --> 00:00:01.530
- [Voiceover] Hello, grammarians!

00:00:01.530 --> 00:00:02.705
Hello, Paige!
- [Voiceover] Hi, David.

00:00:02.705 --> 00:00:03.802
So today we're gonna be talking about

00:00:03.802 --> 00:00:05.802
commas in space and time

00:00:06.879 --> 00:00:10.246
because commas have basically
one function, which is--

00:00:10.246 --> 00:00:11.674
- [Voiceover] Separating
parts of sentences.

00:00:11.674 --> 00:00:14.182
- [Voiceover] Separating
parts of sentences.

00:00:14.182 --> 00:00:16.039
And what's neat is that we can use commas

00:00:16.039 --> 00:00:19.116
to separate stuff out in space

00:00:19.116 --> 00:00:21.310
and separate stuff out in time.

00:00:21.310 --> 00:00:24.433
So I'm gonna handle space;
Paige is gonna do time.

00:00:24.433 --> 00:00:26.152
It's gonna be sweet.

00:00:26.152 --> 00:00:29.263
So first of all, one way
in which you can use commas

00:00:29.263 --> 00:00:33.176
to separate space is by
talking about addresses,

00:00:33.176 --> 00:00:36.542
people's physical addresses in space.

00:00:36.542 --> 00:00:40.542
So the fictitious private
detective, Nero Wolfe,

00:00:42.220 --> 00:00:44.356
one of my very favorites,

00:00:44.356 --> 00:00:46.745
is supposed to live at

00:00:46.745 --> 00:00:49.589
454 West 35th Street in New York.

00:00:49.589 --> 00:00:51.807
So if I wanted to write
Mister Wolfe a letter,

00:00:51.807 --> 00:00:53.385
and I would write him a letter
because he hates talking

00:00:53.385 --> 00:00:55.649
on the phone, I would address it like so,

00:00:55.649 --> 00:00:59.562
separating all elements of
his address with commas.

00:00:59.562 --> 00:01:01.312
So Nero Wolfe, comma,

00:01:02.650 --> 00:01:04.400
454 West 35th Street,

00:01:09.965 --> 00:01:10.798
comma,

00:01:13.389 --> 00:01:14.556
New York City,

00:01:15.630 --> 00:01:17.929
or just New York, comma,

00:01:17.929 --> 00:01:18.762
New York.

00:01:21.017 --> 00:01:25.184
And then I would put the zip
code, which I think is 10001,

00:01:26.195 --> 00:01:28.088
but I'm not sure if they had zip codes

00:01:28.088 --> 00:01:30.723
when those stories took
place, but it doesn't matter.

00:01:30.723 --> 00:01:33.261
You separate out all of these elements

00:01:33.261 --> 00:01:34.261
with commas.

00:01:35.770 --> 00:01:37.357
And this isn't just for writing addresses;

00:01:37.357 --> 00:01:41.065
this is for referring to any
point in space on the Planet.

00:01:41.065 --> 00:01:43.247
So if I wanted to tell you
the name of my favorite city

00:01:43.247 --> 00:01:45.349
on the Planet, I would say:

00:01:45.349 --> 00:01:46.516
"Ouagadougou",

00:01:49.412 --> 00:01:51.245
comma, "Burkina Faso."

00:01:54.568 --> 00:01:55.401
Real place.

00:01:55.401 --> 00:01:56.234
I've never been there.

00:01:56.234 --> 00:01:58.120
I would like to go someday.

00:01:58.120 --> 00:02:01.835
And that is how you use commas in space.

00:02:01.835 --> 00:02:04.752
Paige, how are commas used in time?

00:02:05.608 --> 00:02:09.049
- [Voiceover] So commas are used in dates.

00:02:09.049 --> 00:02:10.100
- [Voiceover] OK.

00:02:10.100 --> 00:02:12.024
- [Voiceover] So,

00:02:12.024 --> 00:02:14.024
I could say: on Tuesday,

00:02:15.198 --> 00:02:16.948
comma, October fifth,

00:02:18.321 --> 00:02:19.321
comma, 2010,

00:02:21.688 --> 00:02:23.605
comma, I ate a cricket.

00:02:26.448 --> 00:02:30.581
So, as you can see, we've
separated the day of the week

00:02:30.581 --> 00:02:33.998
from the day of the month, October fifth,

00:02:34.981 --> 00:02:37.245
from the year, 2010,

00:02:37.245 --> 00:02:39.753
and then separated all that
from the rest of the sentence:

00:02:39.753 --> 00:02:40.786
I ate a cricket.

00:02:40.786 --> 00:02:42.516
- [Voiceover] Because all of
this is like a prepositional

00:02:42.516 --> 00:02:46.336
phrase that is modifying the word ate.

00:02:46.336 --> 00:02:47.230
- [Voiceover] True.

00:02:47.230 --> 00:02:48.724
- [Voiceover] So we wanna
make sure that all of it

00:02:48.724 --> 00:02:51.557
is separated out from
the rest of the sentence;

00:02:51.557 --> 00:02:54.727
and we separate it out
using our friend, the comma.

00:02:54.727 --> 00:02:55.560
- [Voiceover] Of course.

00:02:55.560 --> 00:02:57.118
- [Voiceover] So if you
want to express a kind of

00:02:57.118 --> 00:02:59.928
complicated relationship
in time or in space,

00:02:59.928 --> 00:03:03.121
you wanna make sure a letter
gets to a very specific place,

00:03:03.121 --> 00:03:04.944
you wanna talk about a very specific city

00:03:04.944 --> 00:03:08.241
in a very specific
country, you use commas.

00:03:08.241 --> 00:03:11.085
You wanna talk about a very
specific time, you use commas.

00:03:11.085 --> 00:03:14.661
That's commas in space
and time, my grammarians.

00:03:14.661 --> 00:03:15.938
You can learn anything.

00:03:15.938 --> 00:03:16.771
David out.

00:03:16.771 --> 00:03:18.456
- [Voiceover] Paige out.


Commas in dialogue

WEBVTT
Kind: captions
Language: en

00:00:00.697 --> 00:00:02.415
- [Voiceover] Hello,
Grammarians, and hello, Paige.

00:00:02.415 --> 00:00:03.297
- [Voiceover] Hi, David.

00:00:03.297 --> 00:00:05.155
- [Voiceover] So, we're gonna talk about

00:00:05.155 --> 00:00:07.209
using commas in dialogue.

00:00:07.209 --> 00:00:09.114
So I've got these two sentences here

00:00:09.114 --> 00:00:12.179
that I have removed all
the punctuation from

00:00:12.179 --> 00:00:15.104
because I recognize that figuring out

00:00:15.104 --> 00:00:17.682
where to put commas when you are reporting

00:00:17.682 --> 00:00:19.493
someone else's speech, you know,

00:00:19.493 --> 00:00:22.558
for a newspaper article
or a piece of fiction

00:00:22.558 --> 00:00:24.114
or whatever it is,

00:00:24.114 --> 00:00:26.031
can be quite confusing.

00:00:26.900 --> 00:00:30.151
And so here's basically
what you need to know

00:00:30.151 --> 00:00:33.402
is that commas in dialogue
essentially function

00:00:33.402 --> 00:00:34.725
as runways.

00:00:34.725 --> 00:00:36.931
It can ramp you up to get going

00:00:36.931 --> 00:00:38.069
for an utterance

00:00:38.069 --> 00:00:40.319
and take you down and land.

00:00:41.575 --> 00:00:44.803
Paige, would you read me this sentence?

00:00:44.803 --> 00:00:46.823
- [Voiceover] "Guillermo
said, I have no idea

00:00:46.823 --> 00:00:48.309
"where I put that moonstone."

00:00:48.309 --> 00:00:51.072
- [Voiceover] So, we're
starting into this sentence,

00:00:51.072 --> 00:00:53.998
and we're gonna use this comma as a ramp

00:00:53.998 --> 00:00:56.645
to divide between the utterance

00:00:56.645 --> 00:00:58.642
and what's called the dialogue tag.

00:00:58.642 --> 00:01:00.360
"So Guillermo said," comma,

00:01:00.360 --> 00:01:02.612
"I have no idea where
I put that moonstone."

00:01:02.612 --> 00:01:03.889
This is the end of his utterance.

00:01:03.889 --> 00:01:05.584
We're gonna put a period here.

00:01:05.584 --> 00:01:08.208
However, sentence number two--

00:01:08.208 --> 00:01:09.648
- [Voiceover] "They're probably pirates,

00:01:09.648 --> 00:01:11.134
"Roxane said."

00:01:11.134 --> 00:01:12.365
- [Voiceover] So here, since we're putting

00:01:12.365 --> 00:01:15.662
the dialogue tag after
the reported speech,

00:01:15.662 --> 00:01:18.913
this were otherwise going to be a period.

00:01:18.913 --> 00:01:21.188
We're gonna put a comma here.

00:01:21.188 --> 00:01:22.883
"They're probably pirates,"

00:01:22.883 --> 00:01:25.300
comma, "Roxane said," period.

00:01:26.970 --> 00:01:27.803
And why is this?

00:01:27.803 --> 00:01:29.524
It's because we're trying to separate

00:01:29.524 --> 00:01:31.428
between the reported speech

00:01:31.428 --> 00:01:34.052
and the dialogue tag itself.

00:01:34.052 --> 00:01:35.385
So, in the event

00:01:36.931 --> 00:01:39.848
that this were a question, however,

00:01:41.506 --> 00:01:43.317
you would use a question mark

00:01:43.317 --> 00:01:45.407
or if it were an exclamation,

00:01:45.407 --> 00:01:46.614
you would use an exclamation point,

00:01:46.614 --> 00:01:49.075
but if it were going to just be a period,

00:01:49.075 --> 00:01:50.027
you wouldn't do this.

00:01:50.027 --> 00:01:51.537
You wouldn't say, "They're
probably pirates,"

00:01:51.537 --> 00:01:53.371
period, "Roxane said."

00:01:53.371 --> 00:01:55.414
You would say, "They're probably pirates,"

00:01:55.414 --> 00:01:57.164
comma, "Roxane said."

00:01:58.294 --> 00:01:59.803
- [Voiceover] Yeah.

00:01:59.803 --> 00:02:02.172
- [Voiceover] I know
that's kinda confusing.

00:02:02.172 --> 00:02:06.839
But that is the style that
we abide by in English.

00:02:06.839 --> 00:02:07.791
- [Voiceover] Right, so as you said,

00:02:07.791 --> 00:02:10.252
comma with dialogue is pretty much

00:02:10.252 --> 00:02:11.390
acting as a runway.

00:02:11.390 --> 00:02:12.223
- [Voiceover] Okay.

00:02:12.223 --> 00:02:13.480
- [Voiceover] So with the first sentence,

00:02:13.480 --> 00:02:15.511
"Guillermo said," comma, and then--

00:02:15.511 --> 00:02:17.067
- [Voiceover] So just
kinda like, take off--

00:02:17.067 --> 00:02:18.019
- [Voiceover] Right, you're getting like,

00:02:18.019 --> 00:02:20.364
ramped up into the dialogue,

00:02:20.364 --> 00:02:21.525
and then with the second one,

00:02:21.525 --> 00:02:23.661
it's like the plane is landing,

00:02:23.661 --> 00:02:26.958
and, "They're probably pirates,"

00:02:26.958 --> 00:02:28.514
and then the dialogue ends.

00:02:28.514 --> 00:02:29.347
- [Voiceover] Cool.

00:02:29.347 --> 00:02:30.290
- [Voiceover] But there
has to be a comma in there

00:02:30.290 --> 00:02:31.521
to end it.

00:02:31.521 --> 00:02:32.914
- [Voiceover] So if the
statement were going

00:02:32.914 --> 00:02:33.819
to end with a period,

00:02:33.819 --> 00:02:35.398
we'd use a comma in reported dialogue

00:02:35.398 --> 00:02:37.976
when the tag follows the reported speech.

00:02:37.976 --> 00:02:38.809
- [Voiceover] That's right.

00:02:38.809 --> 00:02:39.880
- [Voiceover] Otherwise,
we'd use all the other

00:02:39.880 --> 00:02:42.620
relevant punctuation marks.

00:02:42.620 --> 00:02:43.453
- [Voiceover] Yeah.

00:02:43.453 --> 00:02:45.290
- [Voiceover] Okay, cool.

00:02:45.290 --> 00:02:46.904
So this is like the only time ever

00:02:46.904 --> 00:02:49.388
when you can end a sentence with a comma.

00:02:49.388 --> 00:02:50.851
- [Voiceover] Yeah, pretty much.

00:02:50.851 --> 00:02:52.384
- [Voiceover] Woah, that's awesome.

00:02:52.384 --> 00:02:54.009
- [Voiceover] Yeah.

00:02:54.009 --> 00:02:56.563
- [Voiceover] So that's how
you use commas in dialogue.

00:02:56.563 --> 00:02:57.956
You can learn anything.

00:02:57.956 --> 00:02:58.792
David out.

00:02:58.792 --> 00:02:59.672
- [Voiceover] Paige out.


Salutations and valedictions

WEBVTT
Kind: captions
Language: en

00:00:00.000 --> 00:00:01.906
- [Voiceover] Hello
grammarians and hello Paige.

00:00:01.906 --> 00:00:02.739
- Hi David.

00:00:02.739 --> 00:00:03.705
- Today we're gonna be talking

00:00:03.705 --> 00:00:05.893
about commas in correspondence

00:00:05.893 --> 00:00:08.025
and what that means is how to use commas

00:00:08.025 --> 00:00:12.508
in letter writing, so saying
hello and saying goodbye.

00:00:12.508 --> 00:00:15.737
When you start writing letter
or an e-mail to somebody,

00:00:15.737 --> 00:00:19.460
you use commas so let
me show you an example.

00:00:19.460 --> 00:00:20.997
So if you're writing a letter to someone

00:00:20.997 --> 00:00:22.912
you open it with something like this.

00:00:22.912 --> 00:00:24.797
Dear Prudence comma

00:00:24.797 --> 00:00:26.847
I received the plum jam you sent me.

00:00:26.847 --> 00:00:29.993
You can see we have this little comma here

00:00:29.993 --> 00:00:32.456
because what commas do,
right, is that they separate

00:00:32.456 --> 00:00:34.929
elements of the sentence from one another.

00:00:34.929 --> 00:00:37.523
So what we're doing
here with this comma is

00:00:37.523 --> 00:00:40.161
we're putting it after the
greeting to separate it

00:00:40.161 --> 00:00:43.314
from the body text. So
that's how you begin

00:00:43.314 --> 00:00:45.490
a letter or an email

00:00:45.490 --> 00:00:47.998
with a comma after the, you know,

00:00:47.998 --> 00:00:52.184
dear part or the hello Prudence comma part

00:00:52.184 --> 00:00:53.309
you know, whatever it is,

00:00:53.309 --> 00:00:56.316
but Paige, how do you use
commas toward the end

00:00:56.316 --> 00:00:58.383
of correspondence of emails and stuff?

00:00:58.383 --> 00:01:01.901
- Great, so at the end
of a letter or an email

00:01:01.901 --> 00:01:04.185
you'll use a comma in
a sort of similar way

00:01:04.185 --> 00:01:05.735
to how you use it at the beginning

00:01:05.735 --> 00:01:09.560
so you'll say something like with love

00:01:09.560 --> 00:01:10.898
comma

00:01:10.898 --> 00:01:12.481
Bruce Ben-Bacharach

00:01:16.982 --> 00:01:21.149
- So okay, we can use them
at the beginning like this.

00:01:23.834 --> 00:01:25.593
Dear Prudence comma

00:01:25.593 --> 00:01:28.710
or we can use it at the end.

00:01:28.710 --> 00:01:30.249
The endings of letters.

00:01:30.249 --> 00:01:33.012
So this has a technical name.

00:01:33.012 --> 00:01:34.980
We were discussing this
before we started recording

00:01:34.980 --> 00:01:39.037
so if you open a letter,
that's called the salutation

00:01:39.037 --> 00:01:41.537
which is another way to say hi

00:01:42.904 --> 00:01:47.071
and the way you end a letter
is called a valediction

00:01:49.887 --> 00:01:50.970
which is like

00:01:51.855 --> 00:01:55.742
saying hail, I think
wale in latin means hail.

00:01:55.742 --> 00:01:57.492
I think salu is hello

00:01:58.725 --> 00:02:01.864
and wale, or vale is goodbye

00:02:01.864 --> 00:02:04.324
and so this is really just like a

00:02:04.324 --> 00:02:07.354
helloining and a goodbye saying

00:02:07.354 --> 00:02:10.144
so if you're saying hello
in a letter or an email

00:02:10.144 --> 00:02:12.283
you use a comma. If you're saying goodbye

00:02:12.283 --> 00:02:13.606
in a letter or email...

00:02:13.606 --> 00:02:14.439
- Use a comma.

00:02:14.439 --> 00:02:15.974
- You can learn anything. David out.

00:02:15.974 --> 00:02:16.891
- Paige out.


Three ways to end a sentence

WEBVTT
Kind: captions
Language: en

00:00:00.329 --> 00:00:01.921
- [Voiceover] Hello
grammarians and hello Paige.

00:00:01.921 --> 00:00:03.017
- Hi David.

00:00:03.017 --> 00:00:04.813
- So today, we're gonna talk about

00:00:04.813 --> 00:00:07.309
the three different
ways to end a sentence.

00:00:07.309 --> 00:00:11.615
This is what we call a terminal
punctuation of English.

00:00:11.615 --> 00:00:13.171
Paige, what are those three ways?

00:00:13.171 --> 00:00:15.103
- So, the first is a period.

00:00:15.103 --> 00:00:15.936
- Okay.

00:00:15.936 --> 00:00:17.361
- And then exclamation point.

00:00:17.361 --> 00:00:18.194
- Poom.

00:00:18.194 --> 00:00:19.244
- And a question mark.

00:00:19.244 --> 00:00:20.435
- Swoosh. Poom.

00:00:20.435 --> 00:00:21.518
- A period is

00:00:22.435 --> 00:00:24.923
just sort of the standard
ending to a sentence.

00:00:24.923 --> 00:00:25.756
- Sure.

00:00:25.756 --> 00:00:26.714
- Right, it's...

00:00:26.714 --> 00:00:30.168
It goes at the end of,
I think, most sentences.

00:00:30.168 --> 00:00:32.133
I would say that all of the sentences

00:00:32.133 --> 00:00:34.672
that we have spoken so far
would probably end in periods.

00:00:34.672 --> 00:00:36.573
- So what's a good example sentence

00:00:36.573 --> 00:00:38.842
that we can use a period at the end of?

00:00:38.842 --> 00:00:41.347
- My mom ate a cookie.

00:00:41.347 --> 00:00:42.688
- So that's just sort of a

00:00:42.688 --> 00:00:44.829
straight up, regular ol' sentence?

00:00:44.829 --> 00:00:45.662
- Yeah.

00:00:45.662 --> 00:00:49.045
- Just a standard declaration of a fact.

00:00:49.045 --> 00:00:49.898
- Exactly.

00:00:49.898 --> 00:00:51.778
- This is a thing that is
true. My mom ate a cookie.

00:00:51.778 --> 00:00:52.685
- Yes.

00:00:52.685 --> 00:00:55.343
- Cool, and then we just
put this period there to say

00:00:55.343 --> 00:00:57.227
that's the end of a...

00:00:57.227 --> 00:00:58.604
End of line.

00:00:58.604 --> 00:01:01.849
So then what is, what is
an exclamation point for?

00:01:01.849 --> 00:01:03.256
What would we use that for?

00:01:03.256 --> 00:01:06.302
- Yeah, so an exclamation
point is pretty much

00:01:06.302 --> 00:01:09.436
if someone is excited
about what they're saying.

00:01:09.436 --> 00:01:10.269
- Okay.

00:01:10.269 --> 00:01:12.019
- So if I were to say

00:01:12.885 --> 00:01:15.112
I'm gonna eat so much
candy when I get home!

00:01:15.112 --> 00:01:16.785
I think that was probably an exclamation.

00:01:16.785 --> 00:01:17.618
- Sure.

00:01:17.618 --> 00:01:19.363
- And ends in an exclamation point.

00:01:19.363 --> 00:01:22.445
- But its not just like
good excitement either.

00:01:22.445 --> 00:01:24.763
It's not just like, wooh, this is awesome!

00:01:24.763 --> 00:01:27.978
- Totally. There can
be, you know, anger like

00:01:27.978 --> 00:01:28.993
go to your room!

00:01:28.993 --> 00:01:29.864
- Right.

00:01:29.864 --> 00:01:32.364
- Or like fear. If you said...

00:01:33.760 --> 00:01:34.593
- Aaah!

00:01:36.029 --> 00:01:38.032
- Yes. Exactly.

00:01:38.032 --> 00:01:39.598
- We have the period,
which kind of all purpose

00:01:39.598 --> 00:01:42.540
terminal punctuation you
can just say a regular

00:01:42.540 --> 00:01:44.647
declarative sentence. Here is a fact,

00:01:44.647 --> 00:01:45.814
my mom ate a cookie.

00:01:45.814 --> 00:01:48.566
Or you can use exclamation points to

00:01:48.566 --> 00:01:50.638
demonstrate excitement or strong emotion

00:01:50.638 --> 00:01:53.337
whether good or bad, so
like an interjection like

00:01:53.337 --> 00:01:55.950
aaah! Or a command like go to you room!

00:01:55.950 --> 00:01:59.937
Or if your super excited,
I'm gonna eat so much candy!

00:01:59.937 --> 00:02:03.299
What is this thing used for? Huuuh?

00:02:03.299 --> 00:02:06.067
- Well, I think that was a perfect example

00:02:06.067 --> 00:02:08.663
but that thing is used for...

00:02:08.663 --> 00:02:13.225
That is a question mark which
goes at the end of a question.

00:02:13.225 --> 00:02:16.238
So it basically just signifies

00:02:16.238 --> 00:02:19.320
I don't know the answer to this thing

00:02:19.320 --> 00:02:21.413
and I would like an answer to it please.

00:02:21.413 --> 00:02:23.551
- So okay. So Paige,
what's an example question

00:02:23.551 --> 00:02:26.182
that we can throw out
using a question mark?

00:02:26.182 --> 00:02:28.654
- How about, is this edible?

00:02:28.654 --> 00:02:30.449
- Well it's the eternal question.

00:02:30.449 --> 00:02:31.614
(Paige laughs)

00:02:31.614 --> 00:02:32.782
- I ask myself that everyday.

00:02:32.782 --> 00:02:33.983
(David laughs)

00:02:33.983 --> 00:02:37.502
- Okay so we have periods,
just statement of facts,

00:02:37.502 --> 00:02:39.923
exclamations, expressions
of strong emotion,

00:02:39.923 --> 00:02:43.074
or question marks, which
ask a question? I guess?

00:02:43.074 --> 00:02:44.571
(Paige chuckles)

00:02:44.571 --> 00:02:45.404
- Yeah.

00:02:45.404 --> 00:02:46.592
- Cool.

00:02:46.592 --> 00:02:47.429
Thanks Paige.

00:02:47.429 --> 00:02:48.351
- Thank you for having me.

00:02:48.351 --> 00:02:50.480
- You can learn anything. David out.

00:02:50.480 --> 00:02:51.313
- Paige out.


More uses for commas

WEBVTT
Kind: captions
Language: en

00:00:00.671 --> 00:00:02.494
- [Voiceover] Hello,
grammarians, and hello, Paige.

00:00:02.494 --> 00:00:03.327
- [Voiceover] Hi, David.

00:00:03.327 --> 00:00:05.210
- [Voiceover] Paige, I
have a question for you.

00:00:05.210 --> 00:00:06.043
- [Voiceover] What's up?

00:00:06.043 --> 00:00:08.658
- [Voiceover] You like cheese, don't you?

00:00:08.658 --> 00:00:09.760
- [Voiceover] Why, yes, I do.

00:00:09.760 --> 00:00:11.073
- [Voiceover] So, Paige,
what I've just asked you

00:00:11.073 --> 00:00:14.231
is an example of what's
called a tag question.

00:00:14.231 --> 00:00:16.901
So I'm making an assertion

00:00:16.901 --> 00:00:19.107
and then I'm actually
looking for confirmation;

00:00:19.107 --> 00:00:22.033
so I'm making a statement and then,

00:00:22.033 --> 00:00:25.156
consumed by doubt, I have to turn, comma,

00:00:25.156 --> 00:00:26.805
and ask you for confirmation.

00:00:26.805 --> 00:00:30.125
So I say: "You like
cheese", comma, "don't you?"

00:00:30.125 --> 00:00:33.720
And so what's cool about
tag questions is that

00:00:33.720 --> 00:00:37.858
they kind of follow this
positive-negative flow.

00:00:37.858 --> 00:00:40.493
So it begins with a
positive assertion, like:

00:00:40.493 --> 00:00:43.198
"Here is a thing that is
true", and then the doubt,

00:00:43.198 --> 00:00:45.404
so you then negate it to ask the question.

00:00:45.404 --> 00:00:46.925
- [Voiceover] Right.

00:00:46.925 --> 00:00:49.282
- [Voiceover] You can
also do this backwards

00:00:49.282 --> 00:00:51.093
and begin with a negative assertion

00:00:51.093 --> 00:00:53.183
and ask a positive question, like:

00:00:53.183 --> 00:00:55.191
"This won't hurt", comma, "will it?"

00:00:55.191 --> 00:00:56.712
And we're using the comma to perform

00:00:56.712 --> 00:01:00.879
its separating function
because that's what commas do,

00:01:00.879 --> 00:01:02.546
and separate between

00:01:04.646 --> 00:01:08.170
the assertion and the doubt question.

00:01:08.170 --> 00:01:11.386
And that's what tag questions are.

00:01:11.386 --> 00:01:13.067
Sorry to just launch into it.

00:01:13.067 --> 00:01:15.540
So today we're gonna
talk about tag questions,

00:01:15.540 --> 00:01:16.640
direct address,

00:01:16.640 --> 00:01:20.459
and using commas in the
context of yes and no.

00:01:20.459 --> 00:01:21.292
- [Voiceover] Right.

00:01:21.292 --> 00:01:22.886
- [Voiceover] So, Paige, how are you?

00:01:22.886 --> 00:01:24.616
- [Voiceover] Why are you asking me this?

00:01:24.616 --> 00:01:27.239
- [Voiceover] Because it's
an example of direct address.

00:01:27.239 --> 00:01:31.406
So if I start off an utterance
by directly addressing you,

00:01:33.529 --> 00:01:36.362
it follows a pause, I
would say: "Paige," comma,

00:01:36.362 --> 00:01:38.127
"how are you?"

00:01:38.127 --> 00:01:39.032
- [Voiceover] I see.

00:01:39.032 --> 00:01:40.019
That makes sense.

00:01:40.019 --> 00:01:41.784
- [Voiceover] But also I'm
interested in your well-being.

00:01:41.784 --> 00:01:43.142
- [Voiceover] Oh, well thank you!

00:01:43.142 --> 00:01:44.700
I'm good.
- [Voiceover] Good.

00:01:44.700 --> 00:01:47.342
So if you're directly addressing a person,

00:01:47.342 --> 00:01:49.199
it doesn't have to be just Paige,

00:01:49.199 --> 00:01:51.370
it could also be me, it could also be Sal,

00:01:51.370 --> 00:01:55.771
whoever, you would say the
name followed by a comma

00:01:55.771 --> 00:01:59.312
then the question, or whatever
the sentence was going to be,

00:01:59.312 --> 00:02:02.934
like: "Paige, I'm going to
the grocery store later.

00:02:02.934 --> 00:02:04.977
"Do you want some cheese?"

00:02:04.977 --> 00:02:05.915
- [Voiceover] Right.

00:02:05.915 --> 00:02:08.910
I do definitely want some cheese.

00:02:08.910 --> 00:02:11.337
- [Voiceover] So then in
that response actually

00:02:11.337 --> 00:02:13.844
you could have the final thing
we're going to talk about

00:02:13.844 --> 00:02:16.607
today, which is yes and no commas.

00:02:16.607 --> 00:02:19.607
So when you're answering a question,

00:02:20.885 --> 00:02:22.331
whether yes or no,

00:02:22.331 --> 00:02:26.267
you kind of use yes or no as
sentence adverbs, kind of.

00:02:26.267 --> 00:02:28.984
It's an introductory
element, so you would say:

00:02:28.984 --> 00:02:31.329
"Yes," comma, "I would love some cheese",

00:02:31.329 --> 00:02:34.406
or "No," comma, "I hate cheese"

00:02:34.406 --> 00:02:37.691
if it were like an
alternate-universe version of you.

00:02:37.691 --> 00:02:40.083
- [Voiceover] Yeah, no,
I definitely love cheese.

00:02:40.083 --> 00:02:41.964
- [Voiceover] But that's how it works.

00:02:41.964 --> 00:02:46.131
You would use, say, yes or no
and follow it with a comma.

00:02:47.687 --> 00:02:50.601
So this is just another example
of how powerful commas are.

00:02:50.601 --> 00:02:52.076
You can use them in all these

00:02:52.076 --> 00:02:54.179
different separating abilities.

00:02:54.179 --> 00:02:57.300
So you can separate
between the tag question,

00:02:57.300 --> 00:02:58.992
the positive assertion and
the negative question, like:

00:02:58.992 --> 00:03:00.525
"You like cheese," comma, "don't you?",

00:03:00.525 --> 00:03:03.160
or "This won't hurt," comma, "will it?"

00:03:03.160 --> 00:03:04.763
You can use it in direct address, like:

00:03:04.763 --> 00:03:07.026
"Paige," comma, "how are you?",

00:03:07.026 --> 00:03:09.325
and in yes-or-no responses, like

00:03:09.325 --> 00:03:11.123
"No," comma, "I hate cheese",

00:03:11.123 --> 00:03:14.329
or "Yes," comma, "I
would love some cheese."

00:03:14.329 --> 00:03:15.444
- [Voiceover] Commas are so powerful.

00:03:15.444 --> 00:03:16.767
- [Voiceover] Yeah, for real.

00:03:16.767 --> 00:03:18.427
- [Voiceover] The viewer can
learn anything, can't they?

00:03:18.427 --> 00:03:21.017
- [Voiceover] Yes, Paige,
I believe they can.

00:03:21.017 --> 00:03:21.887
David out.

00:03:21.887 --> 00:03:23.100
- [Voiceover] Paige out.


BONUS: The Oxford comma

WEBVTT
Kind: captions
Language: en

00:00:00.931 --> 00:00:02.162
- [Voiceover] Hey grammarians, hey Paige.

00:00:02.162 --> 00:00:02.995
- [Voiceover] Hi David.

00:00:02.995 --> 00:00:04.345
- [Voiceover] So we're gonna talk today

00:00:04.345 --> 00:00:08.176
about the Oxford comma, which
is just another word for

00:00:08.176 --> 00:00:11.218
another name for the serial
comma which is normally when you

00:00:11.218 --> 00:00:13.772
have a list of things, you punctuate them

00:00:13.772 --> 00:00:16.048
with a comma after each item.

00:00:16.048 --> 00:00:17.719
So for example, in this sentence:

00:00:17.719 --> 00:00:19.512
I'd like to thank my parents, comma,

00:00:19.512 --> 00:00:22.530
Mahatma Gandhi, comma, and my pet hamster.

00:00:22.530 --> 00:00:26.222
Or in this example: His favorite
artists are Elvis, comma,

00:00:26.222 --> 00:00:29.868
a tiny Norwegian harpist,
comma, and Frida Kahlo.

00:00:29.868 --> 00:00:32.118
Now this is a pretty big...

00:00:33.258 --> 00:00:38.258
controversy in English is
where to put this comma.

00:00:38.258 --> 00:00:42.016
Some style guides for example
the AP style guide recommends

00:00:42.016 --> 00:00:45.266
that you don't include this last comma.

00:00:46.567 --> 00:00:48.193
The style guide that Khan Academy uses,

00:00:48.193 --> 00:00:52.094
the Chicago Manual of
Style, does recommend it.

00:00:52.094 --> 00:00:55.205
Ultimately this is less about
grammar and more about style,

00:00:55.205 --> 00:00:58.131
less about sense and more about taste.

00:00:58.131 --> 00:01:00.685
'Cause you can make, I think,
a pretty convincing argument

00:01:00.685 --> 00:01:04.075
against each one, like whether
to use the Oxford comma

00:01:04.075 --> 00:01:07.489
or whether to not use the Oxford comma.

00:01:07.489 --> 00:01:08.322
Paige, could you take me through

00:01:08.322 --> 00:01:12.179
the possible ambiguity
in this first sentence?

00:01:12.179 --> 00:01:14.292
- [Voiceover] Sure, so
this sentence without

00:01:14.292 --> 00:01:17.055
the Oxford comma can kind
of look like you're saying

00:01:17.055 --> 00:01:19.391
that you're parents are Mahatma Gandhi

00:01:19.391 --> 00:01:22.038
and your pet hamster,
which is pretty crazy.

00:01:22.038 --> 00:01:25.475
- [Voiceover] Right, and
the second one is a sort

00:01:25.475 --> 00:01:27.402
of sentence that could be used

00:01:27.402 --> 00:01:30.583
to make the argument
against the Oxford comma.

00:01:30.583 --> 00:01:32.835
So his favorite artists are Elvis,

00:01:32.835 --> 00:01:35.529
a tiny Norwegian harpist, and Frida Kahlo,

00:01:35.529 --> 00:01:38.557
and it could be argued that
you're saying that Elvis,

00:01:38.557 --> 00:01:42.736
the rock-n-roll progenitor, hip-swivel guy

00:01:42.736 --> 00:01:46.736
was a tiny Norwegian
harpist, which is not true.

00:01:48.007 --> 00:01:50.528
Both of these things are kind of examples

00:01:50.528 --> 00:01:54.445
of assumed apposition that we're using.

00:01:55.404 --> 00:01:58.051
We're using Mahatma
Gandhi and my pet hamster

00:01:58.051 --> 00:02:01.186
to explain or clarify parents.

00:02:01.186 --> 00:02:03.415
Or that we're using a
tiny Norwegian harpist

00:02:03.415 --> 00:02:05.737
to explain or clarify Elvis.

00:02:05.737 --> 00:02:07.820
And this is not the case.

00:02:09.290 --> 00:02:12.100
I think you have to choose which kind

00:02:12.100 --> 00:02:16.100
of confusion is more
important for you to avoid.

00:02:17.371 --> 00:02:19.414
Frankly, the way to fix
these sentences is to put

00:02:19.414 --> 00:02:22.990
the uncertain thing
elsewhere in the sentence.

00:02:22.990 --> 00:02:25.706
So probably last, like I'd like to think.

00:02:25.706 --> 00:02:29.189
Mahatma Gandhi, my pet
hamster and my parents.

00:02:29.189 --> 00:02:31.535
And there's no confusion no matter

00:02:31.535 --> 00:02:33.276
where you put the comma there.

00:02:33.276 --> 00:02:36.759
Or his favorite artists
are Elvis, Frida Kahlo,

00:02:36.759 --> 00:02:38.756
and a tiny Norwegian harpist.

00:02:38.756 --> 00:02:39.708
- [Voiceover] Yeah, that does a good job

00:02:39.708 --> 00:02:42.495
of avoiding that confusion.

00:02:42.495 --> 00:02:46.326
- [Voiceover] A good craftsman
never blames their tools.

00:02:46.326 --> 00:02:47.998
That's all I gotta say about that.

00:02:47.998 --> 00:02:49.716
So Paige and I are here to report.

00:02:49.716 --> 00:02:51.945
We're not here to make law.

00:02:51.945 --> 00:02:53.640
We're trying to tell
you about the language

00:02:53.640 --> 00:02:55.614
as it is and the way people use it.

00:02:55.614 --> 00:02:58.888
Well we do at Khan Academy
is we use the Oxford comma,

00:02:58.888 --> 00:03:01.233
so parents, comma, Mahatma Gandhi, comma,

00:03:01.233 --> 00:03:03.555
and my pet hamster, or Elvis, comma,

00:03:03.555 --> 00:03:06.875
a tiny Norwegian harpist,
comma, and Frida Kahlo.

00:03:06.875 --> 00:03:07.708
- [Voiceover] Yeah.

00:03:07.708 --> 00:03:08.541
- [Voiceover] You have to find

00:03:08.541 --> 00:03:09.546
a style guide and stick with it.

00:03:09.546 --> 00:03:13.354
And sometimes that depends
on if you're writing

00:03:13.354 --> 00:03:16.605
for a newspaper that uses
a particular style guide,

00:03:16.605 --> 00:03:19.368
or if your English teacher
has a particular style guide

00:03:19.368 --> 00:03:20.482
that they want you to abide by,

00:03:20.482 --> 00:03:22.665
that's what you should follow.

00:03:22.665 --> 00:03:23.498
- [Voiceover] Exactly.

00:03:23.498 --> 00:03:25.080
Different people will
tell you different things.

00:03:25.080 --> 00:03:27.054
- [Voiceover] The key is to be consistent.

00:03:27.054 --> 00:03:28.052
That's the Oxford comma.

00:03:28.052 --> 00:03:29.979
That's the debate over it.

00:03:29.979 --> 00:03:32.650
And it's really all about a false sense

00:03:32.650 --> 00:03:35.596
of these being appositives.

00:03:35.596 --> 00:03:38.087
So keep a wary eye out.

00:03:38.087 --> 00:03:39.249
That's the Oxford comma.

00:03:39.249 --> 00:03:40.549
You can learn anything.

00:03:40.549 --> 00:03:41.382
David out.

00:03:41.382 --> 00:03:42.466
- [Voiceover] Paige out.


Appositives

WEBVTT
Kind: captions
Language: en

00:00:00.492 --> 00:00:02.501
- [Voiceover] Hello
grammarians, and hello Paige.

00:00:02.501 --> 00:00:03.334
- [Voiceover] Hi David.

00:00:03.334 --> 00:00:04.714
- [Voiceover] So today we're
going to be talking about

00:00:04.714 --> 00:00:09.628
the appositive, which is
just a monster of a word.

00:00:09.628 --> 00:00:13.111
I can tell you that from
my limited study of Latin

00:00:13.111 --> 00:00:17.111
it comes from ad positio,
which is "putting on",

00:00:21.031 --> 00:00:23.212
which doesn't really necessarily help.

00:00:23.212 --> 00:00:25.467
What is this thing?

00:00:25.467 --> 00:00:28.155
What is this device, how do we use it,

00:00:28.155 --> 00:00:30.080
and what does it have to do with commas?

00:00:30.080 --> 00:00:32.238
- [Voiceover] That is a great question.

00:00:32.238 --> 00:00:35.261
The definition itself is
also kind of confusing,

00:00:35.261 --> 00:00:37.799
but it'll make a lot of sense
when we see some examples.

00:00:37.799 --> 00:00:41.966
My older sister, Griselda, is
going to college in the fall.

00:00:44.353 --> 00:00:47.884
- [Voiceover] Okay, so, an appositive,

00:00:47.884 --> 00:00:50.730
what is the definition
of an appositive then?

00:00:50.730 --> 00:00:54.844
- [Voiceover] So it is a
noun phrase that clarifies

00:00:54.844 --> 00:00:58.010
or redefines its antecedent.

00:00:58.010 --> 00:01:00.568
- [Voiceover] And an antecedent
is just something that comes

00:01:00.568 --> 00:01:04.671
before, so what we're doing
here with Griselda is,

00:01:04.671 --> 00:01:08.838
we are redefining or clarifying
who my older sister is,

00:01:09.877 --> 00:01:11.203
so in order to do that,
we're putting it between

00:01:11.203 --> 00:01:15.491
these commas like so, and
we're just saying it again.

00:01:15.491 --> 00:01:18.576
My older sister, Griselda, is
going to college in the fall.

00:01:18.576 --> 00:01:19.767
- [Voiceover] Right.

00:01:19.767 --> 00:01:21.929
- [Voiceover] But it
doesn't always have to be

00:01:21.929 --> 00:01:23.878
in the middle like this, right.

00:01:23.878 --> 00:01:26.862
- [Voiceover] That's true,
it can be say, at the end.

00:01:26.862 --> 00:01:31.407
So, they stopped selling my
favorite snack, the Cookie Cat.

00:01:31.407 --> 00:01:32.291
- [Voiceover] I am so sorry.

00:01:32.291 --> 00:01:35.124
- [Voiceover] I know. It's so sad.

00:01:36.299 --> 00:01:39.286
- [Voiceover] So we've got
this apposition then at the end

00:01:39.286 --> 00:01:43.392
of the sentence, so my favorite
snack is being redefined

00:01:43.392 --> 00:01:45.642
or clarified by Cookie Cat.

00:01:47.253 --> 00:01:49.043
Or rather, Cookie Cat is clarifying

00:01:49.043 --> 00:01:51.704
or redefining my favorite snack.

00:01:51.704 --> 00:01:52.537
- [Voiceover] Right.

00:01:52.537 --> 00:01:54.709
I could just say, "They stopped
selling my favorite snack."

00:01:54.709 --> 00:01:56.706
- [Voiceover] That could just
be its own sentence right.

00:01:56.706 --> 00:01:57.539
- [Voiceover] Totally.

00:01:57.539 --> 00:01:59.419
- [Voiceover] They stopped
selling my favorite snack.

00:01:59.419 --> 00:02:01.270
My older sister is going
to college in the fall.

00:02:01.270 --> 00:02:02.925
This stuff isn't essential

00:02:02.925 --> 00:02:04.630
to the understanding of the sentence.

00:02:04.630 --> 00:02:06.944
- [Voiceover] Right, but if you don't know

00:02:06.944 --> 00:02:11.253
what my favorite snack
is, then it's helpful

00:02:11.253 --> 00:02:12.825
for me to say, the Cookie Cat.

00:02:12.825 --> 00:02:15.020
- [Voiceover] So you can use
them as in the first sentence,

00:02:15.020 --> 00:02:17.966
my older sister comma Griselda
comma is going to college

00:02:17.966 --> 00:02:20.594
in the fall, or you can use
it as in the second sentence,

00:02:20.594 --> 00:02:21.971
they stopped selling my favorite snack

00:02:21.971 --> 00:02:24.556
comma the Cookie Cat period.

00:02:24.556 --> 00:02:25.389
- [Voiceover] Right.

00:02:25.389 --> 00:02:26.885
You don't need another comma.

00:02:26.885 --> 00:02:28.076
- [Voiceover] Right.

00:02:28.076 --> 00:02:29.040
- [Voiceover] At the end.

00:02:29.040 --> 00:02:31.247
- [Voiceover] Let's change
that back into a comma.

00:02:31.247 --> 00:02:32.493
- [Voiceover] So this is
just another illustration

00:02:32.493 --> 00:02:36.369
of the separating power of
the comma, cuz we're using it

00:02:36.369 --> 00:02:40.562
to set off this explanatory,
clarifying element

00:02:40.562 --> 00:02:42.730
in the middle or at the
end of these sentences.

00:02:42.730 --> 00:02:44.743
- [Voiceover] Yeah, exactly,
that's what the comma does.

00:02:44.743 --> 00:02:47.023
Man, it seems like commas can do anything.

00:02:47.023 --> 00:02:48.548
- [Voiceover] Yeah,
it's pretty incredible.

00:02:48.548 --> 00:02:50.383
You know what else can do anything?

00:02:50.383 --> 00:02:51.216
- [Voiceover] What?

00:02:51.216 --> 00:02:52.257
- [Voiceover] The viewer, you the viewer,

00:02:52.257 --> 00:02:54.869
you can learn anything.

00:02:54.869 --> 00:02:57.300
That's the appositive and
how it relates to commas.

00:02:57.300 --> 00:02:58.133
David out.

00:02:58.133 --> 00:02:59.463
- [Voiceover] Paige out.