achieving incremental semantic interpretation through contextual representation

Julie Sedivy
Michael Tanenhaus
Craig Chambers
Gregory Carlson

This means that the linguistic realization can not start until CD is concluded , contradicting eye-tracking experiments suggesting that speakers start speaking while still scanning distractors ( Pechmann 1989 ) . A similar problem is discussed in the psycholinguistics of interpretation ( Sedivy et al. 1999 ) : Interpretation is widely assumed to proceed incrementally , but vague descriptions resist strict incrementality , since an adjective in a vague description can only be fully interpreted when its comparison set is known . Sedivy and colleagues resolve this quandary by allowing a kind of revision , whereby later words allow hearers to refine their interpretation of gradable adjectives .

A similar problem is discussed in the psycholinguistics of interpretation ( @@CITATION ) : Interpretation is widely assumed to proceed incrementally , but vague descriptions resist strict incrementality , since an adjective in a vague description can only be fully interpreted when its comparison set is known .


a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining

There is now a consensus about the fact that natural language should be described as correspondences between different levels of representation . Much of theoretical linguistics can be formulated in a very natural manner as stating correspondences ( translations ) between layers of representation structures ( Rambow & Satta , 1996 ) . In this paper , a flexible annotation schema called Structured String-Tree Correspondence ( SSTC ) ( Boitet & Zaharin , 1988 ) will be introduced to capture a natural language text , its corresponding abstract linguistic representation and the mapping ( correspondence ) between these two .

Much of theoretical linguistics can be formulated in a very natural manner as stating correspondences ( translations ) between layers of representation structures ( @@CITATION ) .


automatic extraction of systematic polysemy using treecut

The lexicon is derived by a fully automatic extraction method which utilizes a clustering technique called tree-cut ( Li and Abe , 1998 ) . In our previous work ( Tomuro , 2000 ) , we applied this method to a small subset of WordNet nouns and showed potential applicability . In the current work , we applied the method to all nouns and verbs in WordNet , and built a lexicon in which word senses are partitioned by systematic polysemy .

In our previous work ( @@CITATION ) , we applied this method to a small subset of WordNet nouns and showed potential applicability .


Last , but not least , application-driven research in areas such as automatic abstracting and information extraction independently highlighted the importance of anaphora and coreference resolution , boosting research in this area . Much of the earlier work in anaphora resolution heavily exploited domain and linguistic knowledge ( Sidner 1979 ; Carter 1987 ; Rich and LuperFoy 1988 ; Carbonell and Brown 1988 ) , which was difficult both to represent and to process , and which required considerable human input . However , the pressing need for the development of robust and inexpensive solutions to meet the demands of practical NLP systems encouraged many researchers to move away from extensive domain and linguistic knowledge and to embark instead upon knowledge-poor anaphora resolution strategies .

Much of the earlier work in anaphora resolution heavily exploited domain and linguistic knowledge ( Sidner 1979 ; Carter 1987 ; @@CITATION ; Carbonell and Brown 1988 ) , which was difficult both to represent and to process , and which required considerable human input .


the mention class ( generic , specific , negatively quantified , etc. ) 4 . the mention sub-type , which is a sub-category of the mention type ( ACE , 2004 ) ( e.g. OrgGovernmental , FacilityPath , etc. ) .

the mention sub-type , which is a sub-category of the mention type ( @@CITATION ) ( e.g. OrgGovernmental , FacilityPath , etc. ) .


representation trees and stringtree correspondences

The particle `` up '' is featurised into the verb `` pick '' and in discontinuous manner ( e.g. `` up '' ( 4-5 ) in `` pick-up '' ( 1-2 +4 -5 ) ) in the sentence `` He picks the box up '' . For more details on the proprieties of SSTC , see Boitet & Zaharin ( 1988 ) .

For more details on the proprieties of SSTC , see @@CITATION .


the effectiveness of stemming for natural language access to slovene textual data

mers ( Lovins , 1968 ; Porter , 1980 ) demonstrably improve retrieval performance . This has been reported for other languages , too , dependent on the generality of the chosen approach ( J Â¨ appinen and Niemist Â¨ o , 1988 ; Choueka , 1990 ; Popovic and Willett , 1992 ; Ekmekc Â¸ ioglu et al. , 1995 ; Hedlund et al. , 2001 ; Pirkola , 2001 ) . When it comes to a broader scope of morphological analysis , including derivation and composition , even for the English language only restricted , domain-specific algorithms exist .

This has been reported for other languages , too , dependent on the generality of the chosen approach ( J Â¨ appinen and Niemist Â¨ o , 1988 ; Choueka , 1990 ; @@CITATION ; Ekmekc Â¸ ioglu et al. , 1995 ; Hedlund et al. , 2001 ; Pirkola , 2001 ) .


Hence , throughout the course of this project , the different methods had minor implementational variations , which do not affect the overall insights of this research . Specifically , we used Decision Graphs ( Oliver 1993 ) for Doc-Pred , and SVMs ( Vapnik 1998 ) for Sent-Pred .11 Additionally , we used unigrams for clustering documents and sentences , and unigrams and bigrams for predicting document clusters and sentence clusters ( Sections 3.1.2 and 3.2.2 ) . Because this variation was uniformly implemented for both approaches , it does not affect their relative performance .

Specifically , we used Decision Graphs ( Oliver 1993 ) for Doc-Pred , and SVMs ( @@CITATION ) for Sent-Pred .11 Additionally , we used unigrams for clustering documents and sentences , and unigrams and bigrams for predicting document clusters and sentence clusters ( Sections 3.1.2 and 3.2.2 ) .


moses open source toolkit for statistical machine translation

Philipp Koehn
Hieu Hoang
Alexandra Birch
Chris Callison-Birch
Marcello Federico
Nicola Bertoldi
Brooke Cowan
Wade Shen

The corpus is a subset of the newscommentary dataset provided at WMT4 and contains input French sentences , MT outputs , postedited outputs and English references . To prepare SMT outputs for post-editing , the creators of the corpus used their own WMT10 system ( Potet et al. , 2010 ) , based on the Moses phrase-based decoder ( Koehn et al. , 2007 ) with dense features . We replicated a similar Moses system using the same monolingual and parallel data : a 5-gram language model was estimated with the KenLM toolkit ( Heafield , 2011 ) on news.en data ( 48.65 M sentences , 1.13 B tokens ) , pre-processed with the tools from the cdec toolkit ( Dyer et al. , 2010 ) .

To prepare SMT outputs for post-editing , the creators of the corpus used their own WMT10 system ( Potet et al. , 2010 ) , based on the Moses phrase-based decoder ( @@CITATION ) with dense features .


To model o ( Li , S â T ) , o ( Ri , S â T ) , i.e. the reordering of the neighboring phrases of a function word , we employ the orientation model introduced by Setiawan et al. ( 2007 ) . Formally , this model takes the form of probability distribution Pori ( o ( Li , S â T ) , o ( Ri , S â T ) | Yi , S â T ) , which conditions the reordering on the lexical identity of the function word alignment ( but independent of the lexical identity of its neighboring phrases ) .

To model o ( Li , S â T ) , o ( Ri , S â T ) , i.e. the reordering of the neighboring phrases of a function word , we employ the orientation model introduced by @@CITATION .


realistic parsing practical solutions of difficult problems

The difference between the number of types ( 2850 ) and tokens ( 573 ) in the extracted pairs ( which contain only open-class words ) shows that the same concepts recur , as expected in a didactic text . The syntactic structures of the input data are produced by a parser with good coverage and detailed syntactic information , DIPETT ( Delisle and Szpakowicz , 1995 ) . The parser , written in Prolog , implements a classic constituency English grammar from Quirk et al. ( 1985 ) .

The syntactic structures of the input data are produced by a parser with good coverage and detailed syntactic information , DIPETT ( @@CITATION ) .


For complementing this database and for converse constructions , the LADL tables ( Gross , 1975 ) can furthermore be resorted to , which list detailed syntactico-semantic descriptions for 5 000 verbs and 25 000 verbal expressions . In particular , ( Gross , 1989 ) lists the converses of some 3 500 predicative nouns .

In particular , ( @@CITATION ) lists the converses of some 3 500 predicative nouns .


online learning of relaxed ccg grammars for parsing to logical form

If no parse is found yet , then the parser attempts to strategically allow tokens to subsume a neighbor by making it a dependent ( first with a restricted root set , then without ) . This is similar to the `` deletion '' strategy employed by Zettlemoyer and Collins ( 2007 ) , but we do it directly in the grammar . We add unary rules of the form ( D ) - * u for every potential supertag u in the tree .

This is similar to the `` deletion '' strategy employed by @@CITATION , but we do it directly in the grammar .


an unsupervised approach to recognizing discourse relations

Nevertheless , their work bolsters our claims regarding the usefulness of generative models in extrinsic tasks , which we do not describe here . Although this study falls under the general topic of discourse modeling , our work differs from previous attempts to characterize text in terms of domainindependent rhetorical elements ( McKeown , 1985 ; Marcu and Echihabi , 2002 ) . Our task is closer to the work of Teufel and Moens ( 2000 ) , who looked at the problem of intellectual attribution in scientific texts .

Although this study falls under the general topic of discourse modeling , our work differs from previous attempts to characterize text in terms of domainindependent rhetorical elements ( McKeown , 1985 ; @@CITATION ) .


evaluating wordnetbased measures of semantic distance

tween two words ( Gurevych , 2005 ) .3 Dissimilar words can be semantically related , e.g. via functional relationships ( night -- dark ) or when they are antonyms ( high -- low ) . Many NLP applications require knowledge about semantic relatedness rather than just similarity ( Budanitsky and Hirst , 2006 ) . A number of competing approaches for computing semantic relatedness of words have been developed ( see Section 2 ) .

Many NLP applications require knowledge about semantic relatedness rather than just similarity ( @@CITATION ) .


learning the abstract motion semantics of verbs from captioned videos

Stefan Mathe
Afsaneh Fazly
Sven Dickinson
Suzanne Stevenson

norms . Other work on modeling the meanings of verbs using video recognition has also begun showing great promise ( Mathe et al. , 2008 ; Regneri et al. , 2013 ) . The Computer Vision community has also benefited greatly from efforts to unify the two modalities .

Other work on modeling the meanings of verbs using video recognition has also begun showing great promise ( @@CITATION ; Regneri et al. , 2013 ) .


how verb subcategorization frequencies are affected by corpus choice

The Brown corpus comprises 24,242 trees compiled from a variety of text genres including popular lore , general fiction , science fiction , mystery and detective fiction , and humor . It has been shown ( Roland and Jurafsky 1998 ) that the subcategorization tendencies of verbs vary across linguistic domains . Our aim , therefore , is to increase the scope of the induced lexicon not only in terms of the verb lemmas for which there are entries , but also in terms of the frames with which they co-occur .

It has been shown ( @@CITATION ) that the subcategorization tendencies of verbs vary across linguistic domains .


Michel Galley
Mark Hopkins
Kevin Knight
Daniel Marcu

The system is implemented based on ( Galley et al. , 2006 ) and ( Marcu et al. 2006 ) . In the system , we extract both the minimal GHKM rules ( Galley et al. , 2004 ) , and the rules of SPMT Model 1 ( Galley et al. , 2006 ) with phrases up to length L = 5 on the source side . We then obtain the composed rules by composing two or three adjacent minimal rules .

In the system , we extract both the minimal GHKM rules ( @@CITATION ) , and the rules of SPMT Model 1 ( Galley et al. , 2006 ) with phrases up to length L = 5 on the source side .


gaijin a bootstrapping templatedriven approach to examplebased machine translation

In order to calculate a ranking for each TL sentence produced , we multiply the weights of each chunk used in its construction . Note that this ensures that greater importance is attributed to longer chunks , as is usual in most EBMT systems ( cfXXX Sato and Nagao 1990 ; Veale and Way 1997 ; Carl 1999 ) .7 As an example , consider the translation into French of the house collapsed . Assume the conditional probabilities in ( 33 ) :

Note that this ensures that greater importance is attributed to longer chunks , as is usual in most EBMT systems ( cfXXX Sato and Nagao 1990 ; @@CITATION ; Carl 1999 ) .7 As an example , consider the translation into French of the house collapsed .


what is a word what is a sentence problems of tokenization”

Not much information has been published on abbreviation identification . One of the better-known approaches is described in Grefenstette and Tapanainen ( 1994 ) , which suggested that abbreviations first be extracted from a corpus using abbreviation-guessing heuristics akin to those described in Section 6 and then reused in further processing . This is similar to our treatment of abbreviation handling , but our strategy is applied on the document rather than corpus level .

One of the better-known approaches is described in @@CITATION , which suggested that abbreviations first be extracted from a corpus using abbreviation-guessing heuristics akin to those described in Section 6 and then reused in further processing .


Peter F Brown
Stephen A Della Pietra
Vincent J Della Pietra
Meredith J Goldsmith
Jan Hajic
Robert L Mercer
Surya Mohanty

The probability distribution trans ( ii , it ' ) is a word-to-word translation model . Unlike the models proposed by Brown et al. ( 1993b ) , this model is symmetric , because both word bags are generated together from a joint probability distribution . Brown and his colleagues ' models , reviewed in Section 4.3 , generate one half of the bitext given the other half , so they are represented by conditional probability distributions .

Unlike the models proposed by @@CITATIONb ) , this model is symmetric , because both word bags are generated together from a joint probability distribution .


morphology and meaning in the english mental lexicon

W D Marslen-Wilson
L K Tyler
R Waksler
L Older

We apply two different priming experiments namely , the cross modal priming and masked priming experiment discussed in ( Forster and Davis , 1984 ; Rastle et al. , 2000 ; Marslen-Wilson et al. , 1994 ; Marslen-Wilson et al. , 2008 ) for Bangla morphologically complex words . Here , the prime is morphologically derived form of the target presented auditorily ( for cross modal priming ) or visually ( for masked priming ) .

We apply two different priming experiments namely , the cross modal priming and masked priming experiment discussed in ( Forster and Davis , 1984 ; Rastle et al. , 2000 ; @@CITATION ; Marslen-Wilson et al. , 2008 ) for Bangla morphologically complex words .


( Och and Ney , 2002 ; Blunsom et al. , 2008 ) used maximum likelihood estimation to learn weights for MT. ( Och , 2003 ; Moore and Quirk , 2008 ; Zhao and Chen , 2009 ; Galley and Quirk , 2011 ) employed an evaluation metric as a loss function and directly optimized it . ( Watanabe et al. , 2007 ; Chiang et al. , 2008 ; Hopkins and May , 2011 ) proposed other optimization objectives by introducing a margin-based and ranking-based indirect loss functions . All the methods mentioned above train a single weight for the whole development set , whereas our local training method learns a weight for each sentence .

( Watanabe et al. , 2007 ; Chiang et al. , 2008 ; @@CITATION ) proposed other optimization objectives by introducing a margin-based and ranking-based indirect loss functions .


It has been used for transformations of conceptual and syntactic structures during generation in monolingual and multilingual natural language generation ( NLG ) and for transfer in machine translation ( MT ) . Our work extends directions taken in systems such as Ariane ( Vauquois and Boitet , 1985 ) , FoG ( Kittredge and Polguere , 1991 ) , JOYCE ( Rambow and Korelsky , 1992 ) , and LFS ( Iordanskaja et al. , 1992 ) . Although it adopts the general principles found in the abovementioned systems , the approach presented in this paper is more practical , and we believe , would eventually integrate better with emerging statistics-based approaches to MT. * The work performed on the framework by this coauthor was done while at CoGenTex , Inc. .

Our work extends directions taken in systems such as Ariane ( Vauquois and Boitet , 1985 ) , FoG ( Kittredge and Polguere , 1991 ) , JOYCE ( Rambow and @@CITATION ) , and LFS ( Iordanskaja et al. , 1992 ) .


bilingual framenet dictionaries for machine translation

Typical tags include Agent , Patient , Source , etc. and some adjuncts such as Temporal , Manner , Extent , etc. . Since the arguments can provide useful semantic information , the SRL is crucial to many natural language processing tasks , such as Question and Answering ( Narayanan and Harabagiu 2004 ) , Information Extraction ( Surdeanu et al. 2003 ) , and Machine Translation ( Boas 2002 ) . With the efforts of many researchers ( Carreras and MÃ rquez 2004 , 2005 , Moschitti 2004 , Pradhan et al 2005 , Zhang et al 2007 ) , different machine learning methods and linguistics resources are applied in this task , which has made SRL task progress fast .

Since the arguments can provide useful semantic information , the SRL is crucial to many natural language processing tasks , such as Question and Answering ( Narayanan and Harabagiu 2004 ) , Information Extraction ( Surdeanu et al. 2003 ) , and Machine Translation ( @@CITATION ) .


the descent of hierarchy and selection in relational semantics

Barbara Rosario
Marti Hearst
Charles Fillmore

In other methods , lexical resources are specifically tailored to meet the requirements of the domain ( Rosario and Hearst , 2001 ) or the system ( Gomez , 1998 ) . Such systems extract information from some types of syntactic units ( clauses in ( Fillmore and Atkins , 1998 ; Gildea and Jurafsky , 2002 ; Hull and Gomez , 1996 ) ; noun phrases in ( Hull and Gomez , 1996 ; Rosario et al. , 2002 ) ) . Lists of semantic relations are designed to capture salient domain information .

Such systems extract information from some types of syntactic units ( clauses in ( Fillmore and Atkins , 1998 ; Gildea and Jurafsky , 2002 ; Hull and Gomez , 1996 ) ; noun phrases in ( Hull and Gomez , 1996 ; @@CITATION ) ) .


association norms of german noun compounds

Sabine Schulte im Walde
Susanne Borgwaldt
Ronny Jauch

Association Norms ( AN ) is a collection of association norms collected by Schulte im Walde et al. ( 2012 ) . In association norm experiments , subjects are presented with a cue word and asked to list the first few words that come to mind .

Association Norms ( AN ) is a collection of association norms collected by Schulte im @@CITATION .


on building a more efficient grammar by exploiting types

There are a variety of works on efficient parsing with HPSG , which allow the use of HPSGbased processing in practical application contexts ( Flickinger et al. , 2000 ) . Stanford University is developing the English Resource Grammar , an HPSG grammar for English , as a part of the Linguistic Grammars Online ( LinGO ) project ( Flickinger , 2000 ) . In practical context , German , English , and Japanese HPSG-based grammars are developed and used in the Verbmobil project ( Kay et al. , 1994 ) .

Stanford University is developing the English Resource Grammar , an HPSG grammar for English , as a part of the Linguistic Grammars Online ( LinGO ) project ( @@CITATION ) .


corpus based pp attachment ambiguity resolution with a semantic dictionary

Before doing the annotation , though , some preprocessing of the data was required to maximize the matching between our corpus and WordNet . The changes made were inspired by those described in Stetina and Nagao ( 1997 , page 75 ) . To lemmatize the words we used `` morpha , '' a lemmatizer developed by John A. Carroll and freely available at the address : http://www.informatics.susx.ac.uk./research/nlp/carroll/morph.html .

The changes made were inspired by those described in @@CITATION , page 75 ) .


a grammar of contemporary english longman group limited

Randolph Quirk
Sidney Greenbaum
Geoffrey Leech
Jan Svartvik

Once the grammar codes have been restructured , it still remains to be shown that the information they encode is going to be of some utility for natural language processing . The grammar code system used in LDOCE is based quite closely on the descriptive grammatical framework of Quirk et al. ( 1972 , 1985 ) . The codes are doubly articulated ; capital letters represent the grammatical relations which hold between a verb and its arguments and numbers represent subcategorisation frames which a verb can appear in .

The grammar code system used in LDOCE is based quite closely on the descriptive grammatical framework of @@CITATION , 1985 ) .


automatic analysis of texts in informatics 7

Given that we were targeting all envisaged access routes from LDOCE to systems implemented in Lisp , and since the natural data structure for Lisp is the s-expression , we adopted the approach of converting the tape source into a set of list structures , one per entry . Our task was made possible by the fact that while far from being a database in the accepted sense of the word , the LDOCE typesetting tape is the only truly computerised dictionary of English ( Michiels , 1983 ) . The logical structure of a dictionary entry is reflected on the tape as a sequence of typed records ( see Figure 1 ) , each with additional internal segmentation , where records and fields correspond to separate units in an entry , such as headword , pronunciation , grammar code , word senses , and so forth .

Our task was made possible by the fact that while far from being a database in the accepted sense of the word , the LDOCE typesetting tape is the only truly computerised dictionary of English ( @@CITATION ) .


the acquisition and use of dialogue expectation in speech recognition

While some of these systems did exhibit expectation capabilities at the sentence level , none acquired dialogues of the kind described here for the sake of dialogue level expectation and error correction . A detailed description of the kinds of expectation mechanisms appearing in these systems appears in Fink ( 1983 ) . The problem of handling ill-formed input has been studied by Carbonell and Hayes ( 1983 ) , Granger ( 1983 ) , Jensen et al. ( 1983 ) , Kwasny and Sondheimer ( 1981 ) , Riesbeck and Schank ( 1976 ) , Thompson ( 1980 ) , Weischedel and Black ( 1980 ) , and Weischedel and Sondheimer ( 1983 ) .

A detailed description of the kinds of expectation mechanisms appearing in these systems appears in @@CITATION .


Obviously , towards an s-node for sampling , the two values of ` P would define two different U-trees . Using the GHKM algorithm ( Galley et al. 2004 ) , we can get two different STSG derivations from the two U-trees based on the fixed word alignment . Each derivation carries a set of STSG rules ( i.e. , minimal GHKM translation rules ) of its own .

Using the GHKM algorithm ( @@CITATION ) , we can get two different STSG derivations from the two U-trees based on the fixed word alignment .


answering physicians’ clinical questions obstacles and potential solutions

John W Ely
Jerome A Osheroff
M Lee Chambliss
Mark H Ebell
Marcy E Rosenbaum

For a variety of reasons , medicine is an interesting domain of research . The need for information systems to support physicians at the point of care has been well studied ( Covell et al. , 1985 ; Gorman et al. , 1994 ; Ely et al. , 2005 ) . Retrieval techniques can have a large impact on how physicians access and leverage clinical evidence .

The need for information systems to support physicians at the point of care has been well studied ( Covell et al. , 1985 ; Gorman et al. , 1994 ; @@CITATION ) .


Note that from an experimental point of view , this is a very convenient problem to work with because we can automatically determine ground truth ( and thus avoid the need for manual annotation ) simply by consulting publicly available voting records . Task properties Determining whether or not a speaker supports a proposal falls within the realm of sentiment analysis , an extremely active research area devoted to the computational treatment of subjective or opinion-oriented language ( early work includes Wiebe and Rapaport ( 1988 ) , Hearst ( 1992 ) , Sack ( 1994 ) , and Wiebe ( 1994 ) ; see Esuli ( 2006 ) for an active bibliography ) . In particular , since we treat each individual speech within a debate as a single `` document '' , we are considering a version of document-level sentiment-polarity classification , namely , automatically distinguishing between positive and negative documents ( Das and Chen , 2001 ; Pang et al. , 2002 ; Turney , 2002 ; Dave et al. , 2003 ) .

Task properties Determining whether or not a speaker supports a proposal falls within the realm of sentiment analysis , an extremely active research area devoted to the computational treatment of subjective or opinion-oriented language ( early work includes Wiebe and Rapaport ( 1988 ) , Hearst ( 1992 ) , @@CITATION , and Wiebe ( 1994 ) ; see Esuli ( 2006 ) for an active bibliography ) .


deriving translation data from bilingual textsquot

However , the IBM models , which attempt to capture a broad range of translation phenomena , are computationally expensive to apply . Table look-up using an explicit translation lexicon is sufficient and preferable for many multilingual NLP applications , including `` crummy '' MT on the World Wide Web ( Church & Hovy , 1993 ) , certain machine-assisted translation tools ( e.g. ( Macklovitch , 1994 ; Melamed , 1996b ) ) , concordancing for bilingual lexicography ( Catizone et al. , 1993 ; Gale & Church , 1991 ) , computerassisted language learning , corpus linguistics ( Melby . 1981 ) , and cross-lingual information retrieval ( Oard & Dorr , 1996 ) .

Table look-up using an explicit translation lexicon is sufficient and preferable for many multilingual NLP applications , including `` crummy '' MT on the World Wide Web ( Church & Hovy , 1993 ) , certain machine-assisted translation tools ( e.g. ( Macklovitch , 1994 ; Melamed , 1996b ) ) , concordancing for bilingual lexicography ( @@CITATION ; Gale & Church , 1991 ) , computerassisted language learning , corpus linguistics ( Melby .


unsupervised coreference resolution in a nonparametric bayesian model

We present an extension of the hierarchical Dirichlet process ( HDP ) model which is able to represent each observable object ( i.e. , event mention ) by a finite number of feature types L . Our HDP extension is also inspired from the Bayesian model proposed by Haghighi and Klein ( 2007 ) . However , their model is strictly customized for entity coreference resolution , and therefore , extending it to include additional features for each observable object is a challenging task ( Ng , 2008 ; Poon and Domingos , 2008 ) .

Our HDP extension is also inspired from the Bayesian model proposed by @@CITATION .


a maximum entropy approach to named entity recognition

In this paper we focus on the Entity Detection and Recognition task ( EDR ) for Arabic as described in ACE 2004 framework ( ACE , 2004 ) . The EDR has close ties to the named entity recognition ( NER ) and coreference resolution tasks , which have been the focus of several recent investigations ( Bikel et al. , 1997 ; Miller et al. , 1998 ; Borthwick , 1999 ; Mikheev et al. , 1999 ; Soon et al. , 2001 ; Ng and Cardie , 2002 ; Florian et al. , 2004 ) , and have been at the center of evaluations such as : MUC-6 , MUC-7 , and the CoNLL '02 and CoNLL '03 shared tasks . Usually , in computational linguistics literature , a named entity is an instance of a location , a person , or an organization , and the NER task consists of identifying each of these occurrences .

The EDR has close ties to the named entity recognition ( NER ) and coreference resolution tasks , which have been the focus of several recent investigations ( Bikel et al. , 1997 ; Miller et al. , 1998 ; @@CITATION ; Mikheev et al. , 1999 ; Soon et al. , 2001 ; Ng and Cardie , 2002 ; Florian et al. , 2004 ) , and have been at the center of evaluations such as : MUC-6 , MUC-7 , and the CoNLL '02 and CoNLL '03 shared tasks .


sentiment analysis a new approach for effective use of linguistic knowledge and exploiting similarities in a set of documents to be classified

A minimum-cost assignment thus represents an optimum way to classify the speech segments so that each one tends not to be put into the class that the individual-document classifier disprefers , but at the same time , highly associated speech segments tend not to be put in different classes . As has been previously observed and exploited in the NLP literature ( Pang and Lee , 2004 ; Agarwal and Bhattacharyya , 2005 ; Barzilay and Lapata , 2005 ) , the above optimization function , unlike many others that have been proposed for graph or set partitioning , can be solved exactly in an provably efficient manner via methods for finding minimum cuts in graphs . In our view , the contribution of our work is the examination of new types of relationships , not the method by which such relationships are incorporated into the classification decision .

As has been previously observed and exploited in the NLP literature ( Pang and Lee , 2004 ; @@CITATION ; Barzilay and Lapata , 2005 ) , the above optimization function , unlike many others that have been proposed for graph or set partitioning , can be solved exactly in an provably efficient manner via methods for finding minimum cuts in graphs .


making largescale support vector machine learning practical

The phrasal matching score for each n-gram level is calculated as follows : To combine the phrasal matching scores obtained at each n-gram level , and optimize their relative weights , we trained a Support Vector Machine classifier , SVMlight ( Joachims , 1999 ) , using each score as a feature .

To combine the phrasal matching scores obtained at each n-gram level , and optimize their relative weights , we trained a Support Vector Machine classifier , SVMlight ( @@CITATION ) , using each score as a feature .


improving pronoun resolution in two languages by means of bilingual corpora

The last decade of the 20th century saw a number of anaphora resolution projects for languages other than English such as French , German , Japanese , Spanish , Portuguese , and Turkish . Against the background of a growing interest in multilingual NLP , multilingual anaphora / coreference resolution has gained considerable momentum in recent years ( Aone and McKee 1993 ; Azzam , Humphreys , and Gaizauskas 1998 ; Harabagiu and Maiorano 2000 ; Mitkov and Barbu 2000 ; Mitkov 1999 ; Mitkov and Stys 1997 ; Mitkov , Belguith , and Stys 1998 ) . Other milestones of recent research include the deployment of probabilistic and machine learning techniques ( Aone and Bennett 1995 ; Kehler 1997 ; Ge , Hale , and Charniak 1998 ; Cardie and Wagstaff 1999 ; the continuing interest in centering , used either in original or in revised form ( Abracos and Lopes 1994 ; Strube and Hahn 1996 ; Hahn and Strube 1997 ; Tetreault 1999 ) ; and proposals related to the evaluation methodology in anaphora resolution ( Mitkov 1998a , 2001b ) .

Against the background of a growing interest in multilingual NLP , multilingual anaphora / coreference resolution has gained considerable momentum in recent years ( Aone and McKee 1993 ; Azzam , Humphreys , and Gaizauskas 1998 ; Harabagiu and Maiorano 2000 ; @@CITATION ; Mitkov 1999 ; Mitkov and Stys 1997 ; Mitkov , Belguith , and Stys 1998 ) .


the trec8 question answering track evaluation

In this section , however , we will attempt to draw connections to other clinical information systems ( although not necessarily for question answering ) and related domain-specific question-answering systems . For an overview of systems designed to answer open-domain factoid questions , the TREC QA track overview papers are a good place to start ( Voorhees and Tice 1999 ) . In addition , there has been much work on the application of linguistic and semantic knowledge to information retrieval ; see Lin and Demner-Fushman ( 2006a ) for a brief overview .

For an overview of systems designed to answer open-domain factoid questions , the TREC QA track overview papers are a good place to start ( @@CITATION ) .


how to compile a bilingual collocational lexicon automaticallyquot

Promising features for classification include part of speech , frequency of co-occurrence , relative word position , and translational entropy ( Melamed , 1997 ) . Another interesting extension is to broaden the definition of a `` word '' to include multi-word lexical units ( Smadja , 1992 ) . If such units can be identified a priori , their translations can be estimated without modifying the word-to-word model .

Another interesting extension is to broaden the definition of a `` word '' to include multi-word lexical units ( @@CITATION ) .


the american national corpus more than the web can provide

Some of this new data will be manually annotated . For example , 10 million words of the American National Corpus ( Ide et al. , 2002 ) will have manually corrected POS tags , a tenfold increase over the Penn Treebank ( Marcus et al. , 1993 ) , currently used for training POS taggers . This will require more efficient learning algorithms and implementations .

For example , 10 million words of the American National Corpus ( @@CITATION ) will have manually corrected POS tags , a tenfold increase over the Penn Treebank ( Marcus et al. , 1993 ) , currently used for training POS taggers .


morphosemantic analysis of compound word forms denoting surgical procedures methods ofinformation in medicine

This is particularly true for the medical domain . From an IR view , a lot of specialized research has already been carried out for medical applications , with emphasis on the lexico-semantic aspects of dederivation and decomposition ( Pacak et al. , 1980 ; Norton and Pacak , 1983 ; Wolff , 1984 ; Wingert , 1985 ; Dujols et al. , 1991 ; Baud et al. , 1998 ) . While one may argue that single-word compounds are quite rare in English ( which is not the case in the medical domain either ) , this is certainly not true for German and other basically agglutinative languages known for excessive single-word nominal compounding .

From an IR view , a lot of specialized research has already been carried out for medical applications , with emphasis on the lexico-semantic aspects of dederivation and decomposition ( Pacak et al. , 1980 ; @@CITATION ; Wolff , 1984 ; Wingert , 1985 ; Dujols et al. , 1991 ; Baud et al. , 1998 ) .


intentions structure and expression in multilingual instructions

One possible response would be to abandon the separation ; the generator could be a single component that handles all of the work . This approach has occasionally been taken , as in Kantrowitz and Bates ( 1992 ) and Danlos ( 1987 ) and , at least implicitly , in Paris and Scott ( 1994 ) and Delin et al. ( 1994 ) ; however , under this approach , all of the flexibility and simplicity of modular design is lost . The opposite approach is to simply ignore the limitations of a modular design and proceed as if there need be no interactions between the components .

This approach has occasionally been taken , as in Kantrowitz and Bates ( 1992 ) and Danlos ( 1987 ) and , at least implicitly , in @@CITATION and Delin et al. ( 1994 ) ; however , under this approach , all of the flexibility and simplicity of modular design is lost .


sinica treebank design criteria representational issues and implementation

K Chen
C Luo
M Chang
F Chen
C Chen
C Huang
Z Gao

If we start by considering languages with a labeled attachment score of 85 % or higher , they are characterized by high precision and recall for root nodes , typically 95/90 , and by a graceful degradation of attachment score as arcs grow longer , typically 95 -- 90 -- 85 , for arcs of length 1 , 2 and 3 -- 6 . Typical examples are Bulgarian ( Simov et al. , 2005 ; Simov and Osenova , 2003 ) , Chinese ( Chen et al. , 2003 ) , Danish ( Kromann , 2003 ) , and Swedish ( Nilsson et al. , 2005 ) . Japanese ( Kawata and Bartels , 2000 ) , despite a very high accuracy , is different in that attachment score drops from 98 % to 85 % , as we go from length 1 to 2 , which may have something to do with the data consisting of transcribed speech with very short utterances .

Typical examples are Bulgarian ( Simov et al. , 2005 ; Simov and Osenova , 2003 ) , Chinese ( @@CITATION ) , Danish ( Kromann , 2003 ) , and Swedish ( Nilsson et al. , 2005 ) .


a constrained latent variable model for coreference resolution

The introduction of ILP methods has influenced the coreference area too ( Chang et al. , 2011 ; Denis and Baldridge , 2007 ) . In this paper , we use the Constrained Latent Left-Linking Model ( CL3M ) described in Chang et al. ( 2013 ) in our experiments . The task of mention detection is closely related to Named Entity Recognition ( NER ) .

In this paper , we use the Constrained Latent Left-Linking Model ( CL3M ) described in @@CITATION in our experiments .


firstorder probabilistic models for coreference resolution

Datasets The ACE-2004 dataset contains 443 documents . We use a standard split of 268 training documents , 68 development documents , and 106 testing documents ( Culotta et al. , 2007 ; Bengtson and Roth , 2008 ) . The OntoNotes-5 .0 dataset , which is released for the CoNLL-2012 Shared Task ( Pradhan et al. , 2012 ) , contains 3,145 annotated documents .

We use a standard split of 268 training documents , 68 development documents , and 106 testing documents ( @@CITATION ; Bengtson and Roth , 2008 ) .


extracting tree adjoining grammars from bracketed corpora

Given these facts , research on automating acquisition of dictionaries for lexically based NLP systems is a particularly important issue . Aside from the extraction of theory-neutral subcategorization lexicons , there has also been work in the automatic construction of lexical resources which comply with the principles of particular linguistic theories such as LTAG , CCG , and HPSG ( Chen and Vijay-Shanker 2000 ; Xia 1999 ; Hockenmaier , Bierner , and Baldridge 2004 ; Nakanishi , Miyao , and Tsujii 2004 ) . In this article we present an approach to automating the process of lexical acquisition for LFG ( i.e. , grammatical-function-based systems ) .

Aside from the extraction of theory-neutral subcategorization lexicons , there has also been work in the automatic construction of lexical resources which comply with the principles of particular linguistic theories such as LTAG , CCG , and HPSG ( Chen and Vijay-Shanker 2000 ; @@CITATION ; Hockenmaier , Bierner , and Baldridge 2004 ; Nakanishi , Miyao , and Tsujii 2004 ) .


Following G&G , we require that the prosody rules build a binary tree whose terminals are phonological words and whose node labels are indices that mark boundary salience . An alternative representation based on Liberman and Prince ( 1977 ) is presented in Selkirk ( 1984 ) , which contends that prosody , including prosodic phrasing , is more properly represented as a grid instead of a tree . Although a grid may be more descriptively suitable for some aspects of prosody ( for example , Sproat and Liberman ( 1987 ) use the grid representation for their implementation of stress assignment in compound nominals ) , we are not aware of any evidence for or against a grid representation of discourseneutral phrasing .

An alternative representation based on @@CITATION is presented in Selkirk ( 1984 ) , which contends that prosody , including prosodic phrasing , is more properly represented as a grid instead of a tree .


joint word segmentation and pos tagging using a single perceptron

For the segmentation task , we also compare our beam-search framework with alternative decoding algorithms including an exact dynamic-programming method , showing that the beam-search method is significantly faster with comparable accuracy . For the joint segmentation and POS-tagging task , we present a novel solution using the framework in this article , and show that it gives comparable accuracies to our previous work ( Zhang and Clark 2008a ) , while being more than an order of magnitude faster . In Section 7 we provide further discussion of the framework based on the studies of the individual tasks .

For the joint segmentation and POS-tagging task , we present a novel solution using the framework in this article , and show that it gives comparable accuracies to our previous work ( @@CITATIONa ) , while being more than an order of magnitude faster .


a testbed for people searching strategies in the www

Javier Artiles
Julio Gonzalo
Felisa Verdejo

A study of the query log of the AllTheWeb and Altavista search sites gives an idea of the relevance of the people search task : 11-17 % of the queries were composed of a person name with additional terms and 4 % were identified as person names ( Spink et al. , 2004 ) . According to the data available from 1990 U.S. Census Bureau , only 90,000 different names are shared by 100 million people ( Artiles et al. , 2005 ) . As the amount of information in the WWW grows , more of these people are mentioned in different web pages .

According to the data available from 1990 U.S. Census Bureau , only 90,000 different names are shared by 100 million people ( @@CITATION ) .


unsupervised word sense disambiguation rivaling supervised methods”

Gale , Church , and Yarowsky ( 1992 ) showed that words strongly tend to exhibit only one sense in a document or discourse ( `` one sense per discourse '' ) . Since then this idea has been applied to several tasks , including word sense disambiguation ( Yarowsky 1995 ) and named-entity recognition ( Cucerzan and Yarowsky 1999 ) . Gale , Church , and Yarowsky 's observation is also used in our DCA , especially for the identification of abbreviations .

Since then this idea has been applied to several tasks , including word sense disambiguation ( @@CITATION ) and named-entity recognition ( Cucerzan and Yarowsky 1999 ) .


towards historybased grammars using richer models for probabilistic parsing

E Black
F Jelinek
J D Lafferty
D M Magerman
R L Mercer
S Roukos

â¢ A deterministic algorithm for building labeled projective dependency graphs ( Nivre , 2006 ) . â¢ History-based feature models for predicting the next parser action ( Black et al. , 1992 ) . â¢ Support vector machines for mapping histories to parser actions ( Kudo and Matsumoto , 2002 ) .

â¢ History-based feature models for predicting the next parser action ( @@CITATION ) .


accurate methods for the statistics of surprise and coincidencequot

L ( u , v ) represents the likelihood that u and v can be mutual translations . For each co-occurring pair of word types u and v , these likelihoods are initially set proportional to their co-occurrence frequency ( â , v ) and inversely proportional to their marginal frequencies n ( u ) and n ( v ) 1 , following ( Dunning , 1993 ) 2 . When the L ( u , v ) are re-estimated , the model 's hidden parameters come into play .

For each co-occurring pair of word types u and v , these likelihoods are initially set proportional to their co-occurrence frequency ( â , v ) and inversely proportional to their marginal frequencies n ( u ) and n ( v ) 1 , following ( @@CITATION ) 2 .


the world wide web as a resource for examplebased machine translation tasks

The system simply attaches the translation with the highest weight to the existing chunk ordinateurs personnels to produce the mistranslation in ( 50 ) : ( 50 ) * la ordinateurs personnels The problem of boundary friction is clearly visible here : We have inserted a feminine singular determiner into a chunk that was generalized from a masculine plural NP . However , rather than output this wrong translation directly , we use a post hoc validation and ( if required ) correction process based on Grefenstette ( 1999 ) . Grefenstette shows that the Web can be used as a filter on translation quality simply by searching for competing translation candidates and selecting the one that is found most often .

However , rather than output this wrong translation directly , we use a post hoc validation and ( if required ) correction process based on @@CITATION .


putting pieces together combining framenet verbnet and wordnet for robust semantic parsing

In current work on semantic relation analysis , the focus is on semantic roles -- relations between verbs and their arguments . Most approaches rely on VerbNet ( Kipper et al. , 2000 ) and FrameNet ( Baker et al. , 1998 ) to provide associations between verbs and semantic roles , that are then mapped onto the current instance , as shown by the systems competing in semantic role labelling competitions ( Carreras and Marquez , 2004 ; Carreras and Marquez , 2005 ) and also ( Gildea and Jurafsky , 2002 ; Pradhan et al. , 2005 ; Shi and Mihalcea , 2005 ) . These systems share two ideas which make them different from the approach presented here : they all analyse verb-argument relations , and they all use machine learning or probabilistic approaches ( Pradhan et al. , 2005 ) to assign a label to a new instance .

Most approaches rely on VerbNet ( Kipper et al. , 2000 ) and FrameNet ( Baker et al. , 1998 ) to provide associations between verbs and semantic roles , that are then mapped onto the current instance , as shown by the systems competing in semantic role labelling competitions ( Carreras and Marquez , 2004 ; Carreras and Marquez , 2005 ) and also ( Gildea and Jurafsky , 2002 ; Pradhan et al. , 2005 ; @@CITATION ) .


the generative power of categorial grammars and headdriven phrase structure grammars with lexical rules

The powerful mechanism of lexical rules ( Carpenter 1991 ) has been used in many natural language processing systems . In this section we briefly discuss some of the more prominent approaches and compare them with the treatment proposed in this paper .

The powerful mechanism of lexical rules ( @@CITATION ) has been used in many natural language processing systems .


We can implement a deductive theory of quantifier scope using the conditional equivalence mechanism . The version proposed here combines a basic insight from Lewin ( 1990 ) with higher-order unification to give an analysis that has a strong resemblance to that proposed in Pereira ( 1990 , 1991 ) , with some differences that are commented on below . Like Pereira 's approach , it avoids the need for a free variable constraint , nor does it need the explicit recursion on the quantifier restriction imposed by Lewin .

The version proposed here combines a basic insight from Lewin ( 1990 ) with higher-order unification to give an analysis that has a strong resemblance to that proposed in @@CITATION , 1991 ) , with some differences that are commented on below .


an endtoend discriminative approach to machine translation

Furthermore , we also evaluate the method on alternate extrinsic loss functions . Liang et al. ( 2006 ) presented a perceptron-based algorithm for learning the phrase-translation parameters in a statistical machine translation system . Similar to the inline-ranker loss function presented here , they use a k-best lists of hypotheses in order to identify parameters which can improve a global objective function : BLEU score .

@@CITATION presented a perceptron-based algorithm for learning the phrase-translation parameters in a statistical machine translation system .


NLG has to do more than select a distinguishing description ( i.e. , one that unambiguously denotes its referent ; Dale 1989 ) : The selected expression should also be felicitous . Consider the question , discussed in the philosophical logic literature , of whether it is legitimate , for a gradable adjective , to distinguish between `` observationally indifferent '' entities : Suppose two objects x and y , are so similar that it is impossible to distinguish their sizes ; can it ever be reasonable to say that x is large and y is not ?

NLG has to do more than select a distinguishing description ( i.e. , one that unambiguously denotes its referent ; @@CITATION ) : The selected expression should also be felicitous .


a psycholinguistic approach to corpusbased machine translation

Given that the marker hypothesis is arguably universal , it is clear that benefits may accrue by using it to facilitate subsentential alignment of ( source , target ) chunks . Juola ( 1994 , 1997 ) conducts some small experiments using his METLA system to show the viability of this approach for English â > French and English â > Urdu . For the English â > French language pair , Juola gives results of 61 % correct translation when the system is tested on the training corpus , and 36 % accuracy when it is evaluated with test data .

@@CITATION , 1997 ) conducts some small experiments using his METLA system to show the viability of this approach for English â > French and English â > Urdu .


some philosophical problems from the standpoint of artificial intelligence

( Pollard and Sag [ 1994 , 3141 , following Flickinger [ 19871 ) . This idea of preserving properties can be considered an instance of the well-known frame problem in AT ( McCarthy and Hayes 1969 ) , and we will therefore refer to the specifications left implicit by the linguist as the frame specification , or simply frame , of a lexical rule . Not having to represent the frame explicitly not only enables the linguist to express only the relevant things , but also allows a more compact representation of lexical rules where explicit framing would require the rules to be split up ( Meurers 1994 ) .

This idea of preserving properties can be considered an instance of the well-known frame problem in AT ( @@CITATION ) , and we will therefore refer to the specifications left implicit by the linguist as the frame specification , or simply frame , of a lexical rule .


maltparser a datadriven parsergenerator for dependency parsing

â¢ Graph transformations for recovering nonprojective structures ( Nivre and Nilsson , 2005 ) . All experiments have been performed using MaltParser ( Nivre et al. , 2006 ) , version 0.4 , which is made available together with the suite of programs used for preand post-processing .1 1www .

All experiments have been performed using MaltParser ( @@CITATION ) , version 0.4 , which is made available together with the suite of programs used for preand post-processing .1


the order of prenominal adjectives in natural language generation

A realization phase , during which the choice between base , superlative , and comparative forms is made , among other things . One area of current interest concerns the left-to-right arrangement of premodifying adjectives within an NP ( e.g. , Shaw and Hatzivassiloglou 1999 ; Malouf 2000 ) . Work in this area is often based on assigning adjectives to a small number of categories ( e.g. , Precentral , Central , Postcentral , and Prehead ) , which predict adjectives ' relative position .

One area of current interest concerns the left-to-right arrangement of premodifying adjectives within an NP ( e.g. , Shaw and Hatzivassiloglou 1999 ; @@CITATION ) .


coarsetofine nbest parsing and maxent discriminative reranking

We conjecture based on our analysis that the EM training algorithm is able to exploit the information available in both gold and automatically labeled data with more complex grammars while being less affected by over-fitting . Better results would be expected by combining the PCFG-LA parser with discriminative reranking approaches ( Charniak and Johnson , 2005 ; Huang , 2008 ) for self training . Self-training should also benefit other discriminatively trained parsers with latent annotations ( Petrov and Klein , 2008 ) , although training would be much slower compared to using generative models , as in our case .

Better results would be expected by combining the PCFG-LA parser with discriminative reranking approaches ( @@CITATION ; Huang , 2008 ) for self training .


large scale named entity disambiguation based on wikipedia data

Other representations use the link structure ( Malin , 2005 ) or generate graph representations of the extracted features ( Kalashnikov et al. , 2007 ) . Some researchers ( Cucerzan , 2007 ; Nguyen and Cao , 2008 ) have explored the use of Wikipedia information to improve the disambiguation process . Wikipedia provides candidate entities that are linked to specific mentions in a text .

Some researchers ( @@CITATION ; Nguyen and Cao , 2008 ) have explored the use of Wikipedia information to improve the disambiguation process .


An exception is Grefenstette et al. ( 2004 ) , who experimented with determining the political orientation of websites essentially by classifying the concatenation of all the documents found on that site . Others have applied the NLP technologies of near-duplicate detection and topic-based text categorization to politically oriented text ( Yang and Callan , 2005 ; Purpura and Hillard , 2006 ) . Detecting agreement We used a simple method to learn to identify cross-speaker references indicating agreement .

Others have applied the NLP technologies of near-duplicate detection and topic-based text categorization to politically oriented text ( @@CITATION ; Purpura and Hillard , 2006 ) .


chinese partofspeech tagging oneatatime or allatonce wordbased or characterbased

Shi and Wang ( 2007 ) also chunked the sentences before doing 10-fold cross validation , but used an uneven split . We chose to follow Ng and Low ( 2004 ) and split the sentences evenly to facilitate further comparison . Compared with Ng and Low ( 2004 ) , our baseline model gave slightly better accuracy , consistent with our previous observations about the word segmentors ( Zhang and Clark , 2007 ) .

We chose to follow @@CITATION and split the sentences evenly to facilitate further comparison .


resolving ambiguity for crosslanguage retrievalquot

Also , a document matching different translations of one term in the original query may be ranked higher than a document that matches translations of different terms in the original query . That is , a document that contains terms al , a2 and a3 may be ranked higher than a document which contains terms al and b.f. However , the second document is more likely to be relevant since correct translations of the query terms are more likely to co-occur ( Ballesteros and Croft , 1998 ) . A second method is to structure the translated query , separating the translations for one term from translations for other terms .

That is , a document that contains terms al , a2 and a3 may be ranked higher than a document which contains terms al and b.f. However , the second document is more likely to be relevant since correct translations of the query terms are more likely to co-occur ( @@CITATION ) .


outstanding issues in anaphora resolution

Instead of defining a total preference ordering , Kibble argues that a partial ordering emerges from the interaction among cohesion ( maintaining the same center ) , salience ( realizing the center as subject ) , and cheapness ( realizing the anticipated center of a following utterance as subject ) . The last years have seen considerable advances in the field of anaphora resolution , but a number of outstanding issues either remain unsolved or need more attention and , as a consequence , represent major challenges to the further development of the field ( Mitkov 2001a ) . A fundamental question that needs further investigation is how far the performance of anaphora resolution algorithms can go and what the limitations of knowledge-poor methods are .

The last years have seen considerable advances in the field of anaphora resolution , but a number of outstanding issues either remain unsolved or need more attention and , as a consequence , represent major challenges to the further development of the field ( @@CITATIONa ) .


Each transition in the automaton is translated into a definite relation in which the corresponding lexical rule predicate is called , and each final state is encoded by a unit clause . Using an accumulator passing technique ( O'Keefe 1990 ) , we ensure that upon execution of a call to the interaction predicate q_1 a new lexical entry is derived as the result of successive application of a number of lexical rules . Because of the word class specialization step discussed in Section 3.3 , the execution avoids trying out many lexical rule applications that are guaranteed to fail .

Using an accumulator passing technique ( @@CITATION ) , we ensure that upon execution of a call to the interaction predicate q_1 a new lexical entry is derived as the result of successive application of a number of lexical rules .


lexicallybased terminology structuring some inherent limits

Different strategies have been developed in order to identify pairs of terms that share a specific semantic relationship ( such as hyperonymy or meronymy ) or to build classes of terms . However , most strategies are based on `` internal '' or `` external methods '' ( Grabar and Zweigenbaum , 2002 ) , i.e. methods that rely on the form of terms or on the information gathered from contexts . ( In some cases , an additional resource , such as a dictionary or a thesaurus , is used during the identification process . )

However , most strategies are based on `` internal '' or `` external methods '' ( @@CITATION ) , i.e. methods that rely on the form of terms or on the information gathered from contexts .


automatic evaluation and uniform filter cascades for inducing nbest translation lexiconsquot

2 Co-occurrence With the exception of ( Fung , 1995b ) , previous methods for automatically constructing statistical translation models begin by looking at word cooccurrence frequencies in bitexts ( Gale & Church , 1991 ; Kumano & Hirakawa , 1994 ; Fung , 1995a ; Melamed , 1995 ) . A bitext comprises a pair of texts in two languages , where each text is a translation of the other .

With the exception of ( Fung , 1995b ) , previous methods for automatically constructing statistical translation models begin by looking at word cooccurrence frequencies in bitexts ( Gale & Church , 1991 ; Kumano & Hirakawa , 1994 ; Fung , 1995a ; @@CITATION ) .


natural language analysis in machine translation mt based on the stringtree correspondence grammar stcg

An interval is assigned to each word in the sentence , i.e. ( 0-1 ) for `` John '' , ( 1-2 ) for `` picks '' , ( 2-3 ) for `` the '' , ( 3-4 ) for `` box '' and ( 4-5 ) for `` up '' . A substring in the sentence that corresponds to a node in the representation tree is denoted by assigning the interval of the substring to SNODE of 2 These definitions are based on the discussion in ( Tang , 1994 ) and Boitet & Zaharin ( 1988 ) . the node , e.g. the node `` picks up '' with SNODE intervals ( 1-2 +4 -5 ) corresponds to the words `` picks '' and `` up '' in the string with the similar intervals.The correspondence between subtrees and substrings are denoted by the interval assigned to the STREE of each node , e.g. the subtree rooted at node `` picks up '' with STREE interval ( 0-5 ) corresponds to the whole sentence `` John picks the box up '' .

A substring in the sentence that corresponds to a node in the representation tree is denoted by assigning the interval of the substring to SNODE of 2 These definitions are based on the discussion in ( @@CITATION ) and Boitet & Zaharin ( 1988 ) .


the semeval2007 weps evaluation establishing a benchmark for the web people search task

Javier Artiles
Julio Gonzalo
Satoshi Sekine

In some cases , the existence of a predominant person ( such as a celebrity or a historical figure ) makes it likely to dominate the ranking of search results , complicating the task of finding information about other people sharing her name . The Web People Search task , as defined in the first WePS evaluation campaign ( Artiles et al. , 2007 ) , consists of grouping search results for a given name according to the different people that share it . Our goal in this paper is to study which document features can contribute to this task , and in particular to find out which is the role that can be played by named entities ( NEs ) : ( i ) How reliable is NEs overlap between documents as a source of evidence to cluster pages ?

The Web People Search task , as defined in the first WePS evaluation campaign ( @@CITATION ) , consists of grouping search results for a given name according to the different people that share it .


For example , in the set born in ( Mozart , â¢ ) there is no contradiction between the y values `` Salzburg '' and `` Austria '' , but `` Salzburg '' conflicts with `` Vienna '' . Although this is only true in cases where y occurs in an upward monotone context ( MacCartney and Manning , 2007 ) , in practice genuine contradictions between y-values sharing a meronym relationship are extremely rare . We therefore simply assigned contradictions between meronyms a probability close to zero .

Although this is only true in cases where y occurs in an upward monotone context ( @@CITATION ) , in practice genuine contradictions between y-values sharing a meronym relationship are extremely rare .


labeling chinese predicates with semantic roles

The test set includes 72 files , which are chtb_001 to chtb_041 , and chtb_900 to chtb_931 . We use the same data setting with Xue ( 2008 ) , however a bit different from Xue and Palmer ( 2005 ) .

We use the same data setting with @@CITATION , however a bit different from Xue and Palmer ( 2005 ) .


automatic retrieval and clustering of similar words

One key issue is how to define the set of similar words , SIMS ( w ) . Erk ( 2007 ) compared a number of techniques for creating similar-word sets and found that both the Jaccard coefficient and Lin ( 1998a ) 's information-theoretic metric work best . Similarity-smoothed models are simple to compute , potentially adaptable to new domains , and require no manually-compiled resources such as WordNet .

Erk ( 2007 ) compared a number of techniques for creating similar-word sets and found that both the Jaccard coefficient and @@CITATIONa ) 's information-theoretic metric work best .


weaklysupervised bayesian learning of a ccg supertagger

Dan Garrette
Chris Dyer
Jason Baldridge
Noah A Smith

Baldridge further notes that due to the natural associativity of CCG , adjacent categories tend to be combinable . We previously showed that incorporating this intuition into a Bayesian prior can help train a CCG supertagger ( Garrette et al. , 2014 ) . In this paper , we present a novel parsing model that is designed specifically for the capacity to capture both of these universal , intrinsic properties of CCG .

We previously showed that incorporating this intuition into a Bayesian prior can help train a CCG supertagger ( @@CITATION ) .


computational interpretations of the gricean maximes in the generation of referring expressions

3 The degree of precision of the measurement ( James et al. 1996 , Section 1.5 ) determines which objects can be described by the GRE algorithm , since it determines which objects count as having the same size . 4 To turn this likelihood into a certainty , one can add a test at the end of the algorithm , which adds a type-related property if none is present yet ( cfXXX , Dale and Reiter 1995 ) . VAGUE uses both of these devices .

4 To turn this likelihood into a certainty , one can add a test at the end of the algorithm , which adds a type-related property if none is present yet ( cfXXX , @@CITATION ) .


improved alignment models for statistical machine translation

In the work presented here , we restrict ourselves to transforming only one language of the two : the source , which has the less inflected morphology . For descriptions of SMT systems see for example ( Germann et al. , 2001 ; Och et al. , 1999 ; Tillmann and Ney , 2002 ; Vogel et al. , 2000 ; Wang and Waibel , 1997 ) .

For descriptions of SMT systems see for example ( Germann et al. , 2001 ; @@CITATION ; Tillmann and Ney , 2002 ; Vogel et al. , 2000 ; Wang and Waibel , 1997 ) .


speech recognition by composition of weighted finite automata

The availability of toolkits for this weighted case ( Mohri et al. , 1998 ; van Noord and Gerdemann , 2001 ) promises to unify much of statistical NLP . Such tools make it easy to run most current approaches to statistical markup , chunking , normalization , segmentation , alignment , and noisy-channel decoding , ' including classic models for speech recognition ( Pereira and Riley , 1997 ) and machine translation ( Knight and Al-Onaizan , 1998 ) . Moreover , once the models are expressed in the finitestate framework , it is easy to use operators to tweak them , to apply them to speech lattices or other sets , and to combine them with linguistic resources .

Such tools make it easy to run most current approaches to statistical markup , chunking , normalization , segmentation , alignment , and noisy-channel decoding , ' including classic models for speech recognition ( @@CITATION ) and machine translation ( Knight and Al-Onaizan , 1998 ) .


building probabilistic models for natural language

This step significantly reduces the computational burden of the algorithm . It is analogous to the step in other translation model induction algorithms that sets all probabilities below a certain threshold to negligible values ( Brown et al. , 1990 ; Dagan et al. , 1993 ; Chen , 1996 ) . To retain word type pairs that are at least twice as likely to be mutual translations than not , the threshold can be raised to 2 .

It is analogous to the step in other translation model induction algorithms that sets all probabilities below a certain threshold to negligible values ( Brown et al. , 1990 ; Dagan et al. , 1993 ; @@CITATION ) .


interleaving universal principles and relational constraints over typed feature logic

( Graz and Meurers , 1997b ) describe a method for compiling implicational constraints into typed feature grammars and interleaving them with relational constraints .4 Because of space limitations we have to refrain from an example . The ConTroll grammar development system as described in ( Gotz and Meurers , 1997b ) implements the above mentioned techniques for compiling an HPSG theory into typed feature grammars .

The ConTroll grammar development system as described in ( @@CITATIONb ) implements the above mentioned techniques for compiling an HPSG theory into typed feature grammars .


Removing redundant sentences . After calculating the raw score of each sentence , we use a modified version of the Adaptive Greedy Algorithm by Filatova and Hatzivassiloglou ( 2004 ) to penalize redundant sentences in cohesive clusters . This is done by decrementing the score of a sentence that belongs to an SC for which there is a higher or equal scoring sentence ( if there are several highest-scoring sentences , we retain one sentence as a reference sentence -- i.e. , its score is not decremented ) .

After calculating the raw score of each sentence , we use a modified version of the Adaptive Greedy Algorithm by @@CITATION to penalize redundant sentences in cohesive clusters .


a perspective on word sense disambiguation methods and their evaluation

in bitext space is another kind of collocation . If each word 's translation is treated as a sense tag ( Resnik and Yarowsky 1997 ) , then `` translational '' collocations have the unique property that the collocate and the word sense are one and the same ! Method B exploits this property under the hypothesis that `` one sense per collocation '' holds for translational collocations .

If each word 's translation is treated as a sense tag ( @@CITATION ) , then `` translational '' collocations have the unique property that the collocate and the word sense are one and the same !


decision graphs—an extension of decision trees

The input to Snob is a set of binary vectors , one vector per response document . The values of a vector correspond to the presence or absence of each ( lemmatized ) corpus word in the document in question ( after removing stop-words and words with very low frequency ) .4 The predictive model is a Decision Graph ( Oliver 1993 ) , which , like Snob , is based on the MML principle . The Decision Graph is trained on unigram and bigram lemmas in the request as input features ,5 and the identifier of the response cluster that contains the actual response for the request as the target feature .

The values of a vector correspond to the presence or absence of each ( lemmatized ) corpus word in the document in question ( after removing stop-words and words with very low frequency ) .4 The predictive model is a Decision Graph ( @@CITATION ) , which , like Snob , is based on the MML principle .


discriminative reranking for natural language parsing

Training a model which has such a huge number of classes is infeasible if the model does not factorize due to strong independence assumptions . Therefore , in order to be able to incorporate long-range dependencies in our models , we chose to adopt a re-ranking approach ( Collins 2000 ) , which selects from likely assignments generated by a model which makes stronger independence assumptions . We utilize the top n assignments of our local semantic role labeling model PSRL to generate likely assignments .

Therefore , in order to be able to incorporate long-range dependencies in our models , we chose to adopt a re-ranking approach ( @@CITATION ) , which selects from likely assignments generated by a model which makes stronger independence assumptions .


We investigate here only the `` grounding '' in logical theories . However , it is possible to think about constraining linguistic or logical predicates by simulating physical experiences ( cfXXX Woods 1987 ) . We assume here that a translation of the surface forms of sentences into a logical formalism is possible .

However , it is possible to think about constraining linguistic or logical predicates by simulating physical experiences ( cfXXX @@CITATION ) .


the voyager speech understanding system preliminary development and evaluationquot

V Zue
J Glass
D Goodine
H Leung
M Phillips
J Polifroni
S Seneff

We currently have two application domains that can carry on a spoken dialog with a user . One , the VOYAGER domain ( Zue et al. 1990 ) , answers questions about places of interest in an urban area , in our case , the vicinity of MIT and Harvard University . The second one , ATIS ( Seneff et al. 1991 ) , is a system for accessing data in the Official

One , the VOYAGER domain ( @@CITATION ) , answers questions about places of interest in an urban area , in our case , the vicinity of MIT and Harvard University .


what’s yours and what’s mine determining intellectual attribution in scientific text

Although this study falls under the general topic of discourse modeling , our work differs from previous attempts to characterize text in terms of domainindependent rhetorical elements ( McKeown , 1985 ; Marcu and Echihabi , 2002 ) . Our task is closer to the work of Teufel and Moens ( 2000 ) , who looked at the problem of intellectual attribution in scientific texts .

Our task is closer to the work of @@CITATION , who looked at the problem of intellectual attribution in scientific texts .


In the seminal work by Rubenstein and Goodenough ( 1965 ) , similarity judgments were obtained from 51 test subjects on 65 noun pairs written on paper cards . Test subjects were instructed to order the cards according to the `` similarity of meaning '' and then assign a continuous similarity value ( 0.0 4.0 ) to each card .

In the seminal work by @@CITATION , similarity judgments were obtained from 51 test subjects on 65 noun pairs written on paper cards .


discriminative training and maximum entropy models for statistical machine translation

Several works have proposed discriminative techniques to train log-linear model for SMT . ( Och and Ney , 2002 ; Blunsom et al. , 2008 ) used maximum likelihood estimation to learn weights for MT. ( Och , 2003 ; Moore and Quirk , 2008 ; Zhao and Chen , 2009 ; Galley and Quirk , 2011 ) employed an evaluation metric as a loss function and directly optimized it . ( Watanabe et al. , 2007 ; Chiang et al. , 2008 ; Hopkins and May , 2011 ) proposed other optimization objectives by introducing a margin-based and ranking-based indirect loss functions .

( @@CITATION ; Blunsom et al. , 2008 ) used maximum likelihood estimation to learn weights for MT. ( Och , 2003 ; Moore and Quirk , 2008 ; Zhao and Chen , 2009 ; Galley and Quirk , 2011 ) employed an evaluation metric as a loss function and directly optimized it .


Jackendoff 's ( 1983 ) formalism is richer and resembles more closely an English grammar . Jackendoff ( 1983 , p. 14 ) writes `` it would be perverse not to take as a working assumption that language is a relatively efficient and accurate encoding of the information it conveys . '' Therefore a formalism of the kind he advocates would probably be most suitable for an implementation of our semantics .

@@CITATION , p. 14 ) writes `` it would be perverse not to take as a working assumption that language is a relatively efficient and accurate encoding of the information it conveys . ''


prologii manuel de reference et modele theorique

Whether or not a goal is sufficiently instantiated is determined on the basis of so-called delay patterns .13 These are specifications provided by the user that 12Coroutining appears under many different guises , like for example , suspension , residuation , ( goal ) freezing , and blocking . See also ( Colmerauer , 1982 ; Naish , 1986 ) . `` In the literature delay patterns are sometimes also referred to as wait declarations or block statements .

See also ( @@CITATION ; Naish , 1986 ) .


designing a computerised lexicon for linguistic purposes

Erik Akkerman
Pieter Masereeuw
Willem Meijs

On the other hand , both believe and promise are assigned V3 which means they take a NP object and infinitival complement , yet there is a similar semantic distinction to be made between the two verbs ; so the criteria for the assignment of the V code seem to be purely syntactic . Michiels ( 1982 ) and Akkerman et al. ( 1985 ) provide a more detailed analysis of the information encoded by the LDOCE grammar codes and discuss their efficacy as a system of linguistic description . Ingria ( 1984 ) comprehensively compares different approaches to complementation within grammatical theory providing a touchstone against which the LDOCE scheme can be evaluated .

Michiels ( 1982 ) and @@CITATION provide a more detailed analysis of the information encoded by the LDOCE grammar codes and discuss their efficacy as a system of linguistic description .


We parsed the 3 GB AQUAINT corpus ( Voorhees , 2002 ) using Minipar ( Lin , 1998b ) , and collected verb-object and verb-subject frequencies , building an empirical MI model from this data . Verbs and nouns were converted to their ( possibly multi-token ) root , and string case was preserved .

We parsed the 3 GB AQUAINT corpus ( Voorhees , 2002 ) using Minipar ( @@CITATIONb ) , and collected verb-object and verb-subject frequencies , building an empirical MI model from this data .


libsvm a library for support vector machines software available at httpwwwcsientuedutw cjlinlibsvm

We use support vector machines3 to predict the next parser action from a feature vector representing the history . More specifically , we use LIBSVM ( Chang and Lin , 2001 ) with a quadratic kernel K ( xZ , xj ) = ( - yxT xj + r ) 2 and the built-in one-versus-all strategy for multi-class classification . Symbolic features are

More specifically , we use LIBSVM ( @@CITATION ) with a quadratic kernel K ( xZ , xj ) = ( - yxT xj + r ) 2 and the built-in one-versus-all strategy for multi-class classification .


generic epsilonremoval and input epsilonnormalization algorithms for weighted transducers

Then ti is the total semiring weight w0n of paths in Ti from initial state 0 to final state n ( assumed WLOG to be unique and unweighted ) . It is wasteful to compute ti as suggested earlier , by minimizing ( cxxi ) of o ( yixE ) , since then the real work is done by an c-closure step ( Mohri , 2002 ) that implements the all-pairs version of algebraic path , whereas all we need is the single-source version . If n and m are the number of states and edges ,19 then both problems are O ( n3 ) in the worst case , but the single-source version can be solved in essentially O ( m ) time for acyclic graphs and other reducible flow graphs ( Tar an , 1981b ) .

It is wasteful to compute ti as suggested earlier , by minimizing ( cxxi ) of o ( yixE ) , since then the real work is done by an c-closure step ( @@CITATION ) that implements the all-pairs version of algebraic path , whereas all we need is the single-source version .


improving machine learning approaches to coreference resolution

Each instance is represented by 33 lexical , grammatical , semantic , and positional features that have been employed by highwe can see , the baseline achieves an F-measure of performing resolvers such as Ng and Cardie ( 2002 ) 57.0 and a resolution accuracy of 48.4 . and Yang et al. ( 2003 ) , as described below .

positional features that have been employed by highwe can see , the baseline achieves an F-measure of performing resolvers such as @@CITATION 57.0 and a resolution accuracy of 48.4 .


leveraging a common representation for personalized search and summarization in a medical digital library

Kathleen McKeown
Noemie Elhadad
Vasileios Hatzivassiloglou

Thus , our exploratory experiments in applying content models trained with structured RCTs on unstructured RCTs is a closer approximation of an extrinsically-valid measure of performance . Such a component would serve as the first stage of a clinical question answering system ( Demner-Fushman and Lin , 2005 ) or summarization system ( McKeown et al. , 2003 ) . We chose to focus on randomized controlled trials because they represent the standard benchmark by which all other clinical studies are measured .

Such a component would serve as the first stage of a clinical question answering system ( Demner-Fushman and Lin , 2005 ) or summarization system ( @@CITATION ) .


the derivation of a grammatically indexed lexicon from the longman dictionary of contemporary english

Branimir Boguraev
Edward Briscoe
John Carroll
David Carter
Claire Grover

Applying his technique to approximately four million words of New York Times newswire , Manning acquired 4,900 verb-subcategorization frame pairs for 3,104 verbs , an average of 1.6 frames per verb . Briscoe and Carroll ( 1997 ) predefine 163 verbal subcategorization frames , obtained by manually merging the classes exemplified in the COMLEX ( MacLeod , Grishman , and Meyers 1994 ) and ANLT ( Boguraev et al. 1987 ) dictionaries and adding around 30 frames found by manual inspection . The frames incorporate control information and details of specific prepositions .

Briscoe and Carroll ( 1997 ) predefine 163 verbal subcategorization frames , obtained by manually merging the classes exemplified in the COMLEX ( MacLeod , Grishman , and Meyers 1994 ) and ANLT ( @@CITATION ) dictionaries and adding around 30 frames found by manual inspection .


He was a grammarian who analysed Sanskrit ( Misra , 1966 ) . The idea resurfaced forcefully at several points in the more recent history of linguistic research ( Tesni`ere , 1959 ; Gruber , 1965 ; Fillmore , 1968 ) . Now it has the attention of many researchers in natural language processing , as shown by recent research in semantic parsing and semantic

The idea resurfaced forcefully at several points in the more recent history of linguistic research ( Tesni`ere , 1959 ; @@CITATION ; Fillmore , 1968 ) .


knowledge harvesting articulation and delivery the hewlettpackard journal

circumstances can make each inquiry unique , and hence care must be taken to compose a response that does not confuse , irritate , or mislead the customer . It is therefore no surprise that early attempts at response automation were knowledge-driven ( Barr and Tessler 1995 ; Watson 1997 ; Delic and Lahaix 1998 ) . These systems were carefully designed to produce relevant and correct responses , but required significant human input and maintenance ( Delic and Lahaix 1998 ) .

It is therefore no surprise that early attempts at response automation were knowledge-driven ( Barr and Tessler 1995 ; Watson 1997 ; @@CITATION ) .


Claire Grover
Colin Matheson
Andrei Mikheev
Marc Moens

A number of stand-alone tools have also been developed . For example , the suite of LT tools ( Mikheev et al. , 1999 ; Grover et al. , 2000 ) perform tokenization , tagging and chunking on XML marked-up text directly . These tools also store their configuration state , e.g. the transduction rules used in LT CHUNK , in XML configuration files .

For example , the suite of LT tools ( Mikheev et al. , 1999 ; @@CITATION ) perform tokenization , tagging and chunking on XML marked-up text directly .


the semeval2007 weps evaluation establishing a benchmark for the web people search task

Most of early research work on person name ambiguity focuses on the CDC problem or uses methods found in the WSD literature . It is only recently that the web name ambiguity has been approached as a separate problem and defined as an NLP task Web People Search on its own ( Artiles et al. , 2005 ; Artiles et al. , 2007 ) . Therefore , it is useful to point out some crucial differences between WSD , CRC and WePS :

It is only recently that the web name ambiguity has been approached as a separate problem and defined as an NLP task Web People Search on its own ( Artiles et al. , 2005 ; @@CITATION ) .


examplebased decoding for statistical machine translation

The metric we consider here is derived from an example-based machine translation . To retrieve translation examples for a test sentence , ( Watanabe and Sumita , 2003 ) defined a metric based on the combination of edit distance and TF-IDF ( Manning and Sch Â¨ utze , 1999 ) as follows : where 0 ( 0 < 0 < 1 ) is an interpolation weight , fi ( i = 1 , 2 ) is a word sequence and can be also considered as a document .

To retrieve translation examples for a test sentence , ( @@CITATION ) defined a metric based on the combination of edit distance and TF-IDF ( Manning and Sch Â¨ utze , 1999 ) as follows :


maximum likelihood from incomplete data via the em algorithmquot

One advantage that Brown et al. 's Model 1 has over our word-to-word model is that their objective function has no local maxima . By using the EM algorithm ( Dempster et al. , 1977 ) , they can guarantee convergence towards the globally optimum parameter set . In contrast , the dynamic nature of the competitive linking algorithm changes the Pr ( datalmodel ) in a non-monotonic fashion .

By using the EM algorithm ( @@CITATION ) , they can guarantee convergence towards the globally optimum parameter set .


construction of programs from example computations

These include the following : â¢ use of low level knowledge from the speech recognition phase , â¢ use of high level knowledge about the domain in particular and the dialogue task in general , â¢ a `` continue '' facility and an `` auto-loop '' facility as described by Biermann and Krishnaswamy ( 1976 ) , â¢ a `` conditioning '' facility as described by Fink et al. ( 1985 ) , â¢ implementation of new types of paraphrasing , â¢ checking a larger environment in the expectation acquisition algorithm when deciding if an incoming sentence is the same or similar to one already seen , and â¢ examining inter-speaker dialogue patterns . All but two of these areas for expansion are aimed at moving the expectation system from one that finds patterns in a user 's dialogues and acquires historical knowledge about them to one that can acquire true procedures .

â¢ use of low level knowledge from the speech recognition phase , â¢ use of high level knowledge about the domain in particular and the dialogue task in general , â¢ a `` continue '' facility and an `` auto-loop '' facility as described by @@CITATION , â¢ a `` conditioning '' facility as described by Fink et al. ( 1985 ) , â¢ implementation of new types of paraphrasing , â¢ checking a larger environment in the expectation acquisition algorithm when deciding if an incoming sentence is the same or similar to one already seen , and â¢ examining inter-speaker dialogue patterns .


towards mediating shared perceptual basis in situated dialogue

Grounded semantics provides a bridge to connect symbolic labels or words with lower level visual features ( Harnad , 1990 ) . Previous work has developed various approaches for grounded semantics mainly for the reference resolution task , i.e. , identifying visual objects in the environment given language descriptions ( Dhande , 2003 ; Gorniak and Roy , 2004 ; Tenbrink and Moratz , 2003 ; Siebert and Schlangen , 2008 ; Liu et al. , 2012 ) . For the referring expression generation task here , we also need a lexicon with grounded semantics .

Previous work has developed various approaches for grounded semantics mainly for the reference resolution task , i.e. , identifying visual objects in the environment given language descriptions ( Dhande , 2003 ; Gorniak and Roy , 2004 ; Tenbrink and Moratz , 2003 ; Siebert and Schlangen , 2008 ; @@CITATION ) .


irstbp web people search using name entities

Ravin ( 1999 ) introduced a rule-based approach that tackles both variation and ambiguity analysing the structure of names . In most recent research , NEs ( person , location and organisations ) are extracted from the text and used as a source of evidence to calculate the similarity between documents - see for instance ( Blume , 2005 ; Chen and Martin , 2007 ; Popescu and Magnini , 2007 ; Kalashnikov et al. , 2007 ) . For instance , Blume ( 2005 ) uses NEs coocurring with the ambiguous mentions of a name as a key feature for the disambiguation process .

In most recent research , NEs ( person , location and organisations ) are extracted from the text and used as a source of evidence to calculate the similarity between documents - see for instance ( Blume , 2005 ; Chen and Martin , 2007 ; @@CITATION ; Kalashnikov et al. , 2007 ) .


modern c design generic programming and design patterns applied c indepth series

However , because templates are a static facility we will also provide dynamic versions ( using inheritance ) , which will be slower but accessible from scripting languages and user interfaces . To provide the required configurability in the static version of the code we will use policy templates ( Alexandrescu , 2001 ) , and for the dynamic version we will use configuration classes . A key aspect of increasing the efficiency of the system will be using a common text and annotation representation throughout the infrastructure .

To provide the required configurability in the static version of the code we will use policy templates ( @@CITATION ) , and for the dynamic version we will use configuration classes .


language model based arabic word segmentation

Y-S Lee
K Papineni
S Roukos
O Emam
H Hassan

Lee et al. ( 2003 ) demonstrates a technique for segmenting Arabic text and uses it as a morphological processing step in machine translation . A trigram language model was used to score and select among hypothesized segmentations determined by a set of prefix and suffix expansion rules .

@@CITATION demonstrates a technique for segmenting Arabic text and uses it as a morphological processing step in machine translation .


automatic evaluation and uniform filter cascades for inducing nbest translation lexicons

For example , Gale and Church ( 1991 , 154 ) suggest that `` 02 , a x2-like statistic , seems to be a particularly good choice because it makes good use of the off-diagonal cells '' in the contingency table . In informal experiments described elsewhere ( Melamed 1995 ) , I found that the G2 statistic suggested by Dunning ( 1993 ) slightly outperforms 02 . Let the cells of the contingency table be named as follows :

In informal experiments described elsewhere ( @@CITATION ) , I found that the G2 statistic suggested by Dunning ( 1993 ) slightly outperforms 02 .


a psycholinguistic approach to corpusbased machine translation

The marker hypothesis has been used for a number of different language-related tasks , including â¢ language learning ( Green 1979 ; Mori and Moeser 1983 ; Morgan , Meier , and Newport 1989 ) â¢ monolingual grammar induction ( Juola 1998 ) â¢ grammar optimization ( Juola 1994 ) â¢ insights into universal grammar ( Juola 1998 ) â¢ machine translation ( Juola 1994 , 1997 ; Veale and Way 1997 ; Gough , Way , and Hearne 2002 ) With respect to translation , a potential problem in using the marker hypothesis is that some languages do not have marker words such as articles , for instance .

â¢ language learning ( Green 1979 ; Mori and Moeser 1983 ; Morgan , Meier , and Newport 1989 ) â¢ monolingual grammar induction ( Juola 1998 ) â¢ grammar optimization ( @@CITATION ) â¢ insights into universal grammar ( Juola 1998 ) â¢ machine translation ( Juola 1994 , 1997 ; Veale and Way 1997 ; Gough , Way , and Hearne 2002 )


training a parser for machine translation reordering

J Katz-Brown
S Petrov
R McDonald
D Talbot
F Och
H Ichikawa
M Seno
H Kazawa

A recent study by Katz-Brown et al. ( 2011 ) also investigates the task of training parsers to improve MT reordering . In that work , a parser is used to first parse a set of manually reordered sentences to produce k-best lists .

A recent study by @@CITATION also investigates the task of training parsers to improve MT reordering .


Michel Galley
Mark Hopkins
Kevin Knight
Daniel Marcu

In recent years , tree-based translation models1 are drawing more and more attention in the community of statistical machine translation ( SMT ) . Due to their remarkable ability to incorporate context structure information and long distance reordering into the translation process , tree-based translation models have shown promising progress in improving translation quality ( Liu et al. , 2006 , 2009 ; Quirk et al. , 2005 ; Galley et al. , 2004 , 2006 ; Marcu et al. , 2006 ; Shen et al. , 2008 ; Zhang et al. , 2011b ) . However , tree-based translation models always suffer from two major challenges : 1 ) They are usually built directly from parse trees , which are generated by supervised linguistic parsers .

Due to their remarkable ability to incorporate context structure information and long distance reordering into the translation process , tree-based translation models have shown promising progress in improving translation quality ( Liu et al. , 2006 , 2009 ; Quirk et al. , 2005 ; @@CITATION , 2006 ; Marcu et al. , 2006 ; Shen et al. , 2008 ; Zhang et al. , 2011b ) .


applying lexical rules under subsumption

14 We use rather abstract lexical rules in the examples to be able to focus on the relevant aspects . 15 Hinrichs and Nakazawa ( 1996 ) show that the question of whether the application criterion of lexical rules should be a subsumption or a unification test is an important question deserving of more attention . We here assume unification as the application criterion , which formally corresponds to the conjunction of descriptions and their conversion to normal form ( Glitz 1994 ) .

15 @@CITATION show that the question of whether the application criterion of lexical rules should be a subsumption or a unification test is an important question deserving of more attention .


David M Blei
Andrew Y Ng
Michael I Jordan

Latent Dirichlet Allocation ( Blei et al. , 2003 ) , or LDA , is an unsupervised Bayesian probabilistic model of text documents . It assumes that all documents are probabilistically generated from a shared set of K common topics , where each topic is a multinomial distribution over the vocabulary ( notated as Q ) , and documents are modeled as mixtures of these shared topics ( notated as 0 ) .

Latent Dirichlet Allocation ( @@CITATION ) , or LDA , is an unsupervised Bayesian probabilistic model of text documents .


semantic role labeling via framenet verbnet and propbank

Our novel composite kernels , which account for the two syntactic structures , are experimented with the appropriate convolution kernels and show significant improvement with respect to the state-ofthe-art in RE . Regarding future work , there are many research line that may be followed : i ) Capturing more features by employing external knowledge such as ontological , lexical resource or WordNet-based features ( Basili et al. , 2005a ; Basili et al. , 2005b ; Bloehdorn et al. , 2006 ; Bloehdorn and Moschitti , 2007 ) or shallow semantic trees , ( Giuglea and Moschitti , 2004 ; Giuglea and Moschitti , 2006 ; Moschitti and Bejan , 2004 ; Moschitti et al. , 2007 ; Moschitti , 2008 ; Moschitti et al. , 2008 ) . ii ) Design a new tree-based structures , which combines the information of both constituent and dependency parses .

Regarding future work , there are many research line that may be followed : i ) Capturing more features by employing external knowledge such as ontological , lexical resource or WordNet-based features ( Basili et al. , 2005a ; Basili et al. , 2005b ; Bloehdorn et al. , 2006 ; Bloehdorn and Moschitti , 2007 ) or shallow semantic trees , ( Giuglea and Moschitti , 2004 ; @@CITATION ; Moschitti and Bejan , 2004 ; Moschitti et al. , 2007 ; Moschitti , 2008 ; Moschitti et al. , 2008 ) .


evidencebased medicine how to practice and teach ebm second edition churchill livingstone

David L Sackett
Sharon E Straus
W Scott Richardson
William Rosenberg
R Brian Haynes

The Semantic Network provides a consistent categorization of all concepts represented in the UMLS Metathesaurus . Third , the paradigm of evidence-based medicine ( Sackett et al. 2000 ) provides a task-based model of the clinical information-seeking process . The PICO framework ( Richardson et al. 1995 ) for capturing well-formulated clinical queries ( described in Section 2 ) can serve as the basis of a knowledge representation that bridges the needs of clinicians and analytical capabilities of a system .

Third , the paradigm of evidence-based medicine ( @@CITATION ) provides a task-based model of the clinical information-seeking process .


There has been other work on solving inflection . Koehn and Hoang ( 2007 ) introduced factored SMT . We use more complex context features .


a maximum entropy approach to natural language processing

Both tasks are performed with a statistical framework : the mention detection system is similar to the one presented in ( Florian et al. , 2004 ) and the coreference resolution system is similar to the one described in ( Luo et al. , 2004 ) . Both systems are built around from the maximum-entropy technique ( Berger et al. , 1996 ) . We formulate the mention detection task as a sequence classification problem .

Both systems are built around from the maximum-entropy technique ( @@CITATION ) .


We chose nine adjectives according to a set of minimal criteria and paired each adjective with 10 nouns randomly selected from the BNC . We chose the adjectives as follows : we first compiled a list of all the polysemous adjectives mentioned in the lexical semantics literature ( Vendler , 1968 ; Pustejovsky , 1995 ) . From these we randomly sampled nine adjectives ( difficult , easy , fast , good , hard , right , safe , slow , wrong ) .

We chose the adjectives as follows : we first compiled a list of all the polysemous adjectives mentioned in the lexical semantics literature ( Vendler , 1968 ; @@CITATION ) .


creating specialized and general corpora using automated search engine queries web as corpus workshop

A key aspect of our case study research will be to investigate extending corpus collection to new document types . Most web-derived corpora have exploited raw text or HTML pages , so efforts have focussed on boilerplate removal and cleanup of these formats with tools like Hyppia-BTE , Tidy and Parcels3 ( Baroni and Sharoff , 2005 ) . Other document formats such as Adobe PDF and MS-Word have been neglected due to the extra conversion and clean-up problems they entail .

Most web-derived corpora have exploited raw text or HTML pages , so efforts have focussed on boilerplate removal and cleanup of these formats with tools like Hyppia-BTE , Tidy and Parcels3 ( @@CITATION ) .


conditional random fields probabilistic models for segmenting and labeling sequence data

Unfortunately , the result may differ for equivalent FSTs that express the same weighted relation . Undesirable consequences of this fact have been termed `` label bias '' ( Lafferty et al. , 2001 ) . Also , in the conditional case such per-state normalization is only correct if all states accept all input suffixes ( since `` dead ends '' leak probability mass ) .8 â¢ A better-founded approach is global normal -

Undesirable consequences of this fact have been termed `` label bias '' ( @@CITATION ) .


a new statistical parser based on bigram lexical dependencies

We perform our comparison using two state-ofthe-art parsers . For the full parser , we use the one developed by Michael Collins ( Collins , 1996 ; Collins , 1997 ) -- one of the most accurate full parsers around . It represents a full parse tree as a set of basic phrases and a set of dependency relationships between them .

For the full parser , we use the one developed by Michael Collins ( @@CITATION ; Collins , 1997 ) -- one of the most accurate full parsers around .


an efficient algorithm for easyfirst nondirectional dependency parsing

So far , we have only evaluated models trained on gold POS tag set and morphological feature values . Some researchers , however , including Goldberg and Elhadad ( 2010 ) , train on predicted feature values instead . It makes sense that training on predicted features yields better scores for evaluation on predicted features , since the training better resembles the test .

Some researchers , however , including @@CITATION , train on predicted feature values instead .