2 Local Training and Testing The local training method ( Bottou and Vapnik , 1992 ) is widely employed in computer vision ( Zhang et al. , 2006 ; Cheng et al. , 2010 ) . Compared with the global training method which tries to fit a single weight on the training data , the local one learns weights based on the local neighborhood information for each test example .

The local training method ( @@CITATION ) is widely employed in computer vision ( Zhang et al. , 2006 ; Cheng et al. , 2010 ) .


a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining

However , the greatest increase is in the amount of raw text available to be processed , e.g. the English Gigaword Corpus ( Linguistic Data Consortium , 2003 ) . Recent work ( Banko and Brill , 2001 ; Curran and Moens , 2002 ) has suggested that some tasks will benefit from using significantly more data . Also , many potential applications of NLP will involve processing very large text databases .

Recent work ( Banko and Brill , 2001 ; @@CITATION ) has suggested that some tasks will benefit from using significantly more data .


Shallow parsing is studied as an alternative to full-sentence parsing . Rather than producing a complete analysis of sentences , the alternative is to perform only partial analysis of the syntactic structures in a text ( Harris , 1957 ; Abney , 1991 ; Greffenstette , 1993 ) . A lot of recent work on shallow parsing has been influenced by Abney 's work ( Abney , 1991 ) , who has suggested to `` chunk '' sentences to base level phrases .

Rather than producing a complete analysis of sentences , the alternative is to perform only partial analysis of the syntactic structures in a text ( Harris , 1957 ; @@CITATION ; Greffenstette , 1993 ) .


analysis of semantic classes in medical text for question answering

The work of Hearst ( 1996 ) demonstrates that faceted queries can be converted into simple filtering constraints to boost precision . The feasibility of automatically identifying outcome statements in secondary sources has been demonstrated by Niu and Hirst ( 2004 ) . Their study also illustrates the importance of semantic classes and relations .

The feasibility of automatically identifying outcome statements in secondary sources has been demonstrated by @@CITATION .


a systematic comparison of various statistical alignment models

In practice , we see that the choice of which language is source versus target matters and changes the mistakes made by the model ( the first row of panels in Figure 1 ) . The standard approach is to train two models independently and then intersect their predictions ( Och and Ney 2003 ) . However , we show that it is much better to train two directional models concurrently , coupling their posterior distributions over alignments to approximately agree .

The standard approach is to train two models independently and then intersect their predictions ( @@CITATION ) .


integrating experiential and distributional data to learn semantic representations

Mark Andrews
Gabriella Vigliocco
David Vinson

In order to evaluate our algorithms , we first need to generate multimodal corpora for each of our nontextual modalities . We use the same method as Andrews et al. ( 2009 ) for generating our multimodal corpora : for each word token in the text corpus , a feature is selected stochastically from the word 's feature distribution , creating a word-feature pair . Words without grounded features are all given the same placeholder feature , also resulting in a wordfeature pair .5 That is , for the feature norm modality , we generate ( word , feature norm ) pairs ; for the SURF modality , we generate ( word , codeword ) pairs , etc. .

We use the same method as @@CITATION for generating our multimodal corpora : for each word token in the text corpus , a feature is selected stochastically from the word 's feature distribution , creating a word-feature pair .


isp learning inferential selectional preferences

Patrick Pantel
Rahul Bhagat
Bonaventura Coppola
Timothy Chklovski
Eduard Hovy

Normalizing by Pr ( v ) ( yielding MI ) allows us to use a constant threshold across all verbs . MI was also recently used for inference-rule SPs by Pantel et al. ( 2007 ) . classifier for each predicate independently .

MI was also recently used for inference-rule SPs by @@CITATION .


an iterativelytrained segmentationfree phrase translation model for statistical machine translation

The most similar efforts to ours , mainly ( DeNero et al. , 2006 ) , conclude that segmentation variables in the generative translation model lead to overfitting while attaining higher likelihood of the training data than the heuristic estimator . Based on this advise ( Moore and Quirk , 2007 ) exclude the latent segmentation variables and opt for a heuristic training procedure . In this work we also start out from a generative model with latent segmentation variables .

Based on this advise ( Moore and @@CITATION ) exclude the latent segmentation variables and opt for a heuristic training procedure .


building a large annotated corpus of english the penn treebank computational linguistics

Mitchell Marcus
Beatrice Santorini
Mary Marcinkiewicz

Some of this new data will be manually annotated . For example , 10 million words of the American National Corpus ( Ide et al. , 2002 ) will have manually corrected POS tags , a tenfold increase over the Penn Treebank ( Marcus et al. , 1993 ) , currently used for training POS taggers . This will require more efficient learning algorithms and implementations .

For example , 10 million words of the American National Corpus ( Ide et al. , 2002 ) will have manually corrected POS tags , a tenfold increase over the Penn Treebank ( @@CITATION ) , currently used for training POS taggers .


iterative methods for solving linear systems

Write wjk as ( pjk , vjk ) , and let w1jk = ( p1jk , v1 jk ) denote the weight of the edge from j to k. 19 Then it can be shown that w0n = ( p0n , Ej , k p0jv1jkpkn ) . The forward and backward probabilities , p0j and pkn , can be computed using single-source algebraic path for the simpler semiring ( R , + , x , â ) -- or equivalently , by solving a sparse linear system of equations over R , a much-studied problem at O ( n ) space , O ( nm ) time , and faster approximations ( Greenbaum , 1997 ) . â¢ A Viterbi variant of the expectation semiring exists : replace ( 3 ) with if ( p1 > p2 , ( p1 , v1 ) , ( p2 , v2 ) ) .

The forward and backward probabilities , p0j and pkn , can be computed using single-source algebraic path for the simpler semiring ( R , + , x , â ) -- or equivalently , by solving a sparse linear system of equations over R , a much-studied problem at O ( n ) space , O ( nm ) time , and faster approximations ( @@CITATION ) .


The general form is illustrated by 3Conceptually , the parameters represent the probabilities of reading another a ( A ) ; reading another b ( Î½ ) ; transducing b to p rather than q ( Âµ ) ; starting to transduce p to a rather than x ( p ) . 4To prove ( 1 ) â ( 3 ) , express f as an FST and apply the well-known Kleene-Sch Â¨ utzenberger construction ( Berstel and Reutenauer , 1988 ) , taking care to write each regexp in the construction as a constant times a probabilistic regexp . A full proof is straightforward , as are proofs of ( 3 ) â ( 2 ) , ( 2 ) â ( 1 ) .

4To prove ( 1 ) â ( 3 ) , express f as an FST and apply the well-known Kleene-Sch Â¨ utzenberger construction ( @@CITATION ) , taking care to write each regexp in the construction as a constant times a probabilistic regexp .


effective mapping of biomedical text to the umls metathesaurus the metamap program

First , substantial understanding of the domain has already been codified in the Unified Medical Language System ( UMLS ) ( Lindberg , Humphreys , and McCray 1993 ) . Second , software for utilizing this ontology already exists : MetaMap ( Aronson 2001 ) identifies concepts in free text , and SemRep ( Rindflesch and Fiszman 2003 ) extracts relations between the concepts . Both systems utilize and propagate semantic information from UMLS knowledge sources : the Metathesaurus , the Semantic Network , and the SPECIALIST lexicon .

Second , software for utilizing this ontology already exists : MetaMap ( @@CITATION ) identifies concepts in free text , and SemRep ( Rindflesch and Fiszman 2003 ) extracts relations between the concepts .


automatic analysis of rhythmic poetry with applications to generation and translation

Erica Greene
Tugba Bodrumlu
Kevin Knight

The majority of NLG focuses on the satisfaction of a communicative goal , with examples such as Belz ( 2008 ) which produces weather reports from structured data or Mitchell et al. ( 2013 ) which generates descriptions of objects from images . Our work is more similar to NLG work that concentrates on structural constraints such as generative poetry ( Greene et al. , 2010 ) ( Colton et al. , 2012 ) ( Jiang and Zhou , 2008 ) or song lyrics ( Wu et al. , 2013 ) ( Ramakrishnan A et al. , 2009 ) , where specified meter or rhyme schemes are enforced . In these papers soft semantic goals are sometimes also introduced that seek responses to previous lines of poetry or lyric .

Our work is more similar to NLG work that concentrates on structural constraints such as generative poetry ( @@CITATION ) ( Colton et al. , 2012 ) ( Jiang and Zhou , 2008 ) or song lyrics ( Wu et al. , 2013 ) ( Ramakrishnan A et al. , 2009 ) , where specified meter or rhyme schemes are enforced .


Most DOP models , such as in Bod ( 1993 ) , Goodman ( 1996 ) , Bonnema et al. ( 1997 ) , Sima'an ( 2000 ) and Collins & Duffy ( 2002 ) , use a likelihood criterion in defining the best parse tree : they take ( some notion of ) the most likely ( i.e. most probable ) tree as a candidate for the best tree of a sentence . We will refer to these models as Likelihood-DOP models , but in this paper we will specifically mean by `` Likelihood-DOP '' the PCFG-reduction of Bod ( 2001 ) given in Section 2.2 .

Most DOP models , such as in Bod ( 1993 ) , Goodman ( 1996 ) , @@CITATION , Sima'an ( 2000 ) and Collins & Duffy ( 2002 ) , use a likelihood criterion in defining the best parse tree : they take ( some notion of ) the most likely ( i.e. most probable ) tree as a candidate for the best tree of a sentence .


adaptive multilingual sentence boundary disambiguation

State-of-theart machine learning and rule-based SBD systems achieve an error rate of 0.8 -- 1.5 % measured on the Brown corpus and the WSJ corpus . The best performance on the WSJ corpus was achieved by a combination of the SATZ system ( Palmer and Hearst 1997 ) with the Alembic system ( Aberdeen et al. 1995 ) : a 0.5 % error rate . The best performance on the Brown corpus , a 0.2 % error rate , was reported by Riley ( 1989 ) , who trained a decision tree classifier on a 25-million-word corpus .

The best performance on the WSJ corpus was achieved by a combination of the SATZ system ( @@CITATION ) with the Alembic system ( Aberdeen et al. 1995 ) : a 0.5 % error rate .


from grammar to lexicon unsupervised learning of lexical syntax

frame definitions , and the extracted frames include details of specific prepositions . The extracted frames are noisy as a result of parser errors and so are filtered using the binomial hypothesis theory ( BHT ) , following Brent ( 1993 ) . Applying his technique to approximately four million words of New York Times newswire , Manning acquired 4,900 verb-subcategorization frame pairs for 3,104 verbs , an average of 1.6 frames per verb .

The extracted frames are noisy as a result of parser errors and so are filtered using the binomial hypothesis theory ( BHT ) , following @@CITATION .


retrieving collocations by cooccurrences and word order constraints

Sayori Shimohata
Toshiyuki Sugio
Junji Nagata

For sake of efficiency , we used the suffix array technique to get a compact representation of our training corpus . This method allows the efficient retrieval of arbitrary length n-grams ( Nagao and Mori , 94 ; Haruno et al. , 96 ; Ikehaxa et al. , 96 ; Shimohata et al. , 1997 ; Russell , 1998 ) . The literature abounds in measures that can help to decide whether words that co-occur are linguistically significant or not .

This method allows the efficient retrieval of arbitrary length n-grams ( Nagao and Mori , 94 ; Haruno et al. , 96 ; Ikehaxa et al. , 96 ; @@CITATION ; Russell , 1998 ) .


pattern recognition as ruleguided inductive inference

The VNLCE processor may be considered to be a learning system of the tradition described , for example , in Michalski et al. ( 1984 ) . The current system learns finite state flowcharts whereas typical learning systems usually acquire coefficient values as in Minsky and Papert ( 1969 ) , assertional statements as in Michalski ( 1980 ) , or semantic nets as in Winston ( 1975 ) . That is , the current system learns procedures rather than data structures .

The current system learns finite state flowcharts whereas typical learning systems usually acquire coefficient values as in Minsky and Papert ( 1969 ) , assertional statements as in @@CITATION , or semantic nets as in Winston ( 1975 ) .


Hui Zhang
Min Zhang
Chew Lim Tan
Haizhou Li

Our most accurate single grammar achieves an F score of 91.6 on the WSJ test set , rivaling discriminative reranking approaches ( Charniak and Johnson , 2005 ) and products of latent variable grammars ( Petrov , 2010 ) , despite being a single generative PCFG . Our most accurate product model achieves an F score of 92.5 without the use of discriminative reranking and comes close to the best known numbers on this test set ( Zhang et al. , 2009 ) . In future work , we plan to investigate additional methods for increasing the diversity of our selftrained models .

Our most accurate product model achieves an F score of 92.5 without the use of discriminative reranking and comes close to the best known numbers on this test set ( @@CITATION ) .


the design of a computer language for linguistic information

The output of the transformation program can be used to derive entries which are appropriate for particular grammatical formalisms . To demonstrate that this is possible we have implemented a system which constructs dictionary entries for the PATR-II system ( Shieber , 1984 and references therein ) . PATR-II was chosen because it has been reimplemented in Cambridge and was therefore , available ; however , the task would be nearly identical if we were constructing entries for a system based on GPSG , FUG or LFG .

To demonstrate that this is possible we have implemented a system which constructs dictionary entries for the PATR-II system ( @@CITATION and references therein ) .


adapting hpsgtotag compilation to widecoverage grammars

The manual translation demanded considerable efforts from the translator , and obscures the equivalence between the original and obtained grammars . Other works ( Kasper et al. , 1995 ; Becker and Lopez , 2000 ) convert HPSG grammars into LTAG grammars . However , given the greater expressive power of HPSG , it is impossible to convert an arbitrary HPSG grammar into an LTAG grammar .

Other works ( Kasper et al. , 1995 ; @@CITATION ) convert HPSG grammars into LTAG grammars .


improving fulltext precision on short queries using simple constraints

PICO-based querying in information retrieval is merely an instance of faceted querying , which has been widely used by librarians since the introduction of automated retrieval systems ( e.g. , Meadow et al. 1989 ) . The work of Hearst ( 1996 ) demonstrates that faceted queries can be converted into simple filtering constraints to boost precision . The feasibility of automatically identifying outcome statements in secondary sources has been demonstrated by Niu and Hirst ( 2004 ) .

The work of @@CITATION demonstrates that faceted queries can be converted into simple filtering constraints to boost precision .


a systolic array algorithm for the algebraic path problem shortest paths matrix inversion

( Mohri , 2002 ) . Efficient hardware implementation is also possible via chip-level parallelism ( Rote , 1985 ) . â¢ In many cases of interest , Ti is an acyclic graph .20 Then Tar an 's method computes w0j for each j in topologically sorted order , thereby finding ti in a linear number of â and â operations .

Efficient hardware implementation is also possible via chip-level parallelism ( @@CITATION ) .


how to compile a bilingual collocational lexicon automaticallyquot

However , n ( u ) = Ev n ( u , v ) , which is not the same as the frequency of u , because each token of u can co-occur with several differentv 's . 2We could just as easily use other symmetric `` association '' measures , such as 02 ( Gale & Church , 1991 ) or the Dice coefficient ( Smadja , 1992 ) . co-occur is called a direct association .

2We could just as easily use other symmetric `` association '' measures , such as 02 ( Gale & Church , 1991 ) or the Dice coefficient ( @@CITATION ) .


efficient contextsensitive generation of referring expressions

9.4.1 A New Perspective on Salience . Krahmer and Theune ( 2002 ) have argued that Dale and Reiter 's ( 1995 ) dichotomy between salient and nonsalient objects ( where the objects in the domain are the salient ones ) should be replaced by an account that takes degrees of salience into account : No object can be too unsalient to be referred to , as long as the right properties are available . In effect , this proposal ( which measured salience numerically ) analyzes the black mouse as denoting the unique most salient object in the domain that is both black and a mouse .

@@CITATION have argued that Dale and Reiter 's ( 1995 ) dichotomy between salient and nonsalient objects ( where the objects in the domain are the salient ones ) should be replaced by an account that takes degrees of salience into account : No object can be too unsalient to be referred to , as long as the right properties are available .


construction of programs from example computations

A verb is just as likely to be mis-recognized or not recognized as is a noun , adjective , determiner , etc. . The acquisition of dialogue as implemented in VNLCE is reminiscent of the program synthesis methodology developed by Biermann and Krishnaswamy ( 1976 ) where program flowcharts were constructed from traces of their behaviors . However , the `` flowcharts '' in the current project are probabilistic in nature and the problems associated with matching incoming sentences to existing nodes has not been previously addressed .

The acquisition of dialogue as implemented in VNLCE is reminiscent of the program synthesis methodology developed by @@CITATION where program flowcharts were constructed from traces of their behaviors .


Joan Aliprand
Julie Allen
Joe Becker
Mark Davis
Michael Everson

Each punctuation symbol is considered a separate token . Character classes , such as punctuation , are defined according to the Unicode Standard ( Aliprand et al. , 2004 ) .

Character classes , such as punctuation , are defined according to the Unicode Standard ( @@CITATION ) .


evaluation techniques for automatic semantic extraction comparing semantic and window based approaches

Shallow parsing is studied as an alternative to full-sentence parsing . Rather than producing a complete analysis of sentences , the alternative is to perform only partial analysis of the syntactic structures in a text ( Harris , 1957 ; Abney , 1991 ; Greffenstette , 1993 ) . A lot of recent work on shallow parsing has been influenced by Abney 's work ( Abney , 1991 ) , who has suggested to `` chunk '' sentences to base level phrases .

Rather than producing a complete analysis of sentences , the alternative is to perform only partial analysis of the syntactic structures in a text ( Harris , 1957 ; Abney , 1991 ; @@CITATION ) .


Secondly , the cooperative principle of Grice ( 1975 , 1978 ) , under the assumption that referential levels of a writer and a reader are quite similar , implies that the writer should structure the text in a way that makes the construction of his intended model easy for the reader ; and this seems to imply that he should appeal only to the most direct knowledge of the reader . Finally , it has been shown by Groesser ( 1981 ) that the ratio of derived to explicit information necessary for understanding a piece of text is about 8:1 ; furthermore , our reading of the analysis of five paragraphs by Crothers ( 1979 ) strongly suggests that only the most direct or obvious inferences are being made in the process of building a model or constructing a theory of a paragraph . Thus , for example , we can expect that in the worst case only one or two steps of such an iteration would be needed to find answers to wh-questions .

Finally , it has been shown by Groesser ( 1981 ) that the ratio of derived to explicit information necessary for understanding a piece of text is about 8:1 ; furthermore , our reading of the analysis of five paragraphs by @@CITATION strongly suggests that only the most direct or obvious inferences are being made in the process of building a model or constructing a theory of a paragraph .


a representation of complex events and processes for the acquisition of knowledge from text

Some methods of semantic relation analysis rely on predefined templates filled with information from processed texts ( Baker et al. , 1998 ) . In other methods , lexical resources are specifically tailored to meet the requirements of the domain ( Rosario and Hearst , 2001 ) or the system ( Gomez , 1998 ) . Such systems extract information from some types of syntactic units ( clauses in ( Fillmore and Atkins , 1998 ; Gildea and Jurafsky , 2002 ; Hull and Gomez , 1996 ) ; noun phrases in ( Hull and Gomez , 1996 ; Rosario et al. , 2002 ) ) .

In other methods , lexical resources are specifically tailored to meet the requirements of the domain ( Rosario and Hearst , 2001 ) or the system ( @@CITATION ) .


scripts plans goals and understanding lawrence erlbaum associates

We denote the meaning of each sentence Si with the notation M ( Si ) . The exact form of M ( Si ) need not be discussed at this point ; it could be a conceptual dependence graph ( Schank and Abelson 1977 ) , a deep parse of Si , or some other representation . A user behavior is represented by a network , or directed graph , of such meanings .

The exact form of M ( Si ) need not be discussed at this point ; it could be a conceptual dependence graph ( @@CITATION ) , a deep parse of Si , or some other representation .


a simplex armijo downhill algorithm for optimizing statistical machine translation decoding parameters

h is a feature vector which is scaled by a weight W. Parameter estimation is one of the most important components in SMT , and various training methods have been proposed to tune W . Some methods are based on likelihood ( Och and Ney , 2002 ; Blunsom et al. , 2008 ) , error rate ( Och , 2003 ; Zhao and Chen , 2009 ; Pauls et al. , 2009 ; Galley and Quirk , 2011 ) , margin ( Watanabe et al. , 2007 ; Chiang et al. , 2008 ) and ranking ( Hopkins and May , 2011 ) , and among which minimum error rate training ( MERT ) ( Och , 2003 ) is the most popular one . All these training methods follow the same pipeline : they train only a single weight on a given development set , and then use it to translate all the sentences in a test set .

Some methods are based on likelihood ( Och and Ney , 2002 ; Blunsom et al. , 2008 ) , error rate ( Och , 2003 ; @@CITATION ; Pauls et al. , 2009 ; Galley and Quirk , 2011 ) , margin ( Watanabe et al. , 2007 ; Chiang et al. , 2008 ) and ranking ( Hopkins and May , 2011 ) , and among which minimum error rate training ( MERT ) ( Och , 2003 ) is the most popular one .


learning to paraphrase an unsupervised approahc using mutliplesequence alignment

For instance , ( Lin and Pantel , 2001 ) acquire two-argument templates ( inference rules ) from corpora using an extended version of the distributional analysis in which paths in dependency trees that have similar arguments are taken to be close in meaning . Similarly , ( Barzilay and Lee , 2003 ) and ( Shinyanma et al. , 2002 ) learn sentence level paraphrase templates from a corpus of news articles stemming from different news source . And ( Glickman and Dagan , 2003 ) use clustering and similarity measures to identify similar contexts in a single corpus and extract verbal paraphrases from these contexts .

Similarly , ( @@CITATION ) and ( Shinyanma et al. , 2002 ) learn sentence level paraphrase templates from a corpus of news articles stemming from different news source .


computing semantic relatedness across parts of speech

She used an adapted experimental setup where test subjects had to assign discrete values -LCB- 0,1,2,3,4 -RCB- and word pairs were presented in isolation . This setup is also scalable to a higher number of word pairs ( 350 ) as was shown in Gurevych ( 2006 ) . Finkelstein et al. ( 2002 ) annotated a larger set of word pairs ( 353 ) , too .

This setup is also scalable to a higher number of word pairs ( 350 ) as was shown in @@CITATION .


lexicallybased terminology structuring some inherent limits

Hence , synonyms , co-hyponyms , hyperonyms , etc. are not differentiated . More recent work on terminology structuring has focussed on formal similarity to develop hypotheses on the semantic relationships between terms : Daille ( 2003 ) uses derivational morphology ; Grabar and Zweigenbaum ( 2002 ) use , as a starting point , a number of identical characters . Up to now , the focus has been on nouns and adjectives , since these structuring methods have been applied to lists of extracted candidate terms ( Habert et al. , 1996 ; Daille , 2003 ) or to lists of admitted terms ( Grabar and Zweigenbaum , 2002 ) .

More recent work on terminology structuring has focussed on formal similarity to develop hypotheses on the semantic relationships between terms : Daille ( 2003 ) uses derivational morphology ; @@CITATION use , as a starting point , a number of identical characters .


the hcrc map task corpus language and speech

Anne H Anderson
Miles Bader
Ellen Gurman Bard
Elizabeth Boyle
Gwyneth Doherty
Simon Garrod
Stephen Isard
Jacqueline Kowtko
Jan McAllister
Jim Miller
Catherine Sotillo
Henry S Thompson
Regina Weinert

Sridhar et al. ( 2009 ) obtain promising results in dialogue act tagging of the Switchboard-DAMSL corpus using lexical , syntactic and prosodic cues , while Gravano and Hirschberg ( 2009 ) examine the relation between particular acoustic and prosodic turn-yielding cues and turn taking in a large corpus of task-oriented dialogues . Louwerse et al. ( 2006 ) and Louwerse et al. ( 2007 ) study the relation between eye gaze , facial expression , pauses and dialogue structure in annotated English map-task dialogues ( Anderson et al. , 1991 ) and find correlations between the various modalities both within and across speakers . Finally , feedback expressions ( head nods and shakes ) are successfully predicted from speech , prosody and eye gaze in interaction with Embodied Communication Agents as well as human communication ( Fujie et al. , 2004 ; Morency et al. , 2005 ; Morency et al. , 2007 ; Morency et al. , 2009 ) .

Louwerse et al. ( 2006 ) and Louwerse et al. ( 2007 ) study the relation between eye gaze , facial expression , pauses and dialogue structure in annotated English map-task dialogues ( @@CITATION ) and find correlations between the various modalities both within and across speakers .


scaling to very very large corpora for natural language disambiguation

applications . Some examples include text categorization ( Lewis and Catlett 1994 ) , base noun phrase chunking ( Ngai and Yarowsky 2000 ) , part-of-speech tagging ( Engelson Dagan 1996 ) , spelling confusion set disambiguation ( Banko and Brill 2001 ) , and word sense disambiguation ( Fujii et al. 1998 ) . More challenging are learning problems whose objective is not classification , but generation of complex structures .

Some examples include text categorization ( Lewis and Catlett 1994 ) , base noun phrase chunking ( Ngai and Yarowsky 2000 ) , part-of-speech tagging ( Engelson Dagan 1996 ) , spelling confusion set disambiguation ( @@CITATION ) , and word sense disambiguation ( Fujii et al. 1998 ) .


empirical studies on the disambiguation of cue phrases

DA labeling accuracy results should be compared to a baseline ( chance ) accuracy of 35 % , the relative frequency of the most frequent DA type ( STATEMENT ) in our test set .4 5.1 Dialogue Act Classification Using Words DA classification using words is based on the observation that different DAs use distinctive word strings . It is known that certain cue words and phrases ( Hirschberg and Litman 1993 ) can serve as explicit indicators of discourse structure . Similarly , we find distinctive correlations between certain phrases and DA types .

It is known that certain cue words and phrases ( @@CITATION ) can serve as explicit indicators of discourse structure .


krypton a functional approach to knowledge representationquot

Rather , R must be treated as a separate logical level for these syntactic reasons , and because of its function -- being a pool of possibly conflicting semantic constraints . The last point may be seen better if we look at some differences between our system and KRYPTON , which also distinguishes between an object theory and background knowledge ( cfXXX Brachman et al. 1985 ) . KRYPTON 's A-box , encoding the object theory as a set of assertions , uses standard first order logic ; the T-box contains information expressed in a frame-based language equivalent to a fragment of FOL .

The last point may be seen better if we look at some differences between our system and KRYPTON , which also distinguishes between an object theory and background knowledge ( cfXXX @@CITATION ) .


designing a computerised lexicon for linguistic purposes

Erik Akkerman
Pieter Masereeuw
Willem Meijs

This type of error and inconsistency arises because grammatical codes are constructed by hand and no automatic checking procedure is attempted ( see Michiels , 1982 , for further comment ) . One approach to this problem is that taken by the ASCOT project ( Akkerman et al. , 1985 ; Akkerman , 1986 ) . In this project , a new lexicon is being manually derived from LDOCE .

One approach to this problem is that taken by the ASCOT project ( @@CITATION ; Akkerman , 1986 ) .


meteor an automatic metric for mt evaluation with improved correlation with human judgments

We use a reordering score based on the reordering penalty from the METEOR scoring metric . Though we could have used a further downstream measure like BLEU , METEOR has also been shown to directly correlate with translation quality ( Banerjee and Lavie , 2005 ) and is simpler to measure . All reordering augmented-loss experiments are run with the same treebank data as the baseline ( the training portions of PTB , Brown , and QTB ) .

Though we could have used a further downstream measure like BLEU , METEOR has also been shown to directly correlate with translation quality ( @@CITATION ) and is simpler to measure .


parsing indian languages with maltparser

Statistics about this split ( after conversion to the CATiB dependency format ) are given in Table 1 . For all experiments reported in this section we used the syntactic dependency parser MaltParser v1 .3 ( Nivre 2003 , 2008 ; KÃ¼bler , McDonald , and Nivre 2009 ) , a transition-based parser with an input buffer and a stack , which uses SVM classifiers 10 We use the term `` dev set '' to denote a non-blind test set , used for model development ( feature selection and feature engineering ) .

For all experiments reported in this section we used the syntactic dependency parser MaltParser v1 .3 ( Nivre 2003 , 2008 ; KÃ¼bler , McDonald , and @@CITATION ) , a transition-based parser with an input buffer and a stack , which uses SVM classifiers


identifying broken plurals irregular gender and rationality in arabic text

To address this issue , we use a version of the PATB3 training and dev sets manually annotated with functional gender , number , and rationality ( Alkuhlani and Habash 2011 ) .18 This is the first resource providing all three features ( ElixirFm only provides functional number , and to some extent functional gender ) . We conducted experiments with gold features to assess the potential of these features , and with predicted features , obtained from training a simple maximum likelihood estimation classifier on this resource ( Alkuhlani and Habash 2012 ) .19 The first part of Table 8 shows that the RAT ( rationality ) feature is very relevant ( in gold ) , but suffers from low accuracy ( no gains in machine-predicted input ) . The next two parts show the advantages of functional gender and number ( denoted with a FN * prefix ) over their surface-based counterparts .

We conducted experiments with gold features to assess the potential of these features , and with predicted features , obtained from training a simple maximum likelihood estimation classifier on this resource ( @@CITATION ) .19 The first part of Table 8 shows that the RAT ( rationality ) feature is very relevant ( in gold ) , but suffers from low accuracy ( no gains in machine-predicted input ) .


dialectal to standard arabic paraphrasing to improve arabicenglish statistical machine translation

In contrast , we use hand-written morphosyntactic transfer rules that focus on translating DA morphemes and lemmas to their MSA equivalents . In our previous work ( Salloum and Habash , 2011 ; Salloum and Habash , 2012 ) , we applied our approach to tokenized Arabic and our DA-MSA transfer component used feature transfer rules only . We did not use a language model to pick the best path ; instead we kept the ambiguity in the lattice and passed it to our SMT system .

In our previous work ( @@CITATION ; Salloum and Habash , 2012 ) , we applied our approach to tokenized Arabic and our DA-MSA transfer component used feature transfer rules only .


Python is very easy to learn , read and write , and allows commands to be entered interactively into the interpreter , making it ideal for experimentation . It has already been used to implement a framework for teaching NLP ( Loper and Bird , 2002 ) . Using the Boost.Python C++ library ( Abrahams , 2003 ) , it is possible to reflect most of the components directly into Python with a minimal amount of coding .

It has already been used to implement a framework for teaching NLP ( @@CITATION ) .


spmt statistical machine translation with syntactified target language phrases

Daniel Marcu
Wei Wang
Abdessamad Echihabi
Kevin Knight

In recent years , tree-based translation models1 are drawing more and more attention in the community of statistical machine translation ( SMT ) . Due to their remarkable ability to incorporate context structure information and long distance reordering into the translation process , tree-based translation models have shown promising progress in improving translation quality ( Liu et al. , 2006 , 2009 ; Quirk et al. , 2005 ; Galley et al. , 2004 , 2006 ; Marcu et al. , 2006 ; Shen et al. , 2008 ; Zhang et al. , 2011b ) . However , tree-based translation models always suffer from two major challenges : 1 ) They are usually built directly from parse trees , which are generated by supervised linguistic parsers .

Due to their remarkable ability to incorporate context structure information and long distance reordering into the translation process , tree-based translation models have shown promising progress in improving translation quality ( Liu et al. , 2006 , 2009 ; Quirk et al. , 2005 ; Galley et al. , 2004 , 2006 ; @@CITATION ; Shen et al. , 2008 ; Zhang et al. , 2011b ) .


syntactic information hiding in plain text masters thesis trinity college dublin

In other words , instead of performing lexical substitution directly to the text , the secret message is embedded into syntactic parse trees of the sentences . Liu et al. ( 2005 ) , Meral et al. ( 2007 ) , Murphy ( 2001 ) , Murphy and Vogel ( 2007 ) and Topkara et al. ( 2006a ) all belong to the syntactic transformation category . After embedding the secret message , modified deep structure forms are converted into the surface structure format via language generation tools .

Liu et al. ( 2005 ) , Meral et al. ( 2007 ) , @@CITATION , Murphy and Vogel ( 2007 ) and Topkara et al. ( 2006a ) all belong to the syntactic transformation category .


, `` domain circumscription '' ( cfXXX Etherington and Mercer 1987 ) , and their kin . Similarly , the notion of R + M-abduction is spiritually related to the `` abductive inference '' of Reggia ( 1985 ) , the `` diagnosis from first principles '' of Reiter ( 1987 ) , `` explainability '' of Poole ( 1988 ) , and the subset principle of Berwick ( 1986 ) . But , obviously , trying to establish precise connections for the metarules or the provability and the R + M-abduction would go much beyond the scope of an argument for the correspondence of paragraphs and models .

Similarly , the notion of R + M-abduction is spiritually related to the `` abductive inference '' of @@CITATION , the `` diagnosis from first principles '' of Reiter ( 1987 ) , `` explainability '' of Poole ( 1988 ) , and the subset principle of Berwick ( 1986 ) .


wikipedia from wikipedia the free encyclopedia

Now they try to collect themselves in so-called ` blogspheres ' . On the other side , wikis started as collective works where each entry is not owned by a single author e.g. Wikipedia ( 2005 ) . Now personal wiki tools are arising for brainstorming and mind mapping .

On the other side , wikis started as collective works where each entry is not owned by a single author e.g. @@CITATION .


the penn arabic treebank building a largescale annotated arabic corpus

Mohamed Maamouri
Ann Bies
Timothy A Buckwalter
Wigdan Mekki

A similar inconsistency appears in feminine nominals that are not inflected using sound gender suffixes , for example , the feminine form of the masculine singular adjective S , l Ãzraq + Ï ( ` blue ' ) is Abj zarqA ' + Ï not U , j l * * Ãzraq + ah . To address this inconsistency in the correspondence between inflectional features and morphemes , and inspired by SmrÅ¾ ( 2007 ) , we distinguish between two types of inflectional features : formbased ( a.k.a. surface , or illusory ) features and functional features .6 Most available Arabic NLP tools and resources model morphology using formbased ( `` surface '' ) inflectional features , and do not mark rationality ; this includes the Penn Arabic Treebank ( PATB ) ( Maamouri et al. 2004 ) , the Buckwalter morphological analyzer ( Buckwalter 2004 ) , and tools using them such as the Morphological Analysis and Disambiguation for Arabic ( MADA ) toolkit ( Habash and Rambow 2005 ; Habash , Rambow , and Roth 2012 ) . The Elixir-FM analyzer ( SmrÅ¾ 2007 ) readily provides the

To address this inconsistency in the correspondence between inflectional features and morphemes , and inspired by SmrÅ¾ ( 2007 ) , we distinguish between two types of inflectional features : formbased ( a.k.a. surface , or illusory ) features and functional features .6 Most available Arabic NLP tools and resources model morphology using formbased ( `` surface '' ) inflectional features , and do not mark rationality ; this includes the Penn Arabic Treebank ( PATB ) ( @@CITATION ) , the Buckwalter morphological analyzer ( Buckwalter 2004 ) , and tools using them such as the Morphological Analysis and Disambiguation for Arabic ( MADA ) toolkit ( Habash and Rambow 2005 ; Habash , Rambow , and Roth 2012 ) .


semantic argument classification exploiting argument interdependence

Jiang et al. ( 2005 ) has built a semantic role classifier exploiting the interdependence of semantic roles . It has turned the single point classification problem into the sequence labeling problem with the introduction of semantic context features .

@@CITATION has built a semantic role classifier exploiting the interdependence of semantic roles .


automated classification of congressional legislation

An exception is Grefenstette et al. ( 2004 ) , who experimented with determining the political orientation of websites essentially by classifying the concatenation of all the documents found on that site . Others have applied the NLP technologies of near-duplicate detection and topic-based text categorization to politically oriented text ( Yang and Callan , 2005 ; Purpura and Hillard , 2006 ) . Detecting agreement We used a simple method to learn to identify cross-speaker references indicating agreement .

Others have applied the NLP technologies of near-duplicate detection and topic-based text categorization to politically oriented text ( Yang and Callan , 2005 ; @@CITATION ) .


a sentimental education sentiment analysis using subjectivity summarization based on minimum cuts

In Zaidan et al. ( 2007 ) , we introduced the `` Movie Review Polarity Dataset Enriched with Annotator Rationales . '' 8 It is based on the dataset of Pang and Lee ( 2004 ) ,9 which consists of 1000 positive and 1000 negative movie reviews , tokenized and divided into 10 folds ( F0 -- F9 ) . All our experiments use F9 as their final blind test set .

8 It is based on the dataset of @@CITATION ,9 which consists of 1000 positive and 1000 negative movie reviews , tokenized and divided into 10 folds ( F0 -- F9 ) .


the contribution of parsing to prosodic phrasing in an experimental texttospeech system

In previous work ( Bachenko et al. 1986 ) , we described an experimental text-to-speech system that determined prosodic phrasing for the Olive -- Liberman synthesizer ( Olive and Liberman 1985 ) . The system generated phrase boundaries using information derived from the syntactic structure of a sentence .

In previous work ( @@CITATION ) , we described an experimental text-to-speech system that determined prosodic phrasing for the Olive -- Liberman synthesizer ( Olive and Liberman 1985 ) .


the unified medical language system umls integrating biomedical terminology

other attributes associated with genes and the products they encode . The UMLS -- the Unified Medical Language System ( UMLS ) has been developed and maintained by National Library of Medicine ( NLM ) [ 17 ] . It contains three knowledge sources : the Metathesaurus ( META ) , the SPECIALIST lexicon , and the Semantic Network .

The UMLS -- the Unified Medical Language System ( UMLS ) has been developed and maintained by National Library of Medicine ( NLM ) @@CITATION .


classifier combination for improved lexical disambiguation

A multitude of approaches have been proposed to solve this problem , including transformation-based learning , Maximum Entropy models , Hidden Markov models and memory-based approaches . The data used in the experiment was selected from the Penn Treebank Wall Street Journal , and is the same used by Brill and Wu ( 1998 ) . The training set contained approximately 1M words and the test set approximately 200k words .

The data used in the experiment was selected from the Penn Treebank Wall Street Journal , and is the same used by @@CITATION .


on implementing an hpsg theory aspects of the logical architecture the formalization and the implementation of headdriven phrase structure grammars

This conflicts with the standard assumption made in HPSG that only the properties changed by a lexical rule need be mentioned . As shown in Meurers ( 1994 ) this is a well-motivated convention since it avoids splitting up lexical rules to transfer the specifications that must be preserved for different lexical entries . * The authors are listed alphabetically .

As shown in @@CITATION this is a well-motivated convention since it avoids splitting up lexical rules to transfer the specifications that must be preserved for different lexical entries .


the interpretation of tense in discoursequot

So it is not necessary now to present a formal semantics here . The reader may consult recent papers on this subject ( e.g. Moens and Steedman 1987 ; Webber 1987 ) to see what a formal interpretation of events in time might look like . Since sentences can refer to events described by other sentences , we may need also a quotation operator ; Perlis ( 1985 ) describes how first order logic can be augmented with such an operator .

The reader may consult recent papers on this subject ( e.g. Moens and Steedman 1987 ; @@CITATION ) to see what a formal interpretation of events in time might look like .


ale — the attribute logic engine users guide version 202

For Proceedings of EACL '99 example , the ALE parser ( Carpenter and Penn , 1994 ) presupposes a phrase structure backbone which can be used to determine whether a constraint is to be interpreted bottom-up or topdown . In the case of selective magic parsing we use so-called parse types which allow the user to specify how constraints in the grammar are to be interpreted .

Proceedings of EACL '99 example , the ALE parser ( @@CITATION ) presupposes a phrase structure backbone which can be used to determine whether a constraint is to be interpreted bottom-up or topdown .


bbn pronoun coreference and entity type corpus linguistica data consortium

The first as our goal is to investigate the role of SC knowlknowledge source ( KS ) is semantic class agreement edge in coreference resolution ; and ( 2 ) we do not ( SCA ) . Following Soon et al. ( 2001 ) , we represent use the ACE training data for acquiring our SC clasSCA as a binary value that indicates whether the insifier ; instead , we use the BBN Entity Type Corpus duced SCs of the two NPs involved are the same or ( Weischedel and Brunstein , 2005 ) , which consists of not . The second KS is mention , which is represented all the Penn Treebank Wall Street Journal articles as a binary value that indicates whether an NP bewith the ACE mentions manually identified and anlongs to one of the five ACE SCs mentioned above .

Following Soon et al. ( 2001 ) , we represent use the ACE training data for acquiring our SC clasSCA as a binary value that indicates whether the insifier ; instead , we use the BBN Entity Type Corpus duced SCs of the two NPs involved are the same or ( @@CITATION ) , which consists of not .


design challenges and misconceptions in named entity recognition

These lexicons were gathered from US Census data , Wikipedia category pages , and Wikipedia redirects ( and will be made publicly available upon publication ) . Following Ratinov and Roth ( 2009 ) , we also compare the performance of our system with a system using features based on the Brown clusters of the word types in a document . Since , as seen in section 2.1 , Brown clusters are hierarchical , we use features corresponding to prefixes of the path from the root to the leaf for each word type .

Following @@CITATION , we also compare the performance of our system with a system using features based on the Brown clusters of the word types in a document .


word association norms mutual information and lexicography

In Smadja 's collocation algorithm Xtract , the lowest-frequency words are effectively discarded as well ( Smadja 1993 ) . Church and Hanks ( 1990 ) use mutual information to identify collocations , a method they claim is reasonably effective for words with a frequency of not less than five . A frequency threshold of five seems quite low .

@@CITATION use mutual information to identify collocations , a method they claim is reasonably effective for words with a frequency of not less than five .


tagging english text with a probabilistic model

Misleading similarities in graphical form can sometime induce translation mistakes ( deceptive cognates ) ) These forbidden pairs normally involve only one of several possible parts of speech , hence the need to disambiguate them . We do this with a first-order HMM part-ofspeech tagger ( Merialdo [ 13 ] ) . I In the rest of the paper , we will use deceptive cognate very losely often to refer to normative usage of word in general .

We do this with a first-order HMM part-ofspeech tagger ( Merialdo @@CITATION ) .


the estimation of stochastic contextfree grammars using the insideoutside algorithm computer speech and language

Mapping it back into the entropy definition from equation ( 3 ) , we derive the tree entropy of w as follows : Using the bottom-up , dynamic programming technique ( see the appendix for details ) of computing inside probabilities ( Lari and Young 1990 ) , we can efficiently compute the probability of the sentence , P ( w | G ) . Similarly , the algorithm can be modified to compute the quantity E P ( v | G ) lg ( P ( v | G ) ) .

Using the bottom-up , dynamic programming technique ( see the appendix for details ) of computing inside probabilities ( @@CITATION ) , we can efficiently compute the probability of the sentence , P ( w | G ) .


magic for filter optimization in dynamic bottomup processing

See , among others , ( Ramakrishnan et al. 1992 ) . As shown in ( Minnen , 1996 ) â¢ The presented research was carried out at the University of Tubingen , Germany , as part of the Sonderforschungsbereich 340 . I A more detailed discussion of various aspects of the proposed parser can be found in ( Minnen , 1998 ) .

As shown in ( @@CITATION ) â¢ The presented research was carried out at the University of Tubingen , Germany , as part of the Sonderforschungsbereich 340 .


organizational patterns in discoursequot

These chunks are sometimes called `` episodes , '' and sometimes `` paragraphs . '' According to Hinds ( 1979 ) , paragraphs are made up of segments , which in turn are made up of sentences or clauses , which in turn are made up of phrases . Paragraphs therefore give hierarchical structure to sentences .

According to @@CITATION , paragraphs are made up of segments , which in turn are made up of sentences or clauses , which in turn are made up of phrases .


a theory of diagnosis from first principlesquot

, `` domain circumscription '' ( cfXXX Etherington and Mercer 1987 ) , and their kin . Similarly , the notion of R + M-abduction is spiritually related to the `` abductive inference '' of Reggia ( 1985 ) , the `` diagnosis from first principles '' of Reiter ( 1987 ) , `` explainability '' of Poole ( 1988 ) , and the subset principle of Berwick ( 1986 ) . But , obviously , trying to establish precise connections for the metarules or the provability and the R + M-abduction would go much beyond the scope of an argument for the correspondence of paragraphs and models .

Similarly , the notion of R + M-abduction is spiritually related to the `` abductive inference '' of Reggia ( 1985 ) , the `` diagnosis from first principles '' of @@CITATION , `` explainability '' of Poole ( 1988 ) , and the subset principle of Berwick ( 1986 ) .


extralinguistic constraints on stance recognition in ideological debates

In other words , we train a SC model that assumes as input a post sequence and outputs a stance sequence , with one stance label for each post in the input post sequence . This choice is motivated by an observation we made previously ( Hasan and Ng , 2013a ) : since each post in a sequence is a reply to the preceding post , we could exploit their dependencies by determining their stance labels together .3 As our sequence learner , we employ a maximum entropy Markov model ( MEMM ) ( McCallum et al. , 2000 ) . Given an input post sequence PS = ( p1 , p2 , ... , pn ) , the MEMM finds the most probable stance sequence S = ( s1 , s2 , ... , sn ) by computing P ( S | PS ) , where :

This choice is motivated by an observation we made previously ( @@CITATIONa ) : since each post in a sequence is a reply to the preceding post , we could exploit their dependencies by determining their stance labels together .3 As our sequence learner , we employ a maximum entropy Markov model ( MEMM ) ( McCallum et al. , 2000 ) .


a statistical approach to language translationquot

P F Brown
J Cocke
S Della Pietra
V Della Pietra
F Jelinek
R Mercer
P Roossin

Over the past decade , researchers at IBM have developed a series of increasingly sophisticated statistical models for machine translation ( Brown et al. , 1988 ; Brown et al. , 1990 ; Brown et al. , 1993a ) . However , the IBM models , which attempt to capture a broad range of translation phenomena , are computationally expensive to apply .

Over the past decade , researchers at IBM have developed a series of increasingly sophisticated statistical models for machine translation ( @@CITATION ; Brown et al. , 1990 ; Brown et al. , 1993a ) .


describing complex charts in natural language a caption generation system

Vibhu Mittal
Johanna Moore
Guiseppe Carenini
Steven Roth

Despite these arguments , most applied NLG systems use a pipelined architecture ; indeed , a pipeline was used in every one of the systems surveyed by Reiter ( 1994 ) and Paiva ( 1998 ) . This may be because pipelines have many engineering advantages , and in practice the sort of problems pointed out by Danlos and other pipeline critics do not seem to be a major problem in current applied NLG systems ( Mittal et al. 1998 ) .

This may be because pipelines have many engineering advantages , and in practice the sort of problems pointed out by Danlos and other pipeline critics do not seem to be a major problem in current applied NLG systems ( @@CITATION ) .


adding semantic annotation to the penn treebank

Paul Kingsbury
Martha Palmer
Mitch Marcus

Verbs are viewed as simple predicates over their arguments . This approach has its roots in Fillmore 's Case Grammar ( 1968 ) , and serves as the foundation for two current large-scale semantic annotation projects : FrameNet ( Baker et al. , 1998 ) and PropBank ( Kingsbury et al. , 2002 ) . Underlying the semantic roles approach is a lexicalist assumption , that is , each verb 's lexical entry completely encodes ( more formally , projects ) its syntactic and semantic structures .

This approach has its roots in Fillmore 's Case Grammar ( 1968 ) , and serves as the foundation for two current large-scale semantic annotation projects : FrameNet ( Baker et al. , 1998 ) and PropBank ( @@CITATION ) .


Robinson , 1982 ; Bobrow , 1978 ) consult relatively small lexicons , typically generated by hand . Two exceptions to this generalisation are the Linguistic String Project ( Sager , 1981 ) and the IBM CRITIQUE ( formerly EPISTLE ) Project ( Heidorn et al. , 1982 ; Byrd , 1983 ) ; the former employs a dictionary of approximately 10,000 words , most of which are specialist medical terms , the latter has well over 100,000 entries , gathered from machine readable sources . In addition , there are a number of projects under way to develop substantial lexicons from machine readable sources ( see Boguraev , 1986 for details ) .

Two exceptions to this generalisation are the Linguistic String Project ( @@CITATION ) and the IBM CRITIQUE ( formerly EPISTLE ) Project ( Heidorn et al. , 1982 ; Byrd , 1983 ) ; the former employs a dictionary of approximately 10,000 words , most of which are specialist medical terms , the latter has well over 100,000 entries , gathered from machine readable sources .


mimic an adaptive mixed initiative spoken dialogue system for information queries

Functions defined here decide what string should be spoken and send that string to the speech output module based on the current dialogue state . They can also shift the dialogue 2The notion of the initiative in this paper is different from that of the dialogue initiative of Chu-Carroll ( 2000 ) . phase and change the holder of the initiative as well as change the dialogue state .

They can also shift the dialogue 2The notion of the initiative in this paper is different from that of the dialogue initiative of @@CITATION .


webscale ngram models for lexical disambiguation

The Google n-gram data was collected by Google Research for statistical language modelling , and has been used for many tasks such as lexical disambiguation ( Bergsma et al. , 2009 ) , and contains English n-grams and their observed frequency counts , for counts of at least 40 . The striking feature of

The Google n-gram data was collected by Google Research for statistical language modelling , and has been used for many tasks such as lexical disambiguation ( @@CITATION ) , and contains English n-grams and their observed frequency counts , for counts of at least 40 .


crossdocument coreference on a large scale corpus

The most basic is a Bag of Words ( BoW ) representation of the document text . Withindocument coreference resolution has been applied to produce summaries of text surrounding occurrences of the name ( Bagga and Baldwin , 1998 ; Gooi and Allan , 2004 ) . Nevertheless , the full document text is present in most systems , sometimes as the only feature ( Sugiyama and Okumura , 2007 ) and sometimes in combination with others see for instance ( Chen and Martin , 2007 ; Popescu and Magnini , 2007 ) - .

Withindocument coreference resolution has been applied to produce summaries of text surrounding occurrences of the name ( Bagga and Baldwin , 1998 ; @@CITATION ) .


C Fillmore C Johnson
M Petruckand C Baker
M Ellsworth
J Ruppenhofer

For non predicative units , we use WordNet synset numbers or when working within a restricted domain with a well defined thesaurus , the descriptors of that thesaurus . To represent the semantics of predicative units , we use FrameNet inventory of frames and frame elements ( C.Johnson et al. , 2002 ) . FrameNet is an online lexical resource for English based on the principles of Frame Semantics .

To represent the semantics of predicative units , we use FrameNet inventory of frames and frame elements ( C.@@CITATION ) .


morphological decomposition and the reverse base frequency effect

( Taft , 1975 ) with his experiment on English inflected words , argued that lexical decision responses of polymorphemic words depends upon the base word frequency . Similar observation for surface word frequency was also observed by ( Bertram et al. , 2000 ; Bradley , 1980 ; Burani et al. , 1987 ; Burani et al. , 1984 ; Schreuder et al. , 1997 ; Taft 1975 ; Taft , 2004 ) where it has been claimed that words having low surface frequency tends to decompose . Later , Baayen ( 2000 ) proposed the dual processing race model that proposes that a specific morphologically complex form is accessed via its parts if the frequency of that word is above a certain threshold of frequency , then the direct route will win , and the word will be accessed as a whole .

Similar observation for surface word frequency was also observed by ( Bertram et al. , 2000 ; Bradley , 1980 ; Burani et al. , 1987 ; Burani et al. , 1984 ; Schreuder et al. , 1997 ; Taft 1975 ; @@CITATION ) where it has been claimed that words having low surface frequency tends to decompose .


data mining practical machine learning tools and techniques

The multimodal data we obtained by combining the linguistic annotations from DanPASS with the gesture annotation created in ANVIL , resulted into two different groups of data , one containing all Yes and No expressions , and the other the subset of those that are accompanied by a face expression or a head movement , as shown in Table 4 . These two sets of data were used for automatic dialogue act classification , which was run in the Weka system ( Witten and Frank , 2005 ) . We experimented with various Weka classifiers , comprising Hidden Naive Bayes , SMO , ID3 , LADTree and Decision Table .

These two sets of data were used for automatic dialogue act classification , which was run in the Weka system ( @@CITATION ) .


a tutorial on hidden markov models and selected applications in speech recognitionquot

where W 's are query words in Q. Miller et al. estimated probabilities as follows : â¢ The transition probability a is 0.7 using the EM algorithm ( Rabiner , 1989 ) on the TREC4 ad-hoc query set . P ( v IGx ) = number of occurrences of W in Cx â¢ length of Cx which is the general language probability for word Win language x. â¢ P ( v I D ) = number of occurrences of W in D length of D

â¢ The transition probability a is 0.7 using the EM algorithm ( @@CITATION ) on the TREC4 ad-hoc query set .


combining lexical syntactic and prosodic cues for improved online dialog act tagging

Vivek Kumar Rangarajan Sridhar
Srinivas Bangaloreb
Shrikanth Narayanan

Work has also been done on prosody and gestures in the specific domain of map-task dialogues , also targeted in this paper . Sridhar et al. ( 2009 ) obtain promising results in dialogue act tagging of the Switchboard-DAMSL corpus using lexical , syntactic and prosodic cues , while Gravano and Hirschberg ( 2009 ) examine the relation between particular acoustic and prosodic turn-yielding cues and turn taking in a large corpus of task-oriented dialogues . Louwerse et al. ( 2006 ) and Louwerse et al. ( 2007 ) study the relation between eye gaze , facial expression , pauses and dialogue structure in annotated English map-task dialogues ( Anderson et al. , 1991 ) and find correlations between the various modalities both within and across speakers .

@@CITATION obtain promising results in dialogue act tagging of the Switchboard-DAMSL corpus using lexical , syntactic and prosodic cues , while Gravano and Hirschberg ( 2009 ) examine the relation between particular acoustic and prosodic turn-yielding cues and turn taking in a large corpus of task-oriented dialogues .


a comparative study on feature selection in text categorization

Various feature selection techniques have been used in automatic text categorization ; they include document frequency ( DF ) , information gain ( IG ) ( Tzeras and Hartman , 1993 ) , minimum description length principal ( Lang , 1995 ) , and the X2 statistic . ( Yang and Pedersen , 1997 ) has found strong correlations between DF , IG and the X2 statistic for a term . On the other hand , ( Rogati and Yang , 2002 ) reports the X2 to produce best performance .

( @@CITATION ) has found strong correlations between DF , IG and the X2 statistic for a term .


mercure towards an automatic email followup system

This indicates that help-desk customers may have also become more tolerant of inaccurate or incomplete automatically generated replies , provided these replies are still relevant to their problem , and so long as the customers can follow up with a request for human-generated responses if necessary . Despite this , to date , there has been little work on corpus-based approaches to help-desk response automation ( notable exceptions are Carmel , Shtalhaim , and Soffer 2000 ; Lapalme and Kosseim 2003 ; Bickel and Scheffer 2004 ; Malik , Subramaniam , and Kaushik 2007 ) . A major factor limiting this work is the dearth of corpora -- help-desk e-mails tend to be proprietary and are subject to privacy issues .

Despite this , to date , there has been little work on corpus-based approaches to help-desk response automation ( notable exceptions are Carmel , Shtalhaim , and Soffer 2000 ; @@CITATION ; Bickel and Scheffer 2004 ; Malik , Subramaniam , and Kaushik 2007 ) .


The first ordered pairs are more frequent , as are the individual adjectives involved . To quantify the relative strengths of these transitive inferences , Shaw and Hatzivassiloglou ( 1999 ) propose to assign a weight to each link . Say the order ( a , b ) occurs m times and the pair -LCB- a , b -RCB- occurs n times in total .

To quantify the relative strengths of these transitive inferences , @@CITATION propose to assign a weight to each link .


In knowledge-lean approaches , coreference resolvers employ only morpho-syntactic cues as knowledge sources in the resolution process ( e.g. , Mitkov ( 1998 ) , Tetreault ( 2001 ) ) . While these approaches have been reasonably successful ( see Mitkov ( 2002 ) ) , Kehler et al. ( 2004 ) speculate that deeper linguistic knowledge needs to be made available to resolvers in order to reach the next level of performance . In fact , semantics plays a crucially important role in the resolution of common NPs , allowing us to identify the coreference relation between two lexically dissimilar common nouns ( e.g. , talks and negotiations ) and to eliminate George W. Bush from the list of candidate antecedents of the city , for instance .

While these approaches have been reasonably successful ( see @@CITATION ) , Kehler et al. ( 2004 ) speculate that deeper linguistic knowledge needs to be made available to resolvers in order to reach the next level of performance .


database design for a dictionary of the future

In addition , in order to link the machine readable version of LDOCE to our development environment , and eventually to our natural language processing systems , we need to provide fast access from Lisp to data held in secondary storage . Lisp is not particularly well suited for interfacing to complex , structured objects , and it was not our intention to embark on a major effort involving the development of a formal model of a dictionary ( of the style described in , eg. , Tompa 1986 ) ; on the other hand a method of access was clearly required , which was flexible enough to support a range of applications intending to make use of the LDOCE tape . The requirement for having the dictionary entries in a form convenient for symbolic manipulation from within Lisp was furthermore augmented by the constraint that all the information present in the typesetting tape should be carried over to the on-line version of LDOCE , since it is impossible to say in advance which records and fields of an entry would , or would not , be of potential use to a natural language processing program .

Lisp is not particularly well suited for interfacing to complex , structured objects , and it was not our intention to embark on a major effort involving the development of a formal model of a dictionary ( of the style described in , eg. , @@CITATION ) ; on the other hand a method of access was clearly required , which was flexible enough to support a range of applications intending to make use of the LDOCE tape .


an empirical study of smoothing techniques for language modeling in

We run GIZA + + ( Och and Ney , 2000 ) on the training corpus in both directions ( Koehn et al. , 2003 ) to obtain the word alignment for each sentence pair . We train a 4-gram language model on the Xinhua portion of the English Gigaword corpus using the SRILM Toolkits ( Stolcke , 2002 ) with modified Kneser-Ney smoothing ( Chen and Goodman , 1998 ) . In our experiments the translation performances are measured by case-insensitive BLEU4 metric ( Papineni et al. , 2002 ) and we use mtevalv13a.pl as the evaluation tool .

We train a 4-gram language model on the Xinhua portion of the English Gigaword corpus using the SRILM Toolkits ( Stolcke , 2002 ) with modified Kneser-Ney smoothing ( @@CITATION ) .


generating language with a phrasal lexicon

More specifically , the notion of the phrasal lexicon ( used first by Becker 1975 ) has been used successfully in a number of areas : â¢ Learnability ( Zernik and Dyer 1987 ) â¢ Text generation ( Hovy 1988 ; Milosavljevic , Tulloch , and Dale 1996 ) â¢ Speech generation ( Rayner and Carter 1997 ) â¢ Localization ( Sch Â¨ aler 1996 ) More recently , Simard and Langlais ( 2001 ) have proposed the exploitation of TMs at a subsentential level , while Carl , Way , and Sch Â¨ aler ( 2002 ) and Sch Â¨ aler , Way , and Carl ( 2003 , pages 108 -- 109 ) describe how phrasal lexicons might come to occupy a central place in a future hybrid integrated translation environment .

â¢ Learnability ( Zernik and Dyer 1987 ) â¢ Text generation ( @@CITATION ; Milosavljevic , Tulloch , and Dale 1996 ) â¢ Speech generation ( Rayner and Carter 1997 ) â¢ Localization ( Sch Â¨ aler 1996 )


knowledgelean coreference resolution and its relation to textual cohesion and coherence

Examples of the heuristics operation on the MUC data are presented presented in Table 2 . Details of the top performing heuristics of COCKTAIL were reported in ( Harabagiu and Maiorano , 1999 ) .

Details of the top performing heuristics of COCKTAIL were reported in ( @@CITATION ) .


S Boisen
Y-L Chow
A Haas
R Ingria
S Roukos
D Stallard

Current advances in research and development of spoken language systems2 can be found , for example , in the proceedings of the DARPA speech and natural language workshops , as well as in publications from participants of the ESPRIT SUNDIAL project . Representative systems are described in Boisen et al. ( 1989 ) , De Mattia and Giachin ( 1989 ) , Niedermair ( 1989 ) , Niemann ( 1990 ) , and Young ( 1989 ) . * Spoken Language Systems Group , Laboratoiy for Computer Science , MIT , Cambridge MA 02139 f This research was supported by DARPA under Contract N00014-89 +1332 , monitored through the Office of Naval Research .

Representative systems are described in @@CITATION , De Mattia and Giachin ( 1989 ) , Niedermair ( 1989 ) , Niemann ( 1990 ) , and Young ( 1989 ) .


computer exploitation of ldoces grammatical codes paper presented at a conference on survey of english language

None of these verbs take sentential complements and therefore they appear to be counterexamples to our Object Raising rule . In addition , Moulin et al. ( 1985 ) note that our Object Raising rule would assign mean to this category incorrectly . Mean is assigned both a V3 and a T5 category in the code field associated with sense 2 ( i.e. `` intend '' ) , however , when it is used in this sense it must be treated as an Object Equi verb .

In addition , @@CITATION note that our Object Raising rule would assign mean to this category incorrectly .


a systematic comparison of various statistical alignment models

Our system uses a standard phrase-based architecture . The parallel corpus is word-aligned using GIZA + + ( Och and Ney , 2003 ) . Phrase translations of up to 10 words are extracted in the Moses phrase table .

The parallel corpus is word-aligned using GIZA + + ( @@CITATION ) .


libsvm a library for support vector machines software available at httpwwwcsientuedutw∼cjlinlibsvm

7See http://www.cs.ualberta.ca/â¼lindek/downloads.htm 8In our implementation of Soon 's method , we label an instance as OTHERS if no NE or WN CLASS feature is generated ; otherwise its label is the value of the NE feature or the ACE SC that has the WN CLASS features as its keywords ( see Table 1 ) . tions for the remaining 20 % of the instances ; and ( 3 ) train an SVM classifier ( using the LIBSVM package ( Chang and Lin , 2001 ) ) on these 20 % of the instances , where each instance , i , is represented by a set of 31 binary features . More specifically , let Li = 141 , 42 , 43 , 44 , 451 be the set of predictions that we obtained for i in step ( 2 ) .

tions for the remaining 20 % of the instances ; and ( 3 ) train an SVM classifier ( using the LIBSVM package ( @@CITATION ) ) on these 20 % of the instances , where each instance , i , is represented by a set of 31 binary features .


insideoutside reestimation from partially bracketed corpora

would be labeled as `` ( ( Several fund managers ) ( expect ( ( a rough market ) ( this morning ) ) ( before ( prices stabilize ) ) ) . ) '' Our algorithm is similar to the approach taken by Pereira and Schabes ( 1992 ) for inducing PCFG parsers . Because the EM algorithm itself is an iterative procedure , performing sample selection on top of an EM-based learner is an extremely computational-intensive process .

Our algorithm is similar to the approach taken by @@CITATION for inducing PCFG parsers .


conditional models of identity uncertainty with application to noun coreference

Zhu ( 2005 ) maintains a survey of this area . Recently , several alternative , often quite sophisticated approaches to collective classification have been proposed ( Neville and Jensen , 2000 ; Lafferty et al. , 2001 ; Getoor et al. , 2002 ; Taskar et al. , 2002 ; Taskar et al. , 2003 ; Taskar et al. , 2004 ; McCallum and Wellner , 2004 ) . It would be interesting to investigate the application of such methods to our problem .

Recently , several alternative , often quite sophisticated approaches to collective classification have been proposed ( Neville and Jensen , 2000 ; Lafferty et al. , 2001 ; Getoor et al. , 2002 ; Taskar et al. , 2002 ; Taskar et al. , 2003 ; Taskar et al. , 2004 ; @@CITATION ) .


using information content to evaluate semantic similarity

Miller and Charles ( 1991 ) replicated the experiment with 38 test subjects judging on a subset of 30 pairs taken from the original 65 pairs . This experiment was again replicated by Resnik ( 1995 ) with 10 subjects . Table 1 summarizes previous experiments .

This experiment was again replicated by @@CITATION with 10 subjects .


children’s use of context in interpreting ”big” and ”little” child development

A search of the British National Corpus ( BNC ) , for example , shows at least seven of the ten most frequent adjectives ( last , other , new , good , old , great , high , small , different , large ) to be gradable . Children use vague adjectives among their first dozens of words ( Peccei 1994 ) and understand some of their intricacies as early as their 24th month ( Ebeling and Gelman 1994 ) . These

Children use vague adjectives among their first dozens of words ( Peccei 1994 ) and understand some of their intricacies as early as their 24th month ( @@CITATION ) .


empirical methods for compound splitting

For compound splitting , we follow Fritzinger and Fraser ( 2010 ) , using linguistic knowledge encoded in a rule-based morphological analyser and then selecting the best analysis based on the geometric mean of word part frequencies . Other approaches use less deep linguistic resources ( e.g. , POS-tags Stymne ( 2008 ) ) or are ( almost ) knowledge-free ( e.g. , Koehn and Knight ( 2003 ) ) . Compound merging is less well studied .

Other approaches use less deep linguistic resources ( e.g. , POS-tags Stymne ( 2008 ) ) or are ( almost ) knowledge-free ( e.g. , @@CITATION ) .


using a dependency parser to improve smt for subjectobjectverb languages in

The accuracy and speed of state-of-the-art dependency parsers has motivated a resumed interest in utilizing the output of parsing as an input to many downstream natural language processing tasks . This includes work on question answering ( Wang et al. , 2007 ) , sentiment analysis ( Nakagawa et al. , 2010 ) , MT reordering ( Xu et al. , 2009 ) , and many other tasks . In most cases , the accuracy of parsers degrades when run on out-of-domain data ( Gildea , 2001 ; McClosky et al. , 2006 ; Blitzer et al. , 2006 ; Petrov et al. , 2010 ) .

This includes work on question answering ( Wang et al. , 2007 ) , sentiment analysis ( Nakagawa et al. , 2010 ) , MT reordering ( @@CITATION ) , and many other tasks .


an algorithm that learns what’s in a name

Again , this represents our attempt to coarsely model subcategorization . ( 4 ) NE : We use BBN 's IdentiFinder ( Bikel et al. , 1999 ) , a MUC-style NE recognizer to determine the NE type of NPZ . If NPZ is determined to be a PERSON or ORGANIZATION , we create an NE feature whose

( 4 ) NE : We use BBN 's IdentiFinder ( @@CITATION ) , a MUC-style NE recognizer to determine the NE type of NPZ .


can semantic roles generalize across genres

Although we make discriminations of arguments and adjuncts , the analysis is still coarse-grained . Yi et al. ( 2007 ) has made the first attempt working on the single semantic role level to make further improvement . However , the impact of this idea is limited due to that the amount of the research target , ARG2 , is few in PropBank .

@@CITATION has made the first attempt working on the single semantic role level to make further improvement .


thumbs up or thumbs down semantic orientation applied to unsupervised classification of reviews

Task properties Determining whether or not a speaker supports a proposal falls within the realm of sentiment analysis , an extremely active research area devoted to the computational treatment of subjective or opinion-oriented language ( early work includes Wiebe and Rapaport ( 1988 ) , Hearst ( 1992 ) , Sack ( 1994 ) , and Wiebe ( 1994 ) ; see Esuli ( 2006 ) for an active bibliography ) . In particular , since we treat each individual speech within a debate as a single `` document '' , we are considering a version of document-level sentiment-polarity classification , namely , automatically distinguishing between positive and negative documents ( Das and Chen , 2001 ; Pang et al. , 2002 ; Turney , 2002 ; Dave et al. , 2003 ) . Most sentiment-polarity classifiers proposed in the recent literature categorize each document independently .

In particular , since we treat each individual speech within a debate as a single `` document '' , we are considering a version of document-level sentiment-polarity classification , namely , automatically distinguishing between positive and negative documents ( Das and Chen , 2001 ; Pang et al. , 2002 ; @@CITATION ; Dave et al. , 2003 ) .


dcusymantec at the wmt 2013 quality estimation shared task

Raphael Rubino
Joachim Wagner
Jennifer Foster
Johann Roturier
Rasoul Samad Zadeh Kaljahi
Fred Hollowood

Length of words ( L ) : Instead of using the raw length value as a feature , we follow our previous work ( Rubino et al. , 2013 ; Wagner et al. , 2014 ) and create multiple features for length using a decision tree ( J48 ) . We use length as the only feature to train a decision tree for each fold and use the nodes obtained from the tree to create boolean features .

raw length value as a feature , we follow our previous work ( @@CITATION ; Wagner et al. , 2014 ) and create multiple features for length using a decision tree ( J48 ) .


agreement constraints for statistical machine translation into german

Both efforts were ineffective on large data sets . Williams and Koehn ( 2011 ) used unification in an SMT system to model some of the agreement phenomena that we model .

@@CITATION used unification in an SMT system to model some of the


catching the drift probabilistic content models with applications to generation and summarization

Following Ruch et al. ( 2003 ) and Barzilay and Lee ( 2004 ) , we employed Hidden Markov Models to model the discourse structure of MEDLINE abstracts . The four states in our HMMs correspond to the information that characterizes each section ( `` introduction '' , `` methods '' , `` results '' , and `` conclusions '' ) and state transitions capture the discourse flow from section to section .

Following Ruch et al. ( 2003 ) and @@CITATION , we employed Hidden Markov Models to model the discourse structure of MEDLINE abstracts .


The language grounding problem has received significant attention in recent years , owed in part to the wide availability of data sets ( e.g. Flickr , Von Ahn ( 2006 ) ) , computing power , improved computer vision models ( Oliva and Torralba , 2001 ; Lowe , 2004 ; Farhadi et al. , 2009 ; Parikh and Grauman , 2011 ) and neurological evidence of ties between the language , perceptual and motor systems in the brain ( Pulverm Â¨ uller et al. , 2005 ; Tettamanti et al. , 2005 ; Aziz-Zadeh et al. , 2006 ) . Many approaches to multimodal research have succeeded by abstracting away raw perceptual information and using high-level representations instead .

The language grounding problem has received significant attention in recent years , owed in part to the wide availability of data sets ( e.g. Flickr , Von Ahn ( 2006 ) ) , computing power , improved computer vision models ( Oliva and Torralba , 2001 ; Lowe , 2004 ; Farhadi et al. , 2009 ; @@CITATION ) and neurological evidence of ties between the language , perceptual and motor systems in the brain ( Pulverm Â¨ uller et al. , 2005 ; Tettamanti et al. , 2005 ; Aziz-Zadeh et al. , 2006 ) .


a new stringtodependency machine translation algorithm with a target dependency language model

In recent years , tree-based translation models1 are drawing more and more attention in the community of statistical machine translation ( SMT ) . Due to their remarkable ability to incorporate context structure information and long distance reordering into the translation process , tree-based translation models have shown promising progress in improving translation quality ( Liu et al. , 2006 , 2009 ; Quirk et al. , 2005 ; Galley et al. , 2004 , 2006 ; Marcu et al. , 2006 ; Shen et al. , 2008 ; Zhang et al. , 2011b ) . However , tree-based translation models always suffer from two major challenges : 1 ) They are usually built directly from parse trees , which are generated by supervised linguistic parsers .

Due to their remarkable ability to incorporate context structure information and long distance reordering into the translation process , tree-based translation models have shown promising progress in improving translation quality ( Liu et al. , 2006 , 2009 ; Quirk et al. , 2005 ; Galley et al. , 2004 , 2006 ; Marcu et al. , 2006 ; @@CITATION ; Zhang et al. , 2011b ) .


mixed initiative in dialogue an investigation into discourse segmentation

3.2.3 Strategy Selection Previous work has argued that initiative affects the degree of control an agent has in the dialogue interaction ( Whittaker and Stenton , 1988 ; Walker and Whittaker , 1990 ; Chu-Carroll and Brown , 1998 ) . Thus , a cooperative system may adopt different strategies to achieve the same goal depending on the initiative distribution .

Previous work has argued that initiative affects the degree of control an agent has in the dialogue interaction ( Whittaker and Stenton , 1988 ; @@CITATION ; Chu-Carroll and Brown , 1998 ) .


mixedinitiative development of language processing systems

David Day
John Aberdeen
Lynette Hirschman
Robyn Kozierok
Patricia Robinson
Marc Vilain

There are a number of generalised NLP systems in the literature . Many provide graphical user interfaces ( GUI ) for manual annotation ( e.g. General Architecture for Text Engineering ( GATE ) ( Cunningham et al. , 1997 ) and the Alembic Workbench ( Day et al. , 1997 ) ) as well as NLP tools and resources that can be manipulated from the GUI . For instance , GATE currently provides a POS tagger , named entity recogniser and gazetteer and ontology editors ( Cunningham et al. , 2002 ) .

Many provide graphical user interfaces ( GUI ) for manual annotation ( e.g. General Architecture for Text Engineering ( GATE ) ( Cunningham et al. , 1997 ) and the Alembic Workbench ( @@CITATION ) ) as well as NLP tools and resources that can be manipulated from the GUI .


the sperry univac system for continuous speech recognition in

A number of speech understanding systems have been developed during the past fifteen years ( Barnett et al. 1980 , Dixon and Martin 1979 , Erman et al. 1980 , Haton and Pierrel 1976 , Lea 1980 , Lowerre and Reddy 1980 , Medress 1980 , Reddy 1976 , Walker 1978 , and Wolf and Woods 1980 ) . Most of these efforts concentrated on the interaction between low level information sources from a speech recognizer and a natural language processor to discover the meaning of an input sentence .

A number of speech understanding systems have been developed during the past fifteen years ( Barnett et al. 1980 , Dixon and Martin 1979 , Erman et al. 1980 , Haton and Pierrel 1976 , Lea 1980 , Lowerre and Reddy 1980 , @@CITATION , Reddy 1976 , Walker 1978 , and Wolf and Woods 1980 ) .


Considering the original definition of S-TAGs , one can see that it does not restrict the structures that can be produced in the source and target languages . It allows the construction of a non-TAL ( Shieber , 1994 ) , ( Harbusch & Poller , 2000 ) . As a result , Shieber ( 1994 ) propose a restricted definition for S-TAG , namely , the IS-TAG for isomorphic S-TAG .

It allows the construction of a non-TAL ( Shieber , 1994 ) , ( @@CITATION ) .


This topic generated intense interest at workshops held at the University of Heidelberg ( October 2004 ) , University of Bologna ( January 2005 ) , University of Birmingham ( July 2005 ) and now in Trento in April 2006 . In addition , the advantages of using linguistically annotated data over raw data are well documented ( Mair , 2005 ; Granger and Rayson , 1998 ) . As the size of a corpus increases , a near linear increase in computing power is required to annotate the text .

In addition , the advantages of using linguistically annotated data over raw data are well documented ( Mair , 2005 ; @@CITATION ) .


project ‘semantic information retrieval’

This is motivated by the aim to enable research in information retrieval incorporating SR measures . In particular , the `` Semantic Information Retrieval '' project ( SIR Project , 2006 ) systematically investigates the use of lexical-semantic relations between words or concepts for improving the performance of information retrieval systems . The BERUFEnet ( BN ) corpus7 consists of descriptions of 5,800 professions in Germany and therefore contains many terms specific to professional training .

In particular , the `` Semantic Information Retrieval '' project ( SIR @@CITATION ) systematically investigates the use of lexical-semantic relations between words or concepts for improving the performance of information retrieval systems .


discriminative reranking for natural language parsing

To avoid overfitting we encode only a small set of linguistically motivated dependencies in features over sets of the random variables . Our re-ranking approach , like the approach to parse re-ranking of Collins ( 2000 ) , employs a simpler model -- a local semantic role labeling algorithm -- as a first pass to generate a set of n likely complete assignments of labels to all parse tree nodes . The joint model is restricted to these n assignments and does not have to search the exponentially large space of all possible joint labelings .

Our re-ranking approach , like the approach to parse re-ranking of @@CITATION , employs a simpler model -- a local semantic role labeling algorithm -- as a first pass to generate a set of n likely complete assignments of labels to all parse tree nodes .


mitre description of the alembic system used for muc6”

John S Aberdeen
John D Burger
David S Day
Lynette Hirschman
Patricia Robinson
Marc Vilain

To put together a few rules is fast and easy , but to develop a rule-based system with good performance is quite a labor-consuming enterprise . For instance , the Alembic workbench ( Aberdeen et al. 1995 ) contains a sentence-splitting module that employs over 100 regular-expression rules written in Flex . Another well-acknowledged shortcoming of rule-based systems is that such systems are usually closely tailored to a particular corpus or sublanguage and are not easily portable across domains .

For instance , the Alembic workbench ( @@CITATION ) contains a sentence-splitting module that employs over 100 regular-expression rules written in Flex .


forestbased statistical sentence generation

This is because we can not combine scores from different instances . In contrast , a single statistical model allows one to maintain a single table ( Langkilde , 2000 ) . Second , the cosine score of an edge can increase as well as decrease when it is combined with other edges , depending on whether or not the newly added terms match the instance terms .

In contrast , a single statistical model allows one to maintain a single table ( @@CITATION ) .


integrating experiential and distributional data to learn semantic representations

Mark Andrews
Gabriella Vigliocco
David Vinson

Our experiments are based on the multimodal extension of Latent Dirichlet Allocation developed by Andrews et al. ( 2009 ) . Previously LDA has been successfully used to infer unsupervised joint topic distributions over words and feature norms together ( Andrews et al. , 2009 ; Silberer and Lapata , 2012 ) .

Our experiments are based on the multimodal extension of Latent Dirichlet Allocation developed by @@CITATION .


fastus a finitestate processor for information extraction from realworld text

D Appelt
J Hobbs
J Bear
D Israel
M Tyson

Research on shallow parsing was inspired by psycholinguistics arguments ( Gee and Grosjean , 1983 ) that suggest that in many scenarios ( e.g. , conversational ) full parsing is not a realistic strategy for sentence processing and analysis , and was further motivated by several arguments from a natural language engineering viewpoint . First , it has been noted that in many natural language applications it is sufficient to use shallow parsing information ; information such as noun phrases ( NPs ) and other syntactic sequences have been found useful in many large-scale language processing applications including information extraction and text summarization ( Grishman , 1995 ; Appelt et al. , 1993 ) . Second , while training a full parser requires a collection of fully parsed sentences as training corpus , it is possible to train a shallow parser incrementally .

First , it has been noted that in many natural language applications it is sufficient to use shallow parsing information ; information such as noun phrases ( NPs ) and other syntactic sequences have been found useful in many large-scale language processing applications including information extraction and text summarization ( Grishman , 1995 ; @@CITATION ) .


a bayesian model of syntaxdirected tree to string grammar induction

They utilized the bilingual Tree-bank to train a joint model for both parsing and word alignment . Cohn and Blunsom ( 2009 ) adopted a Bayesian method to infer an STSG by exploring the space of alignments based on parse trees . Liu et al. ( 2012 ) re-trained the linguistic parsers bilingually based on word alignment .

@@CITATION adopted a Bayesian method to infer an STSG by exploring the space of alignments based on parse trees .


Due to the Zipfian nature of word frequencies , around half the word types in a corpus occur only once , so tremendous increases in corpus size are required both to ensure inclusion of essential word and phrase types and to increase the chances of multiple occurrences of a given type . In corpus linguistics building such megacorpora is beyond the scope of individual researchers , and they are not easily accessible ( Kennedy , 1998 : 56 ) unless the web is used as a corpus ( Kilgarriff and Grefenstette , 2003 ) . Increasingly , corpus researchers are tapping the Web to overcome the sparse data problem ( Keller et al. , 2002 ) .

In corpus linguistics building such megacorpora is beyond the scope of individual researchers , and they are not easily accessible ( @@CITATION : 56 ) unless the web is used as a corpus ( Kilgarriff and Grefenstette , 2003 ) .


and forthcoming machine readable dictionaries and research in computational linguistics

Two exceptions to this generalisation are the Linguistic String Project ( Sager , 1981 ) and the IBM CRITIQUE ( formerly EPISTLE ) Project ( Heidorn et al. , 1982 ; Byrd , 1983 ) ; the former employs a dictionary of approximately 10,000 words , most of which are specialist medical terms , the latter has well over 100,000 entries , gathered from machine readable sources . In addition , there are a number of projects under way to develop substantial lexicons from machine readable sources ( see Boguraev , 1986 for details ) . However , as yet few results have been published concerning the utility of electronic versions of published dictionaries as sources for such lexicons .

In addition , there are a number of projects under way to develop substantial lexicons from machine readable sources ( see @@CITATION for details ) .


The analytical parsing of Czech runs in two steps : the statistical dependency parser , which creates the structure of a dependency tree , and a classifier assigning analytical functors . We carried out two parallel experiments with two parsers available for Czech , parser I ( Hajie et al. , 1998 ) and parser II ( Charniak , 1999 ) . In the second step , we used a module for automatic analytical functor assignment ( 2abokrtskyT et al. , 2002 ) .

We carried out two parallel experiments with two parsers available for Czech , parser I ( Hajie et al. , 1998 ) and parser II ( @@CITATION ) .


a simple rulebased part of speech tagger

However , knowledge of sentence boundaries is required by many NLP technologies . Part of speech taggers typically require input in the format of a single sentence per line ( for example Brill 's tagger ( Brill , 1992 ) ) and parsers generally aim to produce a tree spanning each sentence . Only the most trivial linguistic analysis can be carried out on text which is not split into sentences .

Part of speech taggers typically require input in the format of a single sentence per line ( for example Brill 's tagger ( @@CITATION ) ) and parsers generally aim to produce a tree spanning each sentence .


unfoldfold transformation of logic programs

We thereby eliminate the redundant nondeterminism resulting from multiply defined frame predicates . The elimination of redundant nondeterminism is based on Unfold/Fold transformation techniques ( Tamaki and Sato 1984 ) .29 The unfolding transformation is also referred to as partial execution , for example , by Pereira and Shieber ( 1987 ) . Intuitively understood , unfolding comprises the evaluation of a particular literal in the body of a clause at compile-time .

The elimination of redundant nondeterminism is based on Unfold/Fold transformation techniques ( @@CITATION ) .29 The unfolding transformation is also referred to as partial execution , for example , by Pereira and Shieber ( 1987 ) .


Tracy Holloway King
Richard Crouch
Stefan Riezler
Mary Dalrymple
Ron Kaplan

Because a tree-based gold standard for parser evaluation must adopt a particular style of linguistic analysis ( reflected in the geometry and nomenclature of the nodes in the trees ) , evaluation of statistical parsers and grammars that are derived from particular treebank resources ( as well as hand-crafted grammars/parsers ) can suffer unduly if the gold standard deviates systematically from the ( possibly ) equally valid style of linguistic analysis provided by the parser . Problems such as these have motivated research on more abstract , dependencybased parser evaluation ( e.g. , Lin 1995 ; Carroll , Briscoe , and Sanfilippo 1998 ; Carroll et al. 2002 ; Clark and Hockenmaier 2002 ; King et al. 2003 ; Preiss 2003 ; Kaplan et al. 2004 ; Miyao and Tsujii 2004 ) . Dependency-based linguistic representations are approximations of abstract predicate-argument-adjunct ( or more basic head-dependent )

Problems such as these have motivated research on more abstract , dependencybased parser evaluation ( e.g. , Lin 1995 ; Carroll , Briscoe , and Sanfilippo 1998 ; Carroll et al. 2002 ; Clark and Hockenmaier 2002 ; @@CITATION ; Preiss 2003 ; Kaplan et al. 2004 ; Miyao and Tsujii 2004 ) .


Elia Bruni
Gemma Boleda
Marco Baroni
NamKhanh Tran

Since the SURF and GIST image features tend to capture object-likeness and scene-likeness respectively , it is possible that words which share associates are likely related through common settings and objects that appear with them . This seems to provide additional evidence of Bruni et al. ( 2012b ) 's suggestion that something like a distributional hypothesis of images is plausible . Once again , the clusters of images using SURF causes a dramatic drop in performance .

This seems to provide additional evidence of @@CITATIONb ) 's suggestion that something like a distributional hypothesis of images is plausible .


developing language processing components with gate

Hamish Cunningham
Diana Maynard
C Ursu K Bontcheva
V Tablan
M Dimitrov

Many provide graphical user interfaces ( GUI ) for manual annotation ( e.g. General Architecture for Text Engineering ( GATE ) ( Cunningham et al. , 1997 ) and the Alembic Workbench ( Day et al. , 1997 ) ) as well as NLP tools and resources that can be manipulated from the GUI . For instance , GATE currently provides a POS tagger , named entity recogniser and gazetteer and ontology editors ( Cunningham et al. , 2002 ) . GATE goes beyond earlier systems by using a component-based infrastructure ( Cunningham , 2000 ) which the GUI is built on top of .

For instance , GATE currently provides a POS tagger , named entity recogniser and gazetteer and ontology editors ( @@CITATION ) .


learning structured models for phone recognition

We would like to use features that look at wide context on the input side , which is inexpensive ( Jiampojamarn et al. , 2007 ) . Latent variables we wish to consider are an increased number of word classes ; more flexible regions -- see Petrov et al. ( 2007 ) on learning a state transition diagram for acoustic regions in phone recognition -- and phonological features and syllable boundaries . Indeed , our local log-linear features over several aligned latent strings closely resemble the soft constraints used by phonologists ( Eisner , 1997 ) .

Latent variables we wish to consider are an increased number of word classes ; more flexible regions -- see @@CITATION on learning a state transition diagram for acoustic regions in phone recognition -- and phonological features and syllable boundaries .


introduction to the conll2000 shared task chunking

The outcomes of these classifiers are then combined in a way that satisfies some constraints -- non-overlapping constraints in this case -- using an efficient constraint satisfaction mechanism that makes use of the confidence in the classifier 's outcomes . Since earlier versions of the SNoW based CSCL were used only to identify single phrases ( Punyakanok and Roth , 2001 ; Munoz et al. , 1999 ) and never to identify a collection of several phrases at the same time , as we do here , we also trained and tested it under the exact conditions of CoNLL-2000 ( Tjong Kim Sang and Buchholz , 2000 ) to compare it to other shallow parsers . Table 1 shows that it ranks among the top shallow parsers evaluated there 1 .

Since earlier versions of the SNoW based CSCL were used only to identify single phrases ( Punyakanok and Roth , 2001 ; Munoz et al. , 1999 ) and never to identify a collection of several phrases at the same time , as we do here , we also trained and tested it under the exact conditions of CoNLL-2000 ( Tjong Kim @@CITATION ) to compare it to other shallow parsers .


what do we know about conversation participants experiments on conversation entailment

In Figure 2 ( a ) , we find the distance between x11 and x9 is 3 . Using the implicit modeling of argument consistency , we follow the same approach as in our previous work ( Zhang and Chai , 2009 ) and trained a logistic regression model to predict verb alignment based on the features in Table 1 . 6.1.2 Explicit Modeling of AC

Using the implicit modeling of argument consistency , we follow the same approach as in our previous work ( @@CITATION ) and trained a logistic regression model to predict verb alignment based on the features in Table 1 .