The reported results for the full parse tree ( on section 23 ) are recall/precision of 88.1 / 87.5 ( Collins , 1997 ) . The shallow parser used is the SNoW-based CSCL parser ( Punyakanok and Roth , 2001 ; Munoz et al. , 1999 ) . SNoW ( Carleson et al. , 1999 ; Roth , 1998 ) is a multi-class classifier that is specifically tailored for learning in domains in which the potential number of information sources ( features ) taking part in decisions is very large , of which NLP is a principal example .

The shallow parser used is the SNoW-based CSCL parser ( Punyakanok and Roth , 2001 ; @@CITATION ) .


a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining

german compounds in factored statistical machine translation

For compound splitting , we follow Fritzinger and Fraser ( 2010 ) , using linguistic knowledge encoded in a rule-based morphological analyser and then selecting the best analysis based on the geometric mean of word part frequencies . Other approaches use less deep linguistic resources ( e.g. , POS-tags Stymne ( 2008 ) ) or are ( almost ) knowledge-free ( e.g. , Koehn and Knight ( 2003 ) ) . Compound merging is less well studied .

Other approaches use less deep linguistic resources ( e.g. , POS-tags @@CITATION ) or are ( almost ) knowledge-free ( e.g. , Koehn and Knight ( 2003 ) ) .


a rule based approach to pp attachment disambiguation

Researchers have proposed many computational models for resolving PPattachment ambiguities . Some well-known approaches include rule-based models ( Brill and Resnik 1994 ) , backed-off models ( Collins and Brooks 1995 ) , and a maximumentropy model ( Ratnaparkhi 1998 ) . Following the tradition of using learning PPattachment as a way to gain insight into the parsing problem , we first apply sample selection to reduce the amount of annotation used in training a PP-attachment model .

Some well-known approaches include rule-based models ( @@CITATION ) , backed-off models ( Collins and Brooks 1995 ) , and a maximumentropy model ( Ratnaparkhi 1998 ) .


cascaded grammatical relation assignment

It is an extension of shallow parsing towards handling composite and multiple patterns , while maintaining the local nature of the task , and simplicity of training material . One approach to partial parsing was presented by Buchholz et al. ( 1999 ) , who extended a shallow-parsing technique to partial parsing . The output of NP and VP chunking was used as an input to grammatical relation inference .

One approach to partial parsing was presented by @@CITATION , who extended a shallow-parsing technique to partial parsing .


automatic question answering using the web beyond the factoid

Jijkoun and de Rijke ( 2005 ) compared different variants of retrieval techniques . Soricut and Brill ( 2006 ) compared a predictive approach ( statistical translation ) , a retrieval approach based on a language-model , and a hybrid approach which combines statistical chunking and traditional retrieval . Two significant differences between help-desk and FAQs are the following .

@@CITATION compared a predictive approach ( statistical translation ) , a retrieval approach based on a language-model , and a hybrid approach which combines statistical chunking and traditional retrieval .


query expansion using lexicalsemantic relations

Even though this work is carried out for terminographical and lexicographical purposes , it can certainly be of use in other applications , namely information retrieval . Indeed , such rich semantic links can be used to extend indices or reformulate queries ( similar to the work by Voorhees ( 1994 ) with WoRDNET relations ) .

Indeed , such rich semantic links can be used to extend indices or reformulate queries ( similar to the work by @@CITATION with WoRDNET relations ) .


In modern syntactic theories ( e.g. , lexical-functional grammar [ LFG ] [ Kaplan and Bresnan 1982 ; Bresnan 2001 ; Dalrymple 2001 ] , head-driven phrase structure grammar [ HPSG ] [ Pollard and Sag 1994 ] , tree-adjoining grammar [ TAG ] [ Joshi 1988 ] , and combinatory categorial grammar [ CCG ] [ Ades and Steedman 1982 ] ) , the lexicon is the central repository for much morphological , syntactic , and semantic information . * National Centre for Language Technology , School of Computing , Dublin City University , Glasnevin , Dublin 9 , Ireland .

In modern syntactic theories ( e.g. , lexical-functional grammar [ LFG ] [ Kaplan and Bresnan 1982 ; Bresnan 2001 ; Dalrymple 2001 ] , head-driven phrase structure grammar [ HPSG ] [ @@CITATION ] , tree-adjoining grammar [ TAG ] [ Joshi 1988 ] , and combinatory categorial grammar [ CCG ] [ Ades and Steedman 1982 ] ) , the lexicon is the central repository for much morphological , syntactic , and semantic information .


has a consensus nl generation architecture appeared and is it psycholinguistically plausible

This is largely due to the fact that pipelined systems can not perform general search over a decision space that includes decisions made in more than one module . Despite these arguments , most applied NLG systems use a pipelined architecture ; indeed , a pipeline was used in every one of the systems surveyed by Reiter ( 1994 ) and Paiva ( 1998 ) . This may be because pipelines have many engineering advantages , and in practice the sort of problems pointed out by Danlos and other pipeline critics do not seem to be a major problem in current applied NLG systems ( Mittal et al. 1998 ) .

Despite these arguments , most applied NLG systems use a pipelined architecture ; indeed , a pipeline was used in every one of the systems surveyed by @@CITATION and Paiva ( 1998 ) .


inducing translation templates for examplebased machine translation

Watanabe ( 1993 ) combines lexical and dependency mappings to form his generalizations . Other similar approaches include those of Cicekli and G Â¨ uvenir ( 1996 ) , McTait and Trujillo ( 1999 ) , Carl ( 1999 ) , and Brown ( 2000 ) , inter alia . In our system , in some cases the smallest chunk obtainable via the marker-based segmentation process may be something like ( 27 ) : ( 27 ) <DET> the good man : le bon homme In such cases , if our system were confronted with a good man , it would not be able to translate such a phrase , assuming this to be missing from the marker lexicon .

Other similar approaches include those of Cicekli and G Â¨ uvenir ( 1996 ) , McTait and Trujillo ( 1999 ) , @@CITATION , and Brown ( 2000 ) , inter alia .


a machine learning approach to coreference resolution of noun phrases

In this paper we focus on the Entity Detection and Recognition task ( EDR ) for Arabic as described in ACE 2004 framework ( ACE , 2004 ) . The EDR has close ties to the named entity recognition ( NER ) and coreference resolution tasks , which have been the focus of several recent investigations ( Bikel et al. , 1997 ; Miller et al. , 1998 ; Borthwick , 1999 ; Mikheev et al. , 1999 ; Soon et al. , 2001 ; Ng and Cardie , 2002 ; Florian et al. , 2004 ) , and have been at the center of evaluations such as : MUC-6 , MUC-7 , and the CoNLL '02 and CoNLL '03 shared tasks . Usually , in computational linguistics literature , a named entity is an instance of a location , a person , or an organization , and the NER task consists of identifying each of these occurrences .

The EDR has close ties to the named entity recognition ( NER ) and coreference resolution tasks , which have been the focus of several recent investigations ( Bikel et al. , 1997 ; Miller et al. , 1998 ; Borthwick , 1999 ; Mikheev et al. , 1999 ; @@CITATION ; Ng and Cardie , 2002 ; Florian et al. , 2004 ) , and have been at the center of evaluations such as : MUC-6 , MUC-7 , and the CoNLL '02 and CoNLL '03 shared tasks .


phonotactic and lexical constraints in speech recognition

From the master LDOCE file , we have computed alternative indexing information , which allows access into the dictionary via different routes . In addition to headwords , dictionary search through the pronunciation field is available ; Carter ( 1987 ) has merged information from the pronunciation and hyphenation fields , creating an enhanced phonological representation which allows access to entries by broad phonetic class and syllable structure ( Huttenlocher and Zue , 1983 ) . In addition , a fully flexible access system allows the retrieval of dictionary entries on the basis of constraints specifying any combination of phonetic , lexical , syntactic , and semantic information ( Boguraev et al. , 1987 ) .

In addition to headwords , dictionary search through the pronunciation field is available ; Carter ( 1987 ) has merged information from the pronunciation and hyphenation fields , creating an enhanced phonological representation which allows access to entries by broad phonetic class and syllable structure ( @@CITATION ) .


extracting tree adjoining grammars from bracketed corpora

This can be expressed as a measure of the coverage of the induced lexicon on new data . Following Hockenmaier , Bierner , and Baldridge ( 2002 ) , Xia ( 1999 ) , and Miyao , Ninomiya , and Tsujii ( 2004 ) , we extract a reference lexicon from Sections 02 -- 21 of the WSJ . We then compare this to a test lexicon from Section 23 .

Following Hockenmaier , Bierner , and Baldridge ( 2002 ) , @@CITATION , and Miyao , Ninomiya , and Tsujii ( 2004 ) , we extract a reference lexicon from Sections 02 -- 21 of the WSJ .


from discourse structures to text summaries

The shape-based metric . The only disambiguation metric that we used in our previous work ( Marcu , 1997b ) was the shape-based metric , according to which the `` best '' trees are those that are skewed to the right . The explanation for this metric is that text processing is , essentially , a left-to-right process .

The only disambiguation metric that we used in our previous work ( @@CITATIONb ) was the shape-based metric , according to which the `` best '' trees are those that are skewed to the right .


information needs in office practice are they being met

David G Covell
Gwen C Uman
Phil R Manning

For a variety of reasons , medicine is an interesting domain of research . The need for information systems to support physicians at the point of care has been well studied ( Covell et al. , 1985 ; Gorman et al. , 1994 ; Ely et al. , 2005 ) . Retrieval techniques can have a large impact on how physicians access and leverage clinical evidence .

The need for information systems to support physicians at the point of care has been well studied ( @@CITATION ; Gorman et al. , 1994 ; Ely et al. , 2005 ) .


learning creating and using knowledge concept maps as facilitative tools in schools and corporations lawrence erlbaum associates

Very briefly , concept maps show the relationships between concepts labelling both nodes and arcs . Every arc always has a definite direction , i.e. arcs are arrows ( Novak , 1998 ) . In contrast , mind maps spread from a centre , with branches radiating out .

Every arc always has a definite direction , i.e. arcs are arrows ( @@CITATION ) .


learning probabilistic lexicalized grammars for natural language processing

4.2.1 An Expectation-Maximization-Based Learner . In the first experiment , we use an induction algorithm ( Hwa 2001a ) based on the expectation-maximization ( EM ) principle that induces parsers for PLTIGs . The algorithm performs heuristic search through an iterative reestimation procedure to find local optima : sets of values for the grammar parameters that maximizes the grammar 's likelihood of generating the training data .

In the first experiment , we use an induction algorithm ( @@CITATIONa ) based on the expectation-maximization ( EM ) principle that induces parsers for PLTIGs .


syntax augmented machine translation via chart parsing

The statistical significance test is performed by the re-sampling approach ( Koehn , 2004 ) . To create the baseline system , we use the opensource Joshua 4.0 system ( Ganitkevitch et al. , 2012 ) to build a hierarchical phrase-based ( HPB ) system , and a syntax-augmented MT ( SAMT ) 11 system ( Zollmann and Venugopal , 2006 ) respectively . The translation system used for testing the effectiveness of our U-trees is our in-house stringto-tree system ( abbreviated as s2t ) .

To create the baseline system , we use the opensource Joshua 4.0 system ( Ganitkevitch et al. , 2012 ) to build a hierarchical phrase-based ( HPB ) system , and a syntax-augmented MT ( SAMT ) 11 system ( @@CITATION ) respectively .


automating helpdesk responses a comparative study of informationgathering approaches

During the 6 For Sent-Pred we also experimented with grammatical and sentence-based syntactic features , such as number of syntactic phrases , grammatical mood , and grammatical person ( Marom and Zukerman 2006 ) , but the simple binary bag-of-lemmas representation yielded similar results . 7 We employed the LIBSVM package ( Chang and Lin 2001 ) .

6 For Sent-Pred we also experimented with grammatical and sentence-based syntactic features , such as number of syntactic phrases , grammatical mood , and grammatical person ( @@CITATION ) , but the simple binary bag-of-lemmas representation yielded similar results .


learning to assess lowlevel conceptual understanding

Rodney D Nielsen
Wayne Ward
James H Martin

The diagnoser , based on Dzikovska et al. ( 2008b ) , outputs a diagnosis which consists of lists of correct , contradictory and non-mentioned objects and relations from the student 's answer . At present , the system uses a heuristic matching algorithm to classify relations into the appropriate category , though in the future we may consider a classifier similar to Nielsen et al. ( 2008 ) .

At present , the system uses a heuristic matching algorithm to classify relations into the appropriate category , though in the future we may consider a classifier similar to @@CITATION .


It is interesting to compare this analysis with that described in Dalrymple , Shieber , and Pereira ( 1991 ) and Pereira ( 1990 , 1991 ) . Recall that in their treatment , quantified noun phrases are treated in two stages : firstly , what they call a `` free variable '' of type e is introduced in the NP position , with an associated `` quantifier assumption , '' which is added as a kind of premise .

It is interesting to compare this analysis with that described in Dalrymple , Shieber , and Pereira ( 1991 ) and @@CITATION , 1991 ) .


While the models of Collins ( 1996 ) and Eisner ( 1996 ) restricted the fragments to the locality of head-words , later models showed the importance of including context from higher nodes in the tree ( Charniak 1997 ; Johnson 1998a ) . The importance of including nonheadwords has become uncontroversial ( e.g. Collins 1999 ; Charniak 2000 ; Goodman 1998 ) . And Collins ( 2000 ) argues for `` keeping track of counts of arbitrary fragments within parse trees '' , which has indeed been carried out in Collins and Duffy ( 2002 ) who use exactly the same set of ( all ) tree fragments as proposed in Bod ( 1992 ) .

The importance of including nonheadwords has become uncontroversial ( e.g. Collins 1999 ; @@CITATION ; Goodman 1998 ) .


Collin F Baker
Charles J Fillmore
John B Lowe

Some methods of semantic relation analysis rely on predefined templates filled with information from processed texts ( Baker et al. , 1998 ) . In other methods , lexical resources are specifically tailored to meet the requirements of the domain ( Rosario and Hearst , 2001 ) or the system ( Gomez , 1998 ) .

Some methods of semantic relation analysis rely on predefined templates filled with information from processed texts ( @@CITATION ) .


semantics and quantification in natural language question answeringquot

The phrase `` which hospital '' is finally absorbed by the preposition 's object . The example used to illustrate the power of ATNs ( Woods 1986 ) , `` John was believed to have been shot , '' also parses correctly , because the [ object ] node following the verb `` believed '' acts as both an absorber and a ( re ) generator . Cases of crossed traces are automatically blocked because the second CURRENT-FOCUS gets moved into the FLOAT-OBJECT position at the time of the second activator , overriding the preexisting FLOAT-OBJECT set up by the earlier activator .

The example used to illustrate the power of ATNs ( @@CITATION ) , `` John was believed to have been shot , '' also parses correctly , because the [ object ] node following the verb `` believed '' acts as both an absorber and a ( re ) generator .


using grammatical relations to compare parsers

Because a tree-based gold standard for parser evaluation must adopt a particular style of linguistic analysis ( reflected in the geometry and nomenclature of the nodes in the trees ) , evaluation of statistical parsers and grammars that are derived from particular treebank resources ( as well as hand-crafted grammars/parsers ) can suffer unduly if the gold standard deviates systematically from the ( possibly ) equally valid style of linguistic analysis provided by the parser . Problems such as these have motivated research on more abstract , dependencybased parser evaluation ( e.g. , Lin 1995 ; Carroll , Briscoe , and Sanfilippo 1998 ; Carroll et al. 2002 ; Clark and Hockenmaier 2002 ; King et al. 2003 ; Preiss 2003 ; Kaplan et al. 2004 ; Miyao and Tsujii 2004 ) . Dependency-based linguistic representations are approximations of abstract predicate-argument-adjunct ( or more basic head-dependent )

Problems such as these have motivated research on more abstract , dependencybased parser evaluation ( e.g. , Lin 1995 ; Carroll , Briscoe , and Sanfilippo 1998 ; Carroll et al. 2002 ; Clark and Hockenmaier 2002 ; King et al. 2003 ; @@CITATION ; Kaplan et al. 2004 ; Miyao and Tsujii 2004 ) .


Kentaro Torisawa
Kenji Nishida
Yusuke Miyao
Jun’ichi Tsujii

The RenTAL system is implemented in LiLFeS ( Makino et al. , 1998 ) 2 . LiLFeS is one of the fastest inference engines for processing feature structure logic , and efficient HPSG parsers have already been built on this system ( Nishida et al. , 1999 ; Torisawa et al. , 2000 ) . We applied our system to the XTAG English grammar ( The XTAG Research Group , 2001 ) 3 , which is a large-scale FB-LTAG grammar for English .

LiLFeS is one of the fastest inference engines for processing feature structure logic , and efficient HPSG parsers have already been built on this system ( Nishida et al. , 1999 ; @@CITATION ) .


language model based arabic word segmentation

Y-S Lee
K Papineni
S Roukos
O Emam
H Hassan

We seeked to exploit this ability to generalize to improve the dictionary based model . As in ( Lee et al. , 2003 ) , we used unsupervised training data which is automatically segmented to discover previously unseen stems . In our case , the character n-gram model is used to segment a portion of the Arabic Gigaword corpus .

As in ( @@CITATION ) , we used unsupervised training data which is automatically segmented to discover previously unseen stems .


what do we know about conversation participants experiments on conversation entailment

( 2 ) B is eighty-three . To address this limitation , our previous work ( Zhang and Chai , 2009 ) has initiated an investigation on the problem of conversation entailment . The problem was formulated as follows : given a conversation discourse D and a hypothesis H concerning its participant , the goal was to identify whether D entails H. For instance , as in Example 1 , the first hypothesis can be entailed from the

To address this limitation , our previous work ( @@CITATION ) has initiated an investigation on the problem of conversation entailment .


expectation semirings flexible em for finitestate transducers

It is common to define further useful operations ( as macros ) , which modify existing relations not by editing their source code but simply by operating on them `` from outside . '' â A brief version of this work , with some additional material , first appeared as ( Eisner , 2001a ) . A leisurely journal-length version with more details has been prepared and is available .

â A brief version of this work , with some additional material , first appeared as ( @@CITATIONa ) .


hybrid recommender systems user modeling and useradapted interaction

Lekakos and Giaglis ( 2007 ) implemented a supervised version of this approach for a recommender system , as opposed to our unsupervised version . They also proposed two major categories of meta-learning approaches for recommender systems , merging and ensemble , each subdivided into the more specific subclasses suggested by Burke ( 2002 ) as follows . The merging category corresponds to techniques where the individual methods affect each other in different ways ( this category encompasses Burke 's feature combination , cascade , feature augmentation , and meta-level sub-categories ) .

They also proposed two major categories of meta-learning approaches for recommender systems , merging and ensemble , each subdivided into the more specific subclasses suggested by @@CITATION as follows .


no escape from syntax don’t try morphological analysis in the privacy of your own lexicon

Following the non-lexicalist tradition , these primitives are argued to occupy functional projections in the syntactic structure , as so-called light verbs . Here , I adopt the model proposed by Marantz ( 1997 ) and decompose lexical verbs into verbalizing heads and verbal roots . Verbalizing heads introduce relevant eventive interpretations in the syntax , and correspond to ( assumed ) universal primitives of the human cognitive system .

Here , I adopt the model proposed by @@CITATION and decompose lexical verbs into verbalizing heads and verbal roots .


tailoring word alignments to syntactic machine translation

We include a point in the final alignment if the average of the posteriors under the two models for that point is above a threshold . This heuristic is called soft union ( DeNero and Klein 2007 ) . Figure 8 shows the Precision/Recall curves after symmetrization for the En-Fr corpus .

This heuristic is called soft union ( @@CITATION ) .


Verbs are viewed as simple predicates over their arguments . This approach has its roots in Fillmore 's Case Grammar ( 1968 ) , and serves as the foundation for two current large-scale semantic annotation projects : FrameNet ( Baker et al. , 1998 ) and PropBank ( Kingsbury et al. , 2002 ) . Underlying the semantic roles approach is a lexicalist assumption , that is , each verb 's lexical entry completely encodes ( more formally , projects ) its syntactic and semantic structures .

This approach has its roots in Fillmore 's Case Grammar ( 1968 ) , and serves as the foundation for two current large-scale semantic annotation projects : FrameNet ( @@CITATION ) and PropBank ( Kingsbury et al. , 2002 ) .


capacity demands in shortterm memory for synthetic and natural speech

Existing text-to-speech systems perform well on word pronunciation and short sentences ,12 but when it comes to long sentences and paragraphs , synthetic speech tends to be difficult to listen to and understand . Many investigators ( e.g. Allen 1976 ; Elowitz et al. 1976 ; Luce et al. 1983 ; Cahn 1988 ) have suggested that the poor prosody of synthetic speech , in comparison with natural speech , is the primary factor leading to difficulties in the comprehension of fluent synthetic speech . And while researchers in text-tospeech synthesis have adopted a variety of approaches to prosodic phrase generation -- from the simple punctuationbased rules and function word listings of existing commercial systems to the sophisticated prosodic heuristics described in Emorine and Martin ( 1988 ) and O'Shaughnessy ( 1989 ) -- the generation of appropriate prosodic phrasing in unrestricted text has remained a problem .

Many investigators ( e.g. Allen 1976 ; Elowitz et al. 1976 ; @@CITATION ; Cahn 1988 ) have suggested that the poor prosody of synthetic speech , in comparison with natural speech , is the primary factor leading to difficulties in the comprehension of fluent synthetic speech .


using argumentation to retrieve articles with similar citations an inquiry into improving related articles search in the medline digital library

Imad Tbahriti
Christine Chichester
Fr´ed´erique Lisacek
Patrick Ruch

fields generally follow the pattern of `` introduction '' , `` methods '' , `` results '' , and `` conclusions '' ( SalangerMeyer , 1990 ; Swales , 1990 ; OrËasan , 2001 ) . The ability to explicitly identify these sections in unstructured text could play an important role in applications such as document summarization ( Teufel and Moens , 2000 ) , information retrieval ( Tbahriti et al. , 2005 ) , information extraction ( Mizuta et al. , 2005 ) , and question answering . Although there is a trend towards analysis of full article texts , we believe that abstracts still provide a tremendous amount of information , and much value can still be extracted from them .

The ability to explicitly identify these sections in unstructured text could play an important role in applications such as document summarization ( Teufel and Moens , 2000 ) , information retrieval ( @@CITATION ) , information extraction ( Mizuta et al. , 2005 ) , and question answering .


intended models circumscription and commonsense reasoningquot

We adopt the three-level semantics as a formal tool for the analysis of paragraphs . This semantics was constructed ( Zadrozny 1987a , 1987b ) as a formal framework for default and commonsense reasoning . It should not come as a surprise that we can now use this apparatus for text/discourse analysis ; after all , many natural language inferences are based on defaults , and quite often they can be reduced to choosing most plausible interpretations of predicates .

This semantics was constructed ( @@CITATIONa , 1987b ) as a formal framework for default and commonsense reasoning .


Fixed roles are too coarsegrained to account for certain semantic distinctions -- the only recourse , to expand the inventory of roles , comes with the price of increased complexity , e.g. , in the syntaxto-semantics mapping . There is a general consensus among theoretical linguists that the proper representation of verbal argument structure is event structure -- representations grounded in a theory of events that decompose semantic roles in terms of primitive predicates representing concepts such as causality and inchoativity ( Dowty , 1979 ; Jackendoff , 1983 ; Pustejovsky , 1991b ; Rappaport Hovav and Levin , 1998 ) . Consider the following example :

There is a general consensus among theoretical linguists that the proper representation of verbal argument structure is event structure -- representations grounded in a theory of events that decompose semantic roles in terms of primitive predicates representing concepts such as causality and inchoativity ( @@CITATION ; Jackendoff , 1983 ; Pustejovsky , 1991b ; Rappaport Hovav and Levin , 1998 ) .


learning from positiveonly examples the subset principle and three case studiesquot

, `` domain circumscription '' ( cfXXX Etherington and Mercer 1987 ) , and their kin . Similarly , the notion of R + M-abduction is spiritually related to the `` abductive inference '' of Reggia ( 1985 ) , the `` diagnosis from first principles '' of Reiter ( 1987 ) , `` explainability '' of Poole ( 1988 ) , and the subset principle of Berwick ( 1986 ) . But , obviously , trying to establish precise connections for the metarules or the provability and the R + M-abduction would go much beyond the scope of an argument for the correspondence of paragraphs and models .

Similarly , the notion of R + M-abduction is spiritually related to the `` abductive inference '' of Reggia ( 1985 ) , the `` diagnosis from first principles '' of Reiter ( 1987 ) , `` explainability '' of Poole ( 1988 ) , and the subset principle of @@CITATION .


named entity recognition without gazetteers

In this paper we focus on the Entity Detection and Recognition task ( EDR ) for Arabic as described in ACE 2004 framework ( ACE , 2004 ) . The EDR has close ties to the named entity recognition ( NER ) and coreference resolution tasks , which have been the focus of several recent investigations ( Bikel et al. , 1997 ; Miller et al. , 1998 ; Borthwick , 1999 ; Mikheev et al. , 1999 ; Soon et al. , 2001 ; Ng and Cardie , 2002 ; Florian et al. , 2004 ) , and have been at the center of evaluations such as : MUC-6 , MUC-7 , and the CoNLL '02 and CoNLL '03 shared tasks . Usually , in computational linguistics literature , a named entity is an instance of a location , a person , or an organization , and the NER task consists of identifying each of these occurrences .

The EDR has close ties to the named entity recognition ( NER ) and coreference resolution tasks , which have been the focus of several recent investigations ( Bikel et al. , 1997 ; Miller et al. , 1998 ; Borthwick , 1999 ; @@CITATION ; Soon et al. , 2001 ; Ng and Cardie , 2002 ; Florian et al. , 2004 ) , and have been at the center of evaluations such as : MUC-6 , MUC-7 , and the CoNLL '02 and CoNLL '03 shared tasks .


the use of a semantic network in speech dialoguequot

Current advances in research and development of spoken language systems2 can be found , for example , in the proceedings of the DARPA speech and natural language workshops , as well as in publications from participants of the ESPRIT SUNDIAL project . Representative systems are described in Boisen et al. ( 1989 ) , De Mattia and Giachin ( 1989 ) , Niedermair ( 1989 ) , Niemann ( 1990 ) , and Young ( 1989 ) . * Spoken Language Systems Group , Laboratoiy for Computer Science , MIT , Cambridge MA 02139 f This research was supported by DARPA under Contract N00014-89 +1332 , monitored through the Office of Naval Research .

Representative systems are described in Boisen et al. ( 1989 ) , De Mattia and Giachin ( 1989 ) , @@CITATION , Niemann ( 1990 ) , and Young ( 1989 ) .


text segmentation based on similarity between words

R98 ( , â , d0t ) is the modularised version of R98 for experimenting with different similarity measures . R98 ( , , , , â ) uses a variant of Kozima 's semantic similarity measure ( Kozima , 1993 ) to compute block similarity . Word similarity is a function of word cooccurrence statistics in the given document .

R98 ( , , , , â ) uses a variant of Kozima 's semantic similarity measure ( @@CITATION ) to compute block similarity .


a natural language watermarking based on chinese syntax

In other words , instead of performing lexical substitution directly to the text , the secret message is embedded into syntactic parse trees of the sentences . Liu et al. ( 2005 ) , Meral et al. ( 2007 ) , Murphy ( 2001 ) , Murphy and Vogel ( 2007 ) and Topkara et al. ( 2006a ) all belong to the syntactic transformation category . After embedding the secret message , modified deep structure forms are converted into the surface structure format via language generation tools .

@@CITATION , Meral et al. ( 2007 ) , Murphy ( 2001 ) , Murphy and Vogel ( 2007 ) and Topkara et al. ( 2006a ) all belong to the syntactic transformation category .


a maximum entropy model for partofspeech tagging

5In these experiments the tags are included in the input to the system , but , for compatibility with other parsers , we did not use the hand-corrected tags which come with the corpus . We used a publicly available tagger ( Ratnaparkhi , 1996 ) to tag the words and then used these in the input to the system . 6We found that 80 hidden units produced better performance than 60 or 100 .

We used a publicly available tagger ( @@CITATION ) to tag the words and then used these in the input to the system .


learning to interpret natural language navigation instructions from observations

Many approaches to multimodal research have succeeded by abstracting away raw perceptual information and using high-level representations instead . Some works abstract perception via the usage of symbolic logic representations ( Chen et al. , 2010 ; Chen and Mooney , 2011 ; Matuszek et al. , 2012 ; Artzi and Zettlemoyer , 2013 ) , while others choose to employ concepts elicited from psycholinguistic and cognition studies . Within the latter category , the two most common representations have been association norms , where subjects are given a

Some works abstract perception via the usage of symbolic logic representations ( Chen et al. , 2010 ; @@CITATION ; Matuszek et al. , 2012 ; Artzi and Zettlemoyer , 2013 ) , while others choose to employ concepts elicited from psycholinguistic and cognition studies .


multiwordnet developing and aligned multilingual database

Emanuele Pianta
Luisa Bentivogli
Christian Girardi

However , with the only exceptions represented by WordNet and Wikipedia , most of the aforementioned resources are available only for English . Multilingual lexical databases aligned with the English WordNet ( e.g. MultiWordNet ( Pianta et al. , 2002 ) ) have been created for several languages , with different degrees of coverage . As an example , the 57,424 synsets of the Spanish section of MultiWordNet aligned to English cover just around 50 % of the WordNet 's synsets , thus making the coverage issue even more problematic than for TE .

Multilingual lexical databases aligned with the English WordNet ( e.g. MultiWordNet ( @@CITATION ) ) have been created for several languages , with different degrees of coverage .


semantic processing for a natural language programming system

The usefulness of the methodology described above was tested in the implementation of a connected speech understanding system . An off-the-shelf speech recognition device , a Nippon Electric Corporation DP-200 , was added to an existing natural language processing system , the Natural Language Computer ( NLC ) ( Ballard 1979 , Biermann and Ballard 1980 ) . The expectation system provided the intermediate processing between the errorful output of the speech recognizer and the deep semantics of NLC .

An off-the-shelf speech recognition device , a Nippon Electric Corporation DP-200 , was added to an existing natural language processing system , the Natural Language Computer ( NLC ) ( @@CITATION , Biermann and Ballard 1980 ) .


instance weighting for domain adaptation in nlp

The features we employ scale well across domains , given that the opinion target vocabularies are substantially different . For future work , we might investigate how machine learning algorithms , which are specifically designed for the problem of domain adaptation ( Blitzer et al. , 2007 ; Jiang and Zhai , 2007 ) , perform in comparison to our approach . Since three of the features we employed in

For future work , we might investigate how machine learning algorithms , which are specifically designed for the problem of domain adaptation ( Blitzer et al. , 2007 ; @@CITATION ) , perform in comparison to our approach .


bootstrapping parsers via syntactic projection across parallel texts natural language engineering

Rebecca Hwa
Philip Resnik
Amy Weinberg
Clara Cabezas
Okan Kolak

MT system combination ( Matusov , Ueffing , and Ney 2006 ) . But their importance has grown far beyond machine translation : for instance , transferring annotations between languages ( Yarowsky and Ngai 2001 ; Hwa et al. 2005 ; Ganchev , Gillenwater , and Taskar 2009 ) ; discovery of paraphrases ( Bannard and Callison-Burch 2005 ) ; and joint unsupervised POS and parser induction across languages ( Snyder and Barzilay 2008 ) . IBM Models 1 and 2 and the HMM are simple and tractable probabilistic models , which produce the target sentence one target word at a time by choosing a source word and generating its translation .

But their importance has grown far beyond machine translation : for instance , transferring annotations between languages ( Yarowsky and Ngai 2001 ; @@CITATION ; Ganchev , Gillenwater , and Taskar 2009 ) ; discovery of paraphrases ( Bannard and Callison-Burch 2005 ) ; and joint unsupervised POS and parser induction across languages ( Snyder and Barzilay 2008 ) .


heterogeneous uncertainty sampling for supervised learning

Performance of the hypothesis : Testing the candidates on the current working hypothesis shows the type of input data on which the hypothesis may perform weakly . That is , if the current hypothesis is unable to label a candidate or is uncertain about it , then the candidate might be a good training example ( Lewis and Catlett 1994 ) . The underlying assumption is that an uncertain output is likely to be wrong .

That is , if the current hypothesis is unable to label a candidate or is uncertain about it , then the candidate might be a good training example ( @@CITATION ) .


analysis of syntaxbased pronoun resolution methods

Against the background of a growing interest in multilingual NLP , multilingual anaphora / coreference resolution has gained considerable momentum in recent years ( Aone and McKee 1993 ; Azzam , Humphreys , and Gaizauskas 1998 ; Harabagiu and Maiorano 2000 ; Mitkov and Barbu 2000 ; Mitkov 1999 ; Mitkov and Stys 1997 ; Mitkov , Belguith , and Stys 1998 ) . Other milestones of recent research include the deployment of probabilistic and machine learning techniques ( Aone and Bennett 1995 ; Kehler 1997 ; Ge , Hale , and Charniak 1998 ; Cardie and Wagstaff 1999 ; the continuing interest in centering , used either in original or in revised form ( Abracos and Lopes 1994 ; Strube and Hahn 1996 ; Hahn and Strube 1997 ; Tetreault 1999 ) ; and proposals related to the evaluation methodology in anaphora resolution ( Mitkov 1998a , 2001b ) . For a more detailed survey of the state of the art in anaphora resolution , see Mitkov ( forthcoming ) .

Other milestones of recent research include the deployment of probabilistic and machine learning techniques ( Aone and Bennett 1995 ; Kehler 1997 ; Ge , Hale , and Charniak 1998 ; Cardie and Wagstaff 1999 ; the continuing interest in centering , used either in original or in revised form ( Abracos and Lopes 1994 ; Strube and Hahn 1996 ; Hahn and Strube 1997 ; @@CITATION ) ; and proposals related to the evaluation methodology in anaphora resolution ( Mitkov 1998a , 2001b ) .


lexical access and inflectional morphology

Intermediate to these two paradigms is the partial decomposition model that argues that different types of morphological forms are processed separately . For instance , the derived morphological forms are believed to be represented as a whole , whereas the representation of the inflected forms follows the morphemic model ( Caramazza et al. , 1988 ) . Traditionally , priming experiments have been used to study the effects of morphology in language processing .

For instance , the derived morphological forms are believed to be represented as a whole , whereas the representation of the inflected forms follows the morphemic model ( @@CITATION ) .


exploiting syntactic structure for language modeling

Our results hold for bilexical context-free grammars and directly transfer to several language models that can be seen as stochastic versions of this formalism ( see Section 1 ) . We perceive that these results can be extended to other language models that properly embed bilexical context-free grammars , as for instance the more general history-based models used in ( Ratnaparkhi , 1997 ) and ( Chelba and Jelinek , 1998 ) . We leave this for future work .

We perceive that these results can be extended to other language models that properly embed bilexical context-free grammars , as for instance the more general history-based models used in ( Ratnaparkhi , 1997 ) and ( @@CITATION ) .


efficient ltag parsing using hpsg parsers

Naoki Yoshinaga
Yusuke Miyao
Kentaro Torisawa
Jun’ichi Tsujii

We can say that the grammar conversion enables us to share HPSG parsing techniques in LTAG parsing . Another paper ( Yoshinaga et al. , 2001 ) describes the detailed analysis on the factor of the difference of parsing performance .

Another paper ( @@CITATION ) describes the detailed analysis on the factor of the difference of parsing performance .


building a large annotated corpus of english the penn treebank computational linguistics

Mitchell Marcus
Beatrice Santorini
Mary Ann Marcinkiewicz

Conversion took about 25 minutes CPU time on a 700 Mhz Pentium III Xeon with four gigabytes main memory . The original and the obtained grammar generated exactly the same number of derivation trees in the parsing experiment with 457 sentences from the ATIS corpus ( Marcus et al. , 1994 ) 6 ( the average length is 6.32 words ) . This result empirically attested the strong equivalence of our algorithm .

The original and the obtained grammar generated exactly the same number of derivation trees in the parsing experiment with 457 sentences from the ATIS corpus ( @@CITATION ) 6 ( the average length is 6.32 words ) .


automatic detection of poor speech recognition at the dialogue level

confirms , percent-subdials ) . The use of running tallies and percentages is based on the assumption that these features are likely to produce generalized predictors ( Litman et al. , 1999 ) . The features obtained via hand-labelling were human transcripts of each user utterance ( tscript ) , a set of semantic labels that are closely related to the system task-type labels ( human-label ) , age ( age ) and gender ( gender ) of the user , the actual modality of the user utterance ( user-modality ) ( one of : nothing , speech , touchtone , speech + touchtone , non-speech ) ,

The use of running tallies and percentages is based on the assumption that these features are likely to produce generalized predictors ( @@CITATION ) .


a comprehensive grammar of english longman group limited

Randolph Quirk
Sidney Greenbaum
Geoffrey Leech
Jan Svartvik

LDOCE provides considerably more syntactic information than a traditional dictionary . The Longman lexicographers have developed a grammar coding system capable of representing in compact form a nontrivial amount of information , usually to be found only in large descriptive grammars of English ( such as Quirk et al. , 1985 ) . A grammar code describes a particular pattern of behaviour of a word .

The Longman lexicographers have developed a grammar coding system capable of representing in compact form a nontrivial amount of information , usually to be found only in large descriptive grammars of English ( such as @@CITATION ) .


identifying broken plurals irregular gender and rationality in arabic text

18 In this article , we use a newer version of the corpus by Alkuhlani and Habash ( 2011 ) than the one we used in Marton , Habash , and Rambow ( 2011 ) . 19 The paper by Alkuhlani and Habash ( 2012 ) presents additional , more sophisticated models that we do not use in this article . shrunk with these functional feature combinations to 0.3 % .

19 The paper by @@CITATION presents additional , more sophisticated models that we do not use in this article .


effective use of natural language processing techniques for automatic conflation of multiword terms the role of derivational morphology part of speech tagging and shallow parsing

The key for quality improvement seems to be rooted mainly in the presence or absence of some form of dictionary . Empirical evidence has been brought forward that inflectional and/or derivational stemmers augmented by dictionaries indeed perform substantially better than those without access to such lexical repositories ( Krovetz , 1993 ; Kraaij and Pohlmann , 1996 ; Tzoukermann et al. , 1997 ) . This result is particularly valid for natural languages with a rich morphology -- both in terms of derivation and ( single-word ) composition .

Empirical evidence has been brought forward that inflectional and/or derivational stemmers augmented by dictionaries indeed perform substantially better than those without access to such lexical repositories ( Krovetz , 1993 ; Kraaij and Pohlmann , 1996 ; @@CITATION ) .


the episode schema in story processingquot

Although there are other discussions of the paragraph as a central element of discourse ( e.g. Chafe 1979 , Halliday and Hasan 1976 , Longacre 1979 , Haberlandt et al. 1980 ) , all of them share a certain limitation in their formal techniques for analyzing paragraph structure . Discourse linguists show little interest in making the structural descriptions precise enough so that a computational grammar of text could adapt them and use them .

Although there are other discussions of the paragraph as a central element of discourse ( e.g. Chafe 1979 , Halliday and Hasan 1976 , Longacre 1979 , @@CITATION ) , all of them share a certain limitation in their formal techniques for analyzing paragraph structure .


automatically predicting peerreview helpfulness

Note that the focus of this paper is comparing feature utilities in different helpfulness models rather than predicting those types of helpfulness ratings . ( Details of how the average-expert model performs can be found in our prior work ( Xiong and Litman , 2011 ) . )

( Details of how the average-expert model performs can be found in our prior work ( @@CITATION ) . )


sparse multiscale grammars for discriminative latent variable parsing

Better results would be expected by combining the PCFG-LA parser with discriminative reranking approaches ( Charniak and Johnson , 2005 ; Huang , 2008 ) for self training . Self-training should also benefit other discriminatively trained parsers with latent annotations ( Petrov and Klein , 2008 ) , although training would be much slower compared to using generative models , as in our case . In future work , we plan to scale up the training process with more unlabeled training data ( e.g. , gigaword ) and investigate automatic selection of materials that are most suitable for self-training .

Self-training should also benefit other discriminatively trained parsers with latent annotations ( @@CITATION ) , although training would be much slower compared to using generative models , as in our case .


The system is trained on the Arabic ACE 2003 and part of the 2004 data . We introduce here a clearly defined and replicable split of the ACE 2004 data , so that future investigations can accurately and correctly compare against the results presented here . There are 689 Arabic documents in LDC 's 2004 release ( version 1.4 ) of ACE data from three sources : the Arabic Treebank , a subset of the broadcast ( bnews ) and newswire ( nwire ) TDT-4 documents .

We introduce here a clearly defined and replicable split of the @@CITATION data , so that future investigations can accurately and correctly compare against the results presented here .


This includes work on question answering ( Wang et al. , 2007 ) , sentiment analysis ( Nakagawa et al. , 2010 ) , MT reordering ( Xu et al. , 2009 ) , and many other tasks . In most cases , the accuracy of parsers degrades when run on out-of-domain data ( Gildea , 2001 ; McClosky et al. , 2006 ; Blitzer et al. , 2006 ; Petrov et al. , 2010 ) . But these accuracies are measured with respect to gold-standard out-of-domain parse trees .

In most cases , the accuracy of parsers degrades when run on out-of-domain data ( @@CITATION ; McClosky et al. , 2006 ; Blitzer et al. , 2006 ; Petrov et al. , 2010 ) .


from grammar to lexicon unsupervised learning of lexical syntax

Typically in the approaches based on raw text , a number of subcategorization patterns are predefined , a set of verb subcategorization frame associations are hypothesized from the data , and statistical methods are applied to reliably select hypotheses for the final lexicon . Brent ( 1993 ) relies on morphosyntactic cues in the untagged Brown corpus as indicators of six predefined subcategorization frames . The frames do not include details of specific prepositions .

@@CITATION relies on morphosyntactic cues in the untagged Brown corpus as indicators of six predefined subcategorization frames .


learning accurate compact and interpretable tree annotation

Slav Petrov
Leon Barrett
Romain Thibaux
Dan Klein

We then obtain the composed rules by composing two or three adjacent minimal rules . To build the above s2t system , we first use the parse tree , which is generated by parsing the English side of the bilingual data with the Berkeley parser ( Petrov et al. , 2006 ) . Then , we binarize the English parse trees using the head binarization approach ( Wang et al. , 2007 ) and use the resulting binary parse trees to build another s2t system .

To build the above s2t system , we first use the parse tree , which is generated by parsing the English side of the bilingual data with the Berkeley parser ( @@CITATION ) .


discriminative reranking for natural language parsing

The goal being not necessarily to obtain better parse performance , but to exploit the structure induced from human labeled treebank data while targeting specific extrinsic metrics of quality , which can include task specific metrics or external weak constraints on the parse structure . One obvious approach to this problem is to employ parser reranking ( Collins , 2000 ) . In such a setting , an auxiliary reranker is added in a pipeline following the parser .

One obvious approach to this problem is to employ parser reranking ( @@CITATION ) .


syntactic argumentation and the structure of english

Thirdly , it seems clear that the Object Raising rule is straining the limits of what can be reliably extracted from the LDOCE coding system . Ideally , to distinguish between raising and equi verbs , a number of syntactic criteria should be employed ( Perlmutter and Soames , 1979:460 ff . ) .

Ideally , to distinguish between raising and equi verbs , a number of syntactic criteria should be employed ( @@CITATION:460 ff . )


categorization of sentence types in medical abstracts

Table 2 ( b ) reports accuracy , precision , recall , and Fmeasure for four separate binary classifiers ( HMM with LDA ) specifically trained for each of the sections ( one per row in the table ) . The table also presents the closest comparable experimental results reported by McKnight and Srinivasan ( 2003 ) .1 McKnight and Srinivasan ( henceforth , M&S ) created a test collection consisting of 37,151 RCTs from approximately 12 million MEDLINE abstracts dated between 1976 and 2001 . This collection has

The table also presents the closest comparable experimental results reported by @@CITATION .1 McKnight and Srinivasan ( henceforth , M&S ) created a test collection consisting of 37,151 RCTs from approximately 12 million MEDLINE abstracts dated between 1976 and 2001 .


towards mediating shared perceptual basis in situated dialogue

Thus , referential communication between the human and the robot becomes difficult . How this mismatched perceptual basis affects referential communication in situated dialogue was investigated in our previous work ( Liu et al. , 2012 ) . In that work , the main focus is on reference resolution : given referential descriptions from human partners , how to identify referents in the environment even though the robot only has imperfect perception of the environment .

How this mismatched perceptual basis affects referential communication in situated dialogue was investigated in our previous work ( @@CITATION ) .


integrating experiential and distributional data to learn semantic representations

Mark Andrews
Gabriella Vigliocco
David Vinson

Griffiths et al. ( 2007 ) helped pave the path for cognitive-linguistic multimodal research , showing that Latent Dirichlet Allocation outperformed Latent Semantic Analysis ( Deerwester et al. , 1990 ) in the prediction of association norms . Andrews et al. ( 2009 ) furthered this work by showing that a bimodal topic model , consisting of both text and feature norms , outperformed models using only one modality on the prediction of association norms , word substitution errors , and semantic interference tasks . In a similar vein , Steyvers ( 2010 ) showed that a different feature-topic model improved predictions on a fill-in-the-blank task .

@@CITATION furthered this work by showing that a bimodal topic model , consisting of both text and feature norms , outperformed models using only one modality on the prediction of association norms , word substitution errors , and semantic interference tasks .


corpusbased stemming using cooccurrence of word variantsquot

Each English word has around 1.5 translations on average . A cooccurrence based stemmer ( Xu and Croft , 1998 ) was used to stem Spanish words . One difference from the treatment of Chinese is to include the English word as one of its own translations in addition to its Spanish translations in the lexicon .

A cooccurrence based stemmer ( @@CITATION ) was used to stem Spanish words .


mitre description of the alembic system used for muc6”

John S Aberdeen
John D Burger
David S Day
Lynette Hirschman
Patricia Robinson
Marc Vilain

State-of-theart machine learning and rule-based SBD systems achieve an error rate of 0.8 -- 1.5 % measured on the Brown corpus and the WSJ corpus . The best performance on the WSJ corpus was achieved by a combination of the SATZ system ( Palmer and Hearst 1997 ) with the Alembic system ( Aberdeen et al. 1995 ) : a 0.5 % error rate . The best performance on the Brown corpus , a 0.2 % error rate , was reported by Riley ( 1989 ) , who trained a decision tree classifier on a 25-million-word corpus .

The best performance on the WSJ corpus was achieved by a combination of the SATZ system ( Palmer and Hearst 1997 ) with the Alembic system ( @@CITATION ) : a 0.5 % error rate .


Lexical rules have not gone unchallenged as a mechanism for expressing generalizations over lexical information . In a number of proposals , lexical generalizations are captured using lexical underspecification ( Kathol 1994 ; Krieger and Nerbonne 1992 ; Riehemann 1993 ; Oliva 1994 ; Frank 1994 ; Opalka 1995 ; Sanfilippo 1995 ) .

In a number of proposals , lexical generalizations are captured using lexical underspecification ( @@CITATION ; Krieger and Nerbonne 1992 ;


toward treating english nominals correctly

An alternative representation based on Liberman and Prince ( 1977 ) is presented in Selkirk ( 1984 ) , which contends that prosody , including prosodic phrasing , is more properly represented as a grid instead of a tree . Although a grid may be more descriptively suitable for some aspects of prosody ( for example , Sproat and Liberman ( 1987 ) use the grid representation for their implementation of stress assignment in compound nominals ) , we are not aware of any evidence for or against a grid representation of discourseneutral phrasing . Figure 8 shows the phonological phrase tree that is built from the syntactic structure of Figure 7 .

Although a grid may be more descriptively suitable for some aspects of prosody ( for example , @@CITATION use the grid representation for their implementation of stress assignment in compound nominals ) , we are not aware of any evidence for or against a grid representation of discourseneutral phrasing .


The Tags model also does much better than the only other broad coverage neural network parser ( Costa et al. , 2001 ) . The bottom panel of table 1 lists the results for the chosen lexicalized model ( SSN-Freq > 200 ) and five recent statistical parsers ( Ratnaparkhi , 1999 ; Collins , 1999 ; Charniak , 2000 ; Collins , 2000 ; Bod , 2001 ) . The performance of the lexicalized model falls in the middle of this range , only being beaten by the three best current parsers , which all achieve equivalent performance .

The bottom panel of table 1 lists the results for the chosen lexicalized model ( SSN-Freq > 200 ) and five recent statistical parsers ( Ratnaparkhi , 1999 ; Collins , 1999 ; @@CITATION ; Collins , 2000 ; Bod , 2001 ) .


focusing in the comprehension of definite anaphoraquot

They are intended as an illustration of the power of abduction , which in this framework helps determine the universe of the model ( that is the set of entities that appear in it ) . Other factors , such as the role of focus ( Grosz 1977 , 1978 ; Sidner 1983 ) or quantifier scoping ( Webber 1983 ) must play a role , too . Determining the relative importance of those factors , the above metarules , and syntactic clues , appears to be an interesting topic in itself .

Other factors , such as the role of focus ( Grosz 1977 , 1978 ; @@CITATION ) or quantifier scoping ( Webber 1983 ) must play a role , too .


whitesteg a new scheme in information hiding using text steganography

2The message may have been encrypted initially also , as in the figure , but this is not important in this paper ; the key point is that the hidden message is a sequence of bits . linguistic in nature , rather than dealing with superficial properties of the text , e.g. the amount of white space between words ( Por et al. , 2008 ) . Our proposed method is based on the automatically acquired paraphrase dictionary described in Callison-Burch ( 2008 ) , in which the application of paraphrases from the dictionary encodes secret bits .

linguistic in nature , rather than dealing with superficial properties of the text , e.g. the amount of white space between words ( @@CITATION ) .


benchmark tests for darpa resource management database performance evaluationsquot

The first version ( TIMIT ) was developed for the 450 phonetically rich sentences of the TIMIT database ( Lamel et al. 1986 ) . The second version ( RM ) concerns the Resource Management task ( Pallett 1989 ) that has been popular within the DARPA community in recent years . The third version ( VOYAGER ) serves as an interface both with a recognizer and with a functioning database back-end ( Zue et al. 1990 ) .

The second version ( RM ) concerns the Resource Management task ( @@CITATION ) that has been popular within the DARPA community in recent years .


topic independent identification of agreement and disagreement in social media dialogue

The corpus and guidelines will also be shared with the research community . Another line of research that is correlated with ours is recognition of agreement/disagreement ( Misra and Walker , 2013 ; Yin et al. , 2012 ; Abbott et al. , 2011 ; Andreas et al. , 2012 ; Galley et al. , 2004 ; Hillard et al. , 2003 ) and classification of stances ( Walker et al. , 2012 ; Somasundaran and Wiebe , 2010 ) in online forums . For future work , we can utilize textual features ( contextual , dependency , discourse markers ) , relevant multiword expressions and topic modeling ( Mukherjee and Liu , 2013 ) , and thread structure ( Murakami and Raymond , 2010 ; Agrawal et al. , 2003 ) to improve the Agree/Disagree classification accuracy .

Another line of research that is correlated with ours is recognition of agreement/disagreement ( @@CITATION ; Yin et al. , 2012 ; Abbott et al. , 2011 ; Andreas et al. , 2012 ; Galley et al. , 2004 ; Hillard et al. , 2003 ) and classification of stances ( Walker et al. , 2012 ; Somasundaran and Wiebe , 2010 ) in online forums .


a fully bayesian approach to unsupervised partofspeech tagging

accuracy . The studies presented by Goldwater and Griffiths ( 2007 ) and Johnson ( 2007 ) differed in the number of states that they used . Goldwater and Griffiths ( 2007 ) evaluated against the reduced tag set of 17 tags developed by Smith and Eisner ( 2005 ) , while Johnson ( 2007 ) evaluated against the full Penn Treebank tag set .

The studies presented by @@CITATION and Johnson ( 2007 ) differed in the number of states that they used .


Aligning English-Chinese parallel texts is already very difficult because of the great differences in the syntactic structures and writing systems of the two languages . A number of alignment techniques have been proposed , varying from statistical methods ( Brown et al. , 1991 ; Gale and Church , 1991 ) to lexical methods ( Kay and Roscheisen , 1993 ; Chen , 1993 ) . The method we adopted is that of Simard et al. ( 1992 ) .

A number of alignment techniques have been proposed , varying from statistical methods ( @@CITATION ; Gale and Church , 1991 ) to lexical methods ( Kay and Roscheisen , 1993 ; Chen , 1993 ) .


applying manytomany alignments and hidden markov models to lettertophoneme conversion

Sittichai Jiampojamarn
Grzegorz Kondrak
Tarek Sherif

In future work , we would like to identify a set of features , latent variables , and training methods that port well across languages and string-transduction tasks . We would like to use features that look at wide context on the input side , which is inexpensive ( Jiampojamarn et al. , 2007 ) . Latent variables we wish to consider are an increased number of word classes ; more flexible regions -- see Petrov et al. ( 2007 ) on learning a state transition diagram for acoustic regions in phone recognition -- and phonological features and syllable boundaries .

We would like to use features that look at wide context on the input side , which is inexpensive ( @@CITATION ) .


anaphora resolution a multistrategy approach

Last , but not least , application-driven research in areas such as automatic abstracting and information extraction independently highlighted the importance of anaphora and coreference resolution , boosting research in this area . Much of the earlier work in anaphora resolution heavily exploited domain and linguistic knowledge ( Sidner 1979 ; Carter 1987 ; Rich and LuperFoy 1988 ; Carbonell and Brown 1988 ) , which was difficult both to represent and to process , and which required considerable human input . However , the pressing need for the development of robust and inexpensive solutions to meet the demands of practical NLP systems encouraged many researchers to move away from extensive domain and linguistic knowledge and to embark instead upon knowledge-poor anaphora resolution strategies .

Much of the earlier work in anaphora resolution heavily exploited domain and linguistic knowledge ( Sidner 1979 ; Carter 1987 ; Rich and LuperFoy 1988 ; @@CITATION ) , which was difficult both to represent and to process , and which required considerable human input .


labeling chinese predicates with semantic roles

For semantic analysis , developing features that capture the right kind of information is crucial . Experiments on Chinese SRL ( Xue and Palmer 2005 , Xue 2008 ) reassured these findings . In this paper , we mainly focus on the semantic role classification ( SRC ) process .

Experiments on Chinese SRL ( Xue and Palmer 2005 , @@CITATION ) reassured these findings .


examplebased incremental synchronous interpretation

First , the phrasal lexicon is segmented using the marker hypothesis to produce a marker lexicon . This is then generalized , following a methodology based on Block ( 2000 ) , to generate the `` generalized marker lexicon . '' Finally , as a result of the

This is then generalized , following a methodology based on @@CITATION , to generate the `` generalized marker lexicon . ''


A number of speech understanding systems have been developed during the past fifteen years ( Barnett et al. 1980 , Dixon and Martin 1979 , Erman et al. 1980 , Haton and Pierrel 1976 , Lea 1980 , Lowerre and Reddy 1980 , Medress 1980 , Reddy 1976 , Walker 1978 , and Wolf and Woods 1980 ) . Most of these efforts concentrated on the interaction between low level information sources from a speech recognizer and a natural language processor to discover the meaning of an input sentence .

A number of speech understanding systems have been developed during the past fifteen years ( Barnett et al. 1980 , Dixon and Martin 1979 , Erman et al. 1980 , Haton and Pierrel 1976 , Lea 1980 , Lowerre and Reddy 1980 , Medress 1980 , @@CITATION , Walker 1978 , and Wolf and Woods 1980 ) .


syntactic constraints on paraphrases extracted from parallel corpora

linguistic in nature , rather than dealing with superficial properties of the text , e.g. the amount of white space between words ( Por et al. , 2008 ) . Our proposed method is based on the automatically acquired paraphrase dictionary described in Callison-Burch ( 2008 ) , in which the application of paraphrases from the dictionary encodes secret bits . One advantage of the dictionary is that it has wide coverage , being automatically extracted ; however , a disadvantage is that it contains many paraphrases which are either inappropriate , or only appropriate in certain contexts .

Our proposed method is based on the automatically acquired paraphrase dictionary described in @@CITATION , in which the application of paraphrases from the dictionary encodes secret bits .


More accurate models can be induced by taking into account various features of the linked tokens . For example , frequent words are translated less consistently than rare words ( Melamed , 1997 ) . To account for this difference , we can estimate separate values of A + and Afor different ranges of n ( â , v ) .

For example , frequent words are translated less consistently than rare words ( @@CITATION ) .


simulated tutors in immersive learning environments empiricallyderived design principles

Over the last decade there has been a lot of interest in developing tutorial dialogue systems that understand student explanations ( Jordan et al. , 2006 ; Graesser et al. , 1999 ; Aleven et al. , 2001 ; Buckley and Wolska , 2007 ; Nielsen et al. , 2008 ; VanLehn et al. , 2007 ) , because high percentages of selfexplanation and student contentful talk are known to be correlated with better learning in humanhuman tutoring ( Chi et al. , 1994 ; Litman et al. , 2009 ; Purandare and Litman , 2008 ; Steinhauser et al. , 2007 ) . However , most existing systems use pre-authored tutor responses for addressing student errors .

Over the last decade there has been a lot of interest in developing tutorial dialogue systems that understand student explanations ( Jordan et al. , 2006 ; Graesser et al. , 1999 ; Aleven et al. , 2001 ; Buckley and Wolska , 2007 ; Nielsen et al. , 2008 ; VanLehn et al. , 2007 ) , because high percentages of selfexplanation and student contentful talk are known to be correlated with better learning in humanhuman tutoring ( Chi et al. , 1994 ; Litman et al. , 2009 ; Purandare and Litman , 2008 ; @@CITATION ) .


an empirical evaluation of knowledge sources and learning algorithms for word sense disambiguation

The knowledge sources we use include parts-of-speech , local collocations , and surrounding words . These knowledge sources were effectively used to build a state-of-the-art WSD program in one of our prior work ( Lee and Ng , 2002 ) . In performing WSD with a naive Bayes classifier , the sense s assigned to an example with features f1 , ... , fn is chosen so as to maximize : In our domain adaptation study , we start with a WSD system built using training examples drawn from BC .

These knowledge sources were effectively used to build a state-of-the-art WSD program in one of our prior work ( @@CITATION ) .


distributional semantics from text and images

Some efforts have tackled tasks such as automatic image caption generation ( Feng and Lapata , 2010a ; Ordonez et al. , 2011 ) , text illustration ( Joshi et al. , 2006 ) , or automatic location identification of Twitter users ( Eisenstein et al. , 2010 ; Wing and Baldridge , 2011 ; Roller et al. , 2012 ) . Another line of research approaches grounded language knowledge by augmenting distributional approaches of word meaning with perceptual information ( Andrews et al. , 2009 ; Steyvers , 2010 ; Feng and Lapata , 2010b ; Bruni et al. , 2011 ; Silberer and Lapata , 2012 ; Johns and Jones , 2012 ; Bruni et al. , 2012a ; Bruni et al. , 2012b ; Silberer et al. , 2013 ) . Although these approaches have differed in model definition , the general goal in this line of research has been to enhance word meaning with perceptual information in order to address one of the most common criticisms of distributional semantics : that the `` meaning of words is entirely given by other words '' ( Bruni et al. , 2012b ) .

Another line of research approaches grounded language knowledge by augmenting distributional approaches of word meaning with perceptual information ( Andrews et al. , 2009 ; Steyvers , 2010 ; Feng and Lapata , 2010b ; @@CITATION ; Silberer and Lapata , 2012 ; Johns and Jones , 2012 ; Bruni et al. , 2012a ; Bruni et al. , 2012b ; Silberer et al. , 2013 ) .


three generative lexicalized models for statistical parsing

The understanding of natural language text includes not only analysis of syntactic structure , but also of semantic content . Due to advances in statistical syntactic parsing techniques ( Collins , 1997 ; Charniak , 2001 ) , attention has recently shifted towards the harder question of analyzing the meaning of natural language sentences . A common lexical semantic representation in the computational linguistics literature is a frame-based model where syntactic arguments are associated with various semantic roles ( essentially frame slots ) .

Due to advances in statistical syntactic parsing techniques ( @@CITATION ; Charniak , 2001 ) , attention has recently shifted towards the harder question of analyzing the meaning of natural language sentences .


adaptive multilingual sentence boundary disambiguation

We noted in Section 8 that very short documents of one to three sentences also present a difficulty for our approach . This is where robust syntactic systems like SATZ ( Palmer and Hearst 1997 ) or the POS tagger reported in Mikheev ( 2000 ) , which do not heavily rely on word capitalization and are not sensitive to document length , have an advantage . Our DCA uses information derived from the entire document and thus can be used as a complement to approaches based on the local context .

This is where robust syntactic systems like SATZ ( @@CITATION ) or the POS tagger reported in Mikheev ( 2000 ) , which do not heavily rely on word capitalization and are not sensitive to document length , have an advantage .


typesupervised hidden markov models for partofspeech tagging with incomplete tag dictionaries

We employ the same procedure as our previous work for setting the terminal production prior dis - category relationships from the weak supervision : the tag dictionary and raw corpus ( Garrette and Baldridge , 2012 ; Garrette et al. , 2015 ) .4 This procedure attempts to automatically estimate the frequency of each word/tag combination by dividing the number of raw-corpus occurrences of each word in the dictionary evenly across all of its associated tags . These counts are then combined with estimates of the `` openness '' of each tag in order to assess its likelihood of appearing with new words .

category relationships from the weak supervision : the tag dictionary and raw corpus ( @@CITATION ; Garrette et al. , 2015 ) .4 This procedure attempts to automatically estimate the frequency of each word/tag combination by dividing the number of raw-corpus occurrences of each word in the dictionary evenly across all of its associated tags .


an efficient dialogue control method under systems limited knowledge

Kohji Dohsaka
Norihito Yasuda
Noboru Miyazaki
Mikio Nakano
Kiyoald Aikawa

$ Implementation WIT has been implemented in Common Lisp and C on UNIX , and we have built several experimental and demonstration dialogue systems using it , including a meeting room reservation system ( Nakano et al. , 1999b ) , a video-recording programming system , a schedule management system ( Nakano et al. , 1999a ) , and a weather infomiation system ( Dohsaka et al. , 2000 ) . The meeting room reservation system has vocabulary of about 140 words , around 40 phrase structure rules , nine attributes in the semantic frame , and around 100 speech files .

WIT has been implemented in Common Lisp and C on UNIX , and we have built several experimental and demonstration dialogue systems using it , including a meeting room reservation system ( Nakano et al. , 1999b ) , a video-recording programming system , a schedule management system ( Nakano et al. , 1999a ) , and a weather infomiation system ( @@CITATION ) .


lexical functional grammar a formal system for grammatical representation

Lexical functional grammar ( Kaplan and Bresnan 1982 ; Bresnan 2001 ; Dalrymple 2001 ) is a member of the family of constraint-based grammars . It posits minimally two levels of syntactic representation :2 c ( onstituent ) - structure encodes details of surface syntactic constituency , whereas f ( unctional ) - structure expresses abstract syntactic information about predicate -- argument -- modifier relations and certain morphosyntactic properties such as tense , aspect , and case .

Lexical functional grammar ( @@CITATION ; Bresnan 2001 ; Dalrymple 2001 ) is a member of the family of constraint-based grammars .


automatic extraction of subcategorization frames for czech

As Kinyon and Prolo ( 2002 ) does not include an evaluation , currently it is impossible to say how effective their technique is . Sarkar and Zeman ( 2000 ) present an approach to learn previously unknown frames for Czech from the Prague Dependency Bank ( Hajic 1998 ) .

@@CITATION present an approach to learn previously unknown frames for Czech from the Prague Dependency Bank ( Hajic


evaluating automatic dialogue strategy adaptation for a spoken dialogue system

In this section we summarize these experiments and their results . A companion paper describes the evaluation process and results in further detail ( Chu-Carroll and Nickerson , 2000 ) . Each experiment involved eight users interacting with MIMIC and MIMIC-SI or MIMIC-MI to perform a set of tasks , each requiring the user to obtain specific movie information .

A companion paper describes the evaluation process and results in further detail ( @@CITATION ) .


learning to resolve natural language ambiguities a unified approach

The shallow parser used is the SNoW-based CSCL parser ( Punyakanok and Roth , 2001 ; Munoz et al. , 1999 ) . SNoW ( Carleson et al. , 1999 ; Roth , 1998 ) is a multi-class classifier that is specifically tailored for learning in domains in which the potential number of information sources ( features ) taking part in decisions is very large , of which NLP is a principal example . It works by learning a sparse network of linear functions over a pre-defined or incrementally learned feature space .

SNoW ( Carleson et al. , 1999 ; @@CITATION ) is a multi-class classifier that is specifically tailored for learning in domains in which the potential number of information sources ( features ) taking part in decisions is very large , of which NLP is a principal example .


the contribution of morphological knowledge to french mesh mapping for information retrieval

The problem one faces from an IR point of view is that besides fairly standardized nominal compounds , which already form a regular part of the sublanguage proper , a myriad of ad hoc compounds are formed on the fly which can not be anticipated when formulating a retrieval query though they appear in relevant documents . Hence , enumerating morphological variants in a semi-automatically generated lexicon , such as proposed for French ( Zweigenbaum et al. , 2001 ) , turns out to be infeasible , at least for German and related languages . Furthermore , medical terminology is characterized by a typical mix of Latin and Greek roots with the corresponding host language ( e.g. , German ) , often referred to as neo-classical compounding ( McCray et al. , 1988 ) .

Hence , enumerating morphological variants in a semi-automatically generated lexicon , such as proposed for French ( @@CITATION ) , turns out to be infeasible , at least for German and related languages .


a statistical approach to machine translationquot

P F Brown
J Cocke
S Della Pietra
V Della Pietra
F Jelinek
R Mercer
P Roossin

This step significantly reduces the computational burden of the algorithm . It is analogous to the step in other translation model induction algorithms that sets all probabilities below a certain threshold to negligible values ( Brown et al. , 1990 ; Dagan et al. , 1993 ; Chen , 1996 ) . To retain word type pairs that are at least twice as likely to be mutual translations than not , the threshold can be raised to 2 .

It is analogous to the step in other translation model induction algorithms that sets all probabilities below a certain threshold to negligible values ( @@CITATION ; Dagan et al. , 1993 ; Chen , 1996 ) .


inference rules and their application to recognizing textual entailment

Paraphrase tables ( PPHT ) contain pairs of corresponding phrases in the same language , possibly associated with probabilities . They proved to be useful in a number of NLP applications such as natural language generation ( Iordanskaja et al. , 1991 ) , multidocument summarization ( McKeown et al. , 2002 ) , automatic evaluation of MT ( Denkowski and Lavie , 2010 ) , and TE ( Dinu and Wang , 2009 ) . One of the proposed methods to extract paraphrases relies on a pivot-based approach using phrase alignments in a bilingual parallel corpus ( Bannard and Callison-Burch , 2005 ) .

They proved to be useful in a number of NLP applications such as natural language generation ( Iordanskaja et al. , 1991 ) , multidocument summarization ( McKeown et al. , 2002 ) , automatic evaluation of MT ( Denkowski and Lavie , 2010 ) , and TE ( @@CITATION ) .


feedback in head gesture and speech to appear in

We find that prosodic features improve the classification of dialogue acts and that head gestures , where they occur , contribute to the semantic interpretation of feedback expressions . The results , which partly confirm those obtained on a smaller dataset in Paggio and Navarretta ( 2010 ) , must be seen in light of the fact that our gesture annotation scheme comprises more fine-grained categories than most of the studies mentioned earlier for both head movements and face expressions . The classification results improve , however , if similar categories such as head nods and jerks are collapsed into a more general category .

The results , which partly confirm those obtained on a smaller dataset in @@CITATION , must be seen in light of the fact that our gesture annotation scheme comprises more fine-grained categories than most of the studies mentioned earlier for both head movements and face expressions .


ultraconservative online algorithms for multiclass problems

Unlike the global method which performs tuning on the whole development set Dev + Di as in Algorithm 1 , Wi can be incrementally learned by optimizing on Di based on Wb . We employ the idea of ultraconservative update ( Crammer and Singer , 2003 ; Crammer et al. , 2006 ) to propose two incremental methods for local training in Algorithm 2 as follows . Ultraconservative update is an efficient way to consider the trade-off between the progress made on development set Dev and the progress made on Di .

We employ the idea of ultraconservative update ( @@CITATION ; Crammer et al. , 2006 ) to propose two incremental methods for local training in Algorithm 2 as follows .


models of semantic representation with visual attributes

Carina Silberer
Vittorio Ferrari
Mirella Lapata

Previously LDA has been successfully used to infer unsupervised joint topic distributions over words and feature norms together ( Andrews et al. , 2009 ; Silberer and Lapata , 2012 ) . It has also been shown to be useful in joint inference of text with visual attributes obtained using visual classifiers ( Silberer et al. , 2013 ) . These multimodal LDA models ( hereafter , mLDA ) have been shown to be qualitatively sensible and highly predictive of several psycholinguistic tasks ( Andrews et al. , 2009 ) .

It has also been shown to be useful in joint inference of text with visual attributes obtained using visual classifiers ( @@CITATION ) .


computing semantic relatedness across parts of speech

Finkelstein et al. ( 2002 ) did not report inter-subject correlation for their larger dataset . Gurevych ( 2006 ) reported a correlation of r = .69 . Test subjects were trained students of computational linguistics , and word pairs were selected analytically .

@@CITATION reported a correlation of r = .69 .


regular approximation of contextfree grammars through transformation

Arbitrary weights such as 2.7 may be assigned to arcs or sprinkled through a regexp ( to be compiled into E : E/2 .7 â ) arcs ) . A more subtle example is weighted FSAs that approximate PCFGs ( Nederhof , 2000 ; Mohri and Nederhof , 2001 ) , or to extend the idea , weighted FSTs that approximate joint or conditional synchronous PCFGs built for translation . These are parameterized by the PCFG 's parameters , but add or remove strings of the PCFG to leave an improper probability distribution .

A more subtle example is weighted FSAs that approximate PCFGs ( Nederhof , 2000 ; @@CITATION ) , or to extend the idea , weighted FSTs that approximate joint or conditional synchronous PCFGs built for translation .


collective content selection for concepttotext generation

A minimum-cost assignment thus represents an optimum way to classify the speech segments so that each one tends not to be put into the class that the individual-document classifier disprefers , but at the same time , highly associated speech segments tend not to be put in different classes . As has been previously observed and exploited in the NLP literature ( Pang and Lee , 2004 ; Agarwal and Bhattacharyya , 2005 ; Barzilay and Lapata , 2005 ) , the above optimization function , unlike many others that have been proposed for graph or set partitioning , can be solved exactly in an provably efficient manner via methods for finding minimum cuts in graphs . In our view , the contribution of our work is the examination of new types of relationships , not the method by which such relationships are incorporated into the classification decision .

As has been previously observed and exploited in the NLP literature ( Pang and Lee , 2004 ; Agarwal and Bhattacharyya , 2005 ; @@CITATION ) , the above optimization function , unlike many others that have been proposed for graph or set partitioning , can be solved exactly in an provably efficient manner via methods for finding minimum cuts in graphs .


understanding unsegmented user utterances in realtime spoken dialogue systems

Mikio Nakano
Noboru Miyazalci
Jun-ichi Hirasawa
Kohji Dohsaka
Takeshi Kawabata

for building spoken dialogue systems that integrate speech recognition , language understanding and generation , and speech output . WIT features an incremental understanding method ( Nakano et al. , 1999b ) that makes it possible to build a robust and real-time system . In addition , WIT compiles domain-dependent system specifications into internal knowledge sources so that building systems is easier .

WIT features an incremental understanding method ( @@CITATIONb ) that makes it possible to build a robust and real-time system .


learning syntactic categories using paradigmatic representations of word context

To capture syntagmatic patterns , we choose in this work standard n-gram language models as the basis for a concrete model implementing our scheme . This choice is inspired by recent work on learning syntactic categories ( Yatbaz et al. , 2012 ) , which successfully utilized such language models to represent word window contexts of target words . However , we note that other richer types of language models , such as class-based ( Brown et al. , 1992 ) or hybrid ( Tan et al. , 2012 ) , can be seamlessly integrated into our scheme .

This choice is inspired by recent work on learning syntactic categories ( @@CITATION ) , which successfully utilized such language models to represent word window contexts of target words .


towards an optimal pos tag set for modern standard arabic processing

Looking at Hebrew , a Semitic language related to Arabic , Tsarfaty and Sima'an ( 2007 ) report that extending POS and phrase structure tags with definiteness information helps unlexicalized PCFG parsing . As for work on Arabic ( MSA ) , results have been reported on the PATB ( Kulick , Gabbard , and Marcus 2006 ; Diab 2007 ; Green and Manning 2010 ) , the Prague Dependency Treebank ( PADT ) ( Buchholz and Marsi 2006 ; Nivre 2008 ) and the CATiB ( Habash and Roth 2009 ) . Recently , Green and Manning ( 2010 ) analyzed the PATB for annotation consistency , and introduced an enhanced split-state constituency grammar , including labels for short idafa constructions and verbal or equational clauses .

As for work on Arabic ( MSA ) , results have been reported on the PATB ( Kulick , Gabbard , and Marcus 2006 ; @@CITATION ; Green and Manning 2010 ) , the Prague Dependency Treebank ( PADT ) ( Buchholz and Marsi 2006 ; Nivre 2008 ) and the CATiB ( Habash and Roth 2009 ) .


a language modeling approach to information retrievalquot

Other studies which view lR as a query generation process include Maron and Kuhns , 1960 ; Hiemstra and Kraaij , 1999 ; Ponte and Croft , 1998 ; Miller et al , 1999 . Our work has focused on cross-lingual retrieval .

Other studies which view lR as a query generation process include Maron and Kuhns , 1960 ; Hiemstra and Kraaij , 1999 ; @@CITATION ; Miller et al , 1999 .


evaluation of a largescale email response system

Quality is a subjective measure , which is best judged by the users of the system ( i.e. , the help-desk customers or operators ) . In Section 5 , we discuss the difficulties associated with such user studies , and describe a human-based evaluation we conducted for a small subset of the responses generated by our system ( Marom and Zukerman 2007b ) . However , our more comprehensive evaluation is an automatic one that treats the responses generated by the help-desk operators as model responses , and performs text-based comparisons between the model responses and the automatically generated ones .

In Section 5 , we discuss the difficulties associated with such user studies , and describe a human-based evaluation we conducted for a small subset of the responses generated by our system ( @@CITATIONb ) .


hindi structures intermediate levelquot michigan papers on south and

A plethora of works has been done to provide linguistic explanations on the formation of such word , yet none so far has led to any consensus . Hook ( 1981 ) considers the second verb V2 as an aspectual complex comparable to the auxiliaries . Butt ( 1993 ) argues CV formations in Hindi and Urdu are either morphological or syntactical and their formation take place at the argument structure .

@@CITATION considers the second verb V2 as an aspectual complex comparable to the auxiliaries .


a program for aligning sentences in bilingual corporaquot

However , n ( u ) = Ev n ( u , v ) , which is not the same as the frequency of u , because each token of u can co-occur with several differentv 's . 2We could just as easily use other symmetric `` association '' measures , such as 02 ( Gale & Church , 1991 ) or the Dice coefficient ( Smadja , 1992 ) . co-occur is called a direct association .

2We could just as easily use other symmetric `` association '' measures , such as 02 ( @@CITATION ) or the Dice coefficient ( Smadja , 1992 ) .


Peter F Brown
Stephen A Della Pietra
Vincent J Della Pietra
Meredith J Goldsmith
Jan Hajic
Robert L Mercer
Surya Mohanty

This is why we must make do with approximations to the EM algorithm . In this situation , Brown et al. ( 1993b , 293 ) recommend `` evaluating the expectations using only a single , probable alignment . '' The single most probable assignment Amax is the maximum a posteriori ( MAP ) assignment :

In this situation , @@CITATIONb , 293 ) recommend `` evaluating the expectations using only a single , probable alignment . ''


This corpus annotation bottleneck becomes even more problematic for voluminous data sets drawn from the web . The use of the web as a corpus for teaching and research on language has been proposed a number of times ( Kilgarriff , 2001 ; Robb , 2003 ; Rundell , 2000 ; Fletcher , 2001 , 2004b ) and received a special issue of the journal Computational Linguistics ( Kilgarriff and Grefenstette , 2003 ) . Studies have used several different methods to mine web data .

The use of the web as a corpus for teaching and research on language has been proposed a number of times ( @@CITATION ; Robb , 2003 ; Rundell , 2000 ; Fletcher , 2001 , 2004b ) and received a special issue of the journal Computational Linguistics ( Kilgarriff and Grefenstette , 2003 ) .


hybrid language processing in the spoken language translator

More specifically , the notion of the phrasal lexicon ( used first by Becker 1975 ) has been used successfully in a number of areas : â¢ Learnability ( Zernik and Dyer 1987 ) â¢ Text generation ( Hovy 1988 ; Milosavljevic , Tulloch , and Dale 1996 ) â¢ Speech generation ( Rayner and Carter 1997 ) â¢ Localization ( Sch Â¨ aler 1996 ) More recently , Simard and Langlais ( 2001 ) have proposed the exploitation of TMs at a subsentential level , while Carl , Way , and Sch Â¨ aler ( 2002 ) and Sch Â¨ aler , Way , and Carl ( 2003 , pages 108 -- 109 ) describe how phrasal lexicons might come to occupy a central place in a future hybrid integrated translation environment .

â¢ Learnability ( Zernik and Dyer 1987 ) â¢ Text generation ( Hovy 1988 ; Milosavljevic , Tulloch , and Dale 1996 ) â¢ Speech generation ( @@CITATION ) â¢ Localization ( Sch Â¨ aler 1996 )


extralinguistic constraints on stance recognition in ideological debates

While dependencybased features capture the syntactic dependencies , frame-semantic features encode the semantic representation of the concepts in a sentence . Following our previous work on stance classification ( Hasan and Ng , 2013c ) , we employ three types of features computed based on the frame-semantic parse of each sentence in a post obtained from SEMAFOR ( Das et al. , 2010 ) . Frame-word interaction features encode whether two words appear in different elements of the same frame .

Following our previous work on stance classification ( @@CITATIONc ) , we employ three types of features computed based on the frame-semantic parse of each sentence in a post obtained from SEMAFOR ( Das et al. , 2010 ) .


a comprehensive bibliography of linguistic steganography

Given the ubiquitous nature of natural languages and electronic text , text is an obvious medium to consider . However , the literature on Linguistic Steganography , in which linguistic properties of a text are modified to hide information , is small compared with other media ( Bergmair , 2007 ) . The likely reason is that it is easier to make changes to images and other nonlinguistic media which are undetectable by an observer .

However , the literature on Linguistic Steganography , in which linguistic properties of a text are modified to hide information , is small compared with other media ( @@CITATION ) .


morphological typology of languages for ir

mers ( Lovins , 1968 ; Porter , 1980 ) demonstrably improve retrieval performance . This has been reported for other languages , too , dependent on the generality of the chosen approach ( J Â¨ appinen and Niemist Â¨ o , 1988 ; Choueka , 1990 ; Popovic and Willett , 1992 ; Ekmekc Â¸ ioglu et al. , 1995 ; Hedlund et al. , 2001 ; Pirkola , 2001 ) . When it comes to a broader scope of morphological analysis , including derivation and composition , even for the English language only restricted , domain-specific algorithms exist .

This has been reported for other languages , too , dependent on the generality of the chosen approach ( J Â¨ appinen and Niemist Â¨ o , 1988 ; Choueka , 1990 ; Popovic and Willett , 1992 ; Ekmekc Â¸ ioglu et al. , 1995 ; Hedlund et al. , 2001 ; @@CITATION ) .


an efficient compiler for weighted rewrite rules

Each of these probabilities in turn affects multiple arcs in the composed FST of Fig. 1a . We offer a theorem that highlights the broad applicability of these modeling techniques .4 If f ( input , output ) is a weighted regular relation , then the following statements are equivalent : ( 1 ) f is a joint probabilistic relation ; ( 2 ) f can be computed by a Markovian FST that halts with probability 1 ; ( 3 ) f can be expressed as a probabilistic regexp , i.e. , a regexp built up from atomic expressions a : b ( for a E E U -LCB- E -RCB- , b E A U -LCB- E -RCB- ) using concatenation , probabilistic union + p , and probabilistic closure * p. For defining conditional relations , a good regexp language is unknown to us , but they can be defined in several other ways : ( 1 ) via FSTs as in Fig. 1c , ( 2 ) by compilation of weighted rewrite rules ( Mohri and Sproat , 1996 ) , ( 3 ) by compilation of decision trees ( Sproat and Riley , 1996 ) , ( 4 ) as a relation that performs contextual left-to-right replacement of input substrings by a smaller conditional relation ( Gerdemann and van Noord , 1999 ) ,5 ( 5 ) by conditionalization of a joint relation as discussed below . A central technique is to define a joint relation as a noisy-channel model , by composing a joint relation with a cascade of one or more conditional relations as in Fig. 1 ( Pereira and Riley , 1997 ; Knight and Graehl , 1998 ) .

We offer a theorem that highlights the broad applicability of these modeling techniques .4 If f ( input , output ) is a weighted regular relation , then the following statements are equivalent : ( 1 ) f is a joint probabilistic relation ; ( 2 ) f can be computed by a Markovian FST that halts with probability 1 ; ( 3 ) f can be expressed as a probabilistic regexp , i.e. , a regexp built up from atomic expressions a : b ( for a E E U -LCB- E -RCB- , b E A U -LCB- E -RCB- ) using concatenation , probabilistic union + p , and probabilistic closure * p. For defining conditional relations , a good regexp language is unknown to us , but they can be defined in several other ways : ( 1 ) via FSTs as in Fig. 1c , ( 2 ) by compilation of weighted rewrite rules ( @@CITATION ) , ( 3 ) by compilation of decision trees ( Sproat and Riley , 1996 ) , ( 4 ) as a relation that performs contextual left-to-right replacement of input substrings by a smaller conditional relation ( Gerdemann and van Noord , 1999 ) ,5 ( 5 ) by conditionalization of a joint relation as discussed below .


widecoverage efficient statistical parsing with ccg and loglinear models

In order to improve the grammaticality checking , we use a parser as an addition to the basic Google ngram method . We use the Clark and Curran ( 2007 ) CCG parser to analyse the sentence before and after paraphrasing . Combinatory Categorial Grammar ( CCG ) is a lexicalised grammar formalism , in which CCG lexical categories -- typically expressing subcategorisation information -- are assigned to each word in a sentence .

We use the @@CITATION CCG parser to analyse the sentence before and after paraphrasing .


generating referring expressions containing relations

Some generalizations of our method are fairly straightforward . For example , consider a relational description ( cfXXX , Dale and Haddock 1991 ) involving a gradable adjective , as in the dog in the large shed . CD for this type of descriptions along the lines of Section 4 is not difficult once relational descriptions are integrated with a standard GRE algorithm ( Krahmer and Theune 2002 , Section 8.6.2 ) : Suppose an initial description is generated describing the set of all those dogs that are in sheds over a given size ( say , size 5 ) ; if this description happens to distinguish an individual dog then this legitimizes the use of the noun phrase the dog in the large shed .

For example , consider a relational description ( cfXXX , @@CITATION ) involving a gradable adjective , as in the dog in the large shed .


the contribution of parsing to prosodic phrasing in an experimental texttospeech system

Selkirk ( 1984 ) and Nespor and Vogel ( 1986 ) take a similar approach , but within a different theoretical framework . Previous versions of our work , as described in Bachenko et al. ( 1986 ) also assume that phrasing is dependent on predicate-argument structure . The problem here is that the phrasing in observed data often ignores the argument status of constituents .

Previous versions of our work , as described in @@CITATION also assume that phrasing is dependent on predicate-argument structure .


global learning of focused entailment graphs

Furthermore , if we use a labeled-ALS as the metric for augmented-loss training , we also see a considerable increase in LAS . like information extraction ( Yates and Etzioni , 2009 ) and textual entailment ( Berant et al. , 2010 ) . In Table 3 we show results for parsing with the ALS augmented-loss objective .

like information extraction ( Yates and Etzioni , 2009 ) and textual entailment ( @@CITATION ) .


description of the university of pennsylvania system used for muc6

Breck Baldwin
Jeff Reynar
Mike Collins
Jason Eisner
Adwait Ratnaparki
Joseph Rosenzweig
Anoop Sarkar
Srivinas Bangalore

While the shift toward knowledge-poor strategies and the use of corpora represented the main trends of anaphora resolution in the 1990s , there are other significant highlights in recent anaphora resolution research . The inclusion of the coreference task in the Sixth and Seventh Message Understanding Conferences ( MUC-6 and MUC-7 ) gave a considerable impetus to the development of coreference resolution algorithms and systems , such as those described in Baldwin et al. ( 1995 ) , Gaizauskas and Humphreys ( 1996 ) , and Kameyama ( 1997 ) . The last decade of the 20th century saw a number of anaphora resolution projects for languages other than English such as French , German , Japanese , Spanish , Portuguese , and Turkish .

The inclusion of the coreference task in the Sixth and Seventh Message Understanding Conferences ( MUC-6 and MUC-7 ) gave a considerable impetus to the development of coreference resolution algorithms and systems , such as those described in @@CITATION , Gaizauskas and Humphreys ( 1996 ) , and Kameyama ( 1997 ) .


a joint model for entity analysis coreference typing and linking

Several recent works suggest studying coreference jointly with other tasks . Lee et al. ( 2012 ) model entity coreference and event coreference jointly ; Durrett and Klein ( 2014 ) consider joint coreference and entity-linking . The work closest to ours is that of Lassalle and Denis ( 2015 ) , which studies a joint anaphoricity detection and coreference resolution framework .

Lee et al. ( 2012 ) model entity coreference and event coreference jointly ; @@CITATION consider joint coreference and entity-linking .