a fast and portable realizer for text generation systems

The framework represents a generalization of several predecessor NLG systems based on Meaning-Text Theory : FoG ( Kittredge and Polguere , 1991 ) , LFS ( Iordanskaja et al. , 1992 ) , and JOYCE ( Rambow and Korelsky , 1992 ) . The framework was originally developed for the realization of deep-syntactic structures in NLG ( Lavoie and Rambow , 1997 ) . It was later extended for generation of deep-syntactic structures from conceptual interlingua ( Kittredge and Lavoie , 1998 ) .

The framework was originally developed for the realization of deep-syntactic structures in NLG ( @@CITATION ) .


a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining

handling crossed dependencies with the stcg

The SSTC is a general structure that can associate an arbitrary tree structure to string in a language as desired by the annotator to be the interpretation structure of the string , and more importantly is the facility to specify the correspondence between the string and the associated tree which can be nonprojective ( Boitet & Zaharin , 1988 ) . These features are very much desired in the design of an annotation scheme , in particular for the treatment of linguistic phenomena , which are non-standard , e.g. crossed dependencies ( Tang & Zaharin , 1995 ) . Figure 2 illustrates the sentence `` John picks the box up '' with its corresponding SSTC .

These features are very much desired in the design of an annotation scheme , in particular for the treatment of linguistic phenomena , which are non-standard , e.g. crossed dependencies ( @@CITATION ) .


deterministic parsing of syntactic nonfluencies

This sort of processing requires quite a different architecture and different mechanisms for ambiguity resolution than one that begins processing only at the end of a complete and well-formed utterance . Few approaches to parsing have tried to handle disfluent utterances ( notable exceptions are Core & Schubert , 1999 ; Hindle , 1983 ; Nakatani & Hirschberg , 1994 ; Shriberg , Bear , & Dowding , 1992 ) . The few psycholinguistic experiments that have examined human processing of disfluent speech also throw into question the assumption that disfluent speech is harder to process than fluent speech .

Few approaches to parsing have tried to handle disfluent utterances ( notable exceptions are Core & Schubert , 1999 ; @@CITATION ; Nakatani & Hirschberg , 1994 ; Shriberg , Bear , & Dowding , 1992 ) .


moses open source toolkit for statistical machine translation

Hieu Hoang
Alexandra Birch
Chris Callison-Burch
Richard Zens
Rwth Aachen
Alexandra Constantin
Marcello Federico
Nicola Bertoldi
Chris Dyer
Brooke Cowan
Wade Shen
Christine Moran
Ondrej Bojar

We tested three values of the threshold ( 0.2 , 0.4 , 0.6 ) which try to capture different tradeoffs 5 The open source Moses ( Hoang et al. 2007 ) toolkit from www.statmt.org/moses/ . 6 www.statmt.org/wmt08/baseline.html .

5 The open source Moses ( @@CITATION ) toolkit from www.statmt.org/moses/ .


Daniel G Bobrow
Ronald M Kaplan
Martin Kay
Donald A Norman
Henry Thompson
Teny Winograd

WIT , however , does not provide task-independent facilities that make it easier to employ such dialogue strategies . There have been several efforts aimed at developing a domain-independent method for generating responses from a frame representation of user requests ( Bobrow et al. , 1977 ; Chu-Carroll , 1999 ) . Incorporating such techniques would decrease the system developer workload .

There have been several efforts aimed at developing a domain-independent method for generating responses from a frame representation of user requests ( @@CITATION ; Chu-Carroll , 1999 ) .


a maximum entropy approach to natural language processing

A L Berger
S A Della Pietra
V J Della Pietra

The maximum entropy approach ( Berger et al. , 1996 ) presents a powerful framework for the combination of several knowledge sources . This principle recommends to choose the distribution which preserves as much uncertainty as possible in terms of maximizing the entropy .

The maximum entropy approach ( @@CITATION ) presents a powerful framework for the combination of several knowledge sources .


sgd saccharomyces genome database nucleic acids res

Cherry JM
C Adler
C Ball
Chervitz SA
Dwight SS
Hester ET
Y Jia
G Juvik
T Roe
M Schroeder

The Semantic Network contains information about the types or categories ( e.g. , `` Disease or Syndrome '' , `` Virus '' ) to which all META concepts have been assigned . Other molecular biology databases We also included several model organism databases or nomenclature databases in the construction of the dictionary , i.e. , mouse Mouse Genome Database ( MGD ) [ 18 ] , fly FlyBase [ 19 ] , yeast Saccharomyces Genome Database ( SGD ) [ 20 ] , rat -- Rat Genome Database ( RGD ) [ 21 ] , worm -- WormBase [ 22 ] , Human Nomenclature Database ( HUGO ) [ 23 ] , Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man ( OMIM ) [ 24 ] , and Enzyme Nomenclature Database ( ECNUM ) [ 25 , 26 ] .

Other molecular biology databases We also included several model organism databases or nomenclature databases in the construction of the dictionary , i.e. , mouse Mouse Genome Database ( MGD ) [ 18 ] , fly FlyBase [ 19 ] , yeast Saccharomyces Genome Database ( SGD ) @@CITATION , rat -- Rat Genome Database ( RGD ) [ 21 ] , worm -- WormBase [ 22 ] , Human Nomenclature Database ( HUGO ) [ 23 ] , Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man ( OMIM ) [ 24 ] , and Enzyme Nomenclature Database ( ECNUM ) [ 25 , 26 ] .


statistical and inductive inference by minimum message length

We train the system by clustering the `` experiences '' of the response-generation methods in addressing requests , where each experience is characterized by the value of the confidence measure employed by a method and its subsequent performance , reflected by precision and recall ( Equations ( 7 ) and ( 8 ) , respectively ) . We then use the program Snob ( Wallace and Boulton 1968 ; Wallace 2005 ) to cluster these experiences . Figure 8 ( a ) is a projection of the centroids of the clusters produced by Snob into the three most significant dimensions discovered by Principal Component Analysis ( PCA ) -- these dimensions account for 95 % of the variation in the data .

We then use the program Snob ( Wallace and Boulton 1968 ; @@CITATION ) to cluster these experiences .


MEDLINE , the authoritative repository of abstracts from the medical and biomedical primary literature maintained by the National Library of Medicine , provides the clinically relevant sources for answering physicians ' questions , and is commonly used in that capacity ( Cogdill and Moore 1997 ; De Groote and Dorsch 2003 ) . However , studies have shown that existing systems for searching MEDLINE ( such as PubMed , the search service provided by the National Library of Medicine ) are often inadequate and unable to supply clinically relevant answers in a timely manner ( Gorman , Ash , and Wykoff 1994 ; Chambliss and Conley 1996 ) . Furthermore , it is clear that traditional document retrieval technology applied to MEDLINE abstracts is insufficient for satisfactory information access ; research and experience point to the need for systems that automatically analyze text and return only the relevant information , appropriately summarizing and fusing segments from multiple texts .

However , studies have shown that existing systems for searching MEDLINE ( such as PubMed , the search service provided by the National Library of Medicine ) are often inadequate and unable to supply clinically relevant answers in a timely manner ( Gorman , Ash , and Wykoff 1994 ; @@CITATION ) .


errordriven pruning of treebank grammars for base noun phrase identification

The NP-based QA System . Our implementation of the NP-based QA system uses the Empire noun phrase finder , which is described in detail in Cardie and Pierce ( 1998 ) . Empire identifies base NPs -- non-recursive noun phrases -- using a very simple algorithm that matches part-of-speech tag sequences based on a learned noun phrase grammar .

Our implementation of the NP-based QA system uses the Empire noun phrase finder , which is described in detail in @@CITATION .


the penn arabic treebank building a largescale annotated arabic corpus

Mohamed Maamouri
Ann Bies
Timothy A Buckwalter
Wigdan Mekki

For all the experiments reported in this article , we used the training portion of PATB Part 3 v3 .1 ( Maamouri et al. 2004 ) , converted to the CATiB Treebank format , as mentioned in Section 2.5 . We used the same training / devtest split as in Zitouni , Sorensen , and Sarikaya ( 2006 ) ; and we further split the devtest into two equal parts : a development ( dev ) set and a blind test set .

For all the experiments reported in this article , we used the training portion of PATB Part 3 v3 .1 ( @@CITATION ) , converted to the CATiB Treebank format , as mentioned in Section 2.5 .


topic independent identification of agreement and disagreement in social media dialogue

The MI approach discovers the words that are highly associated with Agree/Disagree categories and these words turn to be useful features for classification . In addition , we consider several types of lexical features ( LexF ) inspired by previous work on agreement and disagreement ( Galley et al. , 2004 ; Misra and Walker , 2013 ) . â¢ Sentiment Lexicon ( SL ) : Two features are designed using a sentiment lexicon ( Hu and Liu , 2004 ) where the first feature represents the number of times the Callout and the Target contain a positive emotional word and the second feature represents the number of the negative emotional words .

In addition , we consider several types of lexical features ( LexF ) inspired by previous work on agreement and disagreement ( Galley et al. , 2004 ; @@CITATION ) .


the mumin coding scheme for the annotation of feedback turn management and sequencing multimodal corpora for modelling human multimodal behaviour

Jens Allwood
Loredana Cerrato
Kristiina Jokinen
Costanza Navarretta
Patrizia Paggio

All communicative head gestures in the videos were found and annotated with ANVIL using a subset of the attributes defined in the MUMIN annotation scheme ( Allwood et al. , 2007 ) . The MUMIN scheme is a general framework for the study of gestures in interpersonal communication .

All communicative head gestures in the videos were found and annotated with ANVIL using a subset of the attributes defined in the MUMIN annotation scheme ( @@CITATION ) .


automatic identification of noncompositional phrases

We thus interpret this property statistically in the following way : We expect a lexically fixed verb + noun combination to appear much more frequently than its variants in general . Specifically , we examine the strength of association between the verb and the noun constituent of a combination ( the target expression or its lexical variants ) as an indirect cue to its idiomaticity , an approach inspired by Lin ( 1999 ) . We use the automatically built thesaurus of Lin ( 1998 ) to find words similar to each constituent , in order to automatically generate variants .2 Variants are generated by replacing either

Specifically , we examine the strength of association between the verb and the noun constituent of a combination ( the target expression or its lexical variants ) as an indirect cue to its idiomaticity , an approach inspired by @@CITATION .


learning structural descriptions from examples in

The VNLCE processor may be considered to be a learning system of the tradition described , for example , in Michalski et al. ( 1984 ) . The current system learns finite state flowcharts whereas typical learning systems usually acquire coefficient values as in Minsky and Papert ( 1969 ) , assertional statements as in Michalski ( 1980 ) , or semantic nets as in Winston ( 1975 ) . That is , the current system learns procedures rather than data structures .

The current system learns finite state flowcharts whereas typical learning systems usually acquire coefficient values as in Minsky and Papert ( 1969 ) , assertional statements as in Michalski ( 1980 ) , or semantic nets as in @@CITATION .


A greedy search method was utilized and it achieved higher translation performance than the baseline . More recently , an alignment selection approach was proposed in ( Huang , 2009 ) , which computes confidence scores for each link and prunes the links from multiple sets of alignments using a hand-picked threshold . The alignments used in that work were generated from different aligners ( HMM , block model , and maximum entropy model ) .

More recently , an alignment selection approach was proposed in ( @@CITATION ) , which computes confidence scores for each link and prunes the links from multiple sets of alignments using a hand-picked threshold .


automatic retrieval and clustering of similar words

The current model uses the context in a very straightforward way , i.e. the two words left and right of the current word , but in the future we would like to explore more advanced methods to improve the similarity estimates . Lin ( 1998 ) for example discusses a method where a syntactic parse of the text is performed and the context of a word is modeled using dependency triples . The other semi-supervised methods proposed here were less successful , although all improved on the supervised model for small training sizes .

@@CITATION for example discusses a method where a syntactic parse of the text is performed and the context of a word is modeled using dependency triples .


three generative lexicalised models for statistical parsing

A variety of statistical methods were proposed over the recent years for learning to produce a full parse of free-text sentences ( e.g. , Bod ( 1992 ) , Magerman ( 1995 ) , Collins ( 1997 ) , Ratnaparkhi ( 1997 ) , and Sekine ( 1998 ) ) . In parallel , a lot of work is being done on shallow parsing ( Abney , 1991 ; Greffenstette , 1993 ) , focusing on partial analysis of sentences at the level of local phrases and the relations between them .

A variety of statistical methods were proposed over the recent years for learning to produce a full parse of free-text sentences ( e.g. , Bod ( 1992 ) , Magerman ( 1995 ) , @@CITATION , Ratnaparkhi ( 1997 ) , and Sekine ( 1998 ) ) .


Amanda Stent
John Dowding
Jean Mark Gawron
Elizabeth Owen Bratt
Robert Moore

rent discourse goal , we developed alternative strategies for achieving the goals in Figure 4 based on initiative distribution , as shown in Table 1 . The strategies employed when MIMIC has only dialogue initiative are similar to the mixed initiative dialogue strategies employed by many existing spoken dialogue systems ( e.g. , ( Bennacef et at. , 1996 ; Stent et al. , 1999 ) ) . To instantiate an attribute , MIMIC adopts the InfoSeek dialogue act to solicit the missing information .

The strategies employed when MIMIC has only dialogue initiative are similar to the mixed initiative dialogue strategies employed by many existing spoken dialogue systems ( e.g. , ( Bennacef et at. , 1996 ; @@CITATION ) ) .


headdriven statistical models for natural language parsing

Weight decay regularization was applied at the beginning of training but reduced to zero by the end of training . 7A11 our results are computed with the evalb program following the now-standard criteria in ( Collins , 1999 ) . tical left-corner parser ( Manning and Carpenter , 1997 ) , and a PCFG ( Charniak , 1997 ) .

7A11 our results are computed with the evalb program following the now-standard criteria in ( @@CITATION ) .


robust partofspeech tagging using a hidden markov model computer speech and language

This requires resolving sentence boundaries before tagging . We see no good reason , however , why such text spans should necessarily be sentences , since the majority of tagging paradigms ( e.g. , Hidden Markov Model [ HMM ] [ Kupiec 1992 ] , Brill 's [ Brill 1995a ] , and MaxEnt [ Ratnaparkhi 1996 ] ) do not attempt to parse an entire sentence and operate only in the local window of two to three tokens . The only reason why taggers traditionally operate on the sentence level is that a sentence naturally represents a text span in which POS information does not depend on the previous and following history .

We see no good reason , however , why such text spans should necessarily be sentences , since the majority of tagging paradigms ( e.g. , Hidden Markov Model [ HMM ] [ @@CITATION ] , Brill 's [ Brill 1995a ] , and MaxEnt [ Ratnaparkhi 1996 ] ) do not attempt to parse an entire sentence and operate only in the local window of two to three tokens .


building a multilingual parallel subtitle corpus

Horizontal axis : average number of transferred edges per sentence . results are based on a corpus of movie subtitles ( Tiedemann 2007 ) , and are consequently shorter sentences , whereas the En â Es results are based on a corpus of parliamentary proceedings ( Koehn 2005 ) . We see in Figure 10 that for both domains , the models trained using posterior regularization perform better than the baseline model trained using EM .

results are based on a corpus of movie subtitles ( @@CITATION ) , and are consequently shorter sentences , whereas the En â Es results are based on a corpus of parliamentary proceedings ( Koehn 2005 ) .


spmt statistical machine translation with syntactified target language phrases

Daniel Marcu
Wei Wang
Abdessamad Echihabi
Kevin Knight

The translation system used for testing the effectiveness of our U-trees is our in-house stringto-tree system ( abbreviated as s2t ) . The system is implemented based on ( Galley et al. , 2006 ) and ( Marcu et al. 2006 ) . In the system , we extract both the minimal GHKM rules ( Galley et al. , 2004 ) , and the rules of SPMT Model 1 ( Galley et al. , 2006 ) with phrases up to length L = 5 on the source side .

The system is implemented based on ( Galley et al. , 2006 ) and ( @@CITATION ) .


the theory and practice of discourse parsing and summarization

More sophisticated approaches have been proposed ( Hillard et al. , 2003 ) , including an extension that , in an interesting reversal of our problem , makes use of sentimentpolarity indicators within speech segments ( Galley et al. , 2004 ) . Also relevant is work on the general problems of dialog-act tagging ( Stolcke et al. , 2000 ) , citation analysis ( Lehnert et al. , 1990 ) , and computational rhetorical analysis ( Marcu , 2000 ; Teufel and Moens , 2002 ) . We currently do not have an efficient means to encode disagreement information as hard constraints ; we plan to investigate incorporating such information in future work .

Also relevant is work on the general problems of dialog-act tagging ( Stolcke et al. , 2000 ) , citation analysis ( Lehnert et al. , 1990 ) , and computational rhetorical analysis ( @@CITATION ; Teufel and Moens , 2002 ) .


coarsetofine nbest parsing and maxent discriminative reranking

Belief propagation improves non-projective dependency parsing with features that would make exact inference intractable . For projective parsing , it is significantly faster than exact dynamic programming , at the cost of small amounts of search error , We are interested in extending these ideas to phrase-structure and lattice parsing , and in trying other higher-order features , such as those used in parse reranking ( Charniak and Johnson , 2005 ; Huang , 2008 ) and history-based parsing ( Nivre and McDonald , 2008 ) . We could also introduce new variables , e.g. , nonterminal refinements ( Matsuzaki et al. , 2005 ) , or secondary links Mid ( not constrained by TREE/PTREE ) that augment the parse with representations of control , binding , etc. ( Sleator and Temperley , 1993 ; Buch-Kromann , 2006 ) .

For projective parsing , it is significantly faster than exact dynamic programming , at the cost of small amounts of search error , We are interested in extending these ideas to phrase-structure and lattice parsing , and in trying other higher-order features , such as those used in parse reranking ( @@CITATION ; Huang , 2008 ) and history-based parsing ( Nivre and McDonald , 2008 ) .


the hiero machine translation system extensions evaluation and analysis

David Chiang
Adam Lopez
Nitin Madnani
Christof Monz
Philip Resnik
Michael Subotin

Although no longer competitive as end-to-end translation models , the IBM Models , as well as the hidden Markov model ( HMM ) of Vogel , Ney , and Tillmann ( 1996 ) , are still widely used for word alignment . Word alignments are used primarily for extracting minimal translation units for machine translation ( MT ) ( e.g. , phrases [ Koehn , Och , and Marcu 2003 ] and rules [ Galley et al. 2004 ; Chiang et al. 2005 ] ) as well as for MT system combination ( Matusov , Ueffing , and Ney 2006 ) .

Word alignments are used primarily for extracting minimal translation units for machine translation ( MT ) ( e.g. , phrases [ Koehn , Och , and Marcu 2003 ] and rules [ Galley et al. 2004 ; @@CITATION ] ) as well as for


turnyielding cues in taskoriented dialogue

Work has also been done on prosody and gestures in the specific domain of map-task dialogues , also targeted in this paper . Sridhar et al. ( 2009 ) obtain promising results in dialogue act tagging of the Switchboard-DAMSL corpus using lexical , syntactic and prosodic cues , while Gravano and Hirschberg ( 2009 ) examine the relation between particular acoustic and prosodic turn-yielding cues and turn taking in a large corpus of task-oriented dialogues . Louwerse et al. ( 2006 ) and Louwerse et al. ( 2007 ) study the relation between eye gaze , facial expression , pauses and dialogue structure in annotated English map-task dialogues ( Anderson et al. , 1991 ) and find correlations between the various modalities both within and across speakers .

Sridhar et al. ( 2009 ) obtain promising results in dialogue act tagging of the Switchboard-DAMSL corpus using lexical , syntactic and prosodic cues , while @@CITATION examine the relation between particular acoustic and prosodic turn-yielding cues and turn taking in a large corpus of task-oriented dialogues .


Sabine Brants
Stefanie Dipper
Silvia Hansen
Wolfgang Lezius
George Smith

In the shorter term , we intend to make the extracted subcategorization lexicons from Penn-II and Penn-III available as a downloadable public-domain research resource . We have also applied our more general unification grammar acquisition methodology to the TIGER Treebank ( Brants et al. 2002 ) and Penn Chinese Treebank ( Xue , Chiou , and Palmer 2002 ) , extracting wide-coverage , probabilistic LFG grammar approximations and lexical resources for German ( Cahill et al. 2003 ) and Chinese ( Burke , Lam , et al. 2004 ) .

We have also applied our more general unification grammar acquisition methodology to the TIGER Treebank ( @@CITATION ) and Penn Chinese Treebank ( Xue , Chiou , and Palmer 2002 ) , extracting wide-coverage , probabilistic LFG grammar


convolution kernels on constituent dependency and sequential structures for relation extraction

Truc-Vien T Nguyen
Alessandro Moschitti
Giuseppe Riccardi

Now we present the `` discrete '' structures followed by the kernel we used . We use the structures previously used by Nguyen et al. ( 2009 ) , and propose one new structure . Although we experimented with all of their structures ,3 here we only present the ones that perform best for our classification task .

We use the structures previously used by @@CITATION , and propose one new structure .


word formation in natural language processing systems

Robinson , 1982 ; Bobrow , 1978 ) consult relatively small lexicons , typically generated by hand . Two exceptions to this generalisation are the Linguistic String Project ( Sager , 1981 ) and the IBM CRITIQUE ( formerly EPISTLE ) Project ( Heidorn et al. , 1982 ; Byrd , 1983 ) ; the former employs a dictionary of approximately 10,000 words , most of which are specialist medical terms , the latter has well over 100,000 entries , gathered from machine readable sources . In addition , there are a number of projects under way to develop substantial lexicons from machine readable sources ( see Boguraev , 1986 for details ) .

Two exceptions to this generalisation are the Linguistic String Project ( Sager , 1981 ) and the IBM CRITIQUE ( formerly EPISTLE ) Project ( Heidorn et al. , 1982 ; @@CITATION ) ; the former employs a dictionary of approximately 10,000 words , most of which are specialist medical terms , the latter has well over 100,000 entries , gathered from machine readable sources .


cogniac high precision coreference with limited knowledge and linguistic resources

However , the pressing need for the development of robust and inexpensive solutions to meet the demands of practical NLP systems encouraged many researchers to move away from extensive domain and linguistic knowledge and to embark instead upon knowledge-poor anaphora resolution strategies . A number of proposals in the 1990s deliberately limited the extent to which they relied on domain and/or linguistic knowledge and reported promising results in knowledge-poor operational environments ( Dagan and Itai 1990 , 1991 ; Lappin and Leass 1994 ; Nasukawa 1994 ; Kennedy and Boguraev 1996 ; Williams , Harvey , and Preston 1996 ; Baldwin 1997 ; Mitkov 1996 , 1998b ) . The drive toward knowledge-poor and robust approaches was further motivated by the emergence of cheaper and more reliable corpus-based NLP tools such as partof-speech taggers and shallow parsers , alongside the increasing availability of corpora and other NLP resources ( e.g. , ontologies ) .

A number of proposals in the 1990s deliberately limited the extent to which they relied on domain and/or linguistic knowledge and reported promising results in knowledge-poor operational environments ( Dagan and Itai 1990 , 1991 ; Lappin and Leass 1994 ; Nasukawa 1994 ; Kennedy and Boguraev 1996 ; Williams , Harvey , and Preston 1996 ; @@CITATION ; Mitkov 1996 , 1998b ) .


representation trees and stringtree correspondences

Hence , it is very much desired to define the correspondence in a way to be able to handle the non-standard cases ( e.g. non-projective correspondence ) , see Figure 1 . Towards this aim , a flexible annotation structure called Structured String-Tree Correspondence ( SSTC ) was introduced in Boitet & Zaharin ( 1988 ) to record the string of terms , its associated representation structure and the mapping between the two , which is expressed by the sub-correspondences recorded as part of a SSTC . 1 The Meaning-Text Theory ( MTT ) was put forward in ( Zolkovski & Mel ` cuk ( 1965 ) , in the framework of research in Machine translation .

Towards this aim , a flexible annotation structure called Structured String-Tree Correspondence ( SSTC ) was introduced in @@CITATION to record the string of terms , its associated representation structure and the mapping between the two , which is expressed by the sub-correspondences recorded as part of a SSTC .


We have built an experimental text-to-speech system that uses our analysis of prosody to generate phrase boundaries for the Olive -- Liberman synthesizer ( Olive and Liberman 1985 ) . Two concerns motivated our implementation .

We have built an experimental text-to-speech system that uses our analysis of prosody to generate phrase boundaries for the Olive -- Liberman synthesizer ( @@CITATION ) .


distributed morphology and the pieces of inflection

For languages with rich derivational morphology , this problem is often critical : the standard architectural view of morphological analysis as a preprocessor presents difficulties in handling semantically meaningful affixes . In this paper , I present a computational implementation of Distributed Morphology ( Halle and Marantz , 1993 ) , a non-lexicalist linguistic theory that erases the distinction between syntactic derivation and morphological derivation . This framework leads to finer-grained semantics capable of better capturing linguistic generalizations .

In this paper , I present a computational implementation of Distributed Morphology ( @@CITATION ) , a non-lexicalist linguistic theory that erases the distinction between syntactic derivation and morphological derivation .


efficient contextsensitive generation of referring expressions

Some recent GRE algorithms have done away with the separation between content determination and linguistic realization , interleaving the two processes instead ( Stone and Webber 1998 ; Krahmer and Theune 2002 ) . We have separated the two phases because , in the case of vague descriptions , interleaving would tend to be difficult .

Some recent GRE algorithms have done away with the separation between content determination and linguistic realization , interleaving the two processes instead ( Stone and Webber 1998 ; @@CITATION ) .


the collection and preliminary analysis of a spontaneous speech databasequot darpa speech and natural language workshop

V Zue
N Daly
J Glass
D Goodine
H Leung
M Phillips
J Polifroni
S Seneff
M Soclof

Instead , an experimenter in a separate room typed in the utterances as spoken by the subject . Subsequent processing by the natural language and response generation components was done automatically by the computer ( Zue et al. 1989 ) . We were able to collect a total , of nearly 5000 utterances in this fashion .

Subsequent processing by the natural language and response generation components was done automatically by the computer ( @@CITATION ) .


a knowledgefree method for capitalized word disambiguation

We tackle capitalized words in a similar fashion as we tackled the abbreviations : through a document-centered approach that analyzes on the fly the distribution of ambiguously capitalized words in the entire document . This is implemented as a cascade of simple strategies , which were briefly described in Mikheev ( 1999 ) .

This is implemented as a cascade of simple strategies , which were briefly described in @@CITATION .


a theory of truth and semantic representationquot

So we will use a very simple formalism , like the one above , resembling the standard first order language . But , obviously , there are other possibilities -- for instance , the discourse representation structures ( DRS 's ) of Kamp ( 1981 ) , which have been used to translate a subset of English into logical formulas , to model text ( identified with a list of sentences ) , to analyze a fragment of English , and to deal with anaphora . The logical

But , obviously , there are other possibilities -- for instance , the discourse representation structures ( DRS 's ) of @@CITATION , which have been used to translate a subset of English into logical formulas , to model text ( identified with a list of sentences ) , to analyze a fragment of English , and to deal with anaphora .


forest reranking discriminative parsing with nonlocal features

We conjecture based on our analysis that the EM training algorithm is able to exploit the information available in both gold and automatically labeled data with more complex grammars while being less affected by over-fitting . Better results would be expected by combining the PCFG-LA parser with discriminative reranking approaches ( Charniak and Johnson , 2005 ; Huang , 2008 ) for self training . Self-training should also benefit other discriminatively trained parsers with latent annotations ( Petrov and Klein , 2008 ) , although training would be much slower compared to using generative models , as in our case .

Better results would be expected by combining the PCFG-LA parser with discriminative reranking approaches ( Charniak and Johnson , 2005 ; @@CITATION ) for self training .


hypertext 20 the convergence of contemporary critical theory and technology the johns hopkins

In fact , they were used expecially in academic writing with some success . Intermedia is no more developed and nobody of us had the opportunity to try it ( Landow , 1994 ) . Storyspace is currently distributed by Eastgate ( 2005 ) , and we have used it for a time .

Intermedia is no more developed and nobody of us had the opportunity to try it ( @@CITATION ) .


Morphological alterations of a search term have a negative impact on the recall performance of an information retrieval ( IR ) system ( Choueka , 1990 ; J Â¨ appinen and Niemist Â¨ o , 1988 ; Kraaij and Pohlmann , 1996 ) , since they preclude a direct match between the search term proper and its morphological variants in the documents to be retrieved . In order to cope with such variation , morphological analysis is concerned with the reverse processing of inflection ( e.g. , ` search ed ' , ` search ing ' ) 1 , derivation ( e.g. , ` search er ' or ` search able ' ) and composition ( e.g. , German ` Blut hoch druck ' [ ` high blood pressure ' ] ) .

Morphological alterations of a search term have a negative impact on the recall performance of an information retrieval ( IR ) system ( Choueka , 1990 ; J Â¨ appinen and Niemist Â¨ o , 1988 ; @@CITATION ) , since they preclude a direct match between the search term proper and its morphological variants in the documents to be retrieved .


typing as a means for validating feature structures

1In this paper , we use the term LTAG to refer to FBLTAG , if not confusing . ment ( Sarkar and Wintner , 1999 ; Doran et al. , 2000 ; Makino et al. , 1998 ) . These works are restricted to each closed community , and the relation between them is not well discussed .

ment ( @@CITATION ; Doran et al. , 2000 ; Makino et al. , 1998 ) .


a conversation robot using head gesture recognition as paralinguistic information

Shinya Fujie
Y Ejiri
K Nakajima
Y Matsusaka
Tetsunor Kobayashi

Louwerse et al. ( 2006 ) and Louwerse et al. ( 2007 ) study the relation between eye gaze , facial expression , pauses and dialogue structure in annotated English map-task dialogues ( Anderson et al. , 1991 ) and find correlations between the various modalities both within and across speakers . Finally , feedback expressions ( head nods and shakes ) are successfully predicted from speech , prosody and eye gaze in interaction with Embodied Communication Agents as well as human communication ( Fujie et al. , 2004 ; Morency et al. , 2005 ; Morency et al. , 2007 ; Morency et al. , 2009 ) . Our work is in line with these studies , all of which focus on the relation between linguistic expressions , prosody , dialogue content and gestures .

Finally , feedback expressions ( head nods and shakes ) are successfully predicted from speech , prosody and eye gaze in interaction with Embodied Communication Agents as well as human communication ( @@CITATION ; Morency et al. , 2005 ; Morency et al. , 2007 ; Morency et al. , 2009 ) .


integrating experiential and distributional data to learn semantic representations

Mark Andrews
Gabriella Vigliocco
David Vinson

Some efforts have tackled tasks such as automatic image caption generation ( Feng and Lapata , 2010a ; Ordonez et al. , 2011 ) , text illustration ( Joshi et al. , 2006 ) , or automatic location identification of Twitter users ( Eisenstein et al. , 2010 ; Wing and Baldridge , 2011 ; Roller et al. , 2012 ) . Another line of research approaches grounded language knowledge by augmenting distributional approaches of word meaning with perceptual information ( Andrews et al. , 2009 ; Steyvers , 2010 ; Feng and Lapata , 2010b ; Bruni et al. , 2011 ; Silberer and Lapata , 2012 ; Johns and Jones , 2012 ; Bruni et al. , 2012a ; Bruni et al. , 2012b ; Silberer et al. , 2013 ) . Although these approaches have differed in model definition , the general goal in this line of research has been to enhance word meaning with perceptual information in order to address one of the most common criticisms of distributional semantics : that the `` meaning of words is entirely given by other words '' ( Bruni et al. , 2012b ) .

Another line of research approaches grounded language knowledge by augmenting distributional approaches of word meaning with perceptual information ( @@CITATION ; Steyvers , 2010 ; Feng and Lapata , 2010b ; Bruni et al. , 2011 ; Silberer and Lapata , 2012 ; Johns and Jones , 2012 ; Bruni et al. , 2012a ; Bruni et al. , 2012b ; Silberer et al. , 2013 ) .


offline strategies for online question answering answering questions before they are asked

Michael Fleischman
Eduard Hovy
Abdessamad Echihabi

see that we can widen a highway , we learn that we can also widen a sidewalk , bridge , runway , etc. . We also made use of the person-name/instance pairs automatically extracted by Fleischman et al. ( 2003 ) .2 This data provides counts for pairs such as `` Edwin Moses , hurdler '' and `` William Farley , industrialist . '' We have features for all concepts and therefore learn their association with each verb .

We also made use of the person-name/instance pairs automatically extracted by @@CITATION .2 This data provides counts for pairs such as `` Edwin Moses , hurdler '' and `` William Farley , industrialist . ''


converting a bilingual dictionary into a bilingual knowledge bank based on the synchronous sstc annotation schema

S-SSTC very well suited for the construction of a BKB , which is needed for the EBMT applications . Al-Adhaileh and Tang ( 2001 ) presented an approach for constructing a BKB based on the S-SSTC . In S-SSTC , the synchronous correspondence is defined in a way to ensure a flexible representation for both lexical and structural correspondences : iNode -- to -- node correspondence ( lexical correspondence ) , which is recorded in terms of pair of intervals ( Xs , Xt ) where Xs and Xt is SNODE interval/s for the source and the target SSTC respectively , iiSubtree -- to -- Subtree correspondence ( structural correspondence ) , which is very much needed for relating the two different languages at a level higher than the lexical level , a level of phrases .

@@CITATION presented an approach for constructing a BKB based on the S-SSTC .


statistical parsing with a contextfree grammar and word statistics

Overall , the driving force behind the work on learning shallow parsers was the desire to get better performance and higher reliability . However , since work in this direction has started , a significant progress has also been made in the research on statistical learning of full parsers , both in terms of accuracy and processing time ( Charniak , 1997b ; Charniak , 1997a ; Collins , 1997 ; Ratnaparkhi , 1997 ) . This paper investigates the question of whether work on shallow parsing is worthwhile .

However , since work in this direction has started , a significant progress has also been made in the research on statistical learning of full parsers , both in terms of accuracy and processing time ( @@CITATIONb ; Charniak , 1997a ; Collins , 1997 ; Ratnaparkhi , 1997 ) .


combining labeled and unlabeled data with cotraining

Efficient training is required because the amount of data available for training will increase significantly . Also , advanced methods often require many training iterations , for example active learning ( Dagan and Engelson ,1995 ) and co-training ( Blum and Mitchell , 1998 ) . Processing text needs to be extremely efficient since many new applications will require very large quantities of text to be processed or many smaller quantities of text to be processed very quickly .

Also , advanced methods often require many training iterations , for example active learning ( Dagan and Engelson ,1995 ) and co-training ( @@CITATION ) .


Griffiths et al. ( 2007 ) helped pave the path for cognitive-linguistic multimodal research , showing that Latent Dirichlet Allocation outperformed Latent Semantic Analysis ( Deerwester et al. , 1990 ) in the prediction of association norms . Andrews et al. ( 2009 ) furthered this work by showing that a bimodal topic model , consisting of both text and feature norms , outperformed models using only one modality on the prediction of association norms , word substitution errors , and semantic interference tasks . In a similar vein , Steyvers ( 2010 ) showed that a different feature-topic model improved predictions on a fill-in-the-blank task .

@@CITATION furthered this work by showing that a bimodal topic model , consisting of both text and feature norms , outperformed models using only one modality on the prediction of association norms , word substitution errors , and semantic interference tasks .


a maximum entropy approach to natural language processing

Adam L Berger
Stephen A Della Pietra
Vincent J Della Pietra

However , since the models tested apparently differed in other aspects , it is hard to determine how much of this gain can be attributed to the use of ME . It can be shown ( Berger et al. , 1996 ) that the use of this model with maximum likelihood parameter estimation is justified on information-theoretic grounds when q represents some prior knowledge about the true distribution and when the expected values of f in the training corpus are identical to their true expected values .3 There is no requirement that the components of f represent disjoint or statistically independent events . This result motivates the use of MEMD models , but it offers only weak guidance on how to select q or f .

It can be shown ( @@CITATION ) that the use of this model with maximum likelihood parameter estimation is justified on information-theoretic grounds when q represents some prior knowledge about the true distribution and when the expected values of f in the training corpus are identical to their true expected values .3 There is no requirement that the components of f represent disjoint or statistically independent events .


regular models of phonological rule systems

This system extracts relational information , such as `` who is where '' or `` who bought what '' , from issues of the Wall Street Journal ( source code and sample data are included on the CD-ROM ) . Shortly after the publication of The Sound Pattern of English ( Chomsky and Halle 1968 ) , Kornai points out , `` Johnson ( 1970 ) demonstrated that the context-sensitive machinery of SPE ... [ could ] be replaced by a much simpler one , based on finite-state transducers ( FSTs ) ; the same conclusion was reached independently by Kaplan and Kay , whose work remained an underground classic until it was finally published in Kaplan and Kay ( 1994 ) . '' These works inspired Koskenniemi 's two-level system , and the Xerox rule compiler ( Dalrymple et al. 1987 ) .

Shortly after the publication of The Sound Pattern of English ( Chomsky and Halle 1968 ) , Kornai points out , `` Johnson ( 1970 ) demonstrated that the context-sensitive machinery of SPE ... [ could ] be replaced by a much simpler one , based on finite-state transducers ( FSTs ) ; the same conclusion was reached independently by Kaplan and Kay , whose work remained an underground classic until it was finally published in @@CITATION . ''


a corpus for modeling morphosyntactic agreement in arabic gender number and rationality

17 We also applied the manipulations described in Section A. 3 to FNNUM , giving us the variants FNNUMDGT and FNNUMDGTBIN , which we tested similarly . 18 In this article , we use a newer version of the corpus by Alkuhlani and Habash ( 2011 ) than the one we used in Marton , Habash , and Rambow ( 2011 ) . 19 The paper by Alkuhlani and Habash ( 2012 ) presents additional , more sophisticated models that we do not use in this article .

18 In this article , we use a newer version of the corpus by @@CITATION than the one we used in Marton , Habash , and Rambow ( 2011 ) .


natural language processing for information assurance and security an overview and implementations

Mikhail J Atallah
Craig J McDonough
Victor Raskin
Sergei Nirenburg

After embedding the secret message , modified deep structure forms are converted into the surface structure format via language generation tools . Atallah et al. ( 2001b ) and Topkara et al. ( 2006a ) attained the embedding capacity of 0.5 bits per sentence with the syntactic transformation method .

@@CITATIONb ) and Topkara et al. ( 2006a ) attained the embedding capacity of 0.5 bits per sentence with the syntactic transformation method .


minimum bayesrisk word alignments of bilingual texts

lattice ) . Another possibility that often works better is to use Minimum Bayes-Risk ( MBR ) decoding ( Kumar and Byrne 2002 ; Liang , Taskar , and Klein 2006 ; Ganchev , and Taskar 2007 ) . Using this decoding we include an alignment link i j if the posterior probability that word i aligns to word j is above some threshold .

Another possibility that often works better is to use Minimum Bayes-Risk ( MBR ) decoding ( @@CITATION ; Liang , Taskar , and Klein 2006 ; Ganchev , and Taskar 2007 ) .


lexical functional grammar a formal system for grammatical representation

In LFG , the subcategorization requirements of a particular predicate are expressed by its semantic form : FOCUS ( ( r SUBJ ) ( r OBLon ) ) in Figure 1 . The subcategorization requirements expressed by semantic forms are enforced at f-structure level through completeness and coherence well-formedness conditions on f-structure ( Kaplan and Bresnan 1982 ) : An f-structure is locally complete iff it contains all the governable grammatical functions that its predicate governs . An f-structure is complete iff it and all its subsidiary f-structures are locally complete .

The subcategorization requirements expressed by semantic forms are enforced at f-structure level through completeness and coherence well-formedness conditions on f-structure ( @@CITATION ) : An f-structure is locally complete iff it contains all the governable grammatical functions that its predicate governs .


feature structures based tree adjoining grammars

This paper describes an approach for sharing resources in various grammar formalisms such as Feature-Based Lexicalized Tree Adjoining Grammar ( FB-LTAG1 ) ( Vijay-Shanker , 1987 ; Vijay-Shanker and Joshi , 1988 ) and Head-Driven Phrase Structure Grammar ( HPSG ) ( Pollard and Sag , 1994 ) by a method of grammar conversion . The RenTAL system automatically converts an FB-LTAG grammar into a strongly equivalent HPSG-style grammar ( Yoshinaga and Miyao , 2001 ) .

This paper describes an approach for sharing resources in various grammar formalisms such as Feature-Based Lexicalized Tree Adjoining Grammar ( FB-LTAG1 ) ( Vijay-Shanker , 1987 ; @@CITATION ) and Head-Driven Phrase Structure Grammar ( HPSG ) ( Pollard and Sag , 1994 ) by a method of grammar conversion .


Our aim is to use the analysis of hypertexts for interesting insights , useful for blogs and wikis too . Following the example of Landow ( 1994 ) , we will call the autonomous units of a hypertext lexias ( from ` lexicon ' ) , a word coined by Roland Barthes ( 1970 ) . Consequently , a hypertext is a set of lexias .

Following the example of @@CITATION , we will call the autonomous units of a hypertext lexias ( from ` lexicon ' ) , a word coined by Roland Barthes ( 1970 ) .


( Chomsky 1977 ) .

on whmovementquot in formal syntax edited by

Stephanie Seneff TINA : A Natural Language System for Spoken Language Applications subject-tagging for verbs , and long distance movement ( often referred to as gaps , or the trace , as in '' ( which article ) , do you think I should read ( t1 ) ? '' ) ( Chomsky 1977 ) . The gap mechanism resembles the Hold register idea of ATNs ( Woods 1970 ) and the treatment of bounded domination metavariables in lexical functional grammars ( LFGs ) ( Bresnan 1982 , p. 235 ff . )


thumbs up sentiment classification using machine learning techniques

where ~ f ( Â· ) extracts a feature vector from a classified ~ document , Î¸ are the corresponding weights of those features , and ZÎ¸ ( x ) def Ey u ( x , y ) is a normalizer . We use the same set of binary features as in previous work on this dataset ( Pang et al. , 2002 ; Pang and Lee , 2004 ; Zaidan et al. , 2007 ) . Specifically , let V = -LCB- v1 , ... , v177441 be the set of word types with count > 4 in the full 2000-document corpus .

We use the same set of binary features as in previous work on this dataset ( @@CITATION ; Pang and Lee , 2004 ; Zaidan et al. , 2007 ) .


automatic indexing based on bayesian inference networksquot

Feature selection techniques have been widely used in information retrieval as a means for coping with the large number of words in a document ; a selection is made to keep only the more relevant words . Various feature selection techniques have been used in automatic text categorization ; they include document frequency ( DF ) , information gain ( IG ) ( Tzeras and Hartman , 1993 ) , minimum description length principal ( Lang , 1995 ) , and the X2 statistic . ( Yang and Pedersen , 1997 ) has found strong correlations between DF , IG and the X2 statistic for a term .

Various feature selection techniques have been used in automatic text categorization ; they include document frequency ( DF ) , information gain ( IG ) ( @@CITATION ) , minimum description length principal ( Lang , 1995 ) , and the X2 statistic .


multidimensional text analysis for erulemaking

Politically-oriented text Sentiment analysis has specifically been proposed as a key enabling technology in eRulemaking , allowing the automatic analysis of the opinions that people submit ( Shulman et al. , 2005 ; Cardie et al. , 2006 ; Kwon et al. , 2006 ) . There has also been work focused upon determining the political leaning ( e.g. , `` liberal '' vs. `` conservative '' ) of a document or author , where most previously-proposed methods make no direct use of relationships between the documents to be classified ( the `` unlabeled '' texts ) ( Laver et al. , 2003 ; Efron , 2004 ; Mullen and Malouf , 2006 ) .

Politically-oriented text Sentiment analysis has specifically been proposed as a key enabling technology in eRulemaking , allowing the automatic analysis of the opinions that people submit ( Shulman et al. , 2005 ; Cardie et al. , 2006 ; @@CITATION ) .


uptraining for accurate deterministic question parsing

S Petrov
P C Chang
M Ringgaard
H Alshawi

Consider , for example , the case of questions . Petrov et al. ( 2010 ) observed that dependency parsers tend to do quite poorly when parsing questions due to their limited exposure to them in the news corpora from the PennTreebank . Table 2 shows the accuracy of two parsers ( LAS , UAS and the F1 of the root dependency attachment ) on the QuestionBank test data .

@@CITATION observed that dependency parsers tend to do quite poorly when parsing questions due to their limited exposure to them in the news corpora from the PennTreebank .


automatic retrieval and clustering of similar words

The DSP parameters for eat , for example , place high weight on features like Pr ( nlbraise ) , Pr ( nlration ) , and Pr ( nlgarnish ) . Lin ( 1998a ) 's similar word list for eat misses these but includes sleep ( ranked 6 ) and sit ( ranked 14 ) , because these have similar subjects to eat . Discriminative , context-specific training seems to yield a better set of similar predicates , e.g. the highest-ranked contexts for DSP â oo , on the verb join ,3 lead 1.42 , rejoin 1.39 , form 1.34 , belong to 1.31 , found 1.31 , quit 1.29 , guide 1.19 , induct 1.19 , launch ( subj ) 1.18 , work at 1.14 give a better SIMS ( join ) for Equation ( 1 ) than the top similarities returned by ( Lin , 1998a ) : participate 0.164 , lead 0.150 , return to 0.148 , say 0.143 , rejoin 0.142 , sign 0.142 , meet 0.142 , include 0.141 , leave 0.140 , work 0.137 Other features are also weighted intuitively .

@@CITATIONa ) 's similar word list for eat misses these but includes sleep ( ranked 6 ) and sit ( ranked 14 ) , because these have similar subjects to eat .


More specifically , the notion of the phrasal lexicon ( used first by Becker 1975 ) has been used successfully in a number of areas : â¢ Learnability ( Zernik and Dyer 1987 ) â¢ Text generation ( Hovy 1988 ; Milosavljevic , Tulloch , and Dale 1996 ) â¢ Speech generation ( Rayner and Carter 1997 ) â¢ Localization ( Sch Â¨ aler 1996 ) More recently , Simard and Langlais ( 2001 ) have proposed the exploitation of TMs at a subsentential level , while Carl , Way , and Sch Â¨ aler ( 2002 ) and Sch Â¨ aler , Way , and Carl ( 2003 , pages 108 -- 109 ) describe how phrasal lexicons might come to occupy a central place in a future hybrid integrated translation environment .

â¢ Learnability ( @@CITATION ) â¢ Text generation ( Hovy 1988 ; Milosavljevic , Tulloch , and Dale 1996 ) â¢ Speech generation ( Rayner and Carter 1997 ) â¢ Localization ( Sch Â¨ aler 1996 )


Nowadays the use of computers for writing has drammatically changed , expecially after their interconnection via the internet , since at least the foundation of the web ( Berners-Lee , 1999 ) . For example , a ` web page ' is more similar to an infinite canvas than a written page ( McCloud , 2001 ) . Moreover , what seems to be lost is the relations , like the texture underpinning the text itself .

For example , a ` web page ' is more similar to an infinite canvas than a written page ( @@CITATION ) .


boddy wj et al the mouse genome database mgd integrating biology with the genome nucleic acids res

Bult CJ
Blake JA
Richardson JE
Kadin JA
Eppig JT
Baldarelli RM
K Barsanti
M Baya
Beal JS

The Semantic Network contains information about the types or categories ( e.g. , `` Disease or Syndrome '' , `` Virus '' ) to which all META concepts have been assigned . Other molecular biology databases We also included several model organism databases or nomenclature databases in the construction of the dictionary , i.e. , mouse Mouse Genome Database ( MGD ) [ 18 ] , fly FlyBase [ 19 ] , yeast Saccharomyces Genome Database ( SGD ) [ 20 ] , rat -- Rat Genome Database ( RGD ) [ 21 ] , worm -- WormBase [ 22 ] , Human Nomenclature Database ( HUGO ) [ 23 ] , Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man ( OMIM ) [ 24 ] , and Enzyme Nomenclature Database ( ECNUM ) [ 25 , 26 ] .

Other molecular biology databases We also included several model organism databases or nomenclature databases in the construction of the dictionary , i.e. , mouse Mouse Genome Database ( MGD ) @@CITATION , fly FlyBase [ 19 ] , yeast Saccharomyces Genome Database ( SGD ) [ 20 ] , rat -- Rat Genome Database ( RGD ) [ 21 ] , worm -- WormBase [ 22 ] , Human Nomenclature Database ( HUGO ) [ 23 ] , Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man ( OMIM ) [ 24 ] , and Enzyme Nomenclature Database ( ECNUM ) [ 25 , 26 ] .


the logic of typed feature structures  with applications to unification grammars logic programs and constraint resolution

Typed feature grammars can be used as the basis for implementations of Head-driven Phrase Structure Grammar ( Pollard and Sag , 1994 ) .3 ( Meurers and Minnen , 1997 ) propose a compilation of lexical rules into TIT definite clauses 2This view of typed feature structures differs from the perspective on typed feature structures as modeling partial information as in ( Carpenter , 1992 ) . Typed feature structures as normal form TFC terms are merely syntactic objects .

2This view of typed feature structures differs from the perspective on typed feature structures as modeling partial information as in ( @@CITATION ) .


grammaticallybased automatic word class formationquot

Then the system could propose to a human expert a set of filters for each node , based on its observations , and the human could make the final decision on whether to accept the proposals . This approach resembles the work by Grishman et al. ( 1986 ) and Hirschman et al. ( 1975 ) on selectional restrictions . The semantic conditions that pass could even ultimately be associated with probabilities , obtained by frequency counts on their occurrences .

This approach resembles the work by Grishman et al. ( 1986 ) and @@CITATION on selectional restrictions .


S Brants
S Dipper
S Hansen
W Lezius
G Smith

A second observation is that a high proportion of non-projective structures leads to fragmentation in the parser output , reflected in lower precision for roots . This is noticeable for German ( Brants et al. , 2002 ) and Portuguese ( Afonso et al. , 2002 ) , which still have high overall accuracy thanks to very high attachment scores , but much more conspicuous for Czech ( B Â¨ ohmov Â´ a et al. , 2003 ) , Dutch ( van der Beek et al. , 2002 ) and Slovene ( DËzeroski et al. , 2006 ) , where root precision drops more drastically to about 69 % , 71 % and 41 % , respectively , and root recall is also affected negatively . On the other hand , all three languages behave like high-accuracy languages with respect to attachment score .

This is noticeable for German ( @@CITATION ) and Portuguese ( Afonso et al. , 2002 ) , which still have high overall accuracy thanks to very high attachment scores , but much more conspicuous for Czech ( B Â¨ ohmov Â´ a et al. , 2003 ) , Dutch ( van der Beek et al. , 2002 ) and Slovene ( DËzeroski et al. , 2006 ) , where root precision drops more drastically to about 69 % , 71 % and 41 % , respectively , and root recall is also affected negatively .


parsing strategies with ‘lexicalized’ grammars application to tree adjoining grammars

Yves Schabes
Anne Abeille
Aravind K Joshi

LTAG ( Schabes et al. , 1988 ) is a grammar formalism that provides syntactic analyses for a sentence by composing elementary trees with two opera - tions called substitution and adjunction .

LTAG ( @@CITATION ) is a grammar formalism that provides syntactic analyses for a sentence by composing elementary trees with two opera -


creating a bilingual entailment corpus through translations with mechanical turk 100 for a 10day rush

It consists of 1600 pairs derived from the RTE3 development and test sets ( 800 +800 ) . Translations have been generated by the CrowdFlower3 channel to Amazon Mechanical Turk4 ( MTurk ) , adopting the methodology proposed by ( Negri and Mehdad , 2010 ) . The method relies on translation-validation cycles , defined as separate jobs routed to MTurk 's workforce .

Translations have been generated by the CrowdFlower3 channel to Amazon Mechanical Turk4 ( MTurk ) , adopting the methodology proposed by ( @@CITATION ) .


toward an arabic web page classifierquot master project

The aim of this work is to gain some insight as to whether Arabic document categorization ( using NB ) is sensitive to the root extraction algorithm used or to different data sets . This work is a continuation of that initiated in ( Yahyaoui , 2001 ) , which reports an overall NB classification correctness of 75.6 % , in cross validation experiments , on a data set that consists of 100 documents for each of 12 categories ( the data set is collected from different Arabic portals ) . A 50 % overall classification accuracy is also reported when testing with a separately collected evaluation set ( 3 documents for each of the 12 categories ) .

This work is a continuation of that initiated in ( @@CITATION ) , which reports an overall NB classification correctness of 75.6 % , in cross validation experiments , on a data set that consists of 100 documents for each of 12 categories ( the data set is collected from different Arabic portals ) .


treebased translation without using parse trees

Feifei Zhai
Jiajun Zhang
Yu Zhou
Chengqing Zong

For unsupervised tree structure induction , DeNero and Uszkoreit ( 2011 ) adopted a parallel parsing model to induce unlabeled trees of source sentences for syntactic pre-reordering . Our previous work ( Zhai et al. , 2012 ) designed an EMbased method to construct unsupervised trees for tree-based translation models . This work differs from the above work in that we design a novel Bayesian model to induce unsupervised U-trees , and prior knowledge can be encoded into the model more freely and effectively .

Our previous work ( @@CITATION ) designed an EMbased method to construct unsupervised trees for tree-based translation models .


binarizing syntax trees to improve syntaxbased machine translation accuracy

To build the above s2t system , we first use the parse tree , which is generated by parsing the English side of the bilingual data with the Berkeley parser ( Petrov et al. , 2006 ) . Then , we binarize the English parse trees using the head binarization approach ( Wang et al. , 2007 ) and use the resulting binary parse trees to build another s2t system . For the U-trees , we run the Gibbs sampler for 1000 iterations on the whole corpus .

Then , we binarize the English parse trees using the head binarization approach ( @@CITATION ) and use the resulting binary parse trees to build another s2t system .


A positive answer would not be psychologically plausible , since x and y are indistinguishable ; but a negative answer would prohibit any binary distinction between objects that are large and objects that are not , given that one can always construct objects x and y , one of which falls just below the divide while the other falls just above it . This is the strongest version of the sorites paradox ( e.g. , Hyde 2002 ) . Our approach to vague descriptions allows a subtle response : that the offending statement may be correct yet infelicitous .

This is the strongest version of the sorites paradox ( e.g. , @@CITATION ) .


a systematic comparison of various statistical alignment models

Because our approach is orthogonal to the base model used , the constraints described here could be applied in principle to IBM Model 4 if exact inference was efficient , hopefully yielding similar improvements . We used a standard implementation of IBM Model 4 ( Och and Ney 2003 ) and because changing the existing code is not trivial , we could not use the same stopping criterion to avoid overfitting and we are not able to produce precision/recall curves . We trained IBM Model 4 using the default configuration of the

We used a standard implementation of IBM Model 4 ( @@CITATION ) and because changing the existing code is not trivial , we could not use the same stopping criterion to avoid overfitting and we are not able to produce precision/recall curves .


syntacticsemantic structures for textual entailment recognition

Yashar Mehdad
Alessandro Moschitti
Fabio Massimo Zanzotto

Cross-lingual Textual Entailment ( CLTE ) has been proposed by ( Mehdad et al. , 2010 ) as an extension of Textual Entailment ( Dagan and Glickman , 2004 ) that consists in deciding , given two texts T and H in different languages , if the meaning of H can be inferred from the meaning of T . The task is inherently difficult , as it adds issues related to the multilingual dimension to the complexity of semantic inference at the textual level .

Cross-lingual Textual Entailment ( CLTE ) has been proposed by ( @@CITATION ) as an extension of Textual Entailment ( Dagan and Glickman , 2004 ) that consists in deciding , given two texts T and H in different languages , if the meaning of H can be inferred from the meaning of T .


learning language semantics from ambiguous supervision

The language grounding problem has come in many different flavors with just as many different approaches . Some approaches apply semantic parsing , where words and sentences are mapped to logical structure meaning ( Kate and Mooney , 2007 ) . Others provide automatic mappings of natural language instructions to executable actions , such as interpreting navigation directions ( Chen and Mooney , 2011 ) or robot commands ( Tellex et al. , 2011 ; Matuszek et al. , 2012 ) .

Some approaches apply semantic parsing , where words and sentences are mapped to logical structure meaning ( @@CITATION ) .


forest reranking discriminative parsing with nonlocal features

Belief propagation improves non-projective dependency parsing with features that would make exact inference intractable . For projective parsing , it is significantly faster than exact dynamic programming , at the cost of small amounts of search error , We are interested in extending these ideas to phrase-structure and lattice parsing , and in trying other higher-order features , such as those used in parse reranking ( Charniak and Johnson , 2005 ; Huang , 2008 ) and history-based parsing ( Nivre and McDonald , 2008 ) . We could also introduce new variables , e.g. , nonterminal refinements ( Matsuzaki et al. , 2005 ) , or secondary links Mid ( not constrained by TREE/PTREE ) that augment the parse with representations of control , binding , etc. ( Sleator and Temperley , 1993 ; Buch-Kromann , 2006 ) .

For projective parsing , it is significantly faster than exact dynamic programming , at the cost of small amounts of search error , We are interested in extending these ideas to phrase-structure and lattice parsing , and in trying other higher-order features , such as those used in parse reranking ( Charniak and Johnson , 2005 ; @@CITATION ) and history-based parsing ( Nivre and McDonald , 2008 ) .


facilitating the compilation and dissemination of adhoc web corpora

Baroni and Bernardini ( 2004 ) built a corpus by iteratively searching Google for a small set of seed terms . Prototypes of Internet search engines for linguists , corpus linguists and lexicographers have been proposed : WebCorp ( Kehoe and Renouf , 2002 ) , KWiCFinder ( Fletcher , 2004a ) and the Linguist 's Search Engine ( Kilgarriff , 2003 ; Resnik and Elkiss , 2003 ) . A key concern in corpus linguistics and related disciplines is verifiability and replicability of the results of studies .

Prototypes of Internet search engines for linguists , corpus linguists and lexicographers have been proposed : WebCorp ( Kehoe and Renouf , 2002 ) , KWiCFinder ( @@CITATIONa ) and the Linguist 's Search Engine ( Kilgarriff , 2003 ; Resnik and Elkiss , 2003 ) .


al wormbase a multispecies resource for nematode biology and genomics nucleic acids res

Harris TW
N Chen
F Cunningham
M TelloRuiz
I Antoshechkin
C Bastiani
T Bieri
D Blasiar
K Bradnam
Chan J et

Other molecular biology databases We also included several model organism databases or nomenclature databases in the construction of the dictionary , i.e. , mouse Mouse Genome Database ( MGD ) [ 18 ] , fly FlyBase [ 19 ] , yeast Saccharomyces Genome Database ( SGD ) [ 20 ] , rat -- Rat Genome Database ( RGD ) [ 21 ] , worm -- WormBase @@CITATION , Human Nomenclature Database ( HUGO ) [ 23 ] , Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man ( OMIM ) [ 24 ] , and Enzyme Nomenclature Database ( ECNUM ) [ 25 , 26 ] .


They are intended as an illustration of the power of abduction , which in this framework helps determine the universe of the model ( that is the set of entities that appear in it ) . Other factors , such as the role of focus ( Grosz 1977 , 1978 ; Sidner 1983 ) or quantifier scoping ( Webber 1983 ) must play a role , too . Determining the relative importance of those factors , the above metarules , and syntactic clues , appears to be an interesting topic in itself .

Other factors , such as the role of focus ( Grosz 1977 , 1978 ; Sidner 1983 ) or quantifier scoping ( @@CITATION ) must play a role , too .


the nlm indexing initiative’s medical text indexer

Alan R Aronson
James G Mork
Clifford W Gay
Susanne M Humphrey
Willie J Rogers

Indexing is performed by approximately 100 indexers with at least bachelor 's degrees in life sciences and formal training in indexing provided by NLM . Since mid-2002 , the Library has been employing software that automatically suggests MeSH headings based on content ( Aronson et al. 2004 ) . Nevertheless , the indexing process remains firmly human-centered .

Since mid-2002 , the Library has been employing software that automatically suggests MeSH headings based on content ( @@CITATION ) .


on discriminative vs generative classifiers a comparison of logistic regression and naive bayes

Although our results were not obtained from the same exact collection as those used by authors of these two previous studies , comparable experiments suggest that our techniques are competitive in terms of performance , and may offer additional advantages as well . Discriminative approaches ( especially SVMs ) have been shown to be very effective for many supervised classification tasks ; see , for example , ( Joachims , 1998 ; Ng and Jordan , 2001 ) . However , their high computational complexity ( quadratic in the number of training samples ) renders them prohibitive for massive data processing .

Discriminative approaches ( especially SVMs ) have been shown to be very effective for many supervised classification tasks ; see , for example , ( Joachims , 1998 ; @@CITATION ) .


using the web to obtain frequencies for unseen bigrams

The similarity-smoothed examples will be undefined if SIMS ( w ) is empty . Also , the Keller and Lapata ( 2003 ) approach will be undefined if the pair is unobserved on the web . As a reasonable default for these cases , we assign them a negative decision .

Also , the @@CITATION approach will be undefined if the pair is unobserved on the web .


expert systems a technology before its time ai expert available at wwwstanfordedugroup scipavsgtexpertsystemsaiexperthtml

The automation of help-desk responses has been previously tackled using mainly knowledge-intensive paradigms , such as expert systems ( Barr and Tessler 1995 ) and case-based reasoning ( Watson 1997 ) . Such technologies require significant human input , and are difficult to create and maintain ( Delic and Lahaix 1998 ) .

The automation of help-desk responses has been previously tackled using mainly knowledge-intensive paradigms , such as expert systems ( @@CITATION ) and case-based reasoning ( Watson 1997 ) .


word association norms mutual information and lexicography

To create the positives , we automatically parse a large corpus , and then extract the predicate-argument pairs that have a statistical association in this data . We measure this association using pointwise Mutual Information ( MI ) ( Church and Hanks , 1990 ) . The MI between a

We measure this association using pointwise Mutual Information ( MI ) ( @@CITATION ) .


Collin F Baker
Charles J Fillmore
John B Lowe

Some methods of semantic relation analysis rely on predefined templates filled with information from processed texts ( Baker et al. , 1998 ) . In other methods , lexical resources are specifically tailored to meet the requirements of the domain ( Rosario and Hearst , 2001 ) or the system ( Gomez , 1998 ) .

Some methods of semantic relation analysis rely on predefined templates filled with information from processed texts ( @@CITATION ) .


frequency analysis of english usage lexicon and grammar

2.1 Corpora for Evaluation There are two corpora normally used for evaluation in a number of text-processing tasks : the Brown corpus ( Francis and Kucera 1982 ) and the Wall Street Journal ( WSJ ) corpus , both part of the Penn Treebank ( Marcus , Marcinkiewicz , and Santorini 1993 ) . The Brown corpus represents general English .

There are two corpora normally used for evaluation in a number of text-processing tasks : the Brown corpus ( @@CITATION ) and the Wall Street Journal ( WSJ ) corpus , both part of the Penn Treebank ( Marcus , Marcinkiewicz , and Santorini 1993 ) .


mining newsgroups using networks arising from social behavior

tween two speakers , such as explicit assertions ( `` I second that ! '' ) or quotation of messages in emails or postings ( see Mullen and Malouf ( 2006 ) but cfXXX Agrawal et al. ( 2003 ) ) . Agreement evidence can be a powerful aid in our classification task : for example , we can easily categorize a complicated ( or overly terse ) document if we find within it indications of agreement with a clearly positive text .

or quotation of messages in emails or postings ( see Mullen and Malouf ( 2006 ) but cfXXX @@CITATION ) .


integrating experiential and distributional data to learn semantic representations

Andrews et al. ( 2009 ) extend LDA to allow for the inference of document and topic distributions in a multimodal corpus . In their model , a document consists of a set of ( word , feature ) pairs ,4 rather than just words , and documents are still modeled as mixtures of shared topics .

@@CITATION extend LDA to allow for the inference of document and topic distributions in a multimodal corpus .


The shallow parser used is the SNoW-based CSCL parser ( Punyakanok and Roth , 2001 ; Munoz et al. , 1999 ) . SNoW ( Carleson et al. , 1999 ; Roth , 1998 ) is a multi-class classifier that is specifically tailored for learning in domains in which the potential number of information sources ( features ) taking part in decisions is very large , of which NLP is a principal example . It works by learning a sparse network of linear functions over a pre-defined or incrementally learned feature space .

SNoW ( @@CITATION ; Roth , 1998 ) is a multi-class classifier that is specifically tailored for learning in domains in which the potential number of information sources ( features ) taking part in decisions is very large , of which NLP is a principal example .


error bounds for convolutional codes and an asymptotically optimal decoding algorithmquot

The lexicon is entered as phonetic pronunciations that are then augmented to account for a number of phonological rules . The search algorithm is the standard Viterbi search ( Viterbi 1967 ) , except that the match involves a network-to-network alignment problem rather than sequence-to-sequence . When we first integrated this recognizer with TINA , we used a `` wire '' connection , in that the recognizer produced a single best output , which was then passed to TINA for parsing .

The search algorithm is the standard Viterbi search ( @@CITATION ) , except that the match involves a network-to-network alignment problem rather than sequence-to-sequence .


language independent named entity recognition combining morphological and contextual evidence”

Gale , Church , and Yarowsky ( 1992 ) showed that words strongly tend to exhibit only one sense in a document or discourse ( `` one sense per discourse '' ) . Since then this idea has been applied to several tasks , including word sense disambiguation ( Yarowsky 1995 ) and named-entity recognition ( Cucerzan and Yarowsky 1999 ) . Gale , Church , and Yarowsky 's observation is also used in our DCA , especially for the identification of abbreviations .

Since then this idea has been applied to several tasks , including word sense disambiguation ( Yarowsky 1995 ) and named-entity recognition ( @@CITATION ) .


libsvm a library for support vector machines software available at httpwwwcsie ntuedutw∼cjlinlibsvm

6 For Sent-Pred we also experimented with grammatical and sentence-based syntactic features , such as number of syntactic phrases , grammatical mood , and grammatical person ( Marom and Zukerman 2006 ) , but the simple binary bag-of-lemmas representation yielded similar results . 7 We employed the LIBSVM package ( Chang and Lin 2001 ) . 1 .

7 We employed the LIBSVM package ( @@CITATION ) .


a mentionsynchronous coreference resolution algorithm based on the bell tree

X Luo
A Ittycheriah
H Jing
N Kambhatla
S Roukos

This KS could do not evaluate the role of induced SC knowledge be useful for ACE coreference , since ACE is conin coreference resolution : many of them evaluate cerned with resolving only NPs that are mentions . coreference performance on perfect mentions ( e.g. , Incorporate the two knowledge sources in a Luo et al. ( 2004 ) ) ; and for those that do report percoreference resolver . Next , we investigate whether formance on automatically extracted mentions , they these two KSs can improve a learning-based basedo not explain whether or how the induced SC inforline resolver that employs a fairly standard feature mation is used in their coreference algorithms .

coreference performance on perfect mentions ( e.g. , Incorporate the two knowledge sources in a @@CITATION ) ; and for those that do report percoreference resolver .


He likes spinach . According to Hobbs ( 1979 , p. 67 ) , these two sentences are incoherent . However , the same fragment , augmented with the third sentence Mary told him yesterday that the French spinach crop failed and Turkey is the only country ... ( ibid . )

According to @@CITATION , p. 67 ) , these two sentences are incoherent .


a stochastic parts program and noun phrase parser for unrestricted text

While earlier work in this direction concentrated on manual construction of rules , most of the recent work has been motivated by the observation that shallow syntactic information can be extracted using local information by examining the pattern itself , its nearby context and the local part-of-speech information . Thus , over the past few years , along with advances in the use of learning and statistical methods for acquisition of full parsers ( Collins , 1997 ; Charniak , 1997a ; Charniak , 1997b ; Ratnaparkhi , 1997 ) , significant progress has been made on the use of statistical learning methods to recognize shallow parsing patterns syntactic phrases or words that participate in a syntactic relationship ( Church , 1988 ; Ramshaw and Marcus , 1995 ; Argamon et al. , 1998 ; Cardie and Pierce , 1998 ; Munoz et al. , 1999 ; Punyakanok and Roth , 2001 ; Buchholz et al. , 1999 ; Tjong Kim Sang and Buchholz , 2000 ) . Research on shallow parsing was inspired by psycholinguistics arguments ( Gee and Grosjean , 1983 ) that suggest that in many scenarios ( e.g. , conversational ) full parsing is not a realistic strategy for sentence processing and analysis , and was further motivated by several arguments from a natural language engineering viewpoint .

Thus , over the past few years , along with advances in the use of learning and statistical methods for acquisition of full parsers ( Collins , 1997 ; Charniak , 1997a ; Charniak , 1997b ; Ratnaparkhi , 1997 ) , significant progress has been made on the use of statistical learning methods to recognize shallow parsing patterns syntactic phrases or words that participate in a syntactic relationship ( @@CITATION ; Ramshaw and Marcus , 1995 ; Argamon et al. , 1998 ; Cardie and Pierce , 1998 ; Munoz et al. , 1999 ; Punyakanok and Roth , 2001 ; Buchholz et al. , 1999 ; Tjong Kim Sang and Buchholz , 2000 ) .


the dialogue designing dialogue system dissertation

However , the `` flowcharts '' in the current project are probabilistic in nature and the problems associated with matching incoming sentences to existing nodes has not been previously addressed . Another dialogue acquisition system has been developed by Ho ( 1984 ) . However , that system has different goals : to enable the user to consciously design a dialogue to embody a particular human-machine interaction .

Another dialogue acquisition system has been developed by @@CITATION .


lexical functional grammar volume 34 of syntax and semantics

Lexical functional grammar ( Kaplan and Bresnan 1982 ; Bresnan 2001 ; Dalrymple 2001 ) is a member of the family of constraint-based grammars . It posits minimally two levels of syntactic representation :2 c ( onstituent ) - structure encodes details of surface syntactic constituency , whereas f ( unctional ) - structure expresses abstract syntactic information about predicate -- argument -- modifier relations and certain morphosyntactic properties such as tense , aspect , and case .

Lexical functional grammar ( Kaplan and Bresnan 1982 ; Bresnan 2001 ; @@CITATION ) is a member of the family of constraint-based grammars .


using a dependency parser to improve smt for subjectobjectverb languages in

The reordering cost , evaluation 1Our rules are similar to those from Xu et al. ( 2009 ) . criteria and data used in our experiments are based on the work of Talbot et al. ( 2011 ) .

1Our rules are similar to those from @@CITATION .


identifying semantic relations and functional properties of human verb associations

They used a 0-10 range of relatedness scores , but did not give further details about their experimental setup . In psycholinguistics , relatedness of words can also be determined through association tests ( Schulte im Walde and Melinger , 2005 ) . Results of such experiments are hard to quantify and can not easily serve as the basis for evaluating SR measures .

In psycholinguistics , relatedness of words can also be determined through association tests ( Schulte im @@CITATION ) .


identifying broken plurals irregular gender and rationality in arabic text

functional inflectional number feature , but not full functional gender ( only for adjectives and verbs but not for nouns ) , nor rationality . In this article , we use an in-house system which provides functional gender , number , and rationality features ( Alkuhlani and Habash 2012 ) . See Section 5.2 for more details .

In this article , we use an in-house system which provides functional gender , number , and rationality features ( @@CITATION ) .


a natural language tutorial dialogue system for physics

Pamela Jordan
Maxim Makatchev
Umarani Pappuswamy
Kurt VanLehn
Patricia Albacete

Over the last decade there has been a lot of interest in developing tutorial dialogue systems that understand student explanations ( Jordan et al. , 2006 ; Graesser et al. , 1999 ; Aleven et al. , 2001 ; Buckley and Wolska , 2007 ; Nielsen et al. , 2008 ; VanLehn et al. , 2007 ) , because high percentages of selfexplanation and student contentful talk are known to be correlated with better learning in humanhuman tutoring ( Chi et al. , 1994 ; Litman et al. , 2009 ; Purandare and Litman , 2008 ; Steinhauser et al. , 2007 ) . However , most existing systems use pre-authored tutor responses for addressing student errors .

Over the last decade there has been a lot of interest in developing tutorial dialogue systems that understand student explanations ( @@CITATION ; Graesser et al. , 1999 ; Aleven et al. , 2001 ; Buckley and Wolska , 2007 ; Nielsen et al. , 2008 ; VanLehn et al. , 2007 ) , because high percentages of selfexplanation and student contentful talk are known to be correlated with better learning in humanhuman tutoring ( Chi et al. , 1994 ; Litman et al. , 2009 ; Purandare and Litman , 2008 ; Steinhauser et al. , 2007 ) .


concordancing the web with kwicfinder third north american

This corpus annotation bottleneck becomes even more problematic for voluminous data sets drawn from the web . The use of the web as a corpus for teaching and research on language has been proposed a number of times ( Kilgarriff , 2001 ; Robb , 2003 ; Rundell , 2000 ; Fletcher , 2001 , 2004b ) and received a special issue of the journal Computational Linguistics ( Kilgarriff and Grefenstette , 2003 ) . Studies have used several different methods to mine web data .

The use of the web as a corpus for teaching and research on language has been proposed a number of times ( Kilgarriff , 2001 ; Robb , 2003 ; Rundell , 2000 ; @@CITATION , 2004b ) and received a special issue of the journal Computational Linguistics ( Kilgarriff and Grefenstette , 2003 ) .


linguistic functions of head movements in the context of speech

Several authors in communication studies have pointed out that head movements are relevant to feedback phenomena ( see McClave ( 2000 ) for an overview ) . Others have looked at the application of machine learning algorithms to annotated multimodal corpora .

Several authors in communication studies have pointed out that head movements are relevant to feedback phenomena ( see @@CITATION for an overview ) .


examplebased decoding for statistical machine translation

One of the advantages is that it can adapt the weights for each of the test sentences . Our method resorts to some translation examples , which is similar as example-based translation or translation memory ( Watanabe and Sumita , 2003 ; He et al. , 2010 ; Ma et al. , 2011 ) . Instead of using translation examples to construct translation rules for enlarging the decoding space , we employed them to discriminatively learn local weights .

Our method resorts to some translation examples , which is similar as example-based translation or translation memory ( @@CITATION ; He et al. , 2010 ; Ma et al. , 2011 ) .


a joint model for entity analysis coreference typing and linking

3.1.1 can be verified empirically on both ACE-2004 and OntoNotes-5 .0 datasets . Baseline Systems We choose three publicly available state-of-the-art end-to-end coreference systems as our baselines : Stanford system ( Lee et al. , 2011 ) , Berkeley system ( Durrett and Klein , 2014 ) and HOTCoref system ( Bj Â¨ orkelund and Kuhn , 2014 ) . Developed Systems Our developed system is built on the work by Chang et al. ( 2013 ) , using Constrained Latent Left-Linking Model ( CL3M ) as our mention-pair coreference model in the joint framework10 .

Baseline Systems We choose three publicly available state-of-the-art end-to-end coreference systems as our baselines : Stanford system ( Lee et al. , 2011 ) , Berkeley system ( @@CITATION ) and HOTCoref system ( Bj Â¨ orkelund and Kuhn , 2014 ) .


the hwim speech understanding system in lea

A number of speech understanding systems have been developed during the past fifteen years ( Barnett et al. 1980 , Dixon and Martin 1979 , Erman et al. 1980 , Haton and Pierrel 1976 , Lea 1980 , Lowerre and Reddy 1980 , Medress 1980 , Reddy 1976 , Walker 1978 , and Wolf and Woods 1980 ) . Most of these efforts concentrated on the interaction between low level information sources from a speech recognizer and a natural language processor to discover the meaning of an input sentence .

A number of speech understanding systems have been developed during the past fifteen years ( Barnett et al. 1980 , Dixon and Martin 1979 , Erman et al. 1980 , Haton and Pierrel 1976 , Lea 1980 , Lowerre and Reddy 1980 , Medress 1980 , Reddy 1976 , Walker 1978 , and @@CITATION ) .


Looking at Hebrew , a Semitic language related to Arabic , Tsarfaty and Sima'an ( 2007 ) report that extending POS and phrase structure tags with definiteness information helps unlexicalized PCFG parsing . As for work on Arabic ( MSA ) , results have been reported on the PATB ( Kulick , Gabbard , and Marcus 2006 ; Diab 2007 ; Green and Manning 2010 ) , the Prague Dependency Treebank ( PADT ) ( Buchholz and Marsi 2006 ; Nivre 2008 ) and the CATiB ( Habash and Roth 2009 ) . Recently , Green and Manning ( 2010 ) analyzed the PATB for annotation consistency , and introduced an enhanced split-state constituency grammar , including labels for short idafa constructions and verbal or equational clauses .

As for work on Arabic ( MSA ) , results have been reported on the PATB ( Kulick , Gabbard , and Marcus 2006 ; Diab 2007 ; Green and Manning 2010 ) , the Prague Dependency Treebank ( PADT ) ( Buchholz and Marsi 2006 ; Nivre 2008 ) and the CATiB ( @@CITATION ) .


unsupervised name disambiguation via social network similarity

Nevertheless , the full document text is present in most systems , sometimes as the only feature ( Sugiyama and Okumura , 2007 ) and sometimes in combination with others see for instance ( Chen and Martin , 2007 ; Popescu and Magnini , 2007 ) - . Other representations use the link structure ( Malin , 2005 ) or generate graph representations of the extracted features ( Kalashnikov et al. , 2007 ) . Some researchers ( Cucerzan , 2007 ; Nguyen and Cao , 2008 ) have explored the use of Wikipedia information to improve the disambiguation process .

Other representations use the link structure ( @@CITATION ) or generate graph representations of the extracted features ( Kalashnikov et al. , 2007 ) .


the use of morphosemantic regularities in the medical vocabulary for automatic lexical coding methods ofinformation in

This is particularly true for the medical domain . From an IR view , a lot of specialized research has already been carried out for medical applications , with emphasis on the lexico-semantic aspects of dederivation and decomposition ( Pacak et al. , 1980 ; Norton and Pacak , 1983 ; Wolff , 1984 ; Wingert , 1985 ; Dujols et al. , 1991 ; Baud et al. , 1998 ) . While one may argue that single-word compounds are quite rare in English ( which is not the case in the medical domain either ) , this is certainly not true for German and other basically agglutinative languages known for excessive single-word nominal compounding .

From an IR view , a lot of specialized research has already been carried out for medical applications , with emphasis on the lexico-semantic aspects of dederivation and decomposition ( Pacak et al. , 1980 ; Norton and Pacak , 1983 ; @@CITATION ; Wingert , 1985 ; Dujols et al. , 1991 ; Baud et al. , 1998 ) .


There has been some controversy , at least for simple stemmers ( Lovins , 1968 ; Porter , 1980 ) , about the effectiveness of morphological analysis for document retrieval ( Harman , 1991 ; Krovetz , 1993 ; Hull , 1996 ) . The key for quality improvement seems to be rooted mainly in the presence or absence of some form of dictionary .

There has been some controversy , at least for simple stemmers ( Lovins , 1968 ; @@CITATION ) , about the effectiveness of morphological analysis for document retrieval ( Harman , 1991 ; Krovetz , 1993 ; Hull , 1996 ) .


convolution kernels on constituent dependency and sequential structures for relation extraction

Truc-Vien T Nguyen
Alessandro Moschitti
Giuseppe Riccardi

Furthermore , because of the complexity of the task , a combination of phrase based structures and dependency-based structures perform the best . This revalidates the observation of Nguyen et al. ( 2009 ) that phrase structure representations and dependency representations add complimentary value to the learning task . We also introduced a new sequence structure ( SqGRW ) which plays a role in achieving the best accuracy for both , social event detection and social event classification tasks .

This revalidates the observation of @@CITATION that phrase structure representations and dependency representations add complimentary value to the learning task .


The parsing algorithm used for all languages is the deterministic algorithm first proposed for unlabeled dependency parsing by Nivre ( 2003 ) and extended to labeled dependency parsing by Nivre et al. ( 2004 ) . The algorithm builds a labeled dependency graph in one left-to-right pass over the input , using a stack to store partially processed tokens and adding arcs using four elementary actions ( where top is the token on top of the stack and next is the next token ) :

The parsing algorithm used for all languages is the deterministic algorithm first proposed for unlabeled dependency parsing by Nivre ( 2003 ) and extended to labeled dependency parsing by @@CITATION .


the specification of the semantic knowledgebase of contemporary chinese

SemCat ( semantic category ) of predicate , SemCat of first word , SemCat of head word , SemCat of last word , SemCat of predicate + SemCat of first word , SemCat of predicate + SemCat of last word , predicate + SemCat of head word , SemCat of predicate + head word . The semantic categories of verbs and other words are extracted from the Semantic Knowledge-base of Contemporary Chinese ( Wang et al. 2003 ) . verb AllFrameSets , the combination of all the framesets of a predicate .

The semantic categories of verbs and other words are extracted from the Semantic Knowledge-base of Contemporary Chinese ( @@CITATION ) .


stochastic lexicalized contextfree grammar

In this section , we investigate whether these observations hold true for training statistical parsing models as well . Moreover , in order to determine whether the performances of the predictive criteria are consistent across different learning models within the same domain , we have performed the study on two parsing models : one based on a context-free variant of tree-adjoining grammars ( Joshi , Levy , and Takahashi 1975 ) , the Probabilistic Lexicalized Tree Insertion Grammar ( PLTIG ) formalism ( Schabes and Waters 1993 ; Hwa 1998 ) , and Collins 's Model 2 parser ( 1997 ) . Although both models are lexicalized , statistical parsers , their learning algorithms are different .

Moreover , in order to determine whether the performances of the predictive criteria are consistent across different learning models within the same domain , we have performed the study on two parsing models : one based on a context-free variant of tree-adjoining grammars ( Joshi , Levy , and Takahashi 1975 ) , the Probabilistic Lexicalized Tree Insertion Grammar ( PLTIG ) formalism ( @@CITATION ; Hwa 1998 ) , and Collins 's Model 2 parser ( 1997 ) .


partialvp and splitnp topicalization in german an hpsg analysis

5 An in-depth discussion including a comparison of both approaches is provided in Calcagno , Meurers , and Pollard ( in preparation ) . 6 The Partial-VP Topicalization Lexical Rule proposed by Hinrichs and Nakazawa ( 1994 , 10 ) is a linguistic example . The in-specification of this lexical rule makes use of an append relation to constrain the valence attribute of the auxiliaries serving as its input .

6 The Partial-VP Topicalization Lexical Rule proposed by @@CITATION , 10 ) is a linguistic example .


the measurement of interrater agreement statistical methods for rates and proportions2212–236

Joseph L Fleiss
Bruce Levin
Myunghee Cho Paik

Out of this , 1500 verb sequences are unique to each of them and rest 500 are overlapping . We measure the inter annotator agreement using the Fleiss Kappa ( Fleiss et al. , 1981 ) measure ( x ) where the agreement lies around 0.79 . Next , out of the 500 common verb sequences that were annotated by all the three linguists , we randomly choose 300 V1 + V2 pairs and presented them to 36 native Bangla speakers .

We measure the inter annotator agreement using the Fleiss Kappa ( @@CITATION ) measure ( x ) where the agreement lies around 0.79 .


distributional clustering of english words

The task we used to compare different generalisation techniques is similar to that used by Pereira et al. ( 1993 ) and Rooth et al. ( 1999 ) . The task is to decide which of two verbs , v and vi , is more likely to take a given noun , n , as an object .

The task we used to compare different generalisation techniques is similar to that used by @@CITATION and Rooth et al. ( 1999 ) .


centeringinthelarge computing referential discourse segments

Against the background of a growing interest in multilingual NLP , multilingual anaphora / coreference resolution has gained considerable momentum in recent years ( Aone and McKee 1993 ; Azzam , Humphreys , and Gaizauskas 1998 ; Harabagiu and Maiorano 2000 ; Mitkov and Barbu 2000 ; Mitkov 1999 ; Mitkov and Stys 1997 ; Mitkov , Belguith , and Stys 1998 ) . Other milestones of recent research include the deployment of probabilistic and machine learning techniques ( Aone and Bennett 1995 ; Kehler 1997 ; Ge , Hale , and Charniak 1998 ; Cardie and Wagstaff 1999 ; the continuing interest in centering , used either in original or in revised form ( Abracos and Lopes 1994 ; Strube and Hahn 1996 ; Hahn and Strube 1997 ; Tetreault 1999 ) ; and proposals related to the evaluation methodology in anaphora resolution ( Mitkov 1998a , 2001b ) . For a more detailed survey of the state of the art in anaphora resolution , see Mitkov ( forthcoming ) .

Other milestones of recent research include the deployment of probabilistic and machine learning techniques ( Aone and Bennett 1995 ; Kehler 1997 ; Ge , Hale , and Charniak 1998 ; Cardie and Wagstaff 1999 ; the continuing interest in centering , used either in original or in revised form ( Abracos and Lopes 1994 ; Strube and Hahn 1996 ; @@CITATION ; Tetreault 1999 ) ; and proposals related to the evaluation methodology in anaphora resolution ( Mitkov 1998a , 2001b ) .


structural ambiguity and lexical relations

The presented method concerns primarily with phrases , which can be represented by a tree structure . It is not aimed at handling dependencies , which require heavy use of lexical information ( Hindle and Rooth , 1993 , for PP attachment ) . As ( Daelemans et al. , 1999 ) show , lexical information improves on NP and VP chunking as well .

It is not aimed at handling dependencies , which require heavy use of lexical information ( @@CITATION , for PP attachment ) .


dependency treebased sentiment classification using crfs with hidden variables

The accuracy and speed of state-of-the-art dependency parsers has motivated a resumed interest in utilizing the output of parsing as an input to many downstream natural language processing tasks . This includes work on question answering ( Wang et al. , 2007 ) , sentiment analysis ( Nakagawa et al. , 2010 ) , MT reordering ( Xu et al. , 2009 ) , and many other tasks . In most cases , the accuracy of parsers degrades when run on out-of-domain data ( Gildea , 2001 ; McClosky et al. , 2006 ; Blitzer et al. , 2006 ; Petrov et al. , 2010 ) .

This includes work on question answering ( Wang et al. , 2007 ) , sentiment analysis ( @@CITATION ) , MT reordering ( Xu et al. , 2009 ) , and many other tasks .


offline compilation for efficient processing with constraintlogic grammars

As shown in ( Minnen , 1996 ) â¢ The presented research was carried out at the University of Tubingen , Germany , as part of the Sonderforschungsbereich 340 . I A more detailed discussion of various aspects of the proposed parser can be found in ( Minnen , 1998 ) . magic is an interesting technique with respect to natural language processing as it incorporates filtering into the logic underlying the grammar and enables elegant control independent filtering improvements .

I A more detailed discussion of various aspects of the proposed parser can be found in ( @@CITATION ) .


the efficacy of human postediting for language translation

However , he used undergraduate , non-professional subjects , and did not consider re-tuning . Our experimental design with professional bilingual translators follows our previous work Green et al. ( 2013a ) comparing scratch translation to post-edit . Many research translation UIs have been proposed including TransType ( Langlais et al. , 2000 ) , Caitra ( Koehn , 2009b ) , Thot ( Ortiz-MartÃnez and Casacuberta , 2014 ) , TransCenter ( Denkowski et al. , 2014b ) , and CasmaCat ( Alabau et al. , 2013 ) .

Our experimental design with professional bilingual translators follows our previous work @@CITATIONa ) comparing scratch translation to post-edit .


Lexical functional grammar ( Kaplan and Bresnan 1982 ; Bresnan 2001 ; Dalrymple 2001 ) is a member of the family of constraint-based grammars . It posits minimally two levels of syntactic representation :2 c ( onstituent ) - structure encodes details of surface syntactic constituency , whereas f ( unctional ) - structure expresses abstract syntactic information about predicate -- argument -- modifier relations and certain morphosyntactic properties such as tense , aspect , and case .

Lexical functional grammar ( Kaplan and Bresnan 1982 ; @@CITATION ; Dalrymple 2001 ) is a member of the family of constraint-based grammars .