Phenotype plasticity

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- [Instructor] The folks
you see in this picture

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are two NASA astronauts

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who also happen to be identical twins.

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On the left here, this is Mark Kelly,

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you can see his name on
his patch right over there,

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and then this is Scott Kelly.

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And the reason why we want to look

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at these two astronauts in particular

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is to think about genotype and phenotype

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that we have been introduced
to in other videos.

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So just as a bit of a review,

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when people talk about genotype,

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they're talking about the
actual genetic information

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encoded in an organism's genes.

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So, if you go inside a
cell we have chromosomes

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and then on those
chromosomes, there are long,

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each chromosome's a long stretch of DNA.

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And then sections of
that long stretch of DNA

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will code for various things,

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often usually various proteins.

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But there's a difference
between what is actually,

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what information is in one's genes

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versus what actually gets expressed.

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The observable characteristics,
that is phenotype,

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and two people with the same genotype

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they might have a very similar phenotype

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but they won't necessarily
have an identical phenotype

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because above and beyond the
genes affecting phenotype,

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you also have the environment

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affecting someone's phenotype.

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So, as you can see here,
Mark and Scott Kelly,

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they're identical twins,

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they have the same genotype.

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But if you just look at
their facial characteristics

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you can see that you could tell

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the difference between the two,

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and it's not just the fact
that Mark has a mustache

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and that Scott doesn't, we
could draw in a mustache,

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we would still see that
they look different.

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And that's because their bodies
developed in different ways

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based off the environment
that they happen to be in.

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And this idea that the same genotype

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could result in variations of phenotype,

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this is known as phenotype plasticity.

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Phenotype.

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Phenotype plasticity.

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And maybe in one of the
most extreme experiments

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ever conducted on phenotype plasticity,

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NASA was intrigued to see,

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well, what would happen
to the gene expression

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if Scott Kelly spent an
extensive period of time in space

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while his twin brother didn't.

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So they looked at how
their bodies expressed

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certain characteristics before Scott spent

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an extended period of time in space.

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And then after he spent that time in space

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they studied his body

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and they saw that there was
differences in the mitochondria,

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differences in which genes were expressed.

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In fact, there was a 7%
difference in the gene expression

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after the extended time
in space for Scott.

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So that's the example of
that space environment

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changing Scott's phenotype.

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And the NASA scientists theorized

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that it was a low oxygen environment

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there was a lot of carbon
dioxide in that environment,

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there were stressors from space travel

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that would have affected how the genotype

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which is identical to his
brother, Mark's genotype,

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how it might have been expressed

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resulting in the phenotype plasticity

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above and beyond what
other changes in phenotype

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between Scott and Mark accumulated

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over the course of their lives

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despite having the same
genetic information.


WEBVTT
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- [Narrator] Why do midterm
congressional elections matter?

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- Congressional elections matter

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because they are often
and have increasingly been

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a referendum on the president.

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So it is a kind of real test

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from real voters doing real voting

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about whether people approve
of what the president's doing

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or disapprove of what he's doing.

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But then there's also
an important question

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of who has control of Congress?

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If the president's party
has control of Congress

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the way it's been working
in recent history is,

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that means he's basically gonna get

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a rubber stamp for what he wants to do.

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If the president's party is
not in control of Congress

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that means there are gonna
be more investigations

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into the executive branch.

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And that's of course what the
legislature is supposed to do

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but it means more investigations,

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it means that Congress might try

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and pass its own legislation

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and then work to some kind of

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accommodation with the president.

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Given the partisanship in
America right now though,

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when you have the executive
in the control of one party

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and the legislature in the
control of another party,

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it also very well could
mean complete gridlock

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and a situation in which
many of the nations

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most important questions
don't get answered.


Why does your vote matter?

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- [Narrator] Why does your vote matter?

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- Your vote matters because,
in the most specific case,

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there might be a race where you live,

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for the House or the Senate
or even the presidency,

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where your vote really could
determine who the winner

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of that race is.

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We saw in the 2000
presidential election race,

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that basically the entire
presidency was determined

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by a difference of 537 votes in Florida.

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So that's a special case,

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but then also, there are reasons to vote

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that have nothing to do with
the people who are running

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for the national offices.

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There are lots of local
offices where laws are

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put on the book that really can
affect your day-to-day life.

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There's also referendums in
various states and localities.

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There are about 150-odd
referendas on everything

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from whether marijuana should be legalized

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to whether and how poor
people get medical coverage.

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Those are also on the
ballet in a lot of places.

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And also, when a vote
takes place for somebody

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who is being elected, it's
not just for the policies

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of the day, it's also for the
policies that may yet come.

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And if you have a view on the
way things should be handled,

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you should exercise your voice

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because it not only, if you are in a place

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where your vote is not
gonna matter in terms

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of directly electing the person you want,

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voting sends a message to those lawmakers.

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And it sends one of two kinds of messages.

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One, it says this number of people

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represents this viewpoint.

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And lawmakers should listen
to that kind of message

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from the voters.

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A lot of times, even if
they don't listen to it,

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well their opponents will
be able to raise it and say,

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Look, this many people believe
in this and you should.

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It is a fact that is then
used in public debate.

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And that fact can sometimes
be used to persuade people.

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Also, there's the case
that lawmakers get nervous.

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And they want to get re-elected.

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And if they see a lot
of people turning out

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on the other side, even
if it doesn't keep them

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from being elected, well, the next time,

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it might keep them from being elected.

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So they have to listen.

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Finally, it's the spiritual,

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kind of American civic religion,
which is America started

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on the idea that we could govern ourselves

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without resorting to fights.

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And we've been remarkably successful.

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Although American history is blotted,

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and it is broken in places,
but Americans have always

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transferred power
peacefully to each other,

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with the one great
exception of the Civil War.

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But the electoral system still survived,

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even through that most bloody battle.

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And so as Americans, by voting,
we are putting ourselves

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back in touch with this
great original experiment,

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that at its time was
unique in American history.

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And there are still people
all across the world

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who fight and die for the
simple ability to cast a vote

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so that their voice can be heard.

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And so not only to we have to keep faith

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with our own history,
but also with the world

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in which it is a human right
in some places to vote.

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And so we shouldn't take that
kind of thing for granted,

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if we want a world in which
human beings are allowed

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to voice their vote and have
that vote mean something

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in the way the laws are made

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that determine how their lives are lived.


How does voter turnout in midterms compare to presidential elections?

WEBVTT
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- [Interviewer] How does
voter turnout in midterms

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compare to presidential elections?

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- Traditionally, midterm
elections have been years

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in which the voter turnout is much lower

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than a presidential
election, and particularly

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in recent history where the
American political scene

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has been really dominated
by the president.

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We can start that really
with John F. Kennedy,

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when he became a celebrity president

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and really everybody increasingly

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has just sort of seen
American political activity

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originating and swirling
around a president.

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And so if they're
interested in the president,

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well, they turn out for
the presidential election.

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But in the off-year
elections, in the midterms,

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well, the president's
not really on the ballot

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even if some people tend
to see the elections

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as a referendum on his presidency.

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So people turn out in lower numbers.

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We've also seen a trend, and
it may be upturned in 2018,

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but a trend where Republican
voters, who tend to be older,

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participate in the voting
in midterm elections more

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than younger voters, who
tend to vote Democratic,

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or voters of color, who vote

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for the Democratic Party as well.

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That's always been one of
the challenges for Democrats,

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to get their team to turn out

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and vote in these midterm elections.


How have congressional elections changed over time?

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- [Narrator] How have
congressional elections

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changed over time?

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- Congressional elections
used to be separate

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from the presidential elections.

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One of the great examples is in 1938,

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FDR, who we all look back and think of

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as a president who had
such extraordinary power

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and who could do no wrong,

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well in 1938 he tried to see if he could

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exercise that power.

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So he tried to kick some Democrats

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out of the Democratic Party
who didn't agree with him

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and he was spectacularly unsuccessful.

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Lots and lots of the Democrats

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he put his finger on and
told his fellow Democrats,

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"You vote for my man,"

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and they lost.

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Other Democrats won

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and that gives you a sense
of how the president,

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even a popular and successful one,

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was very separate from his own party.

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Well, what's happened since then

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is that presidents have started
to have much more control

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over the members of their own party

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and voters, who in 1938,
thought it was outrageous

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that a president would force Democrats

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of his own party to vote
the way he wanted them to

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because they saw such a separation between

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the Presidency and the Congress.

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Those voters don't exist much any more.

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Voters now pay a, penalize,
a member of a party

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who doesn't stick with their president

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of that same party.

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So that connectedness
tends to create a situation

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in which congressional
elections in the midterms

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tend to be a referendum on the president

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even though the president's
not on the ballot.

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What's also the other big
change in American politics

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is the amount of money.

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In 2018 it's very likely that according to

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the Center for Responsive Politics

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five billion dollars will
be spent on the election.

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10 years ago, in the election of 2008,

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spending was half that.

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2.5 billion dollars and
that was a presidential year

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in which there's more spending.

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The enormous amount of money
means you have more ads,

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you means you have a whole group of people

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who's job it is to make decisions

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that are subtle and
complicated and complex

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seem easy and to intensify
the partisan battles

00:02:03.370 --> 00:02:04.530
between each other.

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And that also creates a situation in which

00:02:06.540 --> 00:02:08.660
candidates are always running for office

00:02:08.660 --> 00:02:10.450
because they're always
having to raise the money

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to pay for all of those ads,

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and all of those experts,

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and all of those social media campaigns.

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Speaking of social media,

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we now have an instance in which you have

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real time up or down
votes from constituents

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and people on the sidelines

00:02:23.000 --> 00:02:25.120
telling members of
Congress whether they're

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doing the right thing or
doing the wrong thing,

00:02:27.100 --> 00:02:29.020
either in office or in elections,

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and that creates a real time
jitteriness to elections.

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It used to be you could have
a long time conversation.

00:02:35.700 --> 00:02:38.670
Heck when Abraham Lincoln
and Stephen Douglas

00:02:38.670 --> 00:02:41.020
debated in those famous
Lincoln/Douglas debates

00:02:41.020 --> 00:02:42.210
for a Senate seat,

00:02:42.210 --> 00:02:45.190
those debates took place over three hours.

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Now we have situations
where people will flame up

00:02:48.580 --> 00:02:50.100
for about 20 minutes on Twitter

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and that's all the time you'll ever see

00:02:51.470 --> 00:02:52.820
for something to get addressed

00:02:52.820 --> 00:02:55.220
because 10 more issues have come along

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in the next 20 minutes.

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So social media has
sped up and intensified

00:03:00.460 --> 00:03:02.920
the nature of conflict in campaigns

00:03:02.920 --> 00:03:05.210
and those are some of the
big things that have changed

00:03:05.210 --> 00:03:07.510
in the way we run our
congressional campaigns.


Does the president's party usually gain or lose seats at the midterm elections?

WEBVTT
Kind: captions
Language: en

00:00:00.280 --> 00:00:01.980
- [Narrator] Does the
president's party usually gain

00:00:01.980 --> 00:00:04.350
or lose seats at the midterm elections?

00:00:04.350 --> 00:00:06.660
- It's a pretty strong historical trend

00:00:06.660 --> 00:00:11.290
that the president's party
loses seats in the presidency.

00:00:11.290 --> 00:00:12.790
So that's particularly the case

00:00:12.790 --> 00:00:13.960
in the House of Representatives.

00:00:13.960 --> 00:00:17.020
Since the Civil War,
about 93% of the time,

00:00:17.020 --> 00:00:19.130
the president's party loses seats.

00:00:19.130 --> 00:00:21.410
Now sometimes they lose a lot of seats

00:00:21.410 --> 00:00:24.020
and the entire control
of the House switches

00:00:24.020 --> 00:00:25.600
from control in the president's party

00:00:25.600 --> 00:00:28.650
to control into the other party.

00:00:28.650 --> 00:00:30.840
In the Senate it's a little less direct.

00:00:30.840 --> 00:00:33.500
About 70% of the time,
the president's party

00:00:33.500 --> 00:00:36.790
loses seats in a midterm election.

00:00:36.790 --> 00:00:40.100
And this is often seen, and
more in more recent history,

00:00:40.100 --> 00:00:43.990
it's really seen as a kinda
thumbs up or thumbs down vote

00:00:43.990 --> 00:00:45.950
on how the president is doing.

00:00:45.950 --> 00:00:49.950
The electorate reacting to
whether they like or dislike

00:00:49.950 --> 00:00:51.170
what the president is doing.

00:00:51.170 --> 00:00:52.640
And in the two cases recently,

00:00:52.640 --> 00:00:55.230
where the president's
party did pick up seats

00:00:55.230 --> 00:00:59.760
in Congress, it was in
1998 when the Republicans

00:00:59.760 --> 00:01:02.350
were seen to have overreached
in their impeachment

00:01:02.350 --> 00:01:06.740
of Bill Clinton, and so
voters voted for Democrats,

00:01:06.740 --> 00:01:07.830
Bill Clinton's party.

00:01:07.830 --> 00:01:11.570
And then in 2002 when
George W. Bush was seen

00:01:11.570 --> 00:01:15.010
as successfully responding
to the 2001 attacks

00:01:15.010 --> 00:01:18.870
on the World Trade Center
and the Pentagon and America,

00:01:18.870 --> 00:01:22.080
his party picked up seats in
the Congressional election

00:01:22.080 --> 00:01:24.200
because it was seen as a ratification

00:01:24.200 --> 00:01:25.833
of his presidency so far.


Activation and inhibition of signal transduction pathways

WEBVTT
Kind: captions
Language: en

00:00:00.360 --> 00:00:02.350
- [Narrator] What we have depicted here is

00:00:02.350 --> 00:00:04.620
a signal transduction pathway

00:00:04.620 --> 00:00:06.720
that gets started with the cholera toxin.

00:00:06.720 --> 00:00:09.330
And we've talked about
signal transduction pathways

00:00:09.330 --> 00:00:11.390
in other videos, but it's really this idea

00:00:11.390 --> 00:00:14.240
that you would have molecules
outside of the cell that would

00:00:14.240 --> 00:00:17.260
interact with receptors
on the surface of the cell

00:00:17.260 --> 00:00:21.120
that would then create a
whole chain reaction of events

00:00:21.120 --> 00:00:23.520
that would cause that
cell to do something.

00:00:23.520 --> 00:00:25.270
And so what's happening here is,

00:00:25.270 --> 00:00:27.500
if you were in the unfortunate situation,

00:00:27.500 --> 00:00:30.130
and this is not something
that you would wish on anyone,

00:00:30.130 --> 00:00:33.350
if they were to have the
cholera bacteria in their gut,

00:00:33.350 --> 00:00:36.110
so let's say that this
is the cholera bacteria,

00:00:36.110 --> 00:00:40.060
that cholera bacteria in your
intestines will release the,

00:00:40.060 --> 00:00:42.150
what we can call the cholera toxin.

00:00:42.150 --> 00:00:44.680
And here it's depicted
in very abstract fashion

00:00:44.680 --> 00:00:46.240
by a circle on top of a triangle.

00:00:46.240 --> 00:00:48.010
That's not what it actually looks like.

00:00:48.010 --> 00:00:51.530
It's a protein complex with
various protein subunits.

00:00:51.530 --> 00:00:53.110
It's just drawn this way

00:00:53.110 --> 00:00:55.580
so that we can think
about this triangle part

00:00:55.580 --> 00:00:59.090
interacting with this receptor
on the epithelial cell.

00:00:59.090 --> 00:01:01.440
And so what happens is this cholera toxin,

00:01:01.440 --> 00:01:04.120
it will interact with
this ganglioside receptor.

00:01:04.120 --> 00:01:05.670
You don't have to know the details here,

00:01:05.670 --> 00:01:08.240
really just the idea of what's going on.

00:01:08.240 --> 00:01:10.560
And then once it does that,
when you see these arrows

00:01:10.560 --> 00:01:14.260
on these transduction
pathways, you could view it as

00:01:14.260 --> 00:01:16.290
that is going to activate the next step,

00:01:16.290 --> 00:01:18.900
or sometimes you might say
might promote the next step

00:01:18.900 --> 00:01:21.730
or make it more likely to happen.

00:01:21.730 --> 00:01:25.660
But what then happens is, is
once this thing has interacted,

00:01:25.660 --> 00:01:27.920
the A part of the subunit goes in,

00:01:27.920 --> 00:01:30.230
interacts with a G-protein.

00:01:30.230 --> 00:01:31.780
You don't have to know
all the details here,

00:01:31.780 --> 00:01:33.810
but G-proteins are
something that you'll see

00:01:33.810 --> 00:01:36.360
in a lot of signal transduction pathways.

00:01:36.360 --> 00:01:38.180
There's not just one G-protein.

00:01:38.180 --> 00:01:40.800
There's a whole family of
proteins called G-proteins.

00:01:40.800 --> 00:01:43.390
And you can view them
as molecular switches.

00:01:43.390 --> 00:01:45.140
They can get turned on and off

00:01:45.140 --> 00:01:48.260
based on how they're interacting
with other molecules.

00:01:48.260 --> 00:01:50.350
Their conformation, their shape changes,

00:01:50.350 --> 00:01:53.050
and so that might activate
or deactivate them.

00:01:53.050 --> 00:01:55.150
But you can see, you
can follow these arrows,

00:01:55.150 --> 00:01:57.120
and you can see what eventually happens.

00:01:57.120 --> 00:01:58.760
And you don't have to
know every detail here.

00:01:58.760 --> 00:02:03.500
Eventually, it leads to adenylate
cyclase, then cyclic AMP,

00:02:03.500 --> 00:02:05.370
then the protein kinase gets involved.

00:02:05.370 --> 00:02:09.500
But the end result from this
pathway is that you have

00:02:09.500 --> 00:02:12.770
these ions being released
from this epithelial cell.

00:02:12.770 --> 00:02:16.590
And with that, that causes
the water to leave the cell,

00:02:16.590 --> 00:02:19.100
and that's what causes diarrhea.

00:02:19.100 --> 00:02:22.270
So the toxin gets your gut cells,

00:02:22.270 --> 00:02:25.060
gets your intestinal cells
to start releasing water,

00:02:25.060 --> 00:02:29.050
so then you're going to have
very, very, very bad diarrhea.

00:02:29.050 --> 00:02:31.960
So that's the big picture,
but now we can think about

00:02:31.960 --> 00:02:34.750
what might happen in certain situations.

00:02:34.750 --> 00:02:36.390
So if I were to ask you,

00:02:36.390 --> 00:02:40.020
let's say this epithelial
cell somehow had a mutation,

00:02:40.020 --> 00:02:44.030
so its ganglioside receptor
does not interact well

00:02:44.030 --> 00:02:46.920
with the B subunit here,
with the cholera toxin.

00:02:46.920 --> 00:02:48.310
What would happen then?

00:02:48.310 --> 00:02:50.763
Pause this video, and
try to think about that.

00:02:51.930 --> 00:02:53.540
All right, so for whatever reason,

00:02:53.540 --> 00:02:57.810
this epithelial cell had
a ganglioside receptor

00:02:57.810 --> 00:03:00.370
that was a little bit different,
and it couldn't interact

00:03:00.370 --> 00:03:02.850
as efficiently with the cholera toxin.

00:03:02.850 --> 00:03:05.300
Well, in that situation, this,

00:03:05.300 --> 00:03:07.570
this activation would not be happening

00:03:07.570 --> 00:03:09.940
or at least would not be
happening as efficiently.

00:03:09.940 --> 00:03:13.120
And so someone with that type
of a ganglioside receptor,

00:03:13.120 --> 00:03:15.170
there might be some other
negative side effects,

00:03:15.170 --> 00:03:18.330
but they actually would
not get as bad diarrhea

00:03:18.330 --> 00:03:19.610
from the cholera toxin

00:03:19.610 --> 00:03:22.570
because this whole signals
transduction pathway

00:03:22.570 --> 00:03:26.310
would not be happening or would
not be happening as strong.

00:03:26.310 --> 00:03:29.760
Now on the other hand, it turns
out that there's molecules

00:03:29.760 --> 00:03:33.200
that can disrupt this
signal transduction pathway.

00:03:33.200 --> 00:03:36.710
So what we have right over here,
this is an opioid receptor.

00:03:36.710 --> 00:03:39.330
And if it gets activated,

00:03:39.330 --> 00:03:42.630
then it will activate another G-protein.

00:03:42.630 --> 00:03:44.130
This one is different than the one here,

00:03:44.130 --> 00:03:45.620
but it's part of that same family.

00:03:45.620 --> 00:03:47.530
And when you see this type of thing,

00:03:47.530 --> 00:03:51.370
when you see a line with this
flat head instead of an arrow,

00:03:51.370 --> 00:03:53.860
that means it's inhibiting that process.

00:03:53.860 --> 00:03:56.970
So for example, this opioid
receptor is receptive

00:03:56.970 --> 00:03:59.250
to a molecule known as enkephalin.

00:03:59.250 --> 00:04:00.380
Once again, you don't have to know that.

00:04:00.380 --> 00:04:02.310
But what you should know is that, okay,

00:04:02.310 --> 00:04:04.370
you have this molecule outside of the cell

00:04:04.370 --> 00:04:06.710
that can interact with
the opioid receptor,

00:04:06.710 --> 00:04:09.840
which will then activate a G-protein,

00:04:09.840 --> 00:04:12.320
and what's interesting
is that this G-protein

00:04:12.320 --> 00:04:15.960
is actually an inhibitor of
this step right over here.

00:04:15.960 --> 00:04:18.990
And so if you have cholera

00:04:18.990 --> 00:04:20.930
and the cholera toxins in your gut,

00:04:20.930 --> 00:04:24.710
but you also expose those
epithelial cells to enkephalin,

00:04:24.710 --> 00:04:28.820
well, that might make the
diarrhea a little bit less bad.

00:04:28.820 --> 00:04:30.520
Because if this gets disrupted

00:04:30.520 --> 00:04:32.090
or at least if it gets inhibited,

00:04:32.090 --> 00:04:34.750
then the rest of this
pathway will not happen,

00:04:34.750 --> 00:04:37.130
or it will not happen quite as strong.

00:04:37.130 --> 00:04:38.990
So that leaves another question.

00:04:38.990 --> 00:04:42.550
If there was some mutation
in the opioid receptor here,

00:04:42.550 --> 00:04:46.920
so it wasn't as good at
binding to enkephalin,

00:04:46.920 --> 00:04:49.430
what would be the end result?

00:04:49.430 --> 00:04:51.390
So if your opioid receptor is somehow

00:04:51.390 --> 00:04:53.710
not as receptive to enkephalin,

00:04:53.710 --> 00:04:56.340
well, then enkephalin
will not be as effective

00:04:56.340 --> 00:05:00.530
at being able to stop this
signal transduction pathway

00:05:00.530 --> 00:05:03.120
because the enkephalin
will not be able to bind

00:05:03.120 --> 00:05:04.350
with that opioid receptor.

00:05:04.350 --> 00:05:06.330
And so this inhibition will not occur,

00:05:06.330 --> 00:05:09.530
and so you would just have the
regular transduction pathway

00:05:09.530 --> 00:05:13.370
from the cholera toxin occurring,
which results in diarrhea.

00:05:13.370 --> 00:05:14.330
So I'll leave you there.

00:05:14.330 --> 00:05:17.810
The big thing to appreciate is
when you see these pathways,

00:05:17.810 --> 00:05:20.450
arrows you can view as activation,

00:05:20.450 --> 00:05:22.260
or they're leading to the next step.

00:05:22.260 --> 00:05:24.350
And these lines with these flat heads,

00:05:24.350 --> 00:05:25.780
this is about inhibition.

00:05:25.780 --> 00:05:28.710
And it's pretty typical to see questions,

00:05:28.710 --> 00:05:29.970
and, especially if you're a scientist,

00:05:29.970 --> 00:05:31.550
you might construct these pathways.

00:05:31.550 --> 00:05:33.100
But you'll also get questions on,

00:05:33.100 --> 00:05:35.250
hey, if there's a mutation on something

00:05:35.250 --> 00:05:37.227
that is activating part of
the pathway, what will happen?

00:05:37.227 --> 00:05:41.100
And then the pathway won't
happen as much or maybe at all.

00:05:41.100 --> 00:05:42.400
And if there's a mutation in something

00:05:42.400 --> 00:05:44.010
that inhibits the pathway,
what would happen?

00:05:44.010 --> 00:05:45.810
Well, if there's a mutation
that makes something

00:05:45.810 --> 00:05:48.820
that would regularly inhibit
a pathway less functional,

00:05:48.820 --> 00:05:50.970
then it won't be able to
inhibit the pathway as much,

00:05:50.970 --> 00:05:54.123
and so the pathway will be less inhibited.


The Progressives

WEBVTT
Kind: captions
Language: en

00:00:00.410 --> 00:00:01.500
- [Instructor] After the Civil War

00:00:01.500 --> 00:00:05.020
there were enormous
changes in American life.

00:00:05.020 --> 00:00:08.160
With industrialization, urbanization,

00:00:08.160 --> 00:00:11.810
and immigration changing
the composition of who lived

00:00:11.810 --> 00:00:14.000
in the United States, where they lived,

00:00:14.000 --> 00:00:15.680
and what they did for a living.

00:00:15.680 --> 00:00:18.570
But city living and
factory work came with new

00:00:18.570 --> 00:00:22.530
social problems like
poverty and unsafe working

00:00:22.530 --> 00:00:23.880
and living conditions.

00:00:23.880 --> 00:00:26.950
The rise of big business
had also led to practices

00:00:26.950 --> 00:00:31.070
that limited competition, like
monopolies and price fixing.

00:00:31.070 --> 00:00:34.680
Starting in the 1890s
a number of reformers

00:00:34.680 --> 00:00:38.270
began to advocate for remedies
to these social problems.

00:00:38.270 --> 00:00:41.000
They were known as the Progressives.

00:00:41.000 --> 00:00:44.140
This era of reform, which
lasted through the 1920s,

00:00:44.140 --> 00:00:46.930
has come to be known
as the Progressive Era.

00:00:46.930 --> 00:00:49.190
But the difficult thing
about the Progressive Era

00:00:49.190 --> 00:00:51.600
was that these reformers
worked on all sorts

00:00:51.600 --> 00:00:52.680
of different things.

00:00:52.680 --> 00:00:55.610
There were muckrakers,
which were journalists,

00:00:55.610 --> 00:00:58.390
writers, and photographers
who tried to expose

00:00:58.390 --> 00:01:02.040
corruption or unsanitary
factory practices.

00:01:02.040 --> 00:01:04.300
There were politicians
who tried to reign in

00:01:04.300 --> 00:01:07.070
big businesses and protect consumers.

00:01:07.070 --> 00:01:09.790
There were conservationists
who tried to preserve

00:01:09.790 --> 00:01:12.750
national parks and
wilderness from exploitation.

00:01:12.750 --> 00:01:15.420
And there many influential
female reformers

00:01:15.420 --> 00:01:17.880
who tried to help women,
children, and immigrants

00:01:17.880 --> 00:01:20.640
achieve better working
and living conditions.

00:01:20.640 --> 00:01:24.240
So clearly Progressives didn't
all share the same goals

00:01:24.240 --> 00:01:27.220
or advocate for the same
solutions to problems.

00:01:27.220 --> 00:01:30.270
How can we even compare
the goals and effects

00:01:30.270 --> 00:01:33.530
of the Progressive reformers
when they were so diverse?

00:01:33.530 --> 00:01:36.130
Let's start by taking a
look at some of the goals

00:01:36.130 --> 00:01:38.300
and achievements of the Progressives.

00:01:38.300 --> 00:01:40.170
Now, I'm not gonna go into a lot of detail

00:01:40.170 --> 00:01:43.660
about individual reformers or
pieces of legislation here.

00:01:43.660 --> 00:01:47.000
What I'm interested in doing
is taking a birds eye view

00:01:47.000 --> 00:01:49.990
of the kinds of reforms
that Progressives pursued

00:01:49.990 --> 00:01:51.510
during this time period.

00:01:51.510 --> 00:01:55.460
First, there were those who
advocated for sanitation

00:01:55.460 --> 00:01:58.910
and consumer protections
like Upton Sinclair,

00:01:58.910 --> 00:02:02.590
whose novel The Jungle exposed
the unsanitary conditions

00:02:02.590 --> 00:02:04.920
in factories that made food products.

00:02:04.920 --> 00:02:07.610
The outrage that book
generated led to the passage

00:02:07.610 --> 00:02:12.070
of laws like the Pure
Food and Drug Act of 1906.

00:02:12.070 --> 00:02:13.770
Then there were the
Progressives who fought

00:02:13.770 --> 00:02:15.790
for protections for workers.

00:02:15.790 --> 00:02:18.230
They pushed for an eight hour workday

00:02:18.230 --> 00:02:20.620
and for safer conditions for workers,

00:02:20.620 --> 00:02:22.060
along with the right for workers

00:02:22.060 --> 00:02:24.950
to bargain collectively through unions.

00:02:24.950 --> 00:02:26.980
Along with those reforms were others aimed

00:02:26.980 --> 00:02:30.000
at advancing the rights
of women and children,

00:02:30.000 --> 00:02:33.250
including limiting child
labor, promoting access

00:02:33.250 --> 00:02:36.330
to birth control, and granting
women the right to vote

00:02:36.330 --> 00:02:37.850
through the 19th Amendment.

00:02:37.850 --> 00:02:40.300
Many of the Progressive
reformers were interested

00:02:40.300 --> 00:02:43.780
in reining in the
excesses of big business.

00:02:43.780 --> 00:02:46.460
Politicians, like
President Teddy Roosevelt,

00:02:46.460 --> 00:02:48.650
went after trusts and monopolies

00:02:48.650 --> 00:02:51.970
for stifling competition
and fixing prices.

00:02:51.970 --> 00:02:54.560
Another avenue of reform
was aimed at limiting

00:02:54.560 --> 00:02:58.300
political corruption, particularly
city political machines

00:02:58.300 --> 00:03:00.650
that were dominated by party bosses.

00:03:00.650 --> 00:03:02.730
One victory in this arena was the passage

00:03:02.730 --> 00:03:05.210
of the 17th Amendment, which provided for

00:03:05.210 --> 00:03:07.420
the popular election of senators.

00:03:07.420 --> 00:03:10.640
Lastly, there was a push for moral reform

00:03:10.640 --> 00:03:13.620
to make society more orderly and humane.

00:03:13.620 --> 00:03:15.360
The major achievement of these reformers

00:03:15.360 --> 00:03:17.410
was the passage of the 18th Amendment,

00:03:17.410 --> 00:03:20.800
which prohibited the sale
or consumption of alcohol.

00:03:20.800 --> 00:03:23.530
Okay, so now that we've
done a brief survey

00:03:23.530 --> 00:03:25.230
of what the Progressives were up to,

00:03:25.230 --> 00:03:27.570
let's think about what
aspects these reformers

00:03:27.570 --> 00:03:29.370
had in common with each other,

00:03:29.370 --> 00:03:32.930
and where they differed with
or contradicted each other.

00:03:32.930 --> 00:03:34.450
So this might sound a little obvious,

00:03:34.450 --> 00:03:36.820
but one thing that united the Progressives

00:03:36.820 --> 00:03:39.410
was that they believed in progress.

00:03:39.410 --> 00:03:42.170
That is, they thought it was
possible to improve society

00:03:42.170 --> 00:03:44.640
and to make people better human beings.

00:03:44.640 --> 00:03:47.420
This is worth mentioning
just because not everyone

00:03:47.420 --> 00:03:48.880
felt that this was possible.

00:03:48.880 --> 00:03:50.750
Many of the opponents of the Progressives

00:03:50.750 --> 00:03:54.310
saw human nature as
fixed and a society with

00:03:54.310 --> 00:03:57.100
vast inequalities of
wealth and opportunity

00:03:57.100 --> 00:04:00.570
is just an inevitable
consequence of industrialization.

00:04:00.570 --> 00:04:04.130
A second shared belief
was that it was the role

00:04:04.130 --> 00:04:07.430
of government to step in and
fix these social problems.

00:04:07.430 --> 00:04:10.350
This was a big departure
from the laissez-faire

00:04:10.350 --> 00:04:13.170
or hands off approach of the Gilded Age.

00:04:13.170 --> 00:04:16.080
In that era, attempting
to improve sanitation

00:04:16.080 --> 00:04:18.020
or morality would have been considered

00:04:18.020 --> 00:04:19.810
work for private charities

00:04:19.810 --> 00:04:22.410
or voluntary associations to take on.

00:04:22.410 --> 00:04:24.210
But the Progressives
thought that the problems

00:04:24.210 --> 00:04:27.020
they were trying to solve were
too big for that approach.

00:04:27.020 --> 00:04:29.070
And they sought out the
help of local, state,

00:04:29.070 --> 00:04:31.990
and federal government to
implement their measures.

00:04:31.990 --> 00:04:35.230
They campaigned for laws and
constitutional amendments

00:04:35.230 --> 00:04:36.630
to bring about change.

00:04:36.630 --> 00:04:39.840
So they really began a debate over whether

00:04:39.840 --> 00:04:43.920
or to what extent the government
should take an active role

00:04:43.920 --> 00:04:46.550
in the welfare of its
citizens that would continue

00:04:46.550 --> 00:04:48.060
into the Great Depression.

00:04:48.060 --> 00:04:50.320
But the Progressive
Movement was also riddled

00:04:50.320 --> 00:04:53.500
with divisions and
internal contradictions.

00:04:53.500 --> 00:04:55.570
One of these was around voting rights.

00:04:55.570 --> 00:04:58.590
The Progressives expanded
democracy by winning

00:04:58.590 --> 00:05:00.150
the right to vote for women,

00:05:00.150 --> 00:05:02.930
but they also advocated
for restricting the vote

00:05:02.930 --> 00:05:05.670
to who they considered good voters.

00:05:05.670 --> 00:05:08.600
White, educated, native-born people.

00:05:08.600 --> 00:05:10.620
They worked to impose literacy tests

00:05:10.620 --> 00:05:12.960
and residency requirements in the North,

00:05:12.960 --> 00:05:15.410
and made no effort to
challenge Jim Crow Laws

00:05:15.410 --> 00:05:18.250
preventing African Americans
from voting in the South.

00:05:18.250 --> 00:05:22.110
Progressives were also divided
on the issue of immigration.

00:05:22.110 --> 00:05:24.430
Although a few Progressives
championed the rights

00:05:24.430 --> 00:05:27.450
of immigrants and respect
for immigrant's culture

00:05:27.450 --> 00:05:29.950
like Hull-House founder, Jane Addams,

00:05:29.950 --> 00:05:31.680
most Progressives thought the only way

00:05:31.680 --> 00:05:34.450
forward for immigrants
was complete assimilation

00:05:34.450 --> 00:05:35.950
into American culture.

00:05:35.950 --> 00:05:38.370
They also supported
restrictions on the entry

00:05:38.370 --> 00:05:41.010
of immigrants they considered undesirable,

00:05:41.010 --> 00:05:43.370
like those from Southern
and Eastern Europe,

00:05:43.370 --> 00:05:45.030
Asia, and Mexico.

00:05:45.030 --> 00:05:47.974
These beliefs around who was fit to vote

00:05:47.974 --> 00:05:51.410
or to be an American citizen derived from

00:05:51.410 --> 00:05:53.980
the flawed racial science of the day,

00:05:53.980 --> 00:05:56.920
which categorized white
Anglo-Saxons as the most

00:05:56.920 --> 00:06:00.410
evolved race, and everyone
else falling somewhere

00:06:00.410 --> 00:06:03.790
along a continuum of less evolved peoples.

00:06:03.790 --> 00:06:06.730
With the exception of
African American activists,

00:06:06.730 --> 00:06:10.360
like Ida B. Wells, Progressive
reformers supported

00:06:10.360 --> 00:06:13.480
segregation and pretty
much turned a blind eye

00:06:13.480 --> 00:06:15.470
towards the working and living conditions

00:06:15.470 --> 00:06:16.960
of African Americans.

00:06:16.960 --> 00:06:19.950
Some Progressives even advocated eugenics,

00:06:19.950 --> 00:06:22.720
a plan to improve the American gene pool

00:06:22.720 --> 00:06:26.270
by encouraging native white
women to have more babies,

00:06:26.270 --> 00:06:29.250
and discouraging undesirables
from reproducing,

00:06:29.250 --> 00:06:31.960
sometimes through forced sterilizations.

00:06:31.960 --> 00:06:35.050
So taking these uniting
and dividing factors

00:06:35.050 --> 00:06:38.120
into consideration what
conclusions can we come to

00:06:38.120 --> 00:06:40.170
about the goals and effects

00:06:40.170 --> 00:06:42.280
of the Progressive reform movement?

00:06:42.280 --> 00:06:44.630
I think it's safe to say
that the Progressives

00:06:44.630 --> 00:06:47.900
wanted to improve
society and find a remedy

00:06:47.900 --> 00:06:49.930
for the social problems caused by

00:06:49.930 --> 00:06:52.590
industrialization and urbanization.

00:06:52.590 --> 00:06:54.630
And that they wanted to do so through

00:06:54.630 --> 00:06:56.270
government intervention.

00:06:56.270 --> 00:06:58.480
But their goals were also limited.

00:06:58.480 --> 00:07:00.560
They only wanted these
improvements for those

00:07:00.560 --> 00:07:04.530
they deemed worthy to
participate in American society.

00:07:04.530 --> 00:07:08.410
As for how effective their
reforms were at solving

00:07:08.410 --> 00:07:12.420
the problems of industrialization
and urbanization,

00:07:12.420 --> 00:07:15.747
they did succeed in curbing
some of the worst problems

00:07:15.747 --> 00:07:20.280
of corruption, sanitation,
and exploitation.

00:07:20.280 --> 00:07:22.960
But we would also need to look ahead

00:07:22.960 --> 00:07:25.560
to the '20s and '30s to see how much

00:07:25.560 --> 00:07:27.220
things really changed.

00:07:27.220 --> 00:07:30.600
Spoiler alert, this
booming era of industry

00:07:30.600 --> 00:07:32.953
was about to end with a crash.


1920s urbanization and immigration

WEBVTT
Kind: captions
Language: en

00:00:00.180 --> 00:00:01.660
- [Narrator] During the Gilded Age,

00:00:01.660 --> 00:00:03.940
the population of the
United States had started

00:00:03.940 --> 00:00:06.880
to shift sharply towards living in urban

00:00:06.880 --> 00:00:09.120
rather than rural environments.

00:00:09.120 --> 00:00:13.770
In 1900, 1/3 of the American
population lived in cities,

00:00:13.770 --> 00:00:17.020
drawn by the wide
availability of factory jobs.

00:00:17.020 --> 00:00:20.070
But by 1920, the scales finally tipped,

00:00:20.070 --> 00:00:22.190
and for the first time the majority

00:00:22.190 --> 00:00:24.870
of people in the United
States lived in cities.

00:00:24.870 --> 00:00:27.900
It was the beginning of a new modern era.

00:00:27.900 --> 00:00:29.560
We've talked in other videos about

00:00:29.560 --> 00:00:32.620
the economic opportunities
that the cities provided

00:00:32.620 --> 00:00:36.330
for both international
immigrants and internal migrants,

00:00:36.330 --> 00:00:38.670
like the half a million African Americans

00:00:38.670 --> 00:00:41.760
who left the South in the
years surrounding World War I

00:00:41.760 --> 00:00:43.640
in search of a better life in the North.

00:00:43.640 --> 00:00:45.540
Although factory jobs were subject

00:00:45.540 --> 00:00:49.180
to dangerous working
conditions and wages were low,

00:00:49.180 --> 00:00:52.060
for both immigrants and
Southern African Americans,

00:00:52.060 --> 00:00:53.560
the pay and the standard of living

00:00:53.560 --> 00:00:56.840
was usually an improvement on
their previous circumstances.

00:00:56.840 --> 00:01:00.330
The transition to life in
the modern industrial city

00:01:00.330 --> 00:01:02.910
also offered new opportunities for women.

00:01:02.910 --> 00:01:05.310
With the rise of big corporations

00:01:05.310 --> 00:01:08.000
doing business across
time zones and countries,

00:01:08.000 --> 00:01:10.610
there was an increasing
need for clerical workers,

00:01:10.610 --> 00:01:12.780
like secretaries and typists.

00:01:12.780 --> 00:01:14.930
White women began to take on these roles.

00:01:14.930 --> 00:01:16.630
And by the end of the 1920s,

00:01:16.630 --> 00:01:20.050
about 25% of women
worked outside the home.

00:01:20.050 --> 00:01:23.340
Women also began to fill the
ranks in employment categories

00:01:23.340 --> 00:01:26.430
that were beginning to be
defined as female professions,

00:01:26.430 --> 00:01:28.160
like nursing and teaching.

00:01:28.160 --> 00:01:29.810
And a growing number of women continued

00:01:29.810 --> 00:01:31.700
to work even after they were married.

00:01:31.700 --> 00:01:34.980
These kinds of clerical
jobs were generally closed

00:01:34.980 --> 00:01:38.140
to minority women whose options
for work outside the home

00:01:38.140 --> 00:01:41.850
were limited to domestic
service or agricultural labor,

00:01:41.850 --> 00:01:44.050
although some African American women began

00:01:44.050 --> 00:01:46.770
to train in segregated institutions

00:01:46.770 --> 00:01:49.690
for service in segregated institutions,

00:01:49.690 --> 00:01:52.560
for example, going to
black nursing schools

00:01:52.560 --> 00:01:55.020
in order to work in black hospitals.

00:01:55.020 --> 00:01:58.160
The mass production techniques
of the 1920s also meant

00:01:58.160 --> 00:02:00.660
that the price of consumer goods dropped

00:02:00.660 --> 00:02:02.480
so that average people could afford

00:02:02.480 --> 00:02:05.330
to buy appliances and even cars.

00:02:05.330 --> 00:02:07.210
People had enough disposable income

00:02:07.210 --> 00:02:09.960
to go to the theater
or to an amusement park

00:02:09.960 --> 00:02:12.970
or to a speakeasy
illegally selling alcohol.

00:02:12.970 --> 00:02:15.650
After the prim and proper Progressive Era

00:02:15.650 --> 00:02:17.630
and the trauma of World War I,

00:02:17.630 --> 00:02:20.100
many people embraced a carefree attitude

00:02:20.100 --> 00:02:23.070
of self-fulfillment through
leisure and consumption

00:02:23.070 --> 00:02:25.680
or, in other words, having
fun and buying stuff.

00:02:25.680 --> 00:02:27.070
But not everyone was thrilled

00:02:27.070 --> 00:02:30.480
with this new modern era
of diverse city living.

00:02:30.480 --> 00:02:34.700
During World War I, an
emphasis on 100% Americanism

00:02:34.700 --> 00:02:38.330
squelched dissenters who
protested against the draft

00:02:38.330 --> 00:02:40.720
or questioned U.S. involvement in the war.

00:02:40.720 --> 00:02:42.860
Then, after the Russian Revolution,

00:02:42.860 --> 00:02:47.460
labor strikes and a series of
bombings in 1919 led to fears

00:02:47.460 --> 00:02:50.420
that radical communists were
threatening the country.

00:02:50.420 --> 00:02:51.600
These incidents,

00:02:51.600 --> 00:02:55.630
combined with the flawed
racial pseudoscience of the day

00:02:55.630 --> 00:02:58.020
that cast all people
other than those descended

00:02:58.020 --> 00:03:01.840
from Northern and Western
Europeans as less evolved,

00:03:01.840 --> 00:03:06.030
led to a growing sense among
native-born, white Protestants

00:03:06.030 --> 00:03:09.430
that the country was becoming
less and less American.

00:03:09.430 --> 00:03:13.480
In 1915, the Ku Klux Klan
experienced a resurgence

00:03:13.480 --> 00:03:16.890
in the United States that
lasted for about 10 years.

00:03:16.890 --> 00:03:19.600
Unlike the Reconstruction Era KKK,

00:03:19.600 --> 00:03:23.090
in this time period, the Klan
had large membership numbers

00:03:23.090 --> 00:03:25.410
in northern and western cities,

00:03:25.410 --> 00:03:27.930
and they targeted Jews and Catholics,

00:03:27.930 --> 00:03:29.710
many of whom were recent immigrants

00:03:29.710 --> 00:03:31.460
from Southern and Eastern Europe,

00:03:31.460 --> 00:03:33.650
in addition to African Americans.

00:03:33.650 --> 00:03:35.840
These fears led to the passage

00:03:35.840 --> 00:03:39.360
of new immigration
restrictions in the 1920s.

00:03:39.360 --> 00:03:43.940
In 1921, Congress passed
the Emergency Quota Act,

00:03:43.940 --> 00:03:46.250
which limited the number
of immigrants allowed

00:03:46.250 --> 00:03:49.210
from Europe to 350,000,

00:03:49.210 --> 00:03:53.050
or about a third of
pre-World War I levels.

00:03:53.050 --> 00:03:57.190
Then, in 1924, Congress limited
immigration even further

00:03:57.190 --> 00:03:59.680
with the Immigration Restriction Act.

00:03:59.680 --> 00:04:02.160
This act set quotas of immigrants

00:04:02.160 --> 00:04:04.270
who could arrive from each nation.

00:04:04.270 --> 00:04:06.400
The quotas heavily favored immigrants

00:04:06.400 --> 00:04:08.090
from Northern and Western Europe

00:04:08.090 --> 00:04:10.100
and slashed the numbers of Southern

00:04:10.100 --> 00:04:13.970
and Eastern European immigrants
down to as little as 1%

00:04:13.970 --> 00:04:16.870
of their pre-World War I yearly numbers.

00:04:16.870 --> 00:04:19.330
Africans from all countries were limited

00:04:19.330 --> 00:04:22.000
to just 1,000 immigrants per year,

00:04:22.000 --> 00:04:24.850
and Asians were completely
barred from entry.

00:04:24.850 --> 00:04:28.080
The law did not limit the
immigration of Mexicans

00:04:28.080 --> 00:04:31.300
whom western farmers relied
upon for seasonal labor.

00:04:31.300 --> 00:04:34.880
Interestingly, in 1924,
Congress also passed a law

00:04:34.880 --> 00:04:37.000
establishing that all Native Americans

00:04:37.000 --> 00:04:40.320
were now U.S. citizens, although
they often had difficulty

00:04:40.320 --> 00:04:43.550
accessing the rights of
citizenship from reservations.

00:04:43.550 --> 00:04:45.770
What do these quotas and efforts

00:04:45.770 --> 00:04:48.730
at defining the racial
makeup of the United States

00:04:48.730 --> 00:04:51.590
tell us about who was considered eligible

00:04:51.590 --> 00:04:54.840
to be part of the American
people in the 1920s?

00:04:54.840 --> 00:04:56.660
As we move forward into talking about

00:04:56.660 --> 00:04:58.800
the Great Depression and World War II,

00:04:58.800 --> 00:05:02.330
keep thinking about the ways
that citizenship is defined

00:05:02.330 --> 00:05:04.753
and how that definition changes over time.


Westward expansion: social and cultural development

WEBVTT
Kind: captions
Language: en

00:00:00.320 --> 00:00:01.280
- [Instructor] In other videos,

00:00:01.280 --> 00:00:03.960
we've discussed the causes and effects

00:00:03.960 --> 00:00:06.910
of westward expansion in the 19th century,

00:00:06.910 --> 00:00:09.590
focusing on the period that
began with the discovery

00:00:09.590 --> 00:00:12.200
of gold in California in 1849

00:00:12.200 --> 00:00:14.490
and ending shortly after the Civil War.

00:00:14.490 --> 00:00:17.370
But westward expansion was a long process.

00:00:17.370 --> 00:00:19.510
Eight new states entered the Union

00:00:19.510 --> 00:00:22.790
between 1876 and 1896.

00:00:22.790 --> 00:00:25.730
And not until nearly the
turn of the 20th century

00:00:25.730 --> 00:00:28.550
did the superintendent of the US Census

00:00:28.550 --> 00:00:31.680
declare that the frontier was now closed.

00:00:31.680 --> 00:00:35.260
US territories stretched all
the way to the Pacific Ocean.

00:00:35.260 --> 00:00:38.780
We've talked a bit about what
caused people to move west

00:00:38.780 --> 00:00:41.920
and what effects the
immigration of millions

00:00:41.920 --> 00:00:44.980
of non-native people
west of the Mississippi

00:00:44.980 --> 00:00:48.090
had on that region and on
the United States as a whole

00:00:48.090 --> 00:00:50.090
before and during the Civil War.

00:00:50.090 --> 00:00:52.130
In this video, I want to pick up the story

00:00:52.130 --> 00:00:55.640
after the Civil War and
discuss how westward expansion

00:00:55.640 --> 00:00:58.980
affected the society
and culture of the West

00:00:58.980 --> 00:01:00.910
at the end of the 19th century.

00:01:00.910 --> 00:01:03.920
Let's quickly review some of the causes

00:01:03.920 --> 00:01:06.710
of westward expansion that
were already established

00:01:06.710 --> 00:01:08.270
by the end of the Civil War.

00:01:08.270 --> 00:01:09.830
Starting in the 1840s,

00:01:09.830 --> 00:01:13.250
Americans and European
immigrants began moving west

00:01:13.250 --> 00:01:14.550
looking for farmland.

00:01:14.550 --> 00:01:16.740
And the California Gold Rush of 1849

00:01:16.740 --> 00:01:18.530
brought people from all over the world

00:01:18.530 --> 00:01:20.980
into the region to either pan for gold

00:01:20.980 --> 00:01:22.720
or to make some money off the people

00:01:22.720 --> 00:01:24.150
who were panning for gold.

00:01:24.150 --> 00:01:26.390
The construction of the
transcontinental railroad

00:01:26.390 --> 00:01:29.960
also provided many jobs for
those who didn't strike it rich.

00:01:29.960 --> 00:01:32.830
The US government facilitated
this westward expansion

00:01:32.830 --> 00:01:35.930
by granting millions of
acres to railroad companies,

00:01:35.930 --> 00:01:37.730
making it easier to get west

00:01:37.730 --> 00:01:40.310
and to get goods from the West back East.

00:01:40.310 --> 00:01:42.270
The government also encouraged settlement

00:01:42.270 --> 00:01:45.550
through grants of 160 acres of free land

00:01:45.550 --> 00:01:47.320
to anyone willing to improve it

00:01:47.320 --> 00:01:49.450
over the course of five years.

00:01:49.450 --> 00:01:52.650
Lastly, many American
migrants were convinced

00:01:52.650 --> 00:01:55.690
through cultural messaging
that American civilization

00:01:55.690 --> 00:01:59.130
was divinely ordained
to occupy North America

00:01:59.130 --> 00:02:01.380
from Atlantic to Pacific in an ideology

00:02:01.380 --> 00:02:03.360
known as Manifest Destiny.

00:02:03.360 --> 00:02:06.550
All of these things continued
to motivate westward expansion

00:02:06.550 --> 00:02:08.230
in the years after the Civil War,

00:02:08.230 --> 00:02:10.370
but there were a few unique aspects

00:02:10.370 --> 00:02:13.030
in this era that intensified the changes

00:02:13.030 --> 00:02:14.800
wrought by westward expansion.

00:02:14.800 --> 00:02:18.070
First, the US government
began to take a new approach

00:02:18.070 --> 00:02:20.620
towards its interactions
with Native Americans.

00:02:20.620 --> 00:02:22.680
Instead of treating Native American tribes

00:02:22.680 --> 00:02:25.100
as independent nations,
the government began

00:02:25.100 --> 00:02:27.680
to cast them as wards of the state,

00:02:27.680 --> 00:02:29.940
relics of an earlier time that had to take

00:02:29.940 --> 00:02:32.450
up American ways or face extinction.

00:02:32.450 --> 00:02:34.510
They began to confine Native Americans

00:02:34.510 --> 00:02:37.530
to reservations and
classify any individual

00:02:37.530 --> 00:02:40.300
or group that refused as hostile.

00:02:40.300 --> 00:02:42.750
Another related thing that changed

00:02:42.750 --> 00:02:44.550
was that after the Civil War,

00:02:44.550 --> 00:02:47.640
the US Army could apply its full might

00:02:47.640 --> 00:02:50.520
to subduing the West through
a series of conflicts

00:02:50.520 --> 00:02:53.610
with Native Americans
called the Indian Wars.

00:02:53.610 --> 00:02:55.740
One thing I find fascinating
about these conflicts

00:02:55.740 --> 00:02:58.470
was that many of the
generals who led campaigns

00:02:58.470 --> 00:03:01.330
in the Indian Wars were
former Union generals

00:03:01.330 --> 00:03:03.740
who had fought to end slavery in the South

00:03:03.740 --> 00:03:06.870
during the Civil War,
including Oliver O. Howard,

00:03:06.870 --> 00:03:08.610
the commissioner of the Freedmen's Bureau.

00:03:08.610 --> 00:03:11.140
What do you think their
approach to Native Americans

00:03:11.140 --> 00:03:14.670
versus African Americans
says about how they conceived

00:03:14.670 --> 00:03:17.090
of American citizenship
in this time period?

00:03:17.090 --> 00:03:20.850
The effects of westward
expansion also intensified

00:03:20.850 --> 00:03:22.000
after the Civil War.

00:03:22.000 --> 00:03:23.300
As we've already mentioned,

00:03:23.300 --> 00:03:25.580
one effect of Americans' westward push

00:03:25.580 --> 00:03:27.710
was violence against Native Americans

00:03:27.710 --> 00:03:29.130
and other minorities.

00:03:29.130 --> 00:03:32.570
The US Army forced Native
Americans onto reservations

00:03:32.570 --> 00:03:35.370
or hunted them down when Native Americans

00:03:35.370 --> 00:03:37.670
attempted to prevent white settlers

00:03:37.670 --> 00:03:39.860
from encroaching on those reservations,

00:03:39.860 --> 00:03:43.100
like when gold was discovered
on the Sioux reservation

00:03:43.100 --> 00:03:45.140
in the Black Hills of South Dakota.

00:03:45.140 --> 00:03:47.830
The US Army also
prevented Native Americans

00:03:47.830 --> 00:03:51.020
from engaging in rituals
like The Ghost Dance,

00:03:51.020 --> 00:03:53.360
which they feared would kindle resistance

00:03:53.360 --> 00:03:54.890
among Native Americans.

00:03:54.890 --> 00:03:57.620
In 1890, an Army regiment disarmed

00:03:57.620 --> 00:04:01.010
a Lakota Sioux encampment
near Wounded Knee Creek.

00:04:01.010 --> 00:04:03.430
And while the Lakotas were
giving up their weapons,

00:04:03.430 --> 00:04:05.610
one rifle accidentally discharged.

00:04:05.610 --> 00:04:07.500
The US Army then massacred somewhere

00:04:07.500 --> 00:04:11.570
between 200 and 300 men,
women, and children.

00:04:11.570 --> 00:04:12.940
Other minorities in the West

00:04:12.940 --> 00:04:14.990
were also subject to racial violence

00:04:14.990 --> 00:04:16.970
including Mexican Americans,

00:04:16.970 --> 00:04:19.250
who were driven off their lands by force,

00:04:19.250 --> 00:04:21.180
and Chinese immigrants, who were targeted

00:04:21.180 --> 00:04:23.230
in race riots throughout California.

00:04:23.230 --> 00:04:26.360
Minorities also faced
the loss of their land

00:04:26.360 --> 00:04:28.330
and their cultures in the West.

00:04:28.330 --> 00:04:30.850
The most significant land
loss came as a result

00:04:30.850 --> 00:04:33.320
of the Dawes Act of 1887.

00:04:33.320 --> 00:04:35.930
The Dawes Act sought to
force Native Americans

00:04:35.930 --> 00:04:39.510
to stop living communally
and take up American culture

00:04:39.510 --> 00:04:41.920
and farming by splitting up reservations

00:04:41.920 --> 00:04:45.780
and awarding 160 acres of land
to each head of household,

00:04:45.780 --> 00:04:47.430
sort of like the Homestead Act.

00:04:47.430 --> 00:04:49.090
But unlike the Homestead Act,

00:04:49.090 --> 00:04:51.270
Native Americans had to improve the land

00:04:51.270 --> 00:04:54.590
and behave like whites for 25 years

00:04:54.590 --> 00:04:57.880
to get title and American
citizenship, not just five.

00:04:57.880 --> 00:05:01.100
And due to corruption in
administering this policy,

00:05:01.100 --> 00:05:02.300
Native Americans were placed

00:05:02.300 --> 00:05:04.070
on the worst land for farming,

00:05:04.070 --> 00:05:06.060
or their land allotments were given

00:05:06.060 --> 00:05:07.590
to white settlers instead.

00:05:07.590 --> 00:05:09.960
All in all, the Dawes
Act resulted in the loss

00:05:09.960 --> 00:05:13.950
of over 80 million acres
of Native American land.

00:05:13.950 --> 00:05:16.730
Similarly, government
agents turned a deaf ear

00:05:16.730 --> 00:05:19.160
towards the claims of Mexican Americans

00:05:19.160 --> 00:05:21.660
whose land was claimed by white settlers

00:05:21.660 --> 00:05:24.500
even though Mexican Americans
had been US citizens

00:05:24.500 --> 00:05:26.550
since the end of the Mexican War.

00:05:26.550 --> 00:05:29.740
The same impulse to force Native Americans

00:05:29.740 --> 00:05:32.720
to assimilate into
American living patterns

00:05:32.720 --> 00:05:34.380
also drove the creation

00:05:34.380 --> 00:05:36.840
of Indian boarding schools in this era.

00:05:36.840 --> 00:05:39.070
Native children were
removed from their homes

00:05:39.070 --> 00:05:40.460
and sent to boarding schools

00:05:40.460 --> 00:05:43.260
like the Carlisle Indian Industrial School

00:05:43.260 --> 00:05:44.720
in Carlisle, Pennsylvania.

00:05:44.720 --> 00:05:47.500
There they would be forced
to cut off their long hair,

00:05:47.500 --> 00:05:49.630
change into American-style clothing,

00:05:49.630 --> 00:05:52.270
and take up new American-sounding names.

00:05:52.270 --> 00:05:55.100
These schools lasted until the 1970s.

00:05:55.100 --> 00:05:57.010
Chinese immigrants, by contrast,

00:05:57.010 --> 00:05:59.700
were judged incapable of assimilation.

00:05:59.700 --> 00:06:03.720
In 1882, Congress passed
the Chinese Exclusion Act,

00:06:03.720 --> 00:06:05.450
the first immigration restriction

00:06:05.450 --> 00:06:08.080
to prevent all members of an ethnic group

00:06:08.080 --> 00:06:09.740
from entering the United States.

00:06:09.740 --> 00:06:11.630
Restrictions on Chinese immigration

00:06:11.630 --> 00:06:15.330
would not be completely
abolished until 1965.

00:06:15.330 --> 00:06:16.230
There were also some

00:06:16.230 --> 00:06:18.867
far-reaching environmental transformations

00:06:18.867 --> 00:06:21.170
resulting from westward expansion.

00:06:21.170 --> 00:06:25.110
One of these was the near
extinction of the American bison,

00:06:25.110 --> 00:06:26.500
also known as the buffalo.

00:06:26.500 --> 00:06:29.340
Huge herds of buffalo
roamed the American West

00:06:29.340 --> 00:06:32.110
for all of recorded history in the area.

00:06:32.110 --> 00:06:34.200
Plains Indians had over-hunted them

00:06:34.200 --> 00:06:37.580
in the years before large-scale
immigration to the West,

00:06:37.580 --> 00:06:38.870
but the coming of the railroad

00:06:38.870 --> 00:06:40.820
signed the buffalos' death warrant.

00:06:40.820 --> 00:06:43.710
There were about 15
million buffalo in the West

00:06:43.710 --> 00:06:45.070
at the end of the Civil War,

00:06:45.070 --> 00:06:47.220
but less than 20 years later

00:06:47.220 --> 00:06:50.960
there were fewer than
1,000 buffalo remaining

00:06:50.960 --> 00:06:53.690
due to whites hunting them for sport

00:06:53.690 --> 00:06:56.100
or clearing them from rail lines.

00:06:56.100 --> 00:06:57.590
This left Plains Indians,

00:06:57.590 --> 00:07:00.490
who depended on the buffalo
for meat and clothing,

00:07:00.490 --> 00:07:02.410
in a state of near-starvation,

00:07:02.410 --> 00:07:04.170
making it even more difficult for them

00:07:04.170 --> 00:07:06.920
to resist being forced onto reservations.

00:07:06.920 --> 00:07:08.670
Plains Indians were also affected

00:07:08.670 --> 00:07:11.610
by the development of
barbed wire in this era,

00:07:11.610 --> 00:07:13.870
which white settlers used to fence off

00:07:13.870 --> 00:07:16.440
what had been communal grazing lands.

00:07:16.440 --> 00:07:18.860
This was also a hardship for cowboys,

00:07:18.860 --> 00:07:22.640
who once had driven herds
of cattle to railroad depots

00:07:22.640 --> 00:07:25.110
over long stretches of open range.

00:07:25.110 --> 00:07:26.700
By the end of the 19th century,

00:07:26.700 --> 00:07:29.940
there was little to no
open range left at all.

00:07:29.940 --> 00:07:32.240
Lastly, the spread of settlers

00:07:32.240 --> 00:07:35.890
into the arid western
part of the Great Plains

00:07:35.890 --> 00:07:38.200
led to massive irrigation projects

00:07:38.200 --> 00:07:39.660
in order to supply lands

00:07:39.660 --> 00:07:42.840
that weren't really naturally
suited to farming with water.

00:07:42.840 --> 00:07:45.550
This meant damming and diverting rivers

00:07:45.550 --> 00:07:47.160
and the use of farming techniques

00:07:47.160 --> 00:07:49.600
that would later contribute to the ravages

00:07:49.600 --> 00:07:51.890
of the Dust Bowl in the 1930s.

00:07:51.890 --> 00:07:55.090
Who has access to water
and for what purposes

00:07:55.090 --> 00:07:57.180
is still a major source of conflict

00:07:57.180 --> 00:07:58.540
in the American West.

00:07:58.540 --> 00:08:01.310
So as we look forward
into the 20th century

00:08:01.310 --> 00:08:03.710
from our vantage point here at the edge

00:08:03.710 --> 00:08:05.180
of the American Frontier,

00:08:05.180 --> 00:08:06.340
let's take some time to think

00:08:06.340 --> 00:08:09.080
about what the story of westward expansion

00:08:09.080 --> 00:08:12.760
tells us about how Americans
thought about citizenship

00:08:12.760 --> 00:08:15.730
and access to resources
in this time period.

00:08:15.730 --> 00:08:19.110
How will those ideas
influence the United States

00:08:19.110 --> 00:08:21.660
once it begins to step on the world stage

00:08:21.660 --> 00:08:24.753
and look for new frontiers
outside of North America?


Comparing the effects of the Civil War on American national identity

WEBVTT
Kind: captions
Language: en

00:00:00.350 --> 00:00:01.610
- [Narrator] It's hard to imagine

00:00:01.610 --> 00:00:05.040
anything more transformative
in American history

00:00:05.040 --> 00:00:06.530
than the Civil War.

00:00:06.530 --> 00:00:08.410
Before the Civil War, the United States

00:00:08.410 --> 00:00:12.350
was a largely rural, barely
unified collection of states

00:00:12.350 --> 00:00:15.000
not making much of a
blip on the world stage.

00:00:15.000 --> 00:00:18.080
After the Civil War the United
States was well on its way

00:00:18.080 --> 00:00:20.130
toward becoming a modern country

00:00:20.130 --> 00:00:21.710
with a strong central government

00:00:21.710 --> 00:00:23.900
and a thriving industrial economy

00:00:23.900 --> 00:00:26.640
that was soon to make it
into a serious world power.

00:00:26.640 --> 00:00:29.520
The Civil War is seen as such
an enormous turning point

00:00:29.520 --> 00:00:33.220
in US history that most
colleges split courses

00:00:33.220 --> 00:00:38.220
into US history before 1865
and US history after 1865.

00:00:39.620 --> 00:00:42.340
But was the United States
really that different

00:00:42.340 --> 00:00:44.250
before and after the Civil War?

00:00:44.250 --> 00:00:46.290
As historians, we could
tackle that question

00:00:46.290 --> 00:00:48.040
from a lot of different angles.

00:00:48.040 --> 00:00:50.380
We could look at the role
of the federal government

00:00:50.380 --> 00:00:52.790
in American life before and after the war.

00:00:52.790 --> 00:00:55.050
We could look at changes in the economy.

00:00:55.050 --> 00:00:59.630
I'm curious about changes in
American national identity

00:00:59.630 --> 00:01:00.950
during this period.

00:01:00.950 --> 00:01:03.060
What do I mean by national identity?

00:01:03.060 --> 00:01:05.190
National identity encompasses things

00:01:05.190 --> 00:01:09.560
like core beliefs about
democracy, citizenship,

00:01:09.560 --> 00:01:12.500
and America's proper role in the world.

00:01:12.500 --> 00:01:15.160
We can identify these beliefs
in different time periods

00:01:15.160 --> 00:01:17.060
by looking at practices like

00:01:17.060 --> 00:01:18.370
who gets to vote,

00:01:18.370 --> 00:01:22.250
which groups are defined as
a part of the American people

00:01:22.250 --> 00:01:25.620
versus which groups are
defined as aliens or others,

00:01:25.620 --> 00:01:28.230
and whether the American
public is expressing

00:01:28.230 --> 00:01:31.160
lots of national pride or lots of doubt

00:01:31.160 --> 00:01:32.690
about the way things are going.

00:01:32.690 --> 00:01:35.340
So now we've got a historical question

00:01:35.340 --> 00:01:36.750
that we're curious about.

00:01:36.750 --> 00:01:39.200
If we saw that question
like this on an exam

00:01:39.200 --> 00:01:40.670
it might say something like

00:01:40.670 --> 00:01:44.180
compare the relative
significance of the effects

00:01:44.180 --> 00:01:47.090
of the Civil War on American values.

00:01:47.090 --> 00:01:49.970
Okay, well what we're
really doing is asking,

00:01:49.970 --> 00:01:54.290
how much did the Civil War
change the core beliefs

00:01:54.290 --> 00:01:56.270
around American national identity?

00:01:56.270 --> 00:01:58.630
Did it change some more than others?

00:01:58.630 --> 00:02:01.210
To answer this question,
first we need to decide

00:02:01.210 --> 00:02:03.600
which core beliefs we want to track.

00:02:03.600 --> 00:02:06.640
I'm gonna choose ideas around democracy.

00:02:06.640 --> 00:02:08.320
So who gets to vote,

00:02:08.320 --> 00:02:10.510
whether Americans believe that democracy

00:02:10.510 --> 00:02:12.750
is something everyone
should participate in

00:02:12.750 --> 00:02:14.770
or just a select few?

00:02:14.770 --> 00:02:17.530
Second, let's look at
ideas around citizenship.

00:02:17.530 --> 00:02:19.620
Who is defined as an American

00:02:19.620 --> 00:02:21.800
or as part of the American people

00:02:21.800 --> 00:02:24.540
and entitled to the
privileges and immunities

00:02:24.540 --> 00:02:25.690
of citizenship.

00:02:25.690 --> 00:02:30.120
Last, let's look at ideas about
America's role in the world.

00:02:30.120 --> 00:02:33.010
Whether or how the United
States should be involved

00:02:33.010 --> 00:02:35.770
in world affairs or
extending its influence

00:02:35.770 --> 00:02:37.950
beyond the boundaries
of the United States.

00:02:37.950 --> 00:02:40.370
Now you might want to look
at different core beliefs

00:02:40.370 --> 00:02:41.450
than I've chosen here

00:02:41.450 --> 00:02:44.800
like maybe whether people
saw their regional identity

00:02:44.800 --> 00:02:47.440
as more important than
their national identity.

00:02:47.440 --> 00:02:50.060
And if you want to do
that that's totally okay.

00:02:50.060 --> 00:02:52.710
I'm gonna go with these
three themes for now.

00:02:52.710 --> 00:02:56.200
So let's brainstorm
some of the major trends

00:02:56.200 --> 00:02:58.610
that occur in each of these themes

00:02:58.610 --> 00:03:03.610
before and after the Civil
War in between 1844 and 1877.

00:03:04.170 --> 00:03:07.150
I've got our timeline here
with the big dividing line

00:03:07.150 --> 00:03:08.570
at the end of the Civil War.

00:03:08.570 --> 00:03:11.200
Now we're looking at this
from a bird's eye view

00:03:11.200 --> 00:03:14.400
of the whole era so I'm not
gonna go into much detail

00:03:14.400 --> 00:03:16.030
about the events we're talking about.

00:03:16.030 --> 00:03:19.360
If something sounds unfamiliar
to you just make a note of it

00:03:19.360 --> 00:03:21.350
and you can go back to review that concept

00:03:21.350 --> 00:03:22.340
when you have time.

00:03:22.340 --> 00:03:24.350
All right, first democracy.

00:03:24.350 --> 00:03:26.450
In the years before the Civil War,

00:03:26.450 --> 00:03:28.930
what were the prevailing ideas about

00:03:28.930 --> 00:03:30.480
who should be able to vote

00:03:30.480 --> 00:03:32.930
and who actually could vote in practice?

00:03:32.930 --> 00:03:36.210
Well by 1844, most States
had extended voting rights

00:03:36.210 --> 00:03:39.440
to all white men regardless
of property ownership,

00:03:39.440 --> 00:03:40.760
women couldn't vote

00:03:40.760 --> 00:03:43.280
and neither could enslaved
Africans in the South,

00:03:43.280 --> 00:03:46.580
and voting rights for free
African American men in the North

00:03:46.580 --> 00:03:47.840
were pretty limited.

00:03:47.840 --> 00:03:49.437
How about after the Civil War?

00:03:49.437 --> 00:03:50.780
Now the biggest change there

00:03:50.780 --> 00:03:54.480
was the ratification of
the 15th Amendment in 1870

00:03:54.480 --> 00:03:56.450
which granted all men the right to vote

00:03:56.450 --> 00:03:59.110
enfranchising African American men.

00:03:59.110 --> 00:04:01.150
It did not, to the disappointment

00:04:01.150 --> 00:04:03.770
of the women's suffrage
movement, enfranchise women

00:04:03.770 --> 00:04:07.620
but by 1877, the end of Reconstruction

00:04:07.620 --> 00:04:09.070
when the federal government stopped

00:04:09.070 --> 00:04:11.620
enforcing the rights of
black citizens in the South,

00:04:11.620 --> 00:04:13.340
Jim Crow laws would make voting

00:04:13.340 --> 00:04:15.470
all but impossible for black men.

00:04:15.470 --> 00:04:18.610
Okay, now let's look at how
values around citizenship

00:04:18.610 --> 00:04:21.130
changed before and after the Civil War.

00:04:21.130 --> 00:04:23.630
Who was a citizen before the Civil War

00:04:23.630 --> 00:04:25.470
and who was considered eligible

00:04:25.470 --> 00:04:27.540
to be part of the American people?

00:04:27.540 --> 00:04:29.900
Well white men definitely and white women,

00:04:29.900 --> 00:04:31.590
free people of color in the North

00:04:31.590 --> 00:04:34.780
with some limitations depending
on their state of residents,

00:04:34.780 --> 00:04:37.110
immigrants arriving
from Ireland and Germany

00:04:37.110 --> 00:04:38.860
were eligible for citizenship

00:04:38.860 --> 00:04:41.390
but Native Americans were
considered to be members

00:04:41.390 --> 00:04:44.090
of separate nations not Americans.

00:04:44.090 --> 00:04:45.990
Mexican Americans and the territories

00:04:45.990 --> 00:04:47.730
acquired in the Mexican Cession

00:04:47.730 --> 00:04:49.870
were technically American citizens

00:04:49.870 --> 00:04:52.300
but had few legal protections.

00:04:52.300 --> 00:04:54.080
And enslaved people in the South

00:04:54.080 --> 00:04:56.910
were still considered
property not citizens.

00:04:56.910 --> 00:04:59.030
How did that change after the Civil War?

00:04:59.030 --> 00:05:02.330
Well the Emancipation Proclamation in 1863

00:05:02.330 --> 00:05:05.930
and the 13th Amendment
in 1865 ended slavery.

00:05:05.930 --> 00:05:09.400
The 14th Amendment in 1868 made all people

00:05:09.400 --> 00:05:13.010
born or naturalized in the
United States citizens,

00:05:13.010 --> 00:05:15.350
granting citizenship
to African American men

00:05:15.350 --> 00:05:16.830
and women in the South.

00:05:16.830 --> 00:05:19.030
But again, the end of Reconstruction

00:05:19.030 --> 00:05:21.580
and the rise of Jim Crow
made it difficult for them

00:05:21.580 --> 00:05:25.230
to access the rights of
citizenship after 1877.

00:05:25.230 --> 00:05:28.930
White men and women and
immigrants were still citizens.

00:05:28.930 --> 00:05:32.070
The US government began to
stop treating Native Americans

00:05:32.070 --> 00:05:34.070
as members of separate nations

00:05:34.070 --> 00:05:37.500
but started classifying
them as wards of the state

00:05:37.500 --> 00:05:38.900
rather than citizens.

00:05:38.900 --> 00:05:41.470
In the West, Chinese
immigrants were looked upon

00:05:41.470 --> 00:05:44.550
as two different to become citizens

00:05:44.550 --> 00:05:45.940
and they would soon be forbidden

00:05:45.940 --> 00:05:47.850
from entering the United States at all.

00:05:47.850 --> 00:05:50.370
Mexican Americans saw little change

00:05:50.370 --> 00:05:52.320
in their precarious status.

00:05:52.320 --> 00:05:55.940
Finally, how did Americans
view the proper role

00:05:55.940 --> 00:05:57.480
of the United States in the world

00:05:57.480 --> 00:05:59.520
before and after the Civil War?

00:05:59.520 --> 00:06:03.580
In 1844, the US was still
practicing isolationism

00:06:03.580 --> 00:06:06.780
to avoid entangling alliances abroad

00:06:06.780 --> 00:06:10.090
but the ideas of manifest
destiny led to a general sense

00:06:10.090 --> 00:06:12.790
that the United States
had a divine mission

00:06:12.790 --> 00:06:15.450
to occupy North America
from coast to coast

00:06:15.450 --> 00:06:18.260
which provided the impetus
for the Mexican War

00:06:18.260 --> 00:06:19.750
and for Indian Removal.

00:06:19.750 --> 00:06:22.140
After the Civil War, both isolationism

00:06:22.140 --> 00:06:24.820
as a foreign policy outside North America

00:06:24.820 --> 00:06:27.580
and manifest destiny as a foreign policy

00:06:27.580 --> 00:06:30.810
within North America
continued on as before.

00:06:30.810 --> 00:06:33.010
So now let's return to our question,

00:06:33.010 --> 00:06:35.810
how much did the Civil War change

00:06:35.810 --> 00:06:37.480
American national identity?

00:06:37.480 --> 00:06:39.790
In terms of ideas about democracy

00:06:39.790 --> 00:06:42.530
there was definitely a big
expansion of the franchise

00:06:42.530 --> 00:06:43.810
due to the Civil War

00:06:43.810 --> 00:06:46.930
with the addition of two
million African American men

00:06:46.930 --> 00:06:48.600
as new voters in the South

00:06:48.600 --> 00:06:51.070
after the ratification
of the 15th Amendment.

00:06:51.070 --> 00:06:52.980
But that was short-lived.

00:06:52.980 --> 00:06:54.970
The Jim Crow system would effectively

00:06:54.970 --> 00:06:58.150
prevent black voters in the
South from casting ballots

00:06:58.150 --> 00:06:59.680
until the 1960s.

00:06:59.680 --> 00:07:02.410
In terms of citizenship,
that too was altered

00:07:02.410 --> 00:07:04.710
by the passage of a
constitutional amendment.

00:07:04.710 --> 00:07:06.570
In this case, the 14th Amendment.

00:07:06.570 --> 00:07:10.430
Those citizenship guarantees
were also short-lived

00:07:10.430 --> 00:07:13.250
but let's not forget
the long-term importance

00:07:13.250 --> 00:07:15.430
of the 14th and 15th Amendments

00:07:15.430 --> 00:07:18.580
for securing equal rights
in the 20th century.

00:07:18.580 --> 00:07:20.680
Even though those rights
were only on paper

00:07:20.680 --> 00:07:22.140
during the Jim Crow era

00:07:22.140 --> 00:07:24.530
that paper would eventually
be very important

00:07:24.530 --> 00:07:26.830
for expanding voting
and citizenship rights

00:07:26.830 --> 00:07:28.100
after World War II.

00:07:28.100 --> 00:07:31.100
As for ideas about
America's role in the world,

00:07:31.100 --> 00:07:32.720
those didn't change much at all.

00:07:32.720 --> 00:07:35.280
The drive to expand the
borders of the United States

00:07:35.280 --> 00:07:36.670
all the way to the Pacific

00:07:36.670 --> 00:07:39.020
only intensified after the Civil War.

00:07:39.020 --> 00:07:40.840
So we might answer our question

00:07:40.840 --> 00:07:43.050
with the following thesis statement.

00:07:43.050 --> 00:07:46.850
The Civil War brought on some
immediate short-term changes

00:07:46.850 --> 00:07:50.290
in American ideals of
democracy and citizenship,

00:07:50.290 --> 00:07:53.380
which would fade after
the end of Reconstruction,

00:07:53.380 --> 00:07:56.130
while the belief in the divine
mission of the United States

00:07:56.130 --> 00:07:59.000
to spread across North
America only intensified

00:07:59.000 --> 00:08:00.080
in this time period.

00:08:00.080 --> 00:08:03.130
Even though there was little
change in the 19th century,

00:08:03.130 --> 00:08:06.040
the seeds planted immediately
after the Civil War

00:08:06.040 --> 00:08:09.470
would sprout into major
changes in the 20th century.

00:08:09.470 --> 00:08:10.320
What do you think?

00:08:10.320 --> 00:08:12.780
How would you weigh
these pieces of evidence

00:08:12.780 --> 00:08:14.390
to draw conclusions about

00:08:14.390 --> 00:08:16.820
how the Civil War changed American values?

00:08:16.820 --> 00:08:17.680
You might come up with

00:08:17.680 --> 00:08:20.250
a completely different
thesis statement than I did

00:08:20.250 --> 00:08:21.520
and that's perfectly fine.

00:08:21.520 --> 00:08:23.970
The important part of
thinking like a historian

00:08:23.970 --> 00:08:26.820
is to gather evidence and
then craft an argument

00:08:26.820 --> 00:08:28.353
supported by that evidence.


Slavery in the British colonies

WEBVTT
Kind: captions
Language: en

00:00:00.080 --> 00:00:01.070
- [Narrator] This is a chart

00:00:01.070 --> 00:00:05.730
showing estimated population
around the year 1750

00:00:05.730 --> 00:00:08.170
in the British colonies in the New World.

00:00:08.170 --> 00:00:12.300
I've arranged this more or
less from north to south

00:00:12.300 --> 00:00:15.910
and you can see that as
you go farther south,

00:00:15.910 --> 00:00:18.760
the percentage of the population

00:00:18.760 --> 00:00:22.410
that was enslaved and African
grew greater and greater,

00:00:22.410 --> 00:00:24.940
but one thing to note here is that

00:00:24.940 --> 00:00:27.430
not any one of these colonies

00:00:27.430 --> 00:00:30.620
had zero enslaved people at all,

00:00:30.620 --> 00:00:33.150
even New Hampshire, the farthest north

00:00:33.150 --> 00:00:37.590
with the smallest percentage
of enslaved Africans

00:00:37.590 --> 00:00:40.650
had some enslaved people there

00:00:40.650 --> 00:00:42.300
before the American Revolution.

00:00:42.300 --> 00:00:44.310
We frequently have the misconception

00:00:44.310 --> 00:00:48.140
that slavery only happened in the south.

00:00:48.140 --> 00:00:52.460
In fact, all British colonies
had some amount of slavery

00:00:52.460 --> 00:00:56.390
and all British colonies
had some involvement

00:00:56.390 --> 00:00:58.230
in the institution of slavery,

00:00:58.230 --> 00:01:01.880
whether that was bankrolling
it as a financier,

00:01:01.880 --> 00:01:06.880
growing food that was intended
for the slave colonies

00:01:06.890 --> 00:01:08.970
in the West Indies that
didn't want to spare

00:01:08.970 --> 00:01:11.810
even an acre of land to grow something

00:01:11.810 --> 00:01:15.570
other than sugar, or
shipping enslaved Africans

00:01:15.570 --> 00:01:18.510
by either owning or captaining the boats

00:01:18.510 --> 00:01:19.750
of the middle passage.

00:01:19.750 --> 00:01:22.380
In fact, one of the largest ports

00:01:22.380 --> 00:01:25.470
where slaves entered the
North American colonies

00:01:25.470 --> 00:01:29.690
and were sold at auction was
at Newport, Rhode Island.

00:01:29.690 --> 00:01:33.770
But despite this, the largest
share of enslaved people

00:01:33.770 --> 00:01:36.200
were in the southern colonies,

00:01:36.200 --> 00:01:38.930
which focused on plantation agriculture.

00:01:38.930 --> 00:01:43.310
So, Maryland, Virginia,
and then even farther south

00:01:43.310 --> 00:01:45.940
into the British colonies
in the Caribbean.

00:01:45.940 --> 00:01:48.580
In some of these southernmost colonies,

00:01:48.580 --> 00:01:51.480
you can see that enslaved Africans

00:01:51.480 --> 00:01:54.500
outnumbered white people by sometimes

00:01:54.500 --> 00:01:56.740
quite a considerable amount.

00:01:56.740 --> 00:02:00.060
As the enslaved population
in the colonies grew,

00:02:00.060 --> 00:02:03.280
colonial governments began
passing more and more

00:02:03.280 --> 00:02:07.160
restrictions on the
lives of enslaved people

00:02:07.160 --> 00:02:12.160
and began codifying who
was or was not a slave.

00:02:12.650 --> 00:02:16.630
For example, if a white
man and an enslaved woman

00:02:16.630 --> 00:02:20.210
had a child together,
would that child be free

00:02:20.210 --> 00:02:23.000
like her father or
enslaved like her mother?

00:02:23.000 --> 00:02:24.720
What about the opposite case?

00:02:24.720 --> 00:02:29.010
In Virginia in 1662, the
government passed a law

00:02:29.010 --> 00:02:33.130
specifying that the
children of enslaved women

00:02:33.130 --> 00:02:36.470
would follow the condition
of their mothers.

00:02:36.470 --> 00:02:40.450
Other laws prevented
interracial relationships

00:02:40.450 --> 00:02:45.450
and defined enslaved
Africans as chattel slaves,

00:02:45.520 --> 00:02:48.120
which means personal property,

00:02:48.120 --> 00:02:52.360
and as the personal
property of slave owners,

00:02:52.360 --> 00:02:56.090
enslaved people had
little to no legal rights.

00:02:56.090 --> 00:02:59.840
So, over the course of the 1600s,

00:02:59.840 --> 00:03:02.020
slavery became stricter

00:03:02.020 --> 00:03:06.240
and more exclusively defined by race.

00:03:06.240 --> 00:03:09.870
The experience of being
enslaved was unimaginably

00:03:09.870 --> 00:03:12.360
physically and emotionally taxing.

00:03:12.360 --> 00:03:15.630
Since enslaved people
had no legal protections,

00:03:15.630 --> 00:03:19.900
owners could maim or
even kill enslaved people

00:03:19.900 --> 00:03:21.920
with little to no repercussion.

00:03:21.920 --> 00:03:24.490
For women, life in slavery also meant

00:03:24.490 --> 00:03:27.520
the constant threat and frequent reality

00:03:27.520 --> 00:03:30.110
of rape at the hands of slave owners.

00:03:30.110 --> 00:03:34.350
Religion, dance, music, and family

00:03:34.350 --> 00:03:37.380
helped enslaved people deal with

00:03:37.380 --> 00:03:39.620
the harsh realities of everyday life

00:03:39.620 --> 00:03:41.920
and enslaved people also developed

00:03:41.920 --> 00:03:45.100
both covert means of resisting slavery,

00:03:45.100 --> 00:03:47.440
like, for example, breaking tools,

00:03:47.440 --> 00:03:50.010
which made it more difficult to work,

00:03:50.010 --> 00:03:52.870
or overt means of resisting slavery,

00:03:52.870 --> 00:03:55.370
particularly in slave uprisings.

00:03:55.370 --> 00:03:59.000
One of these, the Stono Rebellion in 1739

00:03:59.000 --> 00:04:01.910
in South Carolina resulted in the deaths

00:04:01.910 --> 00:04:06.910
of about 42 whites and about 44 blacks.

00:04:07.140 --> 00:04:09.900
The South Carolina government
responded to the rebellion

00:04:09.900 --> 00:04:12.260
by making slave codes even harsher.

00:04:12.260 --> 00:04:16.020
I wanna finish by just
reiterating how central

00:04:16.020 --> 00:04:18.400
the institution of slavery was

00:04:18.400 --> 00:04:22.680
to not just some, but all
of the English colonies.

00:04:22.680 --> 00:04:26.070
In the 19th century, Americans
would refer to slavery

00:04:26.070 --> 00:04:30.240
as the peculiar institution,
meaning not so much

00:04:30.240 --> 00:04:34.170
that it was strange,
but that it was specific

00:04:34.170 --> 00:04:37.400
to the south part of the United States.

00:04:37.400 --> 00:04:41.160
But slavery really wasn't
specific to the south part,

00:04:41.160 --> 00:04:44.220
it was the bedrock of
the colonial economy,

00:04:44.220 --> 00:04:47.070
not just in the south,
but in all the industries

00:04:47.070 --> 00:04:51.000
that contributed to slavery
in the north as well,

00:04:51.000 --> 00:04:55.640
those who financed, fed, shipped,

00:04:55.640 --> 00:05:00.290
and even bought the products
made by enslaved people

00:05:00.290 --> 00:05:03.800
created the economic prosperity

00:05:03.800 --> 00:05:05.753
of the North American colonies.


Gideon v  Wainwright

WEBVTT
Kind: captions
Language: en

00:00:00.350 --> 00:00:01.900
- [Instructor] Now we're
gonna talk about an important

00:00:01.900 --> 00:00:05.320
Supreme Court case that
reinforced the idea

00:00:05.320 --> 00:00:08.760
that states have to
provide the same rights

00:00:08.760 --> 00:00:11.530
when people are arrested
and accused of a crime,

00:00:11.530 --> 00:00:15.350
as are guaranteed in the
United States Constitution.

00:00:15.350 --> 00:00:18.820
And that case is Gideon versus Wainwright.

00:00:18.820 --> 00:00:21.900
So in 1961, you have a
gentleman by the name of

00:00:21.900 --> 00:00:25.570
Clarence Earl Gideon, who's in a pool hall

00:00:25.570 --> 00:00:28.990
and he's accused of stealing some beer

00:00:28.990 --> 00:00:31.660
and soda and about $50.

00:00:31.660 --> 00:00:34.170
And there's one witness
who said that they saw

00:00:34.170 --> 00:00:37.530
Clarence Gideon walking
away with some soda and beer

00:00:37.530 --> 00:00:40.560
in his pockets and some
change in his pockets.

00:00:40.560 --> 00:00:43.580
Now when he gets arrested
and he goes to court,

00:00:43.580 --> 00:00:45.660
he wants to have access to counsel,

00:00:45.660 --> 00:00:48.120
he can't afford a lawyer by himself.

00:00:48.120 --> 00:00:49.530
But Florida, at the time,

00:00:49.530 --> 00:00:53.020
did not give everyone access to a lawyer.

00:00:53.020 --> 00:00:57.180
That was only in capital offenses
or in certain other cases.

00:00:57.180 --> 00:01:00.050
So Clarence Earl Gideon
had to defend himself

00:01:00.050 --> 00:01:01.350
and he loses the case and he gets

00:01:01.350 --> 00:01:03.840
the maximum sentence of five years.

00:01:03.840 --> 00:01:07.770
Now while he is in prison,
he begins to study the law

00:01:07.770 --> 00:01:09.850
and the Constitution in particular.

00:01:09.850 --> 00:01:12.670
And he reads things like
the Sixth Amendment,

00:01:12.670 --> 00:01:15.400
which say in all criminal prosecutions,

00:01:15.400 --> 00:01:18.060
the accused shall enjoy the right to

00:01:18.060 --> 00:01:21.880
a speedy and public trial, by
an impartial jury of the state

00:01:21.880 --> 00:01:24.590
and district wherein the crime
shall have been committed,

00:01:24.590 --> 00:01:26.060
which district shall have been

00:01:26.060 --> 00:01:28.060
previously ascertained by law,

00:01:28.060 --> 00:01:29.410
and to be informed of the nature

00:01:29.410 --> 00:01:31.120
and cause of the accusation,

00:01:31.120 --> 00:01:34.180
to be confronted with
the witness against him,

00:01:34.180 --> 00:01:36.070
to have compulsory process for

00:01:36.070 --> 00:01:38.520
obtaining witnesses in his favor,

00:01:38.520 --> 00:01:42.900
and to have the assistance
of counsel for his defense.

00:01:42.900 --> 00:01:44.850
So he's saying hey, this is
here in the Constitution.

00:01:44.850 --> 00:01:47.870
It's the Sixth Amendment
saying that I need to have

00:01:47.870 --> 00:01:50.630
assistance of counsel for my defense.

00:01:50.630 --> 00:01:54.030
And he studies section
one of the 14th Amendment.

00:01:54.030 --> 00:01:56.550
All persons born or naturalized
in the United States

00:01:56.550 --> 00:01:58.300
and subject to the jurisdiction thereof,

00:01:58.300 --> 00:01:59.880
are citizens of the United States

00:01:59.880 --> 00:02:02.300
and of the state wherein they reside.

00:02:02.300 --> 00:02:05.720
No state shall make or
enforce any law which shall

00:02:05.720 --> 00:02:08.450
abridge the privileges
or immunities of citizens

00:02:08.450 --> 00:02:11.190
of the United States, nor
shall any state deprive any

00:02:11.190 --> 00:02:13.420
person of life, liberty, or property,

00:02:13.420 --> 00:02:17.560
without due process of law,
nor deny to any person within

00:02:17.560 --> 00:02:20.640
its jurisdiction the equal
protection of the laws.

00:02:20.640 --> 00:02:22.970
We'll he's saying here, look,
the Sixth Amendment says

00:02:22.970 --> 00:02:25.470
that I have a right to
assistance of counsel,

00:02:25.470 --> 00:02:26.620
essentially to have a lawyer

00:02:26.620 --> 00:02:28.260
that the state needs to provide.

00:02:28.260 --> 00:02:31.190
And the Constitution makes
it very clear that no state

00:02:31.190 --> 00:02:35.440
can make or enforce a law
which abridges my privileges

00:02:35.440 --> 00:02:37.930
that they can't deprive
me of life, liberty,

00:02:37.930 --> 00:02:40.300
or property without
the due process of law.

00:02:40.300 --> 00:02:42.270
And part of that due process is to have

00:02:42.270 --> 00:02:45.180
access to counsel for defense.

00:02:45.180 --> 00:02:48.330
And so he petitions
first the Florida courts

00:02:48.330 --> 00:02:49.680
and they keep rejecting him.

00:02:49.680 --> 00:02:52.700
But eventually he writes to the
United States Supreme Court.

00:02:52.700 --> 00:02:56.870
And in 1962 the United
States Supreme Court

00:02:56.870 --> 00:03:00.250
decides to take Clarence
Earl Gideon's case.

00:03:00.250 --> 00:03:02.030
And not only do they take his case,

00:03:02.030 --> 00:03:03.640
they provide a lawyer for him.

00:03:03.640 --> 00:03:05.550
And the lawyer is able to get

00:03:05.550 --> 00:03:09.710
a nine zero verdict in
Clarence Gideon's favor.

00:03:09.710 --> 00:03:12.040
And so that did not
acquit him of the crime,

00:03:12.040 --> 00:03:14.720
but it says that he
has a right to counsel.

00:03:14.720 --> 00:03:17.570
So back in Florida, he gets a retrial.

00:03:17.570 --> 00:03:19.500
And in that retrial, he has a lawyer

00:03:19.500 --> 00:03:22.170
and that lawyer is able to
question that one witness

00:03:22.170 --> 00:03:25.070
in depth that says that
Clarence was walking away

00:03:25.070 --> 00:03:28.020
with soda and beer and
change in his pockets

00:03:28.020 --> 00:03:30.670
and create a substantial amount of doubt.

00:03:30.670 --> 00:03:32.700
And then the jury, after
only an hour of deliberation,

00:03:32.700 --> 00:03:35.650
says no, it hasn't been
proven that Clarence Gideon

00:03:35.650 --> 00:03:38.020
is guilty beyond a reasonable doubt.

00:03:38.020 --> 00:03:39.590
And he is free.

00:03:39.590 --> 00:03:41.300
So this is an amazing case.

00:03:41.300 --> 00:03:44.360
One it's amazing that an
individual sitting in jail

00:03:44.360 --> 00:03:46.030
could learn about the Constitution

00:03:46.030 --> 00:03:48.090
and petition the US Supreme Court

00:03:48.090 --> 00:03:51.790
and win that case that
ensures that all 50 states

00:03:51.790 --> 00:03:55.263
have to provide legal
counsel for the accused.