intercoder agreement for computational linguistics

The inter-coder agreement figures obtained for the three types of annotation are given in Table 2 . feature Cohen 's k corrected k agreement 73.59 98.74 dial act 84.53 98.87 turn 73.52 99.16 Table 2 : Inter-coder agreement on feedback expression annotation Although researchers do not totally agree on how to measure agreement in various types of annotated data and on how to interpret the resulting figures , see Artstein and Poesio ( 2008 ) , it is usually assumed that Cohen 's kappa figures over 60 are good while those over 75 are excellent ( Fleiss , 1971 ) . Looking at the cases of disagreement we could see that many of these are due to the fact that the annotators had forgotten to remove some of the features automatically proposed by ANVIL from the latest annotated element .

feature Cohen 's k corrected k agreement 73.59 98.74 dial act 84.53 98.87 turn 73.52 99.16 Table 2 : Inter-coder agreement on feedback expression annotation Although researchers do not totally agree on how to measure agreement in various types of annotated data and on how to interpret the resulting figures , see @@CITATION , it is usually assumed that Cohen 's kappa figures over 60 are good while those over 75 are excellent ( Fleiss , 1971 ) .


a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining

Table 1 gives the results of these experiments and compares them with some other statistical parsers ( resp . Collins 1996 , Charniak 1997 , Collins 1999 and Charniak 2000 ) . While the PCFG reduction of Bod ( 2001 ) obtains state-of-the-art results on the WSJ , comparable to Charniak ( 2000 ) , Bonnema et al. 's estimator performs worse and is comparable to Collins ( 1996 ) .

Collins 1996 , Charniak 1997 , Collins 1999 and @@CITATION ) .


While the setup of King provides a clear formal basis for basic HPSG grammars , nothing is said about how special linguistic mechanisms like lexical rules fit into this formal setup . Two formalizations of lexical rules as used by HPSG linguists have been proposed , the meta-level lexical rules ( MLRs ; Calcagno 1995 ; Calcagno and Pollard 1995 ) and the . description-level lexical rules ( DLRs ; Meurers 1995 ) .5 2.2.1 Meta-Level Lexical Rules .

Two formalizations of lexical rules as used by HPSG linguists have been proposed , the meta-level lexical rules ( MLRs ; Calcagno 1995 ; @@CITATION ) and the .


a systematic comparison of various statistical alignment models

In order to build English-Spanish phrase tables for our experiments , we used the freely available Europarl V. 4 , News Commentary and United Nations Spanish-English parallel corpora released for the WMT101 . We run TreeTagger ( Schmid , 1994 ) for tokenization , and used the Giza + + ( Och and Ney , 2003 ) to align the tokenized corpora at the word level . Subsequently , we extracted the bilingual phrase table from the aligned corpora using the Moses toolkit ( Koehn et al. , 2007 ) .

We run TreeTagger ( Schmid , 1994 ) for tokenization , and used the Giza + + ( @@CITATION ) to align the tokenized corpora at the word level .


Against the background of a growing interest in multilingual NLP , multilingual anaphora / coreference resolution has gained considerable momentum in recent years ( Aone and McKee 1993 ; Azzam , Humphreys , and Gaizauskas 1998 ; Harabagiu and Maiorano 2000 ; Mitkov and Barbu 2000 ; Mitkov 1999 ; Mitkov and Stys 1997 ; Mitkov , Belguith , and Stys 1998 ) . Other milestones of recent research include the deployment of probabilistic and machine learning techniques ( Aone and Bennett 1995 ; Kehler 1997 ; Ge , Hale , and Charniak 1998 ; Cardie and Wagstaff 1999 ; the continuing interest in centering , used either in original or in revised form ( Abracos and Lopes 1994 ; Strube and Hahn 1996 ; Hahn and Strube 1997 ; Tetreault 1999 ) ; and proposals related to the evaluation methodology in anaphora resolution ( Mitkov 1998a , 2001b ) . For a more detailed survey of the state of the art in anaphora resolution , see Mitkov ( forthcoming ) .

Other milestones of recent research include the deployment of probabilistic and machine learning techniques ( Aone and Bennett 1995 ; Kehler 1997 ; Ge , Hale , and Charniak 1998 ; Cardie and Wagstaff 1999 ; the continuing interest in centering , used either in original or in revised form ( Abracos and Lopes 1994 ; @@CITATION ; Hahn and Strube 1997 ; Tetreault 1999 ) ; and proposals related to the evaluation methodology in anaphora resolution ( Mitkov 1998a , 2001b ) .


The aim is merely to show that we can , to a first approximation , provide a reasonably fully worked out description of these phenomena in a truly bidirectional way . We then go on to compare the current approach with that of some other theories with similar aims : the `` standard '' version of quasi-logical form implemented in the Core Language Engine , as rationally reconstructed by Alshawi and Crouch ( 1992 ) and Crouch and Pulman ( 1994 ) ; underspecified Discourse Representation Theory ( Reyle 1993 ) ; and the `` glue language '' approach of Dalrymple et al. ( 1996 ) . Finally , we discuss some of the semantic and logical issues raised by the approach described here , in particular the extent to which the theory meets the desiderata for accounts of underspecification outlined by van Eijck and Jaspars ( 1996 ) , and the extent to which the theory supplies a methodologically satisfactory account of truth and interpretation for sentences involving contextually dependent constructs .

We then go on to compare the current approach with that of some other theories with similar aims : the `` standard '' version of quasi-logical form implemented in the Core Language Engine , as rationally reconstructed by @@CITATION and Crouch and Pulman ( 1994 ) ; underspecified Discourse Representation Theory ( Reyle 1993 ) ; and the `` glue language '' approach of Dalrymple et al. ( 1996 ) .


In order to calculate a ranking for each TL sentence produced , we multiply the weights of each chunk used in its construction . Note that this ensures that greater importance is attributed to longer chunks , as is usual in most EBMT systems ( cfXXX Sato and Nagao 1990 ; Veale and Way 1997 ; Carl 1999 ) .7 As an example , consider the translation into French of the house collapsed . Assume the conditional probabilities in ( 33 ) :

Note that this ensures that greater importance is attributed to longer chunks , as is usual in most EBMT systems ( cfXXX @@CITATION ; Veale and Way 1997 ; Carl 1999 ) .7 As an example , consider the translation into French of the house collapsed .


capturing the interaction between aggregation and text planning in two generation systems

In WordNet , if an adjective ascribes a value to a noun concept , e.g. round gives a value of shape , WordNet will contain a pointer between the adjective and the noun by which the appropriate attribute is lexicalised , e.g. between round and shape . Using WordNet , annotating the sem feature of an adjective involves first choosing the correct sense for the adjective 2Some descriptions of int modifiers can be found in ( Cheng and Mellish , 2000b ) . and then mapping the word sense to a noun concept in the WordNet ontology .

Using WordNet , annotating the sem feature of an adjective involves first choosing the correct sense for the adjective 2Some descriptions of int modifiers can be found in ( @@CITATIONb ) .


a comparative study of query and document translation for crosslanguage information retrievalquot

Many approaches to cross-lingual IR have been published . One common approach is using Machine Translation ( MT ) to translate the queries to the language of the documents or translate documents to the language of the queries ( Gey et al , 1999 ; Oard , 1998 ) . For most languages , there are no MT systems at all .

One common approach is using Machine Translation ( MT ) to translate the queries to the language of the documents or translate documents to the language of the queries ( Gey et al , 1999 ; @@CITATION ) .


38 examples of elusive antecedents from published texts

But syntactic relations do not suffice to resolve anaphora : Hobbs ' ( 1976 ) algorithm for resolving the reference of pronouns , depending only on the surface syntax of sentences in the text , when applied to `` it '' in the example paragraph , fails in both cases to identify the most likely referent NP . Adding selectional restrictions ( semantic feature information , Hobbs 1977 ) does not solve the problem , because isolated features offer only part of the background knowledge necessary for reference disambiguation . Later , Hobbs ( 1979 , 1982 ) proposed a knowledge base in which information about language and the world would be encoded , and he emphasized the need for using `` salience '' in choosing facts from this knowledge base .

Adding selectional restrictions ( semantic feature information , @@CITATION ) does not solve the problem , because isolated features offer only part of the background knowledge necessary for reference disambiguation .


generative programming methods tools and applications

Although many problems share algorithms and data structures there is a tendency to reinvent the wheel . Software engineering research on Generative Programming ( Czarnecki and Eisenecker , 2000 ) attempts to solve these problems by focusing on the development of configurable elementary components and knowledge to combine these components into complete systems . Our infrastructure for NLP will provide high performance ) components inspired by Generative Programming principles .

Software engineering research on Generative Programming ( @@CITATION ) attempts to solve these problems by focusing on the development of configurable elementary components and knowledge to combine these components into complete systems .


a comparison of evaluation metrics for a broad coverage parser

Richard Crouch
Ron Kaplan
Tracy King
Stefan Riezler

The results of two different evaluations of the automatically generated f-structures are presented in Table 2 . Both use the evaluation software and triple encoding presented in Crouch et al. ( 2002 ) . The first of these is against the DCU 105 , a gold-standard set of 105 hand-coded f-structures

Both use the evaluation software and triple encoding presented in @@CITATION .


restricting the weak generative capacity of synchronous tree adjoining grammar

As mentioned earlier , there are some non-standard phenomena exist between different languages , that cause challenges for synchronized formalisms . In this Section , we will describe some example cases , which are drawn from the problem of using synchronous formalisms to define translations between languages ( e.g. Shieber ( 1994 ) cases ) . Due to lack of space we will only brief on some of these non-standard cases without going into the details .

In this Section , we will describe some example cases , which are drawn from the problem of using synchronous formalisms to define translations between languages ( e.g. @@CITATION cases ) .


rule writing or annotation costefficient resource usage for base noun phrase chunking

applications . Some examples include text categorization ( Lewis and Catlett 1994 ) , base noun phrase chunking ( Ngai and Yarowsky 2000 ) , part-of-speech tagging ( Engelson Dagan 1996 ) , spelling confusion set disambiguation ( Banko and Brill 2001 ) , and word sense disambiguation ( Fujii et al. 1998 ) . More challenging are learning problems whose objective is not classification , but generation of complex structures .

Some examples include text categorization ( Lewis and Catlett 1994 ) , base noun phrase chunking ( @@CITATION ) , part-of-speech tagging ( Engelson Dagan 1996 ) , spelling confusion set disambiguation ( Banko and Brill 2001 ) , and word sense disambiguation ( Fujii et al. 1998 ) .


a constrained latent variable model for coreference resolution

Mention detection is rarely studied as a stand-alone research problem ( Recasens et al. ( 2013 ) is one key exception ) . Most coreference resolution work simply mentions it in passing as a module in the pipelined system ( Chang et al. , 2013 ; Durrett and Klein , 2013 ; Lee et al. , 2011 ; Bj Â¨ orkelund and Kuhn , 2014 ) . However , the lack of emphasis is not due to this being a minor issue , but rather , we think , its difficulty .

Most coreference resolution work simply mentions it in passing as a module in the pipelined system ( @@CITATION ; Durrett and Klein , 2013 ; Lee et al. , 2011 ; Bj Â¨ orkelund and Kuhn , 2014 ) .


assessing agreement on classification tasks the kappa statistic

In addition , we tried to ensure that the sets of cases shown to the judges were of similar quality , so that the judges ' assessments would be comparable . Because the judges do not evaluate the same cases , we could not employ standard inter-annotator agreement measures ( Carletta 1996 ) . However , it is still necessary to

Because the judges do not evaluate the same cases , we could not employ standard inter-annotator agreement measures ( @@CITATION ) .


For example , Jokinen and Ragni ( 2007 ) and Jokinen et al. ( 2008 ) find that machine learning algorithms can be trained to recognise some of the functions of head movements , while Reidsma et al. ( 2009 ) show that there is a dependence between focus of attention and assignment of dialogue act labels . Related are also the studies by Rieks op den Akker and Schulz ( 2008 ) and Murray and Renals ( 2008 ) : both achieve promising results in the automatic segmentation of dialogue acts using the annotations in a large multimodal corpus . Work has also been done on prosody and gestures in the specific domain of map-task dialogues , also targeted in this paper .

Related are also the studies by Rieks op den Akker and Schulz ( 2008 ) and @@CITATION : both achieve promising results in the automatic segmentation of dialogue acts using the annotations in a large multimodal corpus .


immediate head parsing for language models

The understanding of natural language text includes not only analysis of syntactic structure , but also of semantic content . Due to advances in statistical syntactic parsing techniques ( Collins , 1997 ; Charniak , 2001 ) , attention has recently shifted towards the harder question of analyzing the meaning of natural language sentences . A common lexical semantic representation in the computational linguistics literature is a frame-based model where syntactic arguments are associated with various semantic roles ( essentially frame slots ) .

Due to advances in statistical syntactic parsing techniques ( Collins , 1997 ; @@CITATION ) , attention has recently shifted towards the harder question of analyzing the meaning of natural language sentences .


temporal ontology in natural languagequot

So it is not necessary now to present a formal semantics here . The reader may consult recent papers on this subject ( e.g. Moens and Steedman 1987 ; Webber 1987 ) to see what a formal interpretation of events in time might look like . Since sentences can refer to events described by other sentences , we may need also a quotation operator ; Perlis ( 1985 ) describes how first order logic can be augmented with such an operator .

The reader may consult recent papers on this subject ( e.g. @@CITATION ; Webber 1987 ) to see what a formal interpretation of events in time might look like .


intended models circumscription and commonsense reasoningquot

Since it is the `` highest '' path , flit is the most plausible ( relative to R ) interpretation of the words that appear in the sentence . Because it is also consistent , it will be chosen as a best interpretation of S , ( cfXXX Zadrozny 1987a , 1987b ) . Another theory , consisting of f ' = -LCB- el , sh2 , pl , b2 , dl -RCB- and S , saying that A space vehicle came into the harbor and caused a disease/illness is less plausible according to that ordering .

Because it is also consistent , it will be chosen as a best interpretation of S , ( cfXXX @@CITATIONa , 1987b ) .


building a large annotated corpus of english the penn treebank

For our experiments we used the standard division of the WSJ ( Marcus et al. 1993 ) , with sections 2 through 21 for training ( approx . 40,000 sentences ) and section 23 for testing ( 2416 sentences 100 words ) ; section 22 was used as development set .

For our experiments we used the standard division of the WSJ ( @@CITATION ) , with sections 2 through 21 for training ( approx .


morphology and meaning in the english mental lexicon

W D Marslen-Wilson
L K Tyler
R Waksler
L Older

experiments to probe the brain signatures of verb-verb combinations and propose cognitive as well as computational models regarding the possible organization and processing of Bangla CVs in the mental lexicon ( ML ) . With respect to this , we apply the different priming and other lexical decision experiments , described in literature ( Marslen-Wilson et al. , 1994 ; Bentin , S. and Feldman , 1990 ) specifically for derivationally suffixed polymorphemic words and compound verbs of Bangla . Our cross-modal and masked priming experiment on Bangla derivationally suffixed words shows that morphological relatedness between lexical items triggers a significant priming effect , even when the forms are phonologically/orthographically unrelated .

With respect to this , we apply the different priming and other lexical decision experiments , described in literature ( @@CITATION ; Bentin , S. and Feldman , 1990 ) specifically for derivationally suffixed polymorphemic words and compound verbs of Bangla .


what’s been forgotten in translation memory in envisioning machine translation in the information future

If a new input string can not be found exactly in the translation database , a search is conducted for close ( or `` fuzzy '' ) matches of the input string , and these are retrieved together with their translations for the translator to manipulate into the final , output translation . From this description , it should be clear that TM systems do not translate : Indeed , some researchers consider them to be little more than a search-and-replace engine , albeit a rather sophisticated one ( Macklovitch and Russell 2000 ) . We can illustrate this with respect to the TM entries in ( 1 ) , taken from the Canadian Hansards : ( 1 ) a .

From this description , it should be clear that TM systems do not translate : Indeed , some researchers consider them to be little more than a search-and-replace engine , albeit a rather sophisticated one ( @@CITATION ) .


probabilistic coreference in information extraction

Against the background of a growing interest in multilingual NLP , multilingual anaphora / coreference resolution has gained considerable momentum in recent years ( Aone and McKee 1993 ; Azzam , Humphreys , and Gaizauskas 1998 ; Harabagiu and Maiorano 2000 ; Mitkov and Barbu 2000 ; Mitkov 1999 ; Mitkov and Stys 1997 ; Mitkov , Belguith , and Stys 1998 ) . Other milestones of recent research include the deployment of probabilistic and machine learning techniques ( Aone and Bennett 1995 ; Kehler 1997 ; Ge , Hale , and Charniak 1998 ; Cardie and Wagstaff 1999 ; the continuing interest in centering , used either in original or in revised form ( Abracos and Lopes 1994 ; Strube and Hahn 1996 ; Hahn and Strube 1997 ; Tetreault 1999 ) ; and proposals related to the evaluation methodology in anaphora resolution ( Mitkov 1998a , 2001b ) . For a more detailed survey of the state of the art in anaphora resolution , see Mitkov ( forthcoming ) .

Other milestones of recent research include the deployment of probabilistic and machine learning techniques ( Aone and Bennett 1995 ; @@CITATION ; Ge , Hale , and Charniak 1998 ; Cardie and Wagstaff 1999 ; the continuing interest in centering , used either in original or in revised form ( Abracos and Lopes 1994 ; Strube and Hahn 1996 ; Hahn and Strube 1997 ; Tetreault 1999 ) ; and proposals related to the evaluation methodology in anaphora resolution ( Mitkov 1998a , 2001b ) .


hybrid japanese parser with handcrafted grammar and statistics

Hiroshi Kanayama
Kentaro Torisawa
Yutaka Mitsuisi
Jun’ichi Tsujii

In practical context , German , English , and Japanese HPSG-based grammars are developed and used in the Verbmobil project ( Kay et al. , 1994 ) . Our group has developed a wide-coverage HPSG grammar for Japanese ( Mitsuishi et al. , 1998 ) , which is used in a high-accuracy Japanese dependency analyzer ( Kanayama et al. , 2000 ) .

Our group has developed a wide-coverage HPSG grammar for Japanese ( Mitsuishi et al. , 1998 ) , which is used in a high-accuracy Japanese dependency analyzer ( @@CITATION ) .


the effects of query structure and dictionary setups in dictionarybased crosslanguage information retrievalquot

This approach limits how much credit the retrieval algorithm can give to a single term in the original query and prevents the translations of one or a few terms from swamping the whole query . There are several variations of such a method ( Ballesteros and Croft , 1998 ; Pirkola , 1998 ; Hull 1997 ) . One such method is to treat different translations of the same term as synonyms .

There are several variations of such a method ( Ballesteros and Croft , 1998 ; @@CITATION ; Hull 1997 ) .


beyond nombank a study of implicit arguments for nominal predicates

Following this , we split the predicate instances evenly into ten folds and used each fold as testing data for a model trained on the instances outside the fold . This evaluation set-up is an improvement versus the one we previously reported ( Gerber and Chai 2010 ) , in which fixed partitions were used for training , development , and testing . During training , the system was provided with annotated predicate instances .

This evaluation set-up is an improvement versus the one we previously reported ( @@CITATION ) , in which fixed partitions were used for training , development , and testing .


experiments on semanticbased clustering for crossdocument coreference

For instance , Blume ( 2005 ) uses NEs coocurring with the ambiguous mentions of a name as a key feature for the disambiguation process . Saggion ( 2008 ) compared the performace of NEs versus BoW features . In his experiments a only a representation based on Organisation NEs outperformed the word based approach .

@@CITATION compared the performace of NEs versus BoW features .


weaklysupervised bayesian learning of a ccg supertagger

Dan Garrette
Chris Dyer
Jason Baldridge
Noah A Smith

In order to encourage our model to choose trees in which the constituent labels `` fit '' into their supertag contexts , we want to bias our context parameters toward context categories that are combinable with the constituent label . The right-side context of a non-terminal category -- the probability of generating a category to the right of the current constituent 's category -- corresponds directly to the category transitions used for the HMM supertagger of Garrette et al. ( 2014 ) . Thus , the right-side context prior mean Î¸RCTX-0 can be biased in exactly the same way as t the HMM supertagger 's transitions : toward context supertags that connect to the constituent label .

The right-side context of a non-terminal category -- the probability of generating a category to the right of the current constituent 's category -- corresponds directly to the category transitions used for the HMM supertagger of @@CITATION .


5.1 Core Language Engine Quasi-Logical Form The starting point for the approach followed here was a dissatisfaction with certain aspects of the theory of quasi-logical form as described in Alshawi ( 1990 , 1992 ) , and implemented in SRI 's Core Language Engine ( CLE ) . In the CLE-QLF approach , as ra -

The starting point for the approach followed here was a dissatisfaction with certain aspects of the theory of quasi-logical form as described in @@CITATION , 1992 ) , and implemented in SRI 's Core Language Engine ( CLE ) .


development and preliminary evaluation of the mit atis systemquot

S Seneff
J Glass
D Goddeau
D Goodine
L Hirschman
H Leung
M Phillips
J Polifroni
V Zue

Exactly how to get from the parse tree to an appropriate meaning representation is a current research topic in our group . However , the method we are currently using in the ATIS domain ( Seneff et al. 1991 ) represents our most promising approach to this problem . We have decided to limit semantic frame types to a small set of choices such as CLAUSE ( for a sentence-level concept , such as request ) , PREDICATE ( for a functional operation ) , REFERENCE ( essentially proper noun ) , and QSET ( for a set of objects ) .

However , the method we are currently using in the ATIS domain ( @@CITATION ) represents our most promising approach to this problem .


godzik a clustering of highly homologous sequences to reduce the size of large protein databases bioinformatics

The UniProt Non-redundant Reference ( UniRef ) databases combine closely related sequences into a single record where similar sequences are grouped together . Three UniRef tables UniRef100 , UniRef90 and UniRef50 ) are available for download : UniRef100 combines identical sequences and sub-fragments into a single UniRef entry ; and UniRef90 and UniRef50 are built by clustering UniRef100 sequences into clusters based on the CD-HIT algorithm [ 16 ] such that each cluster is composed of sequences that have at least 90 % or 50 % sequence similarity , respectively , to the representative sequence . NCBI resources -- three data sources from NCBI were used in this study : GenPept , RefSeq , and Entrez GENE .

Three UniRef tables UniRef100 , UniRef90 and UniRef50 ) are available for download : UniRef100 combines identical sequences and sub-fragments into a single UniRef entry ; and UniRef90 and UniRef50 are built by clustering UniRef100 sequences into clusters based on the CD-HIT algorithm @@CITATION such that each cluster is composed of sequences that have at least 90 % or 50 % sequence similarity , respectively , to the representative sequence .


a new statistical parser based on bigram lexical dependencies

Table 1 gives the results of these experiments and compares them with some other statistical parsers ( resp . Collins 1996 , Charniak 1997 , Collins 1999 and Charniak 2000 ) . While the PCFG reduction of Bod ( 2001 ) obtains state-of-the-art results on the WSJ , comparable to Charniak ( 2000 ) , Bonnema et al. 's estimator performs worse and is comparable to Collins ( 1996 ) .

@@CITATION , Charniak 1997 , Collins 1999 and Charniak 2000 ) .


improving video activity recognition using object recognition and text mining

The Computer Vision community has also benefited greatly from efforts to unify the two modalities . To name a few examples , Rohrbach et al. ( 2010 ) and Socher et al. ( 2013 ) show how semantic information from text can be used to improve zero-shot classification ( i.e. , classifying never-before-seen objects ) , and Motwani and Mooney ( 2012 ) show that verb clusters can be used to improve activity recognition in videos .

To name a few examples , Rohrbach et al. ( 2010 ) and Socher et al. ( 2013 ) show how semantic information from text can be used to improve zero-shot classification ( i.e. , classifying never-before-seen objects ) , and @@CITATION show that verb clusters can be used to improve activity recognition in videos .


an expanded logical formalism for headdriven phrase structure grammar

The computational treatment of lexical rules as covariation in lexical entries was implemented in Prolog by the authors in cooperation with Dieter Martini for the ConTroll system ( Gerdemann and King 1994 ; Gotz and Meurers 1997a ) . We tested the covariation approach with a complex grammar implementing an HPSG analysis covering the so-called aux-flip phenomenon , and partial-VP topicalization in the three clause types of German ( Hinrichs , Meurers , and Nakazawa 1994 ) .

The computational treatment of lexical rules as covariation in lexical entries was implemented in Prolog by the authors in cooperation with Dieter Martini for the ConTroll system ( Gerdemann and @@CITATION ; Gotz and Meurers 1997a ) .


Also , the prepositions ( i.e. , and ) not be considered a part of the mention . Arabic has two kinds of plurals : broken plurals and sound plurals ( Wightwick and Gaafar , 1998 ; Chen and Gey , 2002 ) . The formation of broken plurals is common , more complex and often irregular .

Arabic has two kinds of plurals : broken plurals and sound plurals ( @@CITATION ; Chen and Gey , 2002 ) .


Although there are other discussions of the paragraph as a central element of discourse ( e.g. Chafe 1979 , Halliday and Hasan 1976 , Longacre 1979 , Haberlandt et al. 1980 ) , all of them share a certain limitation in their formal techniques for analyzing paragraph structure . Discourse linguists show little interest in making the structural descriptions precise enough so that a computational grammar of text could adapt them and use them .

Although there are other discussions of the paragraph as a central element of discourse ( e.g. Chafe 1979 , Halliday and Hasan 1976 , @@CITATION , Haberlandt et al. 1980 ) , all of them share a certain limitation in their formal techniques for analyzing paragraph structure .


labeling chinese predicates with semantic roles

So the ARGX sub task is improved . To prove that our method is effective , we also make a comparison between the performances of our system and Xue and Palmer ( 2005 ) , Xue ( 2008 ) . Xue ( 2008 ) is the best SRL system until now and it has the same data setting with ours .

To prove that our method is effective , we also make a comparison between the performances of our system and Xue and Palmer ( 2005 ) , @@CITATION .


We show that these PCFG-reductions result in a 60 times speedup in processing time w.r.t. Bod ( 2001 , 2003 ) . But while Bod 's estimator obtains state-of-the-art results on the WSJ , comparable to Charniak ( 2000 ) and Collins ( 2000 ) , Bonnema et al. 's estimator performs worse and is comparable to Collins ( 1996 ) . In the second part of this paper , we extend our experiments with a new notion of the best parse tree .

But while Bod 's estimator obtains state-of-the-art results on the WSJ , comparable to @@CITATION and Collins ( 2000 ) , Bonnema et al. 's estimator performs worse and is comparable to Collins ( 1996 ) .


online largemargin training of syntactic and structural translation features

For example , when using BLEU , it makes a big difference whether individual sentences are both longer and shorter than the reference or systematically shorter than the reference , but these two cases can not be distinguished by single-sentence objective functions . Our plan is to implement a windowed or moving-average version of BLEU as in ( Chiang et al. , 2008 ) . We also plan to further speed up the tuning process by parallelizing the decoding of the sentences in the tuning set .

Our plan is to implement a windowed or moving-average version of BLEU as in ( @@CITATION ) .


a stochastic parts program and nounphrase parser for unrestricted text”

Disambiguation of capitalized words is usually handled by POS taggers , which treat capitalized words in the same way as other categories , that is , by accounting for the immediate syntactic context and using estimates collected from a training corpus . As Church ( 1988 ) rightly pointed out , however , `` Proper nouns and capitalized words are particularly problematic : some capitalized words are proper nouns and some are not . Estimates from the Brown Corpus can be misleading .

As @@CITATION rightly pointed out , however , `` Proper nouns and capitalized words are particularly problematic : some capitalized words are proper nouns and some are not .


learning to predict problematic situations in a spoken dialogue system experiments with how may i help you

Marilyn Walker
Irene Langkilde
Jerry Wright Allen Gorin
Diane Litman

The recent great advances in speech and language technologies have made it possible to build fully implemented spoken dialogue systems ( Aust et al. , 1995 ; Allen et al. , 1996 ; Zue et al. , 2000 ; Walker et al. , 2000 ) . One of the next research goals is to make these systems task-portable , that is , to simplify the process of porting to another task domain .

The recent great advances in speech and language technologies have made it possible to build fully implemented spoken dialogue systems ( Aust et al. , 1995 ; Allen et al. , 1996 ; Zue et al. , 2000 ; @@CITATION ) .


factorizing complex models a case study in mention detection

Many ACE participants have tic classes . For instance , part of the ACE Phase 2 also adopted a corpus-based approach to SC deterevaluation involves classifying an NP as PERSON , mination that is investigated as part of the mention ORGANIZATION , GPE ( a geographical-political redetection ( MD ) task ( e.g. , Florian et al. ( 2006 ) ) . gion ) , FACILITY , LOCATION , or OTHERS .

For instance , part of the ACE Phase 2 also adopted a corpus-based approach to SC deterevaluation involves classifying an NP as PERSON , mination that is investigated as part of the mention ORGANIZATION , GPE ( a geographical-political redetection ( MD ) task ( e.g. , @@CITATION ) .


domain adaptation with structural correspondence learning

This includes work on question answering ( Wang et al. , 2007 ) , sentiment analysis ( Nakagawa et al. , 2010 ) , MT reordering ( Xu et al. , 2009 ) , and many other tasks . In most cases , the accuracy of parsers degrades when run on out-of-domain data ( Gildea , 2001 ; McClosky et al. , 2006 ; Blitzer et al. , 2006 ; Petrov et al. , 2010 ) . But these accuracies are measured with respect to gold-standard out-of-domain parse trees .

In most cases , the accuracy of parsers degrades when run on out-of-domain data ( Gildea , 2001 ; McClosky et al. , 2006 ; @@CITATION ; Petrov et al. , 2010 ) .


design challenges and misconceptions in named entity recognition

That is , for each mi , j , we have a corresponding head ha , b where i < a < b < j. Moreover , for another head ha ' , b ' , we have the satisfying condition a â b ' > 0 or b â a ' < 0 bha , b , ha ' , b ' . Based on this assumption , the problem of identifying mention heads is a sequential phrase identification problem , and we choose to employ the BILOU-representation as it has advantages over traditional BIO-representation , as shown , e.g. in Ratinov and Roth ( 2009 ) . The BILOUrepresentation suggests learning classifiers that identify the Beginning , Inside and Last tokens of multi-token chunks as well as Unit-length chunks .

Based on this assumption , the problem of identifying mention heads is a sequential phrase identification problem , and we choose to employ the BILOU-representation as it has advantages over traditional BIO-representation , as shown , e.g. in @@CITATION .


on the specification of term values in automatic indexingquot

The importance of each term is assumed to be inversely proportional to the number of documents that contain that term . TF is given by TFD , t , and it denotes frequency of term t in document D. IDF is given by IDFt = log ( N/dft ) , where N is the number of documents in the collection , and dft is the number of documents containing the term t. ( Salton and Yang , 1973 ) proposed the combination of TF and IDF as weighting schemes , and it has been shown that their product gave better performance . Thus , the weight of each term/root in a document is given by wD , t = TFD , t * IDFt .

TF is given by TFD , t , and it denotes frequency of term t in document D. IDF is given by IDFt = log ( N/dft ) , where N is the number of documents in the collection , and dft is the number of documents containing the term t. ( @@CITATION ) proposed the combination of TF and IDF as weighting schemes , and it has been shown that their product gave better performance .


An HPSG grammar consists of lexical entries and ID grammar rules , each of which is described with typed feature structures ( Carpenter , 1992 ) . A lexical entry for each word expresses the characteristics of the word , such as the subcategorization frame and the grammatical category .

An HPSG grammar consists of lexical entries and ID grammar rules , each of which is described with typed feature structures ( @@CITATION ) .


Tracy Holloway King
Richard Crouch
Stefan Riezler
Mary Dalrymple
Ronald Kaplan

There is , however , a risk of overfitting when evaluation is limited to a gold standard of this size . More recently , Burke , Cahill , et al. ( 2004a ) carried out an evaluation of the automatic annotation algorithm against the publicly available PARC 700 Dependency Bank ( King et al. 2003 ) , a set of 700 randomly selected sentences from Section 23 which have been parsed , converted to dependency format , and manually corrected and extended by human validators . They report precision of over 88.5 % and recall of over 86 % ( Table 2 ) .

More recently , Burke , Cahill , et al. ( 2004a ) carried out an evaluation of the automatic annotation algorithm against the publicly available PARC 700 Dependency Bank ( @@CITATION ) , a set of 700 randomly selected sentences from Section 23 which have been parsed , converted to dependency format , and manually corrected and extended by human validators .


multidocument summarization by sentence extraction

J Goldstein
V Mittal
J Carbonell
M Kantrowitz

Unlike a document reuse approach , sentence-level approaches need to consider issues of discourse coherence in order to ensure that the extracted combination of sentences is coherent or at least understandable . In our work , we gather sets of sentences , and assume ( but do not employ ) existing approaches for their organization ( Goldstein et al. 2000 ; Barzilay , Elhadad , and McKeown 2001 ; Barzilay and McKeown 2005 ) . The appeal of a sentence-level approach is that it supports the generation of a `` combination response '' in situations where there is insufficient evidence for a single document containing a full response , but there is enough evidence for parts of responses .

In our work , we gather sets of sentences , and assume ( but do not employ ) existing approaches for their organization ( @@CITATION ; Barzilay , Elhadad , and McKeown 2001 ; Barzilay and McKeown 2005 ) .


Due to these limitations , instead of investigating into the synchronization of two grammars , we propose a flexible annotation schema ( i.e. Synchronous Structured String-Tree Correspondence ( S-SSTC ) ) to realize additional power and flexibility in expressing structural correspondences at the level of language sentence pairs . For example , such schema can serve as a mean to represent translation examples , or find structural correspondences for the purpose of transfer grammar learning ( Menezes & Richardson , 2001 ) , ( Aramaki et al. , 2001 ) , ( Watanabe et al. , 2000 ) , ( Meyers et al. , 2000 ) , ( Matsumoto et al. , 1993 ) , ( kaji et al. , 1992 ) , and example-base machine translation EBMT3 ( Sato & Nagao , 1990 ) , ( Sato , 1991 ) , ( Richardson et al. , 2001 ) , ( Al-Adhaileh & Tang , 1999 ) .

For example , such schema can serve as a mean to represent translation examples , or find structural correspondences for the purpose of transfer grammar learning ( Menezes & Richardson , 2001 ) , ( Aramaki et al. , 2001 ) , ( Watanabe et al. , 2000 ) , ( Meyers et al. , 2000 ) , ( @@CITATION ) , ( kaji et al. , 1992 ) , and example-base machine translation EBMT3 ( Sato & Nagao , 1990 ) , ( Sato , 1991 ) , ( Richardson et al. , 2001 ) , ( Al-Adhaileh & Tang , 1999 ) .


statistical inference for probabilistic functions of finite markov chains

We also used our DCA system to assign capitalized words , abbreviations , and sentence breaks , retaining only cases assigned by the strategies with an accuracy not less than 99.8 % . This was done because purely unsupervised techniques ( e.g. , Baum-Welch [ Baum and Petrie 1966 ] or Brill 's [ Brill 1995b ] ) enable regularities to be induced for word classes which contain many entries , exploiting the fact that individual words that belong to a POS class occur in different ambiguity patterns . Counting all possible POS combinations in these ambiguity patterns over multiple patterns usually produces the right combinations as the most frequent .

This was done because purely unsupervised techniques ( e.g. , Baum-Welch [ @@CITATION ] or Brill 's [ Brill 1995b ] ) enable regularities to be induced for word classes which contain many entries , exploiting the fact that individual words that belong to a POS class occur in different ambiguity patterns .


While the setup of King provides a clear formal basis for basic HPSG grammars , nothing is said about how special linguistic mechanisms like lexical rules fit into this formal setup . Two formalizations of lexical rules as used by HPSG linguists have been proposed , the meta-level lexical rules ( MLRs ; Calcagno 1995 ; Calcagno and Pollard 1995 ) and the . description-level lexical rules ( DLRs ; Meurers 1995 ) .5 2.2.1 Meta-Level Lexical Rules .

Two formalizations of lexical rules as used by HPSG linguists have been proposed , the meta-level lexical rules ( MLRs ; @@CITATION ; Calcagno and Pollard 1995 ) and the .


building a large annotated corpus of english the penn treebank computational linguistics

measure the standard intrinsic parser metrics unlabeled attachment score ( UAS ) and labeled attachment score ( LAS ) ( Buchholz and Marsi , 2006 ) . In terms of treebank data , the primary training corpus is the Penn Wall Street Journal Treebank ( PTB ) ( Marcus et al. , 1993 ) . We also make use of the Brown corpus , and the Question Treebank ( QTB ) ( Judge et al. , 2006 ) .

In terms of treebank data , the primary training corpus is the Penn Wall Street Journal Treebank ( PTB ) ( @@CITATION ) .


automatically identifying health outcome information in medline records

Dina Demner-Fushman
Barbara Few
Susan E Hauser
George Thoma

For these reasons , explicit section markers are not entirely reliable indicators for the various semantic elements we seek to extract , but must be considered along with other sources of evidence . The extraction of each PICO element relies to a different extent on an annotated corpus of MEDLINE abstracts , created through an effort led by the first author at the National Library of Medicine ( Demner-Fushman et al. 2006 ) . As will be described herein , the population , problem , and the intervention extractors are based largely on recognition of semantic types and a few manually constructed rules ; the outcome extrac -

The extraction of each PICO element relies to a different extent on an annotated corpus of MEDLINE abstracts , created through an effort led by the first author at the National Library of Medicine ( @@CITATION ) .


newsweeder learning to filter netnewsquot

Feature selection techniques have been widely used in information retrieval as a means for coping with the large number of words in a document ; a selection is made to keep only the more relevant words . Various feature selection techniques have been used in automatic text categorization ; they include document frequency ( DF ) , information gain ( IG ) ( Tzeras and Hartman , 1993 ) , minimum description length principal ( Lang , 1995 ) , and the X2 statistic . ( Yang and Pedersen , 1997 ) has found strong correlations between DF , IG and the X2 statistic for a term .

Various feature selection techniques have been used in automatic text categorization ; they include document frequency ( DF ) , information gain ( IG ) ( Tzeras and Hartman , 1993 ) , minimum description length principal ( @@CITATION ) , and the X2 statistic .


inducing a semantically annotated lexicon via embased clustering

Mats Rooth
Stefan Riezler
Detlef Prescher
Glenn Carroll
Franz Beil

For example , we might have a class Mexican Food and learn that the entire class is suitable for eating . Usually , the classes are from WordNet ( Miller et al. , 1990 ) , although they can also be inferred from clustering ( Rooth et al. , 1999 ) . Brockmann and Lapata ( 2003 ) compare a number of WordNet-based approaches , including Resnik ( 1996 ) , Li and Abe ( 1998 ) , and Clark and Weir ( 2002 ) , and found that the more sophisticated class-based approaches do not always outperform simple frequency-based models .

Usually , the classes are from WordNet ( Miller et al. , 1990 ) , although they can also be inferred from clustering ( @@CITATION ) .


computational interpretations of the gricean maximes in the generation of referring expressions

Incrementality : Help or Hindrance ? The account sketched in Section 4 was superimposed on an incremental GRE algorithm , partly because incrementality is well established in this area ( Appelt 1985 ; Dale and Reiter 1995 ) . But IA may be replaced by any other reasonable7 GRE algorithm , for example , one that always exactly minimizes the number of properties expressed , or one that always `` greedily '' selects the property that removes the maximum number of distractors .

The account sketched in Section 4 was superimposed on an incremental GRE algorithm , partly because incrementality is well established in this area ( Appelt 1985 ; @@CITATION ) .


reranking and selftraining for parser adaptation

In most cases , the accuracy of parsers degrades when run on out-of-domain data ( Gildea , 2001 ; @@CITATION ; Blitzer et al. , 2006 ; Petrov et al. , 2010 ) .


algebraic structures for transitive closure

Now for some important remarks on efficiency : â¢ Computing ti is an instance of the well-known algebraic path problem ( Lehmann , 1977 ; Tar an , 1981a ) . Let Ti = xiofoyi .

Now for some important remarks on efficiency : â¢ Computing ti is an instance of the well-known algebraic path problem ( @@CITATION ; Tar an , 1981a ) .


perceptual inference through global lexical similarity

In a similar vein , Steyvers ( 2010 ) showed that a different feature-topic model improved predictions on a fill-in-the-blank task . Johns and Jones ( 2012 ) take an entirely different approach by showing that one can successfully infer held out feature norms from weighted mixtures based on textual similarity . Silberer and Lapata ( 2012 ) introduce a new method of multimodal integration based on Canonical Correlation Analysis , and performs a systematic comparison between their CCA-based model and others on association norm prediction , held out feature prediction , and word similarity .

@@CITATION take an entirely different approach by showing that one can successfully infer held out feature norms from weighted mixtures based on textual similarity .


contentlearning correlations in spoken tutoring dialogs at word turn and discourse levels

Over the last decade there has been a lot of interest in developing tutorial dialogue systems that understand student explanations ( Jordan et al. , 2006 ; Graesser et al. , 1999 ; Aleven et al. , 2001 ; Buckley and Wolska , 2007 ; Nielsen et al. , 2008 ; VanLehn et al. , 2007 ) , because high percentages of selfexplanation and student contentful talk are known to be correlated with better learning in humanhuman tutoring ( Chi et al. , 1994 ; Litman et al. , 2009 ; Purandare and Litman , 2008 ; Steinhauser et al. , 2007 ) . However , most existing systems use pre-authored tutor responses for addressing student errors .

Over the last decade there has been a lot of interest in developing tutorial dialogue systems that understand student explanations ( Jordan et al. , 2006 ; Graesser et al. , 1999 ; Aleven et al. , 2001 ; Buckley and Wolska , 2007 ; Nielsen et al. , 2008 ; VanLehn et al. , 2007 ) , because high percentages of selfexplanation and student contentful talk are known to be correlated with better learning in humanhuman tutoring ( Chi et al. , 1994 ; Litman et al. , 2009 ; @@CITATION ; Steinhauser et al. , 2007 ) .


clause aggregation using linguistic knowledge

Previous work in sentence planning in the natural language generation ( NLG ) community uses hand-written rules to approximate the distribution of linguistic phenomena in a corpus ( see ( Shaw , 1998 ) for a recent example with further references ) . This approach is difficult to scale due to the nonrobustness of rules and unexpected interactions ( Hovy and Wanner , 1996 ) , and it is difficult to develop new applications quickly .

Previous work in sentence planning in the natural language generation ( NLG ) community uses hand-written rules to approximate the distribution of linguistic phenomena in a corpus ( see ( @@CITATION ) for a recent example with further references ) .


ex istsl ( e. pos ( pres ( u se ( e , eve ry ( m a na ger ) , a c. , ââ ( com put er ) ) ) ) We assume that every determiner has its own equivalence , which resolves it as a quantifier : sometimes this can be quite a complicated matter , as with any ( Alshawi 1990 ) , which will resolve in different ways depending on its linguistic context , but here we avoid this complexity ' 6 Separate equivalences might also make it easier to encode determiner-specific preferences , such as that of each for wide scope . A referee points out that the lack of any explicit ordering of application of equivalences makes one natural way of doing this unavailable .

We assume that every determiner has its own equivalence , which resolves it as a quantifier : sometimes this can be quite a complicated matter , as with any ( @@CITATION ) , which will resolve in different ways depending on its linguistic context , but here we avoid this complexity ' 6 Separate equivalences might also make it easier to encode determiner-specific preferences , such as that of each for wide scope .


This article focuses on gradable adjectives , also called degree adjectives .1 More specifically , we shall explore how referring expressions containing gradable adjectives can be produced by a Natural Language Generation ( NLG ) program . Following Pinkal ( 1979 ) , such expressions will be called vague descriptions even though , as we shall see , the vagueness of the adjective does not extend to the description as a whole . It will be useful to generalize over different forms of the adjective , covering the superlative form ( e.g. , largest ) and the comparative form ( larger ) , as well as the positive or base form ( large ) of the adjective .

Following @@CITATION , such expressions will be called vague descriptions even though , as we shall see , the vagueness of the adjective does not extend to the description as a whole .


conditional random fields probabilistic models for segmenting and labeling sequence data

The resulting machine must be normalized , either per-state or globally , to obtain a joint or a conditional distribution as desired . Such approaches have been tried recently in restricted cases ( McCallum et al. , 2000 ; Eisner , 2001b ; Lafferty et al. , 2001 ) . Normalization may be postponed and applied instead to the result of combining the FST with other FSTs by composition , union , concatenation , etc. .

Such approaches have been tried recently in restricted cases ( McCallum et al. , 2000 ; Eisner , 2001b ; @@CITATION ) .


headdriven statistical models for natural language parsing

Most probability estimation methods require that there be a finite set of features on which the probability is conditioned . The standard way to handle this problem is to handcraft a finite set of features which provides a sufficient summary of the unbounded history ( Ratnaparkhi , 1999 ; Collins , 1999 ; Charniak , 2000 ) . The probabilities are then assumed to be independent of all the infoimation about the history which is not captured by the chosen features .

The standard way to handle this problem is to handcraft a finite set of features which provides a sufficient summary of the unbounded history ( Ratnaparkhi , 1999 ; @@CITATION ; Charniak , 2000 ) .


integrating experiential and distributional data to learn semantic representations

Mark Andrews
Gabriella Vigliocco
David Vinson

Since it is not sensible to evaluate association norm prediction when they are also used as training data , we omit this evaluation for this modality . Following Andrews et al. ( 2009 ) , we measure association norm prediction as an average of percentile ranks . For all possible pairs of words in our vocabulary , we compute the negative symmetric KL divergence between the two words .

Following @@CITATION , we measure association norm prediction as an average of percentile ranks .


Fixed roles are too coarsegrained to account for certain semantic distinctions -- the only recourse , to expand the inventory of roles , comes with the price of increased complexity , e.g. , in the syntaxto-semantics mapping . There is a general consensus among theoretical linguists that the proper representation of verbal argument structure is event structure -- representations grounded in a theory of events that decompose semantic roles in terms of primitive predicates representing concepts such as causality and inchoativity ( Dowty , 1979 ; Jackendoff , 1983 ; Pustejovsky , 1991b ; Rappaport Hovav and Levin , 1998 ) . Consider the following example :

There is a general consensus among theoretical linguists that the proper representation of verbal argument structure is event structure -- representations grounded in a theory of events that decompose semantic roles in terms of primitive predicates representing concepts such as causality and inchoativity ( Dowty , 1979 ; Jackendoff , 1983 ; @@CITATIONb ; Rappaport Hovav and Levin , 1998 ) .


kwitek a et al rat genome database rgd mapping disease onto the genome nucleic acids res

S Twigger
J Lu
M Shimoyama
D Chen
D Pasko
H Long
J Ginster
Chen CF
R Nigam

The Semantic Network contains information about the types or categories ( e.g. , `` Disease or Syndrome '' , `` Virus '' ) to which all META concepts have been assigned . Other molecular biology databases We also included several model organism databases or nomenclature databases in the construction of the dictionary , i.e. , mouse Mouse Genome Database ( MGD ) [ 18 ] , fly FlyBase [ 19 ] , yeast Saccharomyces Genome Database ( SGD ) [ 20 ] , rat -- Rat Genome Database ( RGD ) [ 21 ] , worm -- WormBase [ 22 ] , Human Nomenclature Database ( HUGO ) [ 23 ] , Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man ( OMIM ) [ 24 ] , and Enzyme Nomenclature Database ( ECNUM ) [ 25 , 26 ] .

Other molecular biology databases We also included several model organism databases or nomenclature databases in the construction of the dictionary , i.e. , mouse Mouse Genome Database ( MGD ) [ 18 ] , fly FlyBase [ 19 ] , yeast Saccharomyces Genome Database ( SGD ) [ 20 ] , rat -- Rat Genome Database ( RGD ) @@CITATION , worm -- WormBase [ 22 ] , Human Nomenclature Database ( HUGO ) [ 23 ] , Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man ( OMIM ) [ 24 ] , and Enzyme Nomenclature Database ( ECNUM ) [ 25 , 26 ] .


retraining monolingual parser bilingually for syntactic smt

Cohn and Blunsom ( 2009 ) adopted a Bayesian method to infer an STSG by exploring the space of alignments based on parse trees . Liu et al. ( 2012 ) re-trained the linguistic parsers bilingually based on word alignment . Burkett and Klein ( 2012 ) utilized a transformation-based method to learn a sequence of monolingual tree transformations for translation .

@@CITATION re-trained the linguistic parsers bilingually based on word alignment .


nphil.uni-tuebingen . de URL : http://www.sfs.nphil.uni-tuebingen.de/sfb / b4home.html 1 This is , for example , the case for all proposals working with verbal lexical entries that raise the arguments of a verbal complement ( Hinrichs and Nakazawa 1989 ) that also use lexical rules such as the Complement Extraction Lexical Rule ( Pollard and Sag 1994 ) or the Complement Cliticization Lexical Rule ( Miller and Sag 1993 ) to operate on those raised elements . Also an analysis treating adjunct extraction via lexical rules ( van Noord and Bouma 1994 ) results in an infinite lexicon .

de URL : http://www.sfs.nphil.uni-tuebingen.de/sfb / b4home.html 1 This is , for example , the case for all proposals working with verbal lexical entries that raise the arguments of a verbal complement ( @@CITATION ) that also use lexical rules such as the Complement Extraction Lexical Rule ( Pollard and Sag 1994 ) or the Complement Cliticization Lexical Rule ( Miller and Sag 1993 ) to operate on those raised elements .


Much of theoretical linguistics can be formulated in a very natural manner as stating correspondences ( translations ) between layers of representation structures ( Rambow & Satta , 1996 ) , such as the relation between syntax and semantic . An analogous problem is to be defined in such a way that expresses the correspondence between a language and its translations in other languages .

Much of theoretical linguistics can be formulated in a very natural manner as stating correspondences ( translations ) between layers of representation structures ( @@CITATION ) , such as the relation between syntax and semantic .


This is particularly true for the medical domain . From an IR view , a lot of specialized research has already been carried out for medical applications , with emphasis on the lexico-semantic aspects of dederivation and decomposition ( Pacak et al. , 1980 ; Norton and Pacak , 1983 ; Wolff , 1984 ; Wingert , 1985 ; Dujols et al. , 1991 ; Baud et al. , 1998 ) . While one may argue that single-word compounds are quite rare in English ( which is not the case in the medical domain either ) , this is certainly not true for German and other basically agglutinative languages known for excessive single-word nominal compounding .

From an IR view , a lot of specialized research has already been carried out for medical applications , with emphasis on the lexico-semantic aspects of dederivation and decomposition ( Pacak et al. , 1980 ; Norton and Pacak , 1983 ; Wolff , 1984 ; @@CITATION ; Dujols et al. , 1991 ; Baud et al. , 1998 ) .


buckwalter arabic morphological analyzer version 20 linguistic data consortium

A more detailed discussion of the various available Arabic tag sets can be found in Habash ( 2010 ) . The following are the various tag sets we use in this article : ( a ) the core POS tag sets CORE44 and the newly introduced CORE12 ; ( b ) CATiB Treebank tag set ( CATIB6 ) ( Habash and Roth 2009 ) and its newly introduced extension of CATIBEX created using simple regular expressions on word form , indicating particular morphemes such as the prefix JI Al + or the suffix v ' + wn ; this tag set is the best-performing tag set for Arabic on predicted values as reported in Section 4 ; ( c ) the PATB full tag set with complete morphological tag ( BW ) ( Buckwalter 2004 ) ; and two extensions of the PATB reduced tag set ( PENN POS , a.k.a. RTS , size 24 [ Diab , Hacioglu , and Jurafsky 2004 ] ) , both outperforming it : ( d ) Kulick , Gabbard , and Marcus ( 2006 ) 's tag set ( KULICK ) , size 43 , one of whose most important extensions is the marking of the definite article clitic , and ( e ) Diab and Benajiba 's ( in preparation ) EXTENDED RTS tag set ( ERTS ) , which marks gender , number , and definiteness , size 134 .

The following are the various tag sets we use in this article : ( a ) the core POS tag sets CORE44 and the newly introduced CORE12 ; ( b ) CATiB Treebank tag set ( CATIB6 ) ( Habash and Roth 2009 ) and its newly introduced extension of CATIBEX created using simple regular expressions on word form , indicating particular morphemes such as the prefix JI Al + or the suffix v ' + wn ; this tag set is the best-performing tag set for Arabic on predicted values as reported in Section 4 ; ( c ) the PATB full tag set with complete morphological tag ( BW ) ( @@CITATION ) ; and two extensions of the PATB reduced tag set ( PENN POS , a.k.a. RTS , size 24 [ Diab , Hacioglu , and Jurafsky 2004 ] ) , both outperforming it : ( d ) Kulick , Gabbard , and Marcus ( 2006 ) 's tag set ( KULICK ) , size 43 , one of whose most important extensions is the marking of the definite article clitic , and ( e ) Diab and Benajiba 's ( in preparation ) EXTENDED RTS tag set ( ERTS ) , which marks gender , number , and definiteness , size 134 .


achieving incremental semantic interpretation through contextual representation

Julie Sedivy
Michael Tanenhaus
Craig Chambers
Gregory Carlson

This means that the linguistic realization can not start until CD is concluded , contradicting eye-tracking experiments suggesting that speakers start speaking while still scanning distractors ( Pechmann 1989 ) . A similar problem is discussed in the psycholinguistics of interpretation ( Sedivy et al. 1999 ) : Interpretation is widely assumed to proceed incrementally , but vague descriptions resist strict incrementality , since an adjective in a vague description can only be fully interpreted when its comparison set is known . Sedivy and colleagues resolve this quandary by allowing a kind of revision , whereby later words allow hearers to refine their interpretation of gradable adjectives .

A similar problem is discussed in the psycholinguistics of interpretation ( @@CITATION ) : Interpretation is widely assumed to proceed incrementally , but vague descriptions resist strict incrementality , since an adjective in a vague description can only be fully interpreted when its comparison set is known .


In this paper , we evaluated the role of low-level image features , SURF and GIST , for their compatibility with the multimodal Latent Dirichlet Allocation model of Andrews et al. ( 2009 ) . We found both fea -

In this paper , we evaluated the role of low-level image features , SURF and GIST , for their compatibility with the multimodal Latent Dirichlet Allocation model of @@CITATION .


a fast and portable realizer for text generation systems

In the implemented applications , the DSyntSs are the pivotal representations involved in most transformations , as this is also often the case in practice in linguistic-based MT ( Hutchins and Somers , 1997 ) . Figure 2 illustrates a DSyntS from a meteorological application , MeteoCogent ( Kittredge and Lavoie , 1998 ) , represented using the standard graphical notation and also the RealPro ASCII notation used internally in the framework ( Lavoie and Rambow , 1997 ) . As Figure 2 illustrates , there is a straightforward mapping between the graphical notation and the ASCII notation supported in the framework .

Figure 2 illustrates a DSyntS from a meteorological application , MeteoCogent ( Kittredge and Lavoie , 1998 ) , represented using the standard graphical notation and also the RealPro ASCII notation used internally in the framework ( @@CITATION ) .


discriminative reranking for natural language parsing

The importance of including nonheadwords has become uncontroversial ( e.g. Collins 1999 ; Charniak 2000 ; Goodman 1998 ) . And Collins ( 2000 ) argues for `` keeping track of counts of arbitrary fragments within parse trees '' , which has indeed been carried out in Collins and Duffy ( 2002 ) who use exactly the same set of ( all ) tree fragments as proposed in Bod ( 1992 ) . Thus the major innovations of DOP are :

And @@CITATION argues for `` keeping track of counts of arbitrary fragments within parse trees '' , which has indeed been carried out in Collins and Duffy ( 2002 ) who use exactly the same set of ( all ) tree fragments as proposed in Bod ( 1992 ) .


Somers ( 1998 ) replicates the work of Fung and McKeown with different language pairs using the simpler metric of Levenshtein distance . Boutsis and Piperidis ( 1998 ) use a tagged parallel corpus to extract translationally equivalent English-Greek clauses on the basis of word occurrence and co-occurrence probabilities . The respective lengths of the putative alignments in terms of characters is also an important factor .

@@CITATION use a tagged parallel corpus to extract translationally equivalent English-Greek clauses on the basis of word occurrence and co-occurrence probabilities .


efficient parsing of highly ambiguous contextfree grammars with bit vectors

to model compounds , a highly productive phenomenon in German ( see Section 8 ) . The key linguistic knowledge sources that we use are morphological analysis and generation of German based on SMOR , a morphological analyzer/generator of German ( Schmid et al. , 2004 ) and the BitPar parser , which is a state-of-the-art parser of German ( Schmid , 2004 ) .

The key linguistic knowledge sources that we use are morphological analysis and generation of German based on SMOR , a morphological analyzer/generator of German ( Schmid et al. , 2004 ) and the BitPar parser , which is a state-of-the-art parser of German ( @@CITATION ) .


ale—the attribute logic engine users guide version 201

A common computational treatment of lexical rules adopted , for example , in the ALE system ( Carpenter and Penn 1994 ) consists of computing the transitive closure of the base lexical entries under lexical rule application at compile-time . While this provides a front-end to include lexical rules in the grammars , it has the disadvantage that the generalizations captured by lexical rules are not used for computation .

A common computational treatment of lexical rules adopted , for example , in the ALE system ( @@CITATION ) consists of computing the transitive closure of the base lexical entries under lexical rule application at compile-time .


natural language parsing as statistical pattern recognition

Miyao , Ninomiya , and Tsujii ( 2004 ) and Nakanishi , Miyao , and Tsujii ( 2004 ) describe a methodology for acquiring an English HPSG from the Penn-II Treebank . Manually defined heuristics are used to automatically annotate each tree in the treebank with partially specified HPSG derivation trees : Head/argument/modifier distinctions are made for each node in the tree based on Magerman ( 1994 ) and Collins ( 1997 ) ; the whole tree is then converted to a binary tree ; heuristics are applied to deal with phenomena such as LDDs and coordination and to correct some errors in the treebank , and finally an HPSG category is assigned to each node in the tree in accordance with its CFG category .

Manually defined heuristics are used to automatically annotate each tree in the treebank with partially specified HPSG derivation trees : Head/argument/modifier distinctions are made for each node in the tree based on @@CITATION and Collins ( 1997 ) ;


free culture how big media uses technology and the law to lock down culture and control creativity

The lexia will be marked as a derivative work from the original one , and a new document history timeline will start ( see Figure 2 ) . Authors may choose this right with the No-Deriv option of the Creative Commons licences ( Lessig , 2004 ) . If nobody claims the document for himself , it will fall in the public domain .

Authors may choose this right with the No-Deriv option of the Creative Commons licences ( @@CITATION ) .


an informationtheoretic definition of similarity in

According to Budanitsky and Hirst ( 2006 ) , there are three prevalent approaches for evaluating SR measures : mathematical analysis , applicationspecific evaluation and comparison with human judgments . Mathematical analysis can assess a measure with respect to some formal properties , e.g. whether a measure is a metric ( Lin , 1998 ) .4 However , mathematical analysis can not tell us whether a measure closely resembles human judgments or whether it performs best when used in a certain application . The latter question is tackled by applicationspecific evaluation , where a measure is tested within the framework of a certain application , e.g. word sense disambiguation ( Patwardhan et al. , 2003 ) or malapropism detection ( Budanitsky and Hirst , 2006 ) .

Mathematical analysis can assess a measure with respect to some formal properties , e.g. whether a measure is a metric ( @@CITATION ) .4 However , mathematical analysis can not tell us whether a measure closely resembles human judgments or whether it performs best when used in a certain application .


on nomatchs noinputs and bargeins do nonacoustic features support anger detection

Alexander Schmitt
Tobias Heinroth
Jackson Liscombe

One of garbage , non-angry , slightly angry , very angry . The same annotation scheme as in our previous work on anger detection has been applied , see e.g. ( Schmitt et al. , 2009 ) . From all 4,832 user turns , 68.5 % were non-angry , 14.3 % slightly angry , 5.0 % very angry and 12.2 % contained garbage , i.e. nonspeech events .

The same annotation scheme as in our previous work on anger detection has been applied , see e.g. ( @@CITATION ) .


modeling the shape of the scene a holistic representation of the spatial envelope

3http : / / simplecv.org We also compute GIST vectors ( Oliva and Torralba , 2001 ) for every image using LearGIST ( Douze et al. , 2009 ) . Unlike SURF descriptors , GIST produces a single vector representation for an image .

We also compute GIST vectors ( @@CITATION ) for every image using LearGIST ( Douze et al. , 2009 ) .


In modern syntactic theories ( e.g. , lexical-functional grammar [ LFG ] [ Kaplan and Bresnan 1982 ; Bresnan 2001 ; Dalrymple 2001 ] , head-driven phrase structure grammar [ HPSG ] [ Pollard and Sag 1994 ] , tree-adjoining grammar [ TAG ] [ Joshi 1988 ] , and combinatory categorial grammar [ CCG ] [ Ades and Steedman 1982 ] ) , the lexicon is the central repository for much morphological , syntactic , and semantic information . * National Centre for Language Technology , School of Computing , Dublin City University , Glasnevin , Dublin 9 , Ireland .

In modern syntactic theories ( e.g. , lexical-functional grammar [ LFG ] [ Kaplan and Bresnan 1982 ; Bresnan 2001 ; Dalrymple 2001 ] , head-driven phrase structure grammar [ HPSG ] [ Pollard and Sag 1994 ] , tree-adjoining grammar [ TAG ] [ Joshi 1988 ] , and combinatory categorial grammar [ CCG ] [ @@CITATION ] ) , the lexicon is the central repository for much morphological , syntactic , and semantic information .


the impact of interpretation problems on tutorial dialogue

Myroslava O Dzikovska
Johanna D Moore
Natalie Steinhauser
Gwendolyn Campbell

In dialogue management and generation , the key issue we are planning to investigate is that of linguistic alignment . The analysis of the data we have collected indicates that student satisfaction may be affected if the system rephrases student answers using different words ( for example , using better terminology ) but does n't explicitly explain the reason why different terminology is needed ( Dzikovska et al. , 2010 ) . Results from other systems show that measures of semantic coherence between a student and a system were positively associated with higher learning gain ( Ward and Litman , 2006 ) .

The analysis of the data we have collected indicates that student satisfaction may be affected if the system rephrases student answers using different words ( for example , using better terminology ) but does n't explicitly explain the reason why different terminology is needed ( @@CITATION ) .


a logical formalism for headdriven phrase structure grammar

A signature is interpreted as follows : Every object is assigned exactly one most specific type , and in case a feature is appropriate for some object of a certain type , then it is appropriate for all objects of this type . ' A logic that provides the formal architecture required by Pollard and Sag ( 1994 ) was defined by King ( 1989 , 1994 ) . The formal language of King allows the expression of grammatical principles using type assignments to refer to the type of an object and path equalities to require the ( token ) identity of objects .

A logic that provides the formal architecture required by Pollard and Sag ( 1994 ) was defined by @@CITATION , 1994 ) .


genre analysis english inacademic and research settings

As an example , scientific abstracts across many different fields generally follow the pattern of `` introduction '' , `` methods '' , `` results '' , and `` conclusions '' ( SalangerMeyer , 1990 ; Swales , 1990 ; OrËasan , 2001 ) . The ability to explicitly identify these sections in unstructured text could play an important role in applications such as document summarization ( Teufel and Moens , 2000 ) , information retrieval ( Tbahriti et al. , 2005 ) , information extraction ( Mizuta et al. , 2005 ) , and question answering .

fields generally follow the pattern of `` introduction '' , `` methods '' , `` results '' , and `` conclusions '' ( SalangerMeyer , 1990 ; @@CITATION ; OrËasan , 2001 ) .


Michael Collins
Jan Hajic
Lance Ramshaw
Christoph Tillmann

Much work has been done on the use of morphological features for parsing of morphologically rich languages . Collins et al. ( 1999 ) report that an optimal tag set for parsing Czech consists of a basic POS tag plus a CASE feature ( when applicable ) . This tag set ( size 58 ) outperforms the basic Czech POS tag set ( size 13 ) and the complete tag set ( size â 3000 + ) .

@@CITATION report that an optimal tag set for parsing Czech consists of a basic POS tag plus a CASE feature ( when applicable ) .


prolog and natural language analysis csli lecture notes center for the study of language and information

We thereby eliminate the redundant nondeterminism resulting from multiply defined frame predicates . The elimination of redundant nondeterminism is based on Unfold/Fold transformation techniques ( Tamaki and Sato 1984 ) .29 The unfolding transformation is also referred to as partial execution , for example , by Pereira and Shieber ( 1987 ) . Intuitively understood , unfolding comprises the evaluation of a particular literal in the body of a clause at compile-time .

The elimination of redundant nondeterminism is based on Unfold/Fold transformation techniques ( Tamaki and Sato 1984 ) .29 The unfolding transformation is also referred to as partial execution , for example , by @@CITATION .


learning to assess lowlevel conceptual understanding

Rodney D Nielsen
Wayne Ward
James H Martin

Over the last decade there has been a lot of interest in developing tutorial dialogue systems that understand student explanations ( Jordan et al. , 2006 ; Graesser et al. , 1999 ; Aleven et al. , 2001 ; Buckley and Wolska , 2007 ; Nielsen et al. , 2008 ; VanLehn et al. , 2007 ) , because high percentages of selfexplanation and student contentful talk are known to be correlated with better learning in humanhuman tutoring ( Chi et al. , 1994 ; Litman et al. , 2009 ; Purandare and Litman , 2008 ; Steinhauser et al. , 2007 ) . However , most existing systems use pre-authored tutor responses for addressing student errors .

Over the last decade there has been a lot of interest in developing tutorial dialogue systems that understand student explanations ( Jordan et al. , 2006 ; Graesser et al. , 1999 ; Aleven et al. , 2001 ; Buckley and Wolska , 2007 ; @@CITATION ; VanLehn et al. , 2007 ) , because high percentages of selfexplanation and student contentful talk are known to be correlated with better learning in humanhuman tutoring ( Chi et al. , 1994 ; Litman et al. , 2009 ; Purandare and Litman , 2008 ; Steinhauser et al. , 2007 ) .


getting more from morphology in multilingual dependency parsing

In all our experiments , we contrasted the results obtained using machine-predicted input with the results obtained using gold input ( the 9 We do not relate to specific results in their study because it has been brought to our attention that Hohensee and Bender ( 2012 ) are in the process of rechecking their code for errors , and rerunning their experiments ( personal communication ) . upper bound for using these features ) .

9 We do not relate to specific results in their study because it has been brought to our attention that @@CITATION are in the process of rechecking their code for errors , and rerunning their experiments ( personal communication ) .


The second is more complicated . Inspired by ( Klein and Manning , 2003 ) , we split one phrase type into several subsymbols , which contain category information of current constituent 's parent . For example , an NP immediately dominated by a S , will be substituted by NPËS .

Inspired by ( @@CITATION ) , we split one phrase type into several subsymbols , which contain category information of current constituent 's parent .


jupiter a telephonebased conversational interface for weather information

Victor Zue
Stephanie Seneff
James Glass
Joseph Polifroni
Christine Pao
Timothy J Hazen
Lee Hetherington

The recent great advances in speech and language technologies have made it possible to build fully implemented spoken dialogue systems ( Aust et al. , 1995 ; Allen et al. , 1996 ; Zue et al. , 2000 ; Walker et al. , 2000 ) . One of the next research goals is to make these systems task-portable , that is , to simplify the process of porting to another task domain .

The recent great advances in speech and language technologies have made it possible to build fully implemented spoken dialogue systems ( Aust et al. , 1995 ; Allen et al. , 1996 ; @@CITATION ; Walker et al. , 2000 ) .


an empirical evaluation of probabilistic lexicalized tree insertion grammars

In this section , we investigate whether these observations hold true for training statistical parsing models as well . Moreover , in order to determine whether the performances of the predictive criteria are consistent across different learning models within the same domain , we have performed the study on two parsing models : one based on a context-free variant of tree-adjoining grammars ( Joshi , Levy , and Takahashi 1975 ) , the Probabilistic Lexicalized Tree Insertion Grammar ( PLTIG ) formalism ( Schabes and Waters 1993 ; Hwa 1998 ) , and Collins 's Model 2 parser ( 1997 ) . Although both models are lexicalized , statistical parsers , their learning algorithms are different .

Moreover , in order to determine whether the performances of the predictive criteria are consistent across different learning models within the same domain , we have performed the study on two parsing models : one based on a context-free variant of tree-adjoining grammars ( Joshi , Levy , and Takahashi 1975 ) , the Probabilistic Lexicalized Tree Insertion Grammar ( PLTIG ) formalism ( Schabes and Waters 1993 ; @@CITATION ) , and Collins 's Model 2 parser ( 1997 ) .


automatic fstructure annotation of treebank trees

F-structures are attribute -- value structures which represent abstract syntactic information , approximating to basic predicate -- argument -- modifier structures . Most of the early work on automatic f-structure annotation ( e.g. , van Genabith , Way , and Sadler 1999 ; Frank 2000 ; Sadler , van Genabith , and Way 2000 ) was applied only to small data sets ( fewer than 200 sentences ) and was largely proof of concept . However , more recent work ( Cahill et al. 2002 ; Cahill , McCarthy , et al. 2004 ) has presented efforts in evolving and scaling up annotation techniques to the Penn-II Treebank ( Marcus et al. 1994 ) , containing more than 1,000,000 words and 49,000 sentences .

Most of the early work on automatic f-structure annotation ( e.g. , van Genabith , Way , and Sadler 1999 ; @@CITATION ; Sadler , van Genabith , and Way 2000 ) was applied only to small data sets ( fewer than 200 sentences ) and was largely proof of concept .


how to avoid burning ducks combining linguistic analysis and corpus statistics for german compound processing

We prepare the training data by splitting compounds in two steps , following the technique of Fritzinger and Fraser ( 2010 ) . First , possible split points are extracted using SMOR , and second , the best split points are selected using the geometric mean of word part frequencies .

We prepare the training data by splitting compounds in two steps , following the technique of @@CITATION .


Briscoe and Carroll ( 1997 ) refine the BHT with a priori information about the probabilities of subcategorization frame membership and use it to filter the induced frames . Recent work by Korhonen ( 2002 ) on the filtering phase of this approach uses linguistic verb classes ( based on Levin [ 1993 ] ) for obtaining more accurate back-off estimates for hypothesis selection . Carroll and Rooth ( 1998 ) use a handwritten head-lexicalized , context-free grammar and a text corpus to compute the probability of particular subcategorization patterns .

Recent work by @@CITATION on the filtering phase of this approach uses linguistic verb classes ( based on Levin [ 1993 ] ) for obtaining more accurate back-off estimates for hypothesis selection .


inducing a semantically annotated lexicon via embased clustering

We set the MI-threshold , T , to be 0 , and the negative-to-positive ratio , K , to be 2 . Numerous previous pseudodisambiguation evaluations only include arguments that occur between 30 and 3000 times ( Erk , 2007 ; Keller and Lapata , 2003 ; Rooth et al. , 1999 ) . Presumably the lower bound is to help ensure the negative argument is unobserved because it is unsuitable , not because of data sparseness .

Numerous previous pseudodisambiguation evaluations only include arguments that occur between 30 and 3000 times ( Erk , 2007 ; Keller and Lapata , 2003 ; @@CITATION ) .


supervised textbased geolocation using language models on an adaptive grid

Stephen Roller
Michael Speriosu
Sarat Rallapalli
Benjamin Wing
Jason Baldridge

Others provide automatic mappings of natural language instructions to executable actions , such as interpreting navigation directions ( Chen and Mooney , 2011 ) or robot commands ( Tellex et al. , 2011 ; Matuszek et al. , 2012 ) . Some efforts have tackled tasks such as automatic image caption generation ( Feng and Lapata , 2010a ; Ordonez et al. , 2011 ) , text illustration ( Joshi et al. , 2006 ) , or automatic location identification of Twitter users ( Eisenstein et al. , 2010 ; Wing and Baldridge , 2011 ; Roller et al. , 2012 ) . Another line of research approaches grounded language knowledge by augmenting distributional approaches of word meaning with perceptual information ( Andrews et al. , 2009 ; Steyvers , 2010 ; Feng and Lapata , 2010b ; Bruni et al. , 2011 ; Silberer and Lapata , 2012 ; Johns and Jones , 2012 ; Bruni et al. , 2012a ; Bruni et al. , 2012b ; Silberer et al. , 2013 ) .

Some efforts have tackled tasks such as automatic image caption generation ( Feng and Lapata , 2010a ; Ordonez et al. , 2011 ) , text illustration ( Joshi et al. , 2006 ) , or automatic location identification of Twitter users ( Eisenstein et al. , 2010 ; Wing and Baldridge , 2011 ; @@CITATION ) .


evaluation of machine learning methods for natural language processing tasks

The ind value 5SVMlight is available at svmlight.joachims.org . Default parameters were used , although experimentation with different parameter settings is an important direction for future work ( Daelemans and Hoste , 2002 ; Munson et al. , 2005 ) . for each speech segment s was based on the signed distance d ( s ) from the vector representing s to the trained SVM decision plane :

Default parameters were used , although experimentation with different parameter settings is an important direction for future work ( @@CITATION ; Munson et al. , 2005 ) .


minimal recursion semantics an introduction

A Copestake
D Flickinger
I Sag
C Pollard

In contrast , the bottom feature structure encodes information that remains local to the node at which adjunction takes place . The language chosen for semantic representation is a flat semantics along the line of ( Bos , 1995 ; Copestake et al. , 1999 ; Copestake et al. , 2001 ) . However because we are here focusing on paraphrases rather than fine grained semantic distinctions , the underspecification and the description of the scope relations permitted by these semantics will here be largely ignored and flat semantics will be principally used as a convenient way of describing predicate/arguments and modifiers/modified relationships .

The language chosen for semantic representation is a flat semantics along the line of ( Bos , 1995 ; @@CITATION ; Copestake et al. , 2001 ) .


clustering experiments on the communicative prop erties of gaze and gestures

Others have looked at the application of machine learning algorithms to annotated multimodal corpora . For example , Jokinen and Ragni ( 2007 ) and Jokinen et al. ( 2008 ) find that machine learning algorithms can be trained to recognise some of the functions of head movements , while Reidsma et al. ( 2009 ) show that there is a dependence between focus of attention and assignment of dialogue act labels . Related are also the studies by Rieks op den Akker and Schulz ( 2008 ) and Murray and Renals ( 2008 ) : both achieve promising results in the automatic segmentation of dialogue acts using the annotations in a large multimodal corpus .

For example , @@CITATION and Jokinen et al. ( 2008 ) find that machine learning algorithms can be trained to recognise some of the functions of head movements , while Reidsma et al. ( 2009 ) show that there is a dependence between focus of attention and assignment of dialogue act labels .


This Principle of Finitism is also assumed by Johnson-Laird ( 1983 ) , Jackendoff ( 1983 ) , Kamp ( 1981 ) , and implicitly or explicitly by almost all researchers in computational linguistics . As a logical postulate it is not very radical ; it is possible within a finitary framework to develop that part of mathematics that is used or has potential applications in natural science , such as mathematical analysis ( cfXXX Mycielski 1981 ) . On the other hand , a possible obstacle to our strategy of using only finite objects is the fact that the deductive closure of any set of formulas is not finite in standard logic , while , clearly , we will have to deduce new facts from formal representations of text and background knowledge .

As a logical postulate it is not very radical ; it is possible within a finitary framework to develop that part of mathematics that is used or has potential applications in natural science , such as mathematical analysis ( cfXXX @@CITATION ) .


cascaded grammatical relation assignment

An additional possibility is to use word-types , such as a special tag for be-verbs , or for prepositions like ` of ' which attaches mainly to nouns ( Sekine and Grishman , 1995 ) . In a similar vain to Skut and Brants ( 1998 ) and Buchholz et al. ( 1999 ) , the method extends an existing flat shallow-parsing method to handle composite structures . It yields a significant improvement over the flat method , especially for long and more complex structures .

In a similar vain to Skut and Brants ( 1998 ) and @@CITATION , the method extends an existing flat shallow-parsing method to handle composite structures .


catching the drift probabilistic content models with applications to generation and summarization

An interesting aspect of our generative approach is that we model HMM outputs as Gaussian vectors ( log probabilities of observing entire sentences based on our language models ) , as opposed to sequences of terms , as done in ( Barzilay and Lee , 2004 ) . This technique provides two important advantages .

An interesting aspect of our generative approach is that we model HMM outputs as Gaussian vectors ( log probabilities of observing entire sentences based on our language models ) , as opposed to sequences of terms , as done in ( @@CITATION ) .


gaijin a bootstrapping templatedriven approach to examplebased machine translation

The marker hypothesis has been used for a number of different language-related tasks , including â¢ language learning ( Green 1979 ; Mori and Moeser 1983 ; Morgan , Meier , and Newport 1989 ) â¢ monolingual grammar induction ( Juola 1998 ) â¢ grammar optimization ( Juola 1994 ) â¢ insights into universal grammar ( Juola 1998 ) â¢ machine translation ( Juola 1994 , 1997 ; Veale and Way 1997 ; Gough , Way , and Hearne 2002 ) With respect to translation , a potential problem in using the marker hypothesis is that some languages do not have marker words such as articles , for instance .

â¢ language learning ( Green 1979 ; Mori and Moeser 1983 ; Morgan , Meier , and Newport 1989 ) â¢ monolingual grammar induction ( Juola 1998 ) â¢ grammar optimization ( Juola 1994 ) â¢ insights into universal grammar ( Juola 1998 ) â¢ machine translation ( Juola 1994 , 1997 ; @@CITATION ; Gough , Way , and Hearne 2002 )


Alexander Krotov
Mark Hepple
Robert Gaizauskas
Yorick Wilks

The rate of accession may also be represented graphically . In Charniak ( 1996 ) and Krotov et al. ( 1998 ) , it was observed that treebank grammars ( CFGs extracted from treebanks ) are very large and grow with the size of the treebank . We were interested in discovering whether the acquisition of lexical material from the same data displayed a similar propensity .

In Charniak ( 1996 ) and @@CITATION , it was observed that treebank grammars ( CFGs extracted from treebanks ) are very large and grow with the size of the treebank .


a lexicalized tree adjoining grammar for english

In this paper , we show that the strongly equivalent grammars enable the sharing of `` parsing techniques '' , which are dependent on each computational framework and have never been shared among HPSG and LTAG communities . We apply our system to the latest version of the XTAG English grammar ( The XTAG Research Group , 2001 ) , which is a large-scale FB-LTAG grammar . A parsing experiment shows that an efficient HPSG parser with the obtained grammar achieved a significant speed-up against an existing LTAG parser ( Yoshinaga et al. , 2001 ) .

We apply our system to the latest version of the XTAG English grammar ( The XTAG Research @@CITATION ) , which is a large-scale FB-LTAG grammar .


analysis of questions asked by family doctors regarding patient care

John W Ely
Jerome A Osheroff
Mark H Ebell
George R Bergus
Barcey T Levy
M Lee Chambliss
Eric R Evans

The confluence of these many factors makes clinical question answering a very exciting area of research . Furthermore , the need to answer questions related to patient care at the point of service has been well studied and documented ( Covell , Uman , and Manning 1985 ; Gorman , Ash , and Wykoff 1994 ; Ely et al. 1999 , 2005 ) . MEDLINE , the authoritative repository of abstracts from the medical and biomedical primary literature maintained by the National Library of Medicine , provides the clinically relevant sources for answering physicians ' questions , and is commonly used in that capacity ( Cogdill and Moore 1997 ; De Groote and Dorsch 2003 ) .

Furthermore , the need to answer questions related to patient care at the point of service has been well studied and documented ( Covell , Uman , and Manning 1985 ; Gorman , Ash , and Wykoff 1994 ; @@CITATION , 2005 ) .


mamba meets tiger reconstructing a swedish treebank from antiquity

If we start by considering languages with a labeled attachment score of 85 % or higher , they are characterized by high precision and recall for root nodes , typically 95/90 , and by a graceful degradation of attachment score as arcs grow longer , typically 95 -- 90 -- 85 , for arcs of length 1 , 2 and 3 -- 6 . Typical examples are Bulgarian ( Simov et al. , 2005 ; Simov and Osenova , 2003 ) , Chinese ( Chen et al. , 2003 ) , Danish ( Kromann , 2003 ) , and Swedish ( Nilsson et al. , 2005 ) . Japanese ( Kawata and Bartels , 2000 ) , despite a very high accuracy , is different in that attachment score drops from 98 % to 85 % , as we go from length 1 to 2 , which may have something to do with the data consisting of transcribed speech with very short utterances .

Typical examples are Bulgarian ( Simov et al. , 2005 ; Simov and Osenova , 2003 ) , Chinese ( Chen et al. , 2003 ) , Danish ( Kromann , 2003 ) , and Swedish ( @@CITATION ) .


Diane Litman
Johanna Moore
Myroslava Dzikovska
Elaine Farrow

Over the last decade there has been a lot of interest in developing tutorial dialogue systems that understand student explanations ( Jordan et al. , 2006 ; Graesser et al. , 1999 ; Aleven et al. , 2001 ; Buckley and Wolska , 2007 ; Nielsen et al. , 2008 ; VanLehn et al. , 2007 ) , because high percentages of selfexplanation and student contentful talk are known to be correlated with better learning in humanhuman tutoring ( Chi et al. , 1994 ; Litman et al. , 2009 ; Purandare and Litman , 2008 ; Steinhauser et al. , 2007 ) . However , most existing systems use pre-authored tutor responses for addressing student errors .

Over the last decade there has been a lot of interest in developing tutorial dialogue systems that understand student explanations ( Jordan et al. , 2006 ; Graesser et al. , 1999 ; Aleven et al. , 2001 ; Buckley and Wolska , 2007 ; Nielsen et al. , 2008 ; VanLehn et al. , 2007 ) , because high percentages of selfexplanation and student contentful talk are known to be correlated with better learning in humanhuman tutoring ( Chi et al. , 1994 ; @@CITATION ; Purandare and Litman , 2008 ; Steinhauser et al. , 2007 ) .


Alfred V Aho
John E Hopcroft
Jeffrey D Ullman

In a vague description , the property last added to the description is context dependent . Worst case , calculating the set corresponding with such a property , of the form size ( x ) = maxm , for example , involves sorting the distractors as to their size , which may amount to O ( n2d ) or O ( nd log nd ) calculations ( depending on the sorting algorithm : cfXXX [ Aho et al. 1983 ] Chapter 8 ) . Once again , the most time-consuming part of the calculation can be performed off-line , since it is the same for all referring expressions .

Worst case , calculating the set corresponding with such a property , of the form size ( x ) = maxm , for example , involves sorting the distractors as to their size , which may amount to O ( n2d ) or O ( nd log nd ) calculations ( depending on the sorting algorithm : cfXXX [ @@CITATION ] Chapter 8 ) .


the necessity of syntax markers two experiments with artificial languages

â¢ language learning ( @@CITATION ; Mori and Moeser 1983 ; Morgan , Meier , and Newport 1989 ) â¢ monolingual grammar induction ( Juola 1998 ) â¢ grammar optimization ( Juola 1994 ) â¢ insights into universal grammar ( Juola 1998 ) â¢ machine translation ( Juola 1994 , 1997 ; Veale and Way 1997 ; Gough , Way , and Hearne 2002 )


combining morphemebased machine translation with postprocessing morpheme prediction

As parsing performance improves , the performance of linguistic-feature-based approaches will increase . Virpioja et al. ( 2007 ) , Badr et al. ( 2008 ) , Luong et al. ( 2010 ) , Clifton and Sarkar ( 2011 ) , and others are primarily concerned with using morpheme segmentation in SMT , which is a useful approach for dealing with issues of word-formation . However , this does not deal directly with linguistic features marked by inflection .

Virpioja et al. ( 2007 ) , Badr et al. ( 2008 ) , Luong et al. ( 2010 ) , @@CITATION , and others are primarily concerned with using morpheme segmentation in SMT , which is a useful approach for dealing with issues of word-formation .


a procedure for quantitatively comparing the syntactic coverage of english grammars

A Black
S Abney
D Flickinger
C Gdaniec
R Grishman
P Harrison
D Hindel
R INgria
F Jelinek
F Klaavans
M Liberman
M Marcus
S Roukos
B Santorini
T Strzalkowski

and its degree of overgeneration ( does it generate only the sentences of the described language ? ) While corpus driven efforts along the PARSEVAL lines ( Black et al. , 1991 ) are good at giving some measure of a grammar coverage , they are not suitable for finer grained analysis and in particular , for progress evaluation , regression testing and comparative report generation . Another known method consists in developing and using a test suite that is , a set of negative and positive items against which the grammar can be systematically tested .

While corpus driven efforts along the PARSEVAL lines ( @@CITATION ) are good at giving some measure of a grammar coverage , they are not suitable for finer grained analysis and in particular , for progress evaluation , regression testing and comparative report generation .


russian morphology an engineering approach

Since , unlike English , Russian is a highly inflected language , we had to deal with the case normalization issue . Before using the DCA method , we applied a Russian morphological processor ( Mikheev and Liubushkina 1995 ) to convert each word in the text to its main form : nominative case singular for nouns and adjectives , infinitive for verbs , etc. . For words that could be normalized to several main forms ( polysemy ) , when secondary forms of different words coincided , we retained all the main forms .

Before using the DCA method , we applied a Russian morphological processor ( @@CITATION ) to convert each word in the text to its main form : nominative case singular for nouns and adjectives , infinitive for verbs , etc. .


an efficient algorithm for easyfirst nondirectional dependency parsing

This is likely a result of MSA having a rich agreement system , covering both verb -- subject and noun -- adjective relations . The result holds for both the MaltParser ( Nivre 2008 ) and the Easy-First Parser ( Goldberg and Elhadad 2010 ) . Additionally , almost all work to date in MSA morphological analysis and part-ofspeech ( POS ) tagging has concentrated on the morphemic form of the words .

The result holds for both the MaltParser ( Nivre 2008 ) and the Easy-First Parser ( @@CITATION ) .


analyzing research papers using citation sentences

More sophisticated approaches have been proposed ( Hillard et al. , 2003 ) , including an extension that , in an interesting reversal of our problem , makes use of sentimentpolarity indicators within speech segments ( Galley et al. , 2004 ) . Also relevant is work on the general problems of dialog-act tagging ( Stolcke et al. , 2000 ) , citation analysis ( Lehnert et al. , 1990 ) , and computational rhetorical analysis ( Marcu , 2000 ; Teufel and Moens , 2002 ) . We currently do not have an efficient means to encode disagreement information as hard constraints ; we plan to investigate incorporating such information in future work .

Also relevant is work on the general problems of dialog-act tagging ( Stolcke et al. , 2000 ) , citation analysis ( @@CITATION ) , and computational rhetorical analysis ( Marcu , 2000 ; Teufel and Moens , 2002 ) .


In contrast , the bottom feature structure encodes information that remains local to the node at which adjunction takes place . The language chosen for semantic representation is a flat semantics along the line of ( Bos , 1995 ; Copestake et al. , 1999 ; Copestake et al. , 2001 ) . However because we are here focusing on paraphrases rather than fine grained semantic distinctions , the underspecification and the description of the scope relations permitted by these semantics will here be largely ignored and flat semantics will be principally used as a convenient way of describing predicate/arguments and modifiers/modified relationships .

The language chosen for semantic representation is a flat semantics along the line of ( @@CITATION ; Copestake et al. , 1999 ; Copestake et al. , 2001 ) .