design challenges and misconceptions in named entity recognition

However , the phrases detected are not necessarily mentions that we need to discover . Ratinov and Roth ( 2009 ) present detailed studies on the task of named entity recognition , which discusses and compares different methods on multiple aspects including chunk representation , inference method , utility of non-local features , and integration of external knowledge . NER can be regarded as a sequential labeling problem , which can be modeled by several proposed models , e.g. Hidden Markov Model ( Rabiner , 1989 ) or Conditional Random Fields ( Sarawagi and Cohen , 2004 ) .

@@CITATION present detailed studies on the task of named entity recognition , which discusses and compares different methods on multiple aspects including chunk representation , inference method , utility of non-local features , and integration of external knowledge .


a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining

For English , known for its limited number of inflection patterns , lexicon-free general-purpose stem1 ` ' denotes the string concatenation operator . mers ( Lovins , 1968 ; Porter , 1980 ) demonstrably improve retrieval performance . This has been reported for other languages , too , dependent on the generality of the chosen approach ( J Â¨ appinen and Niemist Â¨ o , 1988 ; Choueka , 1990 ; Popovic and Willett , 1992 ; Ekmekc Â¸ ioglu et al. , 1995 ; Hedlund et al. , 2001 ; Pirkola , 2001 ) .

mers ( @@CITATION ; Porter , 1980 ) demonstrably improve retrieval performance .


welfare economics and social choice theory

The NP the tall fat giraffe , for example , can safely refer to an element b in a situation like the one below , where b is the only element that exceeds all distractors with respect to some dimension ( a different one for a than for c , as it happens ) while not being exceeded by any distractors in any dimension : Cases like this would be covered if the decision-theoretic property of Pareto optimality ( e.g. , Feldman 1980 ) was used as the sole criterion : Formally , an object r E C has a Pareto-optimal combination of Values V iff there is no other x E C such that 1 . ]

Cases like this would be covered if the decision-theoretic property of Pareto optimality ( e.g. , @@CITATION ) was used as the sole criterion : Formally , an object r E C has a Pareto-optimal combination of Values V iff there is no other x E C such that


automatic speech recognition the development of the sphinx system appendix i

The grammar could parse 100 % of the training sentences and 84 % of the test sentences . A formula for the test set perplexity ( Lee 1989 ) is :13 where the wi are the sequence of all words in all sentences , N is the total number of words , including an `` end '' word after each sentence , and P ( w , I w , _ 1 , ... wi ) is the probability of the ith word given all preceding words .14 If all words are assumed equally likely , then P ( w , I w , _ 1 , ... w1 ) can be determined by counting all the words that could follow each word in the sentence , along all workable partial theories .

A formula for the test set perplexity ( @@CITATION ) is :13


an introduction to modern information retrieval

3.1.1 Document Retrieval ( Doc-Ret ) . This method follows a traditional Information Retrieval paradigm ( Salton and McGill 1983 ) , where a query is represented by the content terms it contains , and the system retrieves from the corpus a set of documents that best match this query . In our case , the query is a new request e-mail to be addressed by the system , and we have considered three views of the documents in the corpus : ( 1 ) previous response e-mails , ( 2 ) previous request e-mails , or ( 3 ) previous request -- response pairs .

This method follows a traditional Information Retrieval paradigm ( @@CITATION ) , where a query is represented by the content terms it contains , and the system retrieves from the corpus a set of documents that best match this query .


In what follows we explain the properties of the model by applying it to a small number of adjective-noun combinations taken from the lexical semantics literature . Table 1 gives the interpretations of eight adjective-noun combinations discussed in Pustejovsky ( 1995 ) and Vendler ( 1968 ) . Table 2 shows the five most likely interpretations for these combinations as derived by the model discussed in the previous sections ( v1 is the most likely interpretation , v2 is the second most likely interpretation , etc. ) .

Table 1 gives the interpretations of eight adjective-noun combinations discussed in @@CITATION and Vendler ( 1968 ) .


a maximum entropy model for partofspeech tagging

Additionally , we present results of the tagger on the NEGRA corpus ( Brants et al. , 1999 ) and the Penn Treebank ( Marcus et al. , 1993 ) . The Penn Treebank results reported here for the Markov model approach are at least equivalent to those reported for the Maximum Entropy approach in ( Ratnaparkhi , 1996 ) . For a comparison to other taggers , the reader is referred to ( Zavrel and Daelemans , 1999 ) .

The Penn Treebank results reported here for the Markov model approach are at least equivalent to those reported for the Maximum Entropy approach in ( @@CITATION ) .


automatic extraction of subcategorization from corpora

from Penn-II and 221 from Penn-III . Briscoe and Carroll ( 1997 ) , by comparison , employ 163 distinct predefined frames .

@@CITATION , by comparison , employ 163 distinct predefined frames .


discriminative learning of selectional preference from unlabeled text

Considerable research has been done on SP acquisition most of which has involved collecting argument headwords from data and generalizing to WordNet classes . Brockmann and Lapata ( 2003 ) have showed that WordNet-based approaches do not always outperform simple frequency-based models , and a number of techniques have been recently proposed which may offer ideas for refining our current unsupervised approach ( Erk , 2007 ; Bergsma et al. , 2008 ) . The number and type ( and combination ) of GRs for which SPs can be reliably acquired , especially when the data is sparse , requires also further investigation .

Brockmann and Lapata ( 2003 ) have showed that WordNet-based approaches do not always outperform simple frequency-based models , and a number of techniques have been recently proposed which may offer ideas for refining our current unsupervised approach ( Erk , 2007 ; @@CITATION ) .


a rational design for a weighted finitestate transducer library

10Traditionally log ( strength ) values are called weights , but this paper uses `` weight '' to mean something else . fÎ¸ on demand ( Mohri et al. , 1998 ) can pay off here , since only part of fÎ¸ may be needed subsequently . ) As training data we are given a set of observed ( input , output ) pairs , ( xi , yi ) .

fÎ¸ on demand ( @@CITATION ) can pay off here , since only part of fÎ¸ may be needed subsequently . )


Combinatory categorial grammar does not concern itself with the capture of all ( or only ) the concatenatively valid combinatory schemata , but rather with incrementality , for example , on a shiftreduce design . An approach ( also based on regulation of the succession of rule application ) to the associated problem of spurious ambiguity is given in Hepple and Morrill ( 1989 ) but again , to our knowledge , there is no predictive relation between incremental combinatory processing and the kind of processing phenomena cited in the introduction . 3 .

An approach ( also based on regulation of the succession of rule application ) to the associated problem of spurious ambiguity is given in @@CITATION but again , to our knowledge , there is no predictive relation between incremental combinatory processing and the kind of processing phenomena cited in the introduction .


The relevant equivalence is : This equivalence is doing essentially the same job as Pereira 's pronoun abstraction schema in Pereira ( 1990 ) . It will identify a pronoun with any term of type e elsewhere in the QLF , relying on the binding conditions to prevent impossible associations .

This equivalence is doing essentially the same job as Pereira 's pronoun abstraction schema in @@CITATION .


improved statistical machine translation for resourcepoor languages using related resourcerich languages

Sophisticated phrase table combination . Finally , we experiment with a method for combining phrase tables proposed in ( Nakov and Ng , 2009 ; Nakov and Ng , 2012 ) . The first phrase table is extracted from word alignments for the balanced concatenation with repetitions , which are then truncated so that they are kept for only one copy of the Indonesian -- English bi-text .

Finally , we experiment with a method for combining phrase tables proposed in ( @@CITATION ; Nakov and Ng , 2012 ) .


learning to freestyle hip hop challengeresponse induction via transduction rule segmentation

Dekai Wu
Karteek Addanki
Markus Saers
Meriem Beloucif

The majority of NLG focuses on the satisfaction of a communicative goal , with examples such as Belz ( 2008 ) which produces weather reports from structured data or Mitchell et al. ( 2013 ) which generates descriptions of objects from images . Our work is more similar to NLG work that concentrates on structural constraints such as generative poetry ( Greene et al. , 2010 ) ( Colton et al. , 2012 ) ( Jiang and Zhou , 2008 ) or song lyrics ( Wu et al. , 2013 ) ( Ramakrishnan A et al. , 2009 ) , where specified meter or rhyme schemes are enforced . In these papers soft semantic goals are sometimes also introduced that seek responses to previous lines of poetry or lyric .

Our work is more similar to NLG work that concentrates on structural constraints such as generative poetry ( Greene et al. , 2010 ) ( Colton et al. , 2012 ) ( Jiang and Zhou , 2008 ) or song lyrics ( @@CITATION ) ( Ramakrishnan A et al. , 2009 ) , where specified meter or rhyme schemes are enforced .


We see that matching on requests yields more retrieved documents than matching on responses , and that matching on request -- response pairs yields even more retrieved documents . For the cases where retrieval took place , we used F-score ( van Rijsbergen 1979 ; Salton and McGill 1983 ) to determine the similarity between the response from the top-ranked document and the real response ( the formulas for F-score and its contributing factors , recall and precision , appear in Section 4.2 ) . The third column in Table 1 shows the proportion of requests for which this similarity is non-zero .

For the cases where retrieval took place , we used F-score ( van Rijsbergen 1979 ; @@CITATION ) to determine the similarity between the response from the top-ranked document and the real response ( the formulas for F-score and its contributing factors , recall and precision , appear in Section 4.2 ) .


These phrases were then translated automatically by three on-line MT systems . These translations gave rise to a number of automatically constructed linguistic resources : ( 1 ) the original ( source , target ) phrasal translation pairs , ( 2 ) the marker lexicon , ( 3 ) the gen11 Thanks are due to one of the anonymous reviewers for pointing out that our wEBMT system , seeded with input from multiple translation systems , with a postvalidation process via the Web ( amounting to an n-gram target language model ) , in effect forms a multiengine MT system as described by Frederking and Nirenburg ( 1994 ) , Frederking et al. ( 1994 ) , and Hogan and Frederking ( 1998 ) . eralized lexicon , and ( 4 ) the word-level lexicon .

These translations gave rise to a number of automatically constructed linguistic resources : ( 1 ) the original ( source , target ) phrasal translation pairs , ( 2 ) the marker lexicon , ( 3 ) the gen11 Thanks are due to one of the anonymous reviewers for pointing out that our wEBMT system , seeded with input from multiple translation systems , with a postvalidation process via the Web ( amounting to an n-gram target language model ) , in effect forms a multiengine MT system as described by @@CITATION , Frederking et al. ( 1994 ) , and Hogan and Frederking ( 1998 ) .


structured output learning with indirect supervision

There have been a number of efforts to exploit weak or external signals of quality to train better prediction models . This includes work on generalized expectation ( Mann and McCallum , 2010 ) , posterior regularization ( Ganchev et al. , 2010 ) and constraint driven learning ( Chang et al. , 2007 ; Chang et al. , 2010 ) . The work of Chang et al. ( 2007 ) on constraint driven learning is perhaps the closest to our framework and we draw connections to it in Section 5 .

This includes work on generalized expectation ( Mann and McCallum , 2010 ) , posterior regularization ( Ganchev et al. , 2010 ) and constraint driven learning ( Chang et al. , 2007 ; @@CITATION ) .


systematic construction of a versatile case system

Ken Barker
Terry Copeck
Sylvain Delisle
Stan Szpakowicz

We have a list of 47 relations that manifest themselves in compound clauses , inside a simple clause or in noun phrases . The list , a synthesis of a number of relation lists cited in the literature , has been designed to be general , domainindependent ( Barker et al. , 1997a ) . Section 2 overviews research in semantic relation analysis .

The list , a synthesis of a number of relation lists cited in the literature , has been designed to be general , domainindependent ( @@CITATIONa ) .


extracting tree adjoining grammars from bracketed corpora

The algorithm handles `` like '' coordination and exploits the traces used in the treebank in order to interpret LDDs . Unlike our approach , those of Xia ( 1999 ) and Hockenmaier , Bierner , and Baldridge ( 2004 ) include a substantial initial correction and clean-up of the Penn-II trees . Miyao , Ninomiya , and Tsujii ( 2004 ) and Nakanishi , Miyao , and Tsujii ( 2004 ) describe a methodology for acquiring an English HPSG from the Penn-II Treebank .

Unlike our approach , those of @@CITATION and Hockenmaier , Bierner , and Baldridge ( 2004 ) include a substantial initial correction and clean-up of the Penn-II trees .


independence and commitment assumptions for rapid training and execution of rulebased pos taggers

t , and C [ s ] = T [ s ] g the samples on which the rule applies and changes the classification from correct to incorrect ; similarly , bad ( r ) = jB ( r ) j. Given a newly learned rule b that is to be applied to S , the goal is to identify the rules r for which at least one of the sets G ( r ) , B ( r ) is modified by the application of rule b. Obviously , if both sets are not modified when applying rule b , then the value of the objective function for rule r remains unchanged . 2The algorithm was implemented by the the authors , following the description in Hepple ( 2000 ) . The presentation is complicated by the fact that , in many NLP tasks , the samples are not independent .

2The algorithm was implemented by the the authors , following the description in @@CITATION .


generating diagnostic multiple choice comprehension cloze questions

Examples such as Â¨ Ozbal et al. ( 2013 ) and Valitutti et al. ( 2013 ) use template filling techniques guided by quantified notions of humor or how catchy a phrase is . Our motivation for generation of material for language education exists in work such as Sumita et al. ( 2005 ) and Mostow and Jang ( 2012 ) , which deal with automatic generation of classic fill in the blank questions . Our work is naturally complementary to these efforts , as their methods require a corpus of in-vocab text to serve as seed sentences .

Our motivation for generation of material for language education exists in work such as Sumita et al. ( 2005 ) and @@CITATION , which deal with automatic generation of classic fill in the blank questions .


automatic entity disambiguation benefits to ner relation extraction link analysis and inference

Ravin ( 1999 ) introduced a rule-based approach that tackles both variation and ambiguity analysing the structure of names . In most recent research , NEs ( person , location and organisations ) are extracted from the text and used as a source of evidence to calculate the similarity between documents - see for instance ( Blume , 2005 ; Chen and Martin , 2007 ; Popescu and Magnini , 2007 ; Kalashnikov et al. , 2007 ) . For instance , Blume ( 2005 ) uses NEs coocurring with the ambiguous mentions of a name as a key feature for the disambiguation process .

In most recent research , NEs ( person , location and organisations ) are extracted from the text and used as a source of evidence to calculate the similarity between documents - see for instance ( @@CITATION ; Chen and Martin , 2007 ; Popescu and Magnini , 2007 ; Kalashnikov et al. , 2007 ) .


a systematic comparison of various statistical alignment models

IBM Models 3 , 4 , and 5 attempt to capture fertility ( the tendency of each source word to generate several target words ) , resulting in probabilistically deficient , intractable models that require local heuristic search and are difficult to implement and extend . Many researchers use the GIZA + + software package ( Och and Ney 2003 ) as a black box , selecting IBM Model 4 as a compromise between alignment quality and efficiency . All of the models are asymmetric ( switching target and source languages produces drastically different results ) and the simpler models ( IBM Models 1 , 2 , and HMM ) do not enforce bijectivity ( the majority of words translating as a single word ) .

Many researchers use the GIZA + + software package ( @@CITATION ) as a black box , selecting IBM Model 4 as a compromise between alignment quality and efficiency .


training a multilingual sportscaster using perceptual context to learn language

David L Chen
Joohyun Kim
Raymond J Mooney

Many approaches to multimodal research have succeeded by abstracting away raw perceptual information and using high-level representations instead . Some works abstract perception via the usage of symbolic logic representations ( Chen et al. , 2010 ; Chen and Mooney , 2011 ; Matuszek et al. , 2012 ; Artzi and Zettlemoyer , 2013 ) , while others choose to employ concepts elicited from psycholinguistic and cognition studies . Within the latter category , the two most common representations have been association norms , where subjects are given a

Some works abstract perception via the usage of symbolic logic representations ( @@CITATION ; Chen and Mooney , 2011 ; Matuszek et al. , 2012 ; Artzi and Zettlemoyer , 2013 ) , while others choose to employ concepts elicited from psycholinguistic and cognition studies .


a statistical approach to machine translationquot

P F Brown
J Cocke
S Della Pietra
V Della Pietra
F Jelinek
R Mercer
P Roossin

Over the past decade , researchers at IBM have developed a series of increasingly sophisticated statistical models for machine translation ( Brown et al. , 1988 ; Brown et al. , 1990 ; Brown et al. , 1993a ) . However , the IBM models , which attempt to capture a broad range of translation phenomena , are computationally expensive to apply .

Over the past decade , researchers at IBM have developed a series of increasingly sophisticated statistical models for machine translation ( Brown et al. , 1988 ; @@CITATION ; Brown et al. , 1993a ) .


A realization phase , during which the choice between base , superlative , and comparative forms is made , among other things . One area of current interest concerns the left-to-right arrangement of premodifying adjectives within an NP ( e.g. , Shaw and Hatzivassiloglou 1999 ; Malouf 2000 ) . Work in this area is often based on assigning adjectives to a small number of categories ( e.g. , Precentral , Central , Postcentral , and Prehead ) , which predict adjectives ' relative position .

One area of current interest concerns the left-to-right arrangement of premodifying adjectives within an NP ( e.g. , @@CITATION ; Malouf 2000 ) .


robust word alignment for machine aided translationquot

The arrow connecting vk and uk Â± i in Figure 1 represents an indirect association , since the association between vk and uk Â± i arises only by virtue of the association between each of them and uk . Models of translational equivalence that are ignorant of indirect associations have `` a tendency ... to be confused by collocates '' ( Dagan et al. , 1993 ) . Fortunately , indirect associations are usually not difficult to identify , because they tend to be weaker than the direct associations on which they are based ( Melamed , 1996c ) .

Models of translational equivalence that are ignorant of indirect associations have `` a tendency ... to be confused by collocates '' ( @@CITATION ) .


examining the impacts of dialogue content and system automation on affect models in a spoken tutorial dialogue system

â¢ Lexical and Dialogue Features dialogue name and turn number question name and question depth ITSPOKE-recognized lexical items in turn ITSPOKE-labeled turn ( in ) correctness incorrect runs â¢ User Identifier Features : gender and pretest score Note that although our feature set was drawn primarily from our prior uncertainty detection experiments ( Forbes-Riley and Litman , 2011a ; Drummond and Litman , 2011 ) , we have also experimented with other features , including state-of-theart acoustic-prosodic features used in the last Interspeech Challenges ( Schuller et al. , 2010 ; Schuller et al. , 2009b ) and made freely available in the openSMILE Toolkit ( Florian et al. , 2010 ) . To date , however , these features have only decreased the crossvalidation performance of our models .8 While some of our features are tutoring-specific , these have similar counterparts in other applications ( i.e. , answer ( in ) correctness corresponds to a more general notion of `` response appropriateness '' in other domains , while pretest score corresponds to the general notion of domain expertise ) .

Note that although our feature set was drawn primarily from our prior uncertainty detection experiments ( Forbes-Riley and Litman , 2011a ; @@CITATION ) , we have also experimented with other features , including state-of-theart acoustic-prosodic features used in the last Interspeech Challenges ( Schuller et al. , 2010 ; Schuller et al. , 2009b ) and made freely available in the openSMILE Toolkit ( Florian et al. , 2010 ) .


understanding the value of features for coreference resolution

Thus , we can construct a forest and the mentions in the same connected component ( i.e. , in the same tree ) are co-referred . For this mention-pair coreference model Ï ( u , v ) , we use the same set of features used in Bengtson and Roth ( 2008 ) . fu , vyu , v ,

For this mention-pair coreference model Ï ( u , v ) , we use the same set of features used in @@CITATION .


discriminative reranking for natural language parsing

This is roughly an 11 % relative reduction in error rate over Charniak ( 2000 ) and Bods PCFG-reduction reported in Table 1 . Compared to the reranking technique in Collins ( 2000 ) , who obtained an LP of 89.9 % and an LR of 89.6 % , our results show a 9 % relative error rate reduction . While SL-DOP and LS-DOP have been compared before in Bod ( 2002 ) , especially in the context of musical parsing , this paper presents the The DOP approach is based on two distinctive features : ( 1 ) the use of corpus fragments rather than grammar rules , and ( 2 ) the use of arbitrarily large fragments rather than restricted ones .

Compared to the reranking technique in @@CITATION , who obtained an LP of 89.9 % and an LR of 89.6 % , our results show a 9 % relative error rate reduction .


In this paper , we present a novel and realistic method for speeding up the training time of a transformation-based learner without sacrificing performance . The paper compares and contrasts the training time needed and performance achieved by our modified learner with two other systems : a standard transformation-based learner , and the ICA system ( Hepple , 2000 ) . The results of these experiments show that our system is able to achieve a significant improvement in training time while still achieving the same performance as a standard transformation-based learner .

The paper compares and contrasts the training time needed and performance achieved by our modified learner with two other systems : a standard transformation-based learner , and the ICA system ( @@CITATION ) .


cultural orientation classifying subjective documents by cociation sic analysis

Politically-oriented text Sentiment analysis has specifically been proposed as a key enabling technology in eRulemaking , allowing the automatic analysis of the opinions that people submit ( Shulman et al. , 2005 ; Cardie et al. , 2006 ; Kwon et al. , 2006 ) . There has also been work focused upon determining the political leaning ( e.g. , `` liberal '' vs. `` conservative '' ) of a document or author , where most previously-proposed methods make no direct use of relationships between the documents to be classified ( the `` unlabeled '' texts ) ( Laver et al. , 2003 ; Efron , 2004 ; Mullen and Malouf , 2006 ) . An exception is Grefenstette et al. ( 2004 ) , who experimented with determining the political orientation of websites essentially by classifying the concatenation of all the documents found on that site .

There has also been work focused upon determining the political leaning ( e.g. , `` liberal '' vs. `` conservative '' ) of a document or author , where most previously-proposed methods make no direct use of relationships between the documents to be classified ( the `` unlabeled '' texts ) ( Laver et al. , 2003 ; @@CITATION ; Mullen and Malouf , 2006 ) .


the event argument and the semantics of voice

The light verb vDO licenses an atelic non-inchoative event , and is compatible with verbal roots expressing activity . It projects a functional head , voice ( Kratzer , 1994 ) , whose specifier is the external argument . ( 10 ) John ran .

It projects a functional head , voice ( @@CITATION ) , whose specifier is the external argument .


a polynomialtime algorithm for statistical machine translation

This approach , known as translation memory , example-based or case-based translation , can work on the word level as well as on structured examples as they are generated during analysis and generation in more grammar-based translation paradigms ( Kitano , 1993 ; Brown , 1996 ) . Finite state transducers , which can be learned from bilingual corpora , have been proposed for automatic translation ( Amengual et al. , 2000 ) , as have been bilingual stochastic grammars ( Wu , 1996 ) . Statistical approaches ( Wang and Waibel , 1997 ; Och et al. , 1999 ) also fall into the category of corpus based approaches .

Finite state transducers , which can be learned from bilingual corpora , have been proposed for automatic translation ( Amengual et al. , 2000 ) , as have been bilingual stochastic grammars ( @@CITATION ) .


floresta sint´actica” a treebank for portuguese

A second observation is that a high proportion of non-projective structures leads to fragmentation in the parser output , reflected in lower precision for roots . This is noticeable for German ( Brants et al. , 2002 ) and Portuguese ( Afonso et al. , 2002 ) , which still have high overall accuracy thanks to very high attachment scores , but much more conspicuous for Czech ( B Â¨ ohmov Â´ a et al. , 2003 ) , Dutch ( van der Beek et al. , 2002 ) and Slovene ( DËzeroski et al. , 2006 ) , where root precision drops more drastically to about 69 % , 71 % and 41 % , respectively , and root recall is also affected negatively . On the other hand , all three languages behave like high-accuracy languages with respect to attachment score .

This is noticeable for German ( Brants et al. , 2002 ) and Portuguese ( @@CITATION ) , which still have high overall accuracy thanks to very high attachment scores , but much more conspicuous for Czech ( B Â¨ ohmov Â´ a et al. , 2003 ) , Dutch ( van der Beek et al. , 2002 ) and Slovene ( DËzeroski et al. , 2006 ) , where root precision drops more drastically to about 69 % , 71 % and 41 % , respectively , and root recall is also affected negatively .


modern engineering mathematics second edition

Glyn James
David Burley
Dick Clements
Phil Dyke
John Searl
Jerry Wright

Suppose the target is c4 : 3 The degree of precision of the measurement ( James et al. 1996 , Section 1.5 ) determines which objects can be described by the GRE algorithm , since it determines which objects count as having the same size . 4 To turn this likelihood into a certainty , one can add a test at the end of the algorithm , which adds a type-related property if none is present yet ( cfXXX , Dale and Reiter 1995 ) .

3 The degree of precision of the measurement ( @@CITATION , Section 1.5 ) determines which objects can be described by the GRE algorithm , since it determines which objects count as having the same size .


dialogue interaction with the darpa communicator infrastructure the development of useful software

Samuel Bayer
Christine Doran
Bryan George

This standardisation of remote procedures is very exciting from a software engineering viewpoint since it allows systems to be totally distributed . There have already been several attempts to develop distributed NLP systems for dialogue systems ( Bayer et al. , 2001 ) and speech recognition ( Hacioglu and Pellom , 2003 ) . Web services will allow components developed by different researchers in different locations to be composed to build larger systems .

There have already been several attempts to develop distributed NLP systems for dialogue systems ( @@CITATION ) and speech recognition ( Hacioglu and Pellom , 2003 ) .


using bitextual alignment for translation validation the transcheck systemquot

However , the IBM models , which attempt to capture a broad range of translation phenomena , are computationally expensive to apply . Table look-up using an explicit translation lexicon is sufficient and preferable for many multilingual NLP applications , including `` crummy '' MT on the World Wide Web ( Church & Hovy , 1993 ) , certain machine-assisted translation tools ( e.g. ( Macklovitch , 1994 ; Melamed , 1996b ) ) , concordancing for bilingual lexicography ( Catizone et al. , 1993 ; Gale & Church , 1991 ) , computerassisted language learning , corpus linguistics ( Melby . 1981 ) , and cross-lingual information retrieval ( Oard & Dorr , 1996 ) .

Table look-up using an explicit translation lexicon is sufficient and preferable for many multilingual NLP applications , including `` crummy '' MT on the World Wide Web ( Church & Hovy , 1993 ) , certain machine-assisted translation tools ( e.g. ( @@CITATION ; Melamed , 1996b ) ) , concordancing for bilingual lexicography ( Catizone et al. , 1993 ; Gale & Church , 1991 ) , computerassisted language learning , corpus linguistics ( Melby .


knowledgelean coreference resolution and its relation to textual cohesion and coherence

For both languages , we resolved coreference by using SWIZZLE , our implementation of a bilingual coreference resolver . SWIZZLE is a multilingual enhancement of COCKTAIL ( Harabagiu and Maiorano , 1999 ) , a coreference resolution system that operates on a mixture of heuristics that combine semantic and textual cohesive information ' . When COCKTAIL was applied separately on the English and the Romanian texts , coreferring links were identified for each English and Romanian document respectively .

SWIZZLE is a multilingual enhancement of COCKTAIL ( @@CITATION ) , a coreference resolution system that operates on a mixture of heuristics that combine semantic and textual cohesive information ' .


phrasal translation and query expansion techniques for crosslanguage information retrievalquot

Another common approach is term translation , e.g. , via a bilingual lexicon . ( Davis and Ogden , 1997 ; Ballesteros and Croft , 1997 ; Hull and ( 3refenstette , 1996 ) . While word sense disambiguation has been a central topic in previous studies for cross-lingual IR , our study suggests that using multiple weighted translations and compensating for the incompleteness of the lexicon may be more valuable .

( Davis and Ogden , 1997 ; @@CITATION ; Hull and ( 3refenstette , 1996 ) .


nphil.uni-tuebingen . de URL : http://www.sfs.nphil.uni-tuebingen.de/sfb / b4home.html 1 This is , for example , the case for all proposals working with verbal lexical entries that raise the arguments of a verbal complement ( Hinrichs and Nakazawa 1989 ) that also use lexical rules such as the Complement Extraction Lexical Rule ( Pollard and Sag 1994 ) or the Complement Cliticization Lexical Rule ( Miller and Sag 1993 ) to operate on those raised elements . Also an analysis treating adjunct extraction via lexical rules ( van Noord and Bouma 1994 ) results in an infinite lexicon .

de URL : http://www.sfs.nphil.uni-tuebingen.de/sfb / b4home.html 1 This is , for example , the case for all proposals working with verbal lexical entries that raise the arguments of a verbal complement ( Hinrichs and Nakazawa 1989 ) that also use lexical rules such as the Complement Extraction Lexical Rule ( @@CITATION ) or the Complement Cliticization Lexical Rule ( Miller and Sag 1993 ) to operate on those raised elements .


finding terminology translations from nonparallel corpora

There is a wealth of literature on trying to establish subsentential translations from a bilingual corpus .3 Kay and R Â¨ oscheisen ( 1993 ) attempt to extract a bilingual dictionary using a hybrid method of sentence and word alignment on the assumption that the ( source , target ) words have a similar distribution . Fung and McKeown ( 1997 ) attempt to translate technical terms using word relation matrices , although the resource from which such relations are derived is a pair of nonparallel corpora . Somers ( 1998 ) replicates the work of Fung and McKeown with different language pairs using the simpler metric of Levenshtein distance .

@@CITATION attempt to translate technical terms using word relation matrices , although the resource from which such relations are derived is a pair of nonparallel corpora .


My theory of verbal argument structure can be implemented in a unified morpho-syntactic parsing model that interleaves syntactic and semantic parsing . The system is in the form of an agenda-driven chart-based parser whose foundation is similar to previous formalizations of Chomsky 's Minimalist Program ( Stabler , 1997 ; Harkema , 2000 ; Niyogi , 2001 ) . Lexical entries in the system are minimally specified , each consisting of a phonetic form , a list of relevant features , and semantics in the form of a A expression .

The system is in the form of an agenda-driven chart-based parser whose foundation is similar to previous formalizations of Chomsky 's Minimalist Program ( Stabler , 1997 ; @@CITATION ; Niyogi , 2001 ) .


language identification with confidence limits

For example , the misspelling identifier will specialize in identifying misspellings , the abbreviation component will specialize in identifying abbreviations , etc. . Each component will return a confidence measure of the reliability of its prediction , c.f. ( Elworthy , 1998 ) . The results from each component are evaluated to determine the final category of the word .

Each component will return a confidence measure of the reliability of its prediction , c.f. ( @@CITATION ) .


In both cases , the mention heads are sufficient to support the decisions : '' they '' refers to '' companies '' , and '' They '' refers to '' manufacturers '' . In fact , most of the features3 implemented in existing coreference resolution systems rely solely on mention heads ( Bengtson and Roth , 2008 ) . Furthermore , consider the possible mention candidate `` league '' ( italic in the text ) .

In fact , most of the features3 implemented in existing coreference resolution systems rely solely on mention heads ( @@CITATION ) .


the nomad system expectationbased detection and correction of errors during understanding of syntactically illformed text

A detailed description of the kinds of expectation mechanisms appearing in these systems appears in Fink ( 1983 ) . The problem of handling ill-formed input has been studied by Carbonell and Hayes ( 1983 ) , Granger ( 1983 ) , Jensen et al. ( 1983 ) , Kwasny and Sondheimer ( 1981 ) , Riesbeck and Schank ( 1976 ) , Thompson ( 1980 ) , Weischedel and Black ( 1980 ) , and Weischedel and Sondheimer ( 1983 ) . A wide variety of techniques have been developed for addressing problems at the word , phrase , sentence , and in some cases , dialogue level .

The problem of handling ill-formed input has been studied by Carbonell and Hayes ( 1983 ) , @@CITATION , Jensen et al. ( 1983 ) , Kwasny and Sondheimer ( 1981 ) , Riesbeck and Schank ( 1976 ) , Thompson ( 1980 ) , Weischedel and Black ( 1980 ) , and Weischedel and Sondheimer ( 1983 ) .


cucomsem exploring rich features for unsupervised web personal name disambiguation

Ravin ( 1999 ) introduced a rule-based approach that tackles both variation and ambiguity analysing the structure of names . In most recent research , NEs ( person , location and organisations ) are extracted from the text and used as a source of evidence to calculate the similarity between documents - see for instance ( Blume , 2005 ; Chen and Martin , 2007 ; Popescu and Magnini , 2007 ; Kalashnikov et al. , 2007 ) . For instance , Blume ( 2005 ) uses NEs coocurring with the ambiguous mentions of a name as a key feature for the disambiguation process .

In most recent research , NEs ( person , location and organisations ) are extracted from the text and used as a source of evidence to calculate the similarity between documents - see for instance ( Blume , 2005 ; @@CITATION ; Popescu and Magnini , 2007 ; Kalashnikov et al. , 2007 ) .


the representation of lexical semantic information cognitive science research paper csrp 280

Since lexical rules are expressed in the theory just like any other part of the theory , they are represented in the same way , as unary immediate dominance schemata . ' This conception of lexical rules thus can be understood as underlying the computational approach that treats lexical rules as unary phrase structure rules as , for example , adopted in the LKB system ( Copestake 1992 ) . Both the input and output of a lexical rule , i.e. , the mother and the daughter of a phrase structure rule , are available during a generation or parsing process .

This conception of lexical rules thus can be understood as underlying the computational approach that treats lexical rules as unary phrase structure rules as , for example , adopted in the LKB system ( @@CITATION ) .


algorithms for graphemephoneme translation for english and french applications for database searches and speech synthesis

Conventionally , these rules are specified by an expert linguist , conversant with the sound and spelling systems of the language of concern . Typical letter-to-sound rule sets are those described by Ainsworth ( 1973 ) , McIlroy ( 1973 ) , Elovitz et al. ( 1976 ) , Hurmicutt ( 1976 ) , and Divay and Vitale ( 1997 ) . Because of the complexities of English spelling-to-sound correspondence detailed in the previous section , more than one rule generally applies at each stage of transcription .

Typical letter-to-sound rule sets are those described by Ainsworth ( 1973 ) , McIlroy ( 1973 ) , Elovitz et al. ( 1976 ) , Hurmicutt ( 1976 ) , and @@CITATION .


In an attempt to further boost performance , we employed Linear Discriminant Analysis ( LDA ) to find a linear projection of the four-dimensional vectors that maximizes the separation of the Gaussians ( corresponding to the HMM states ) . Venables and Ripley ( 1994 ) describe an efficient algorithm ( of linear complexity in the number of training sentences ) for computing the LDA transform matrix , which entails computing the withinand between-covariance matrices of the classes , and using Singular Value Decomposition ( SVD ) to compute the eigenvectors of the new space . Each sentence/vector is then multiplied by this matrix , and new HMM models are re-computed from the projected data .

@@CITATION describe an efficient algorithm ( of linear complexity in the number of training sentences ) for computing the LDA transform matrix , which entails computing the withinand between-covariance matrices of the classes , and using Singular Value Decomposition ( SVD ) to compute the eigenvectors of the new space .


better arabic parsing baselines evaluations and analysis

For better comparison with work of others , we adopt the suggestion made by Green and Manning ( 2010 ) to evaluate the parsing quality on sentences up to 70 tokens long . We report these filtered results in Table 14 .

For better comparison with work of others , we adopt the suggestion made by @@CITATION to evaluate the parsing quality on sentences up to 70 tokens long .


heterogeneous uncertainty sampling for supervised learning

applications . Some examples include text categorization ( Lewis and Catlett 1994 ) , base noun phrase chunking ( Ngai and Yarowsky 2000 ) , part-of-speech tagging ( Engelson Dagan 1996 ) , spelling confusion set disambiguation ( Banko and Brill 2001 ) , and word sense disambiguation ( Fujii et al. 1998 ) . More challenging are learning problems whose objective is not classification , but generation of complex structures .

Some examples include text categorization ( @@CITATION ) , base noun phrase chunking ( Ngai and Yarowsky 2000 ) , part-of-speech tagging ( Engelson Dagan 1996 ) , spelling confusion set disambiguation ( Banko and Brill 2001 ) , and word sense disambiguation ( Fujii et al. 1998 ) .


a bayesian model of syntaxdirected tree to string grammar induction

In addition , it should be noted that the word alignment is fixed8 , and we only explore the entire space of tree structures in our sampler . Differently , Cohn and Blunsom ( 2009 ) designed a sampler to infer an STSG by fixing the tree structure and exploring the space of alignment . We believe that it is possible to investigate the space of both tree structure and alignment simultaneously .

Differently , @@CITATION designed a sampler to infer an STSG by fixing the tree structure and exploring the space of alignment .


distinctive image features from scaleinvariant keypoints

The first work to do this with topic models is Feng and Lapata ( 2010b ) . They use a Bag of Visual Words ( BoVW ) model ( Lowe , 2004 ) to create a bimodal vocabulary describing documents . The topic model using the bimodal vocabulary outperforms a purely textual based model in word association and word similarity prediction .

They use a Bag of Visual Words ( BoVW ) model ( @@CITATION ) to create a bimodal vocabulary describing documents .


the boundaries of words and their meaningsquot

In either formalization we get BUT_Cl as a consequence : Since `` laws '' can not be deleted , BUT ca n't be applied , and hence its use in those kinds of sentences would be incorrect . W. Labov ( 1973 ) discussed sentences of the form * This is a chair but you can sit on it . The sentence is incorrect , since the function `` one can sit on it '' belongs to the core of the concept `` chair '' ; so -- contrary to the role of `` but '' -- the sentence does not contain any surprising new elements .

W. @@CITATION discussed sentences of the form * This is a chair but you can sit on it .


a program for aligning sentences in bilingual corporaquot

The correct translations of a word that has several correct translations will be assigned a lower probability than the correct translation of a word that has only one correct translation . This imbalance foils thresholding strategies , clever as they might be ( Gale & Church , 1991 ; Wu & Xia , 1994 ; Chen , 1996 ) . The likelihoods in the word-to-word model remain unnormalized , so they do not compete .

This imbalance foils thresholding strategies , clever as they might be ( @@CITATION ; Wu & Xia , 1994 ; Chen , 1996 ) .


linguistic analysis of natural language communication with computers

The problem of handling ill-formed input has been studied by Carbonell and Hayes ( 1983 ) , Granger ( 1983 ) , Jensen et al. ( 1983 ) , Kwasny and Sondheimer ( 1981 ) , Riesbeck and Schank ( 1976 ) , @@CITATION , Weischedel and Black ( 1980 ) , and Weischedel and Sondheimer ( 1983 ) .


Baroni and Bernardini ( 2004 ) built a corpus by iteratively searching Google for a small set of seed terms . Prototypes of Internet search engines for linguists , corpus linguists and lexicographers have been proposed : WebCorp ( Kehoe and Renouf , 2002 ) , KWiCFinder ( Fletcher , 2004a ) and the Linguist 's Search Engine ( Kilgarriff , 2003 ; Resnik and Elkiss , 2003 ) . A key concern in corpus linguistics and related disciplines is verifiability and replicability of the results of studies .

Prototypes of Internet search engines for linguists , corpus linguists and lexicographers have been proposed : WebCorp ( Kehoe and Renouf , 2002 ) , KWiCFinder ( Fletcher , 2004a ) and the Linguist 's Search Engine ( @@CITATION ; Resnik and Elkiss , 2003 ) .


disambiguation algorithm for people search on the web in

Dmitri V Kalashnikov
Stella Chen
Rabia Nuray
Sharad Mehrotra
Naveen Ashish

In most recent research , NEs ( person , location and organisations ) are extracted from the text and used as a source of evidence to calculate the similarity between documents - see for instance ( Blume , 2005 ; Chen and Martin , 2007 ; Popescu and Magnini , 2007 ; @@CITATION ) .


Ali Farhadi
Ian Endres
Derek Hoiem
David Forsyth

Bruni et al. ( 2012b ) show that the contextual visual words ( i.e. the visual features around an object , rather than of the object itself ) are even more useful at times , suggesting the plausibility of a sort of distributional hypothesis for images . More recently , Silberer et al. ( 2013 ) show that visual attribute classifiers , which have been immensely successful in object recognition ( Farhadi et al. , 2009 ) , act as excellent substitutes for feature norms .

More recently , Silberer et al. ( 2013 ) show that visual attribute classifiers , which have been immensely successful in object recognition ( @@CITATION ) , act as excellent substitutes for feature


classifying the semantic relations in nouncompounds via a domain specific hierarchy

Some methods of semantic relation analysis rely on predefined templates filled with information from processed texts ( Baker et al. , 1998 ) . In other methods , lexical resources are specifically tailored to meet the requirements of the domain ( Rosario and Hearst , 2001 ) or the system ( Gomez , 1998 ) . Such systems extract information from some types of syntactic units ( clauses in ( Fillmore and Atkins , 1998 ; Gildea and Jurafsky , 2002 ; Hull and Gomez , 1996 ) ; noun phrases in ( Hull and Gomez , 1996 ; Rosario et al. , 2002 ) ) .

In other methods , lexical resources are specifically tailored to meet the requirements of the domain ( @@CITATION ) or the system ( Gomez , 1998 ) .


In other methods , lexical resources are specifically tailored to meet the requirements of the domain ( Rosario and Hearst , 2001 ) or the system ( Gomez , 1998 ) . Such systems extract information from some types of syntactic units ( clauses in ( Fillmore and Atkins , 1998 ; Gildea and Jurafsky , 2002 ; Hull and Gomez , 1996 ) ; noun phrases in ( Hull and Gomez , 1996 ; Rosario et al. , 2002 ) ) . Lists of semantic relations are designed to capture salient domain information .

Such systems extract information from some types of syntactic units ( clauses in ( Fillmore and Atkins , 1998 ; @@CITATION ; Hull and Gomez , 1996 ) ; noun phrases in ( Hull and Gomez , 1996 ; Rosario et al. , 2002 ) ) .


the voyager speech understanding system preliminary development and evaluationquot

V Zue
J Glass
D Goodine
H Leung
M Phillips
J Polifroni
S Seneff

The second version ( RM ) concerns the Resource Management task ( Pallett 1989 ) that has been popular within the DARPA community in recent years . The third version ( VOYAGER ) serves as an interface both with a recognizer and with a functioning database back-end ( Zue et al. 1990 ) . The VOYAGER system can answer a number of different types of questions concerning navigation within a city , as well as provide certain information about hotels , restaurants , libraries , etc. , within the region .

The third version ( VOYAGER ) serves as an interface both with a recognizer and with a functioning database back-end ( @@CITATION ) .


based parsing algorithms with an arc-factored parameterization ( McDonald et al. , 2005 ) . We use the non-projective k-best MST algorithm to generate k-best lists ( Hall , 2007 ) , where k = 8 for the experiments in this paper . The graphbased parser features used in the experiments in this paper are defined over a word , wi at position i ; the head of this word wÏ ( i ) where Ï ( i ) provides the index of the head word ; and partof-speech tags of these words ti .

We use the non-projective k-best MST algorithm to generate k-best lists ( @@CITATION ) , where k = 8 for the experiments in this paper .


algorithms for deterministic incremental dependency parsing

Looking at Hebrew , a Semitic language related to Arabic , Tsarfaty and Sima'an ( 2007 ) report that extending POS and phrase structure tags with definiteness information helps unlexicalized PCFG parsing . As for work on Arabic ( MSA ) , results have been reported on the PATB ( Kulick , Gabbard , and Marcus 2006 ; Diab 2007 ; Green and Manning 2010 ) , the Prague Dependency Treebank ( PADT ) ( Buchholz and Marsi 2006 ; Nivre 2008 ) and the CATiB ( Habash and Roth 2009 ) . Recently , Green and Manning ( 2010 ) analyzed the PATB for annotation consistency , and introduced an enhanced split-state constituency grammar , including labels for short idafa constructions and verbal or equational clauses .

As for work on Arabic ( MSA ) , results have been reported on the PATB ( Kulick , Gabbard , and Marcus 2006 ; Diab 2007 ; Green and Manning 2010 ) , the Prague Dependency Treebank ( PADT ) ( Buchholz and Marsi 2006 ; @@CITATION ) and the CATiB ( Habash and Roth 2009 ) .


generative content models for structural analysis of medical abstracts

Jimmy Lin
Damianos Karakos
Dina Demner-Fushman
Sanjeev Khudanpur

The literature also contains work on sentence-level classification of MEDLINE abstracts for non-clinical purposes . For example , McKnight and Srinivasan ( 2003 ) describe a machine learning approach to automatically label sentences as belonging to introduction , methods , results , or conclusion using structured abstracts as training data ( see also Lin et al. 2006 ) . Tbahriti et al. ( 2006 ) have demonstrated that differential weighting of automatically labeled sections can lead to improved retrieval performance .

For example , McKnight and Srinivasan ( 2003 ) describe a machine learning approach to automatically label sentences as belonging to introduction , methods , results , or conclusion using structured abstracts as training data ( see also @@CITATION ) .


â¢ Support vector machines for mapping histories to parser actions ( Kudo and Matsumoto , 2002 ) . â¢ Graph transformations for recovering nonprojective structures ( Nivre and Nilsson , 2005 ) . All experiments have been performed using MaltParser ( Nivre et al. , 2006 ) , version 0.4 , which is made available together with the suite of programs used for preand post-processing .1

â¢ Graph transformations for recovering nonprojective structures ( @@CITATION ) .


a generative constituentcontext model for improved grammar induction

Klein and Manning ( 2002 ) 's CCM is an unlabeled bracketing model that generates the span of part-of-speech tags that make up each constituent and the pair of tags surrounding each constituent span ( as well as the spans and contexts of each non-constituent ) . They found that modeling constituent context aids in parser learning because it is able to capture the observation that the same contexts tend to appear repeatedly in a corpus , even with different constituents .

@@CITATION 's CCM is an unlabeled bracketing model that generates the span of part-of-speech tags that make up each constituent and the pair of tags surrounding each constituent span ( as well as the spans and contexts of each non-constituent ) .


design challenges and misconceptions in named entity recognition

The Brown clustering algorithm works by starting with an initial assignment of word types to classes ( which is usually either one unique class per type or a small number of seed classes corresponding to the most frequent types in the corpus ) , and then iteratively selecting the pair of classes to merge that would lead to the highest post-merge log-likelihood , doing so until all classes have been merged . This process produces a hierarchical clustering of the word types in the corpus , and these clusterings have been found useful in many applications ( Ratinov and Roth , 2009 ; Koo et al. , 2008 ; Miller et al. , 2004 ) . There are other similar models of distributional clustering of English words which can be similarly effective ( Pereira et al. , 1993 ) .

This process produces a hierarchical clustering of the word types in the corpus , and these clusterings have been found useful in many applications ( @@CITATION ; Koo et al. , 2008 ; Miller et al. , 2004 ) .


1 . Opposition ( called `` adversative '' or `` contrary-to-expectation '' by Halliday and Hasan 1976 ; cfXXX also Quirk et al. 1972 , p. 672 ) . The ship arrived but the passengers could not get off .

Opposition ( called `` adversative '' or `` contrary-to-expectation '' by Halliday and Hasan 1976 ; cfXXX also @@CITATION , p. 672 ) .


automated extraction of tags from the penn treebank

Given these facts , research on automating acquisition of dictionaries for lexically based NLP systems is a particularly important issue . Aside from the extraction of theory-neutral subcategorization lexicons , there has also been work in the automatic construction of lexical resources which comply with the principles of particular linguistic theories such as LTAG , CCG , and HPSG ( Chen and Vijay-Shanker 2000 ; Xia 1999 ; Hockenmaier , Bierner , and Baldridge 2004 ; Nakanishi , Miyao , and Tsujii 2004 ) . In this article we present an approach to automating the process of lexical acquisition for LFG ( i.e. , grammatical-function-based systems ) .

Aside from the extraction of theory-neutral subcategorization lexicons , there has also been work in the automatic construction of lexical resources which comply with the principles of particular linguistic theories such as LTAG , CCG , and HPSG ( @@CITATION ; Xia 1999 ; Hockenmaier , Bierner , and Baldridge 2004 ; Nakanishi , Miyao , and Tsujii 2004 ) .


dynamic compilation of weighted contextfree grammars

This means that new e-transitions connect q to the start state of A , and the final states of A , to q ' . 1 The representation in Mohri and Pereira ( 1998 ) is even more compact than ours for grammars that are not self-embedding . However , in this paper we use our representation as an intermediate result in approximating an unrestricted context-free grammar , with the final objective of obtaining a single minimal deterministic automaton .

1 The representation in @@CITATION is even more compact than ours for grammars that are not self-embedding .


transformations of logic programs foundations and techniques

As a result , the literal can be removed from the body of 29 This improvement of the covariation encoding can also be viewed as an instance of the program transformation technique referred to as deletion of clauses with a finitely failed body ( Pettorossi and Proietti 1994 ) . the clause .

29 This improvement of the covariation encoding can also be viewed as an instance of the program transformation technique referred to as deletion of clauses with a finitely failed body ( @@CITATION ) .


The reordering models we describe follow our previous work using function word models for translation ( Setiawan et al. , 2007 ; Setiawan et al. , 2009 ) . The core hypothesis in this work is that function words provide robust clues to the reordering patterns of the phrases surrounding them .

The reordering models we describe follow our previous work using function word models for translation ( @@CITATION ; Setiawan et al. , 2009 ) .


Although there are other discussions of the paragraph as a central element of discourse ( e.g. Chafe 1979 , Halliday and Hasan 1976 , Longacre 1979 , Haberlandt et al. 1980 ) , all of them share a certain limitation in their formal techniques for analyzing paragraph structure . Discourse linguists show little interest in making the structural descriptions precise enough so that a computational grammar of text could adapt them and use them .

Although there are other discussions of the paragraph as a central element of discourse ( e.g. Chafe 1979 , @@CITATION , Longacre 1979 , Haberlandt et al. 1980 ) , all of them share a certain limitation in their formal techniques for analyzing paragraph structure .


examplebased machine translation based on the synchronous sstc annotation schema

Due to these limitations , instead of investigating into the synchronization of two grammars , we propose a flexible annotation schema ( i.e. Synchronous Structured String-Tree Correspondence ( S-SSTC ) ) to realize additional power and flexibility in expressing structural correspondences at the level of language sentence pairs . For example , such schema can serve as a mean to represent translation examples , or find structural correspondences for the purpose of transfer grammar learning ( Menezes & Richardson , 2001 ) , ( Aramaki et al. , 2001 ) , ( Watanabe et al. , 2000 ) , ( Meyers et al. , 2000 ) , ( Matsumoto et al. , 1993 ) , ( kaji et al. , 1992 ) , and example-base machine translation EBMT3 ( Sato & Nagao , 1990 ) , ( Sato , 1991 ) , ( Richardson et al. , 2001 ) , ( Al-Adhaileh & Tang , 1999 ) .

For example , such schema can serve as a mean to represent translation examples , or find structural correspondences for the purpose of transfer grammar learning ( Menezes & Richardson , 2001 ) , ( Aramaki et al. , 2001 ) , ( Watanabe et al. , 2000 ) , ( Meyers et al. , 2000 ) , ( Matsumoto et al. , 1993 ) , ( kaji et al. , 1992 ) , and example-base machine translation EBMT3 ( Sato & Nagao , 1990 ) , ( Sato , 1991 ) , ( Richardson et al. , 2001 ) , ( @@CITATION ) .


introduction to the special issue on the web as corpus

Due to the Zipfian nature of word frequencies , around half the word types in a corpus occur only once , so tremendous increases in corpus size are required both to ensure inclusion of essential word and phrase types and to increase the chances of multiple occurrences of a given type . In corpus linguistics building such megacorpora is beyond the scope of individual researchers , and they are not easily accessible ( Kennedy , 1998 : 56 ) unless the web is used as a corpus ( Kilgarriff and Grefenstette , 2003 ) . Increasingly , corpus researchers are tapping the Web to overcome the sparse data problem ( Keller et al. , 2002 ) .

In corpus linguistics building such megacorpora is beyond the scope of individual researchers , and they are not easily accessible ( Kennedy , 1998 : 56 ) unless the web is used as a corpus ( @@CITATION ) .


We optimize the dual objective using the gradient based methods shown in Algorithm 1 . Here 11 is an optimization precision , oc is a step size chosen with the strong Wolfe 's rule ( Nocedal and Wright 1999 ) . Here , PV ( A ) represents an ascent direction chosen as follows : For inequality constraints , it is the projected gradient ( Bertsekas 1999 ) ; for equality constraints with slack , we use conjugate gradient ( Nocedal and Wright 1999 ) , noting that when A = 0 , the objective is not differentiable .

Here 11 is an optimization precision , oc is a step size chosen with the strong Wolfe 's rule ( @@CITATION ) .


See ( Gomez , 1998 ) for a discussion .

linking wordnet verb classes to semantic interpretation

The number and nature of the thematic roles depend on the generic predicates and subpredicates , and not on some general criteria regardless of each predicate ( Fillmore , 1968 ) . See ( Gomez , 1998 ) for a discussion .


using dialogue representations for concepttospeech generation

Christine H Nakatani
Jennifer Chu-Carroll

MIMIC utilizes a non-recursive frame-based semantic representation commonly used in spoken dialogue systems ( e.g. ( Seneff et al. , 1991 ; Lamel , 1998 ) ) , which represents an utterance as a set of attribute-value pairs . Figure 2 ( a ) shows the frame-based semantic representation for the utterance `` What time is Analyze This playing 2 See ( Nakatani and Chu-Carroll , 2000 ) for how MIMIC 's dialoguelevel knowledge is used to override default prosodic assignments for concept-to-speech generation . in Montclair ? ''

Figure 2 ( a ) shows the frame-based semantic representation for the utterance `` What time is Analyze This playing 2 See ( @@CITATION ) for how MIMIC 's dialoguelevel knowledge is used to override default prosodic assignments for concept-to-speech generation .


a joint model for entity analysis coreference typing and linking

Results for HOTCoref are slightly different from the results reported in Bj Â¨ orkelund and Kuhn ( 2014 ) . For Berkeley system , we use the reported results from Durrett and Klein ( 2014 ) . shows significant improvement on all metrics for both datasets .

For Berkeley system , we use the reported results from @@CITATION .


proceedings of ace evaluation and pi meeting

Usually , in computational linguistics literature , a named entity is an instance of a location , a person , or an organization , and the NER task consists of identifying each of these occurrences . Instead , we will adopt the nomenclature of the Automatic Content Extraction program ( NIST , 2004 ) : we will call the instances of textual references to objects/abstractions mentions , which can be either named ( e.g. John Mayor ) , nominal ( the president ) or pronominal ( she , it ) . An entity is the aggregate of all the mentions ( of any level ) which refer to one conceptual entity .

Instead , we will adopt the nomenclature of the Automatic Content Extraction program ( @@CITATION ) : we will call the instances of textual references to objects/abstractions mentions , which can be either named ( e.g. John Mayor ) , nominal ( the president ) or pronominal ( she , it ) .


knowledge extraction for clinical question answering preliminary results

Thus , our exploratory experiments in applying content models trained with structured RCTs on unstructured RCTs is a closer approximation of an extrinsically-valid measure of performance . Such a component would serve as the first stage of a clinical question answering system ( Demner-Fushman and Lin , 2005 ) or summarization system ( McKeown et al. , 2003 ) . We chose to focus on randomized controlled trials because they represent the standard benchmark by which all other clinical studies are measured .

Such a component would serve as the first stage of a clinical question answering system ( @@CITATION ) or summarization system ( McKeown et al. , 2003 ) .


supporting text mining for escience the challenges for gridenabled natural language processing

In particular , representativeness and replicability are key research concerns to enhance the reliability of web data for corpora . In the areas of Natural Language Processing ( NLP ) and computational linguistics , proposals have been made for using the computational Grid for data-intensive NLP and text-mining for eScience ( Carroll et al. , 2005 ; Hughes et al , 2004 ) . While such an approach promises much in terms of emerging infrastructure , we wish to exploit existing computing infrastructure that is more accessible to linguists via a P2P approach .

In the areas of Natural Language Processing ( NLP ) and computational linguistics , proposals have been made for using the computational Grid for data-intensive NLP and text-mining for eScience ( @@CITATION ; Hughes et al , 2004 ) .


Michiels ( 1982 ) and Akkerman et al. ( 1985 ) provide a more detailed analysis of the information encoded by the LDOCE grammar codes and discuss their efficacy as a system of linguistic description . Ingria ( 1984 ) comprehensively compares different approaches to complementation within grammatical theory providing a touchstone against which the LDOCE scheme can be evaluated . Most automated parsing systems employ grammars which carefully distinguish syntactic and semantic information , therefore , if the information provided by the Longman grammar code system is to be of use , we need to be able to separate out this information and map it into a representation scheme compatible with the type of lexicon used by such parsing systems .

@@CITATION comprehensively compares different approaches to complementation within grammatical theory providing a touchstone against which the LDOCE scheme can be evaluated .


automatic semantic role labeling for chinese verbs

So the ARGX sub task is improved . To prove that our method is effective , we also make a comparison between the performances of our system and Xue and Palmer ( 2005 ) , Xue ( 2008 ) . Xue ( 2008 ) is the best SRL system until now and it has the same data setting with ours .

To prove that our method is effective , we also make a comparison between the performances of our system and @@CITATION , Xue ( 2008 ) .


Blunsom et al. ( 2008 , 2009 , 2010 ) utilized Bayesian methods to learn synchronous context free grammars ( SCFG ) from a parallel corpus . The obtained SCFG is further used in a phrase-based and hierarchical phrase-based system ( Chiang , 2007 ) . Levenberg et al. ( 2012 ) employed a Bayesian method to learn discontinuous SCFG rules .

The obtained SCFG is further used in a phrase-based and hierarchical phrase-based system ( @@CITATION ) .


The information common to all solutions to the interaction call is lifted up into the lexical entry and becomes available upon lexical lookup . 32 In certain cases an extension of the constraint language with named disjunctions or contexted constraints ( Maxwell and Kaplan 1989 ; Eisele and Dorre 1990 ; Griffith 1996 ) can be used to circumvent constraint propagation . Encoding the disjunctive possibilities for lexical rule application in this way , instead of with definite clause attachments , makes all relevant lexical information available at lexical lookup .

32 In certain cases an extension of the constraint language with named disjunctions or contexted constraints ( Maxwell and Kaplan 1989 ; Eisele and Dorre 1990 ; @@CITATION ) can be used to circumvent constraint propagation .


This work differs from the above work in that we design a novel Bayesian model to induce unsupervised U-trees , and prior knowledge can be encoded into the model more freely and effectively . Blunsom et al. ( 2008 , 2009 , 2010 ) utilized Bayesian methods to learn synchronous context free grammars ( SCFG ) from a parallel corpus . The obtained SCFG is further used in a phrase-based and hierarchical phrase-based system ( Chiang , 2007 ) .

@@CITATION , 2009 , 2010 ) utilized Bayesian methods to learn synchronous context free grammars ( SCFG ) from a parallel corpus .


question answering based on semantic structures

Typical tags include Agent , Patient , Source , etc. and some adjuncts such as Temporal , Manner , Extent , etc. . Since the arguments can provide useful semantic information , the SRL is crucial to many natural language processing tasks , such as Question and Answering ( Narayanan and Harabagiu 2004 ) , Information Extraction ( Surdeanu et al. 2003 ) , and Machine Translation ( Boas 2002 ) . With the efforts of many researchers ( Carreras and MÃ rquez 2004 , 2005 , Moschitti 2004 , Pradhan et al 2005 , Zhang et al 2007 ) , different machine learning methods and linguistics resources are applied in this task , which has made SRL task progress fast .

Since the arguments can provide useful semantic information , the SRL is crucial to many natural language processing tasks , such as Question and Answering ( @@CITATION ) , Information Extraction ( Surdeanu et al. 2003 ) , and Machine Translation ( Boas 2002 ) .


a stochastic finitestate wordsegmentation algorithm for chinese

In addition to the model based upon a dictionary of stems and words , we also experimented with models based upon character n-grams , similar to those used for Chinese segmentation ( Sproat et al. , 1996 ) . For these models , both arabic characters and spaces , and the inserted prefix and suffix markers appear on the arcs of the finite state machine .

In addition to the model based upon a dictionary of stems and words , we also experimented with models based upon character n-grams , similar to those used for Chinese segmentation ( @@CITATION ) .


transductive learning via spectral graph partitioning

inter-document references in the form of hyperlinks ( Agrawal et al. , 2003 ) . Notable early papers on graph-based semisupervised learning include Blum and Chawla ( 2001 ) , Bansal et al. ( 2002 ) , Kondor and Lafferty ( 2002 ) , and Joachims ( 2003 ) . Zhu ( 2005 ) maintains a survey of this area .

Notable early papers on graph-based semisupervised learning include Blum and Chawla ( 2001 ) , Bansal et al. ( 2002 ) , Kondor and Lafferty ( 2002 ) , and @@CITATION .


exploiting unlabeled text with different unsupervised segmentation criteria for chinese word segmentation

As full features are used , the former and the latter provide the similar performance . Due to using a global model like CRFs , our previous work in ( Zhao et al. , 2006 ; Zhao and Kit , 2008c ) reported the best results over the evaluated corpora of Bakeoff-2 until now7 . Though those results are slightly better than the results here , we still see that the results of character-level dependency parsing approach ( Scheme E ) are comparable to those state-of-the-art ones on each evaluated corpus .

Due to using a global model like CRFs , our previous work in ( Zhao et al. , 2006 ; @@CITATIONc ) reported the best results over the evaluated corpora of Bakeoff-2 until now7 .


a probabilistic account of logical metonymy

As already mentioned in the literature , see for example ( Lapata and Lascarides , 2003 ) , knowledge about implicit predicates could be potentially useful for a variety of NLP tasks such as language generation , information extraction , question answering or machine translation . Many applications of semantic relations in NLP are connected to paraphrasing or query expansion , see for example ( Voorhees , 1994 ) .

As already mentioned in the literature , see for example ( @@CITATION ) , knowledge about implicit predicates could be potentially useful for a variety of NLP tasks such as language generation , information extraction , question answering or machine translation .


We use the Columbia Arabic Treebank ( CATiB ) ( Habash and Roth 2009 ) . Specifically , we use the portion converted from Part 3 of the PATB to the CATiB format , which enriches the CATiB dependency trees with full PATB morphological information .

We use the Columbia Arabic Treebank ( CATiB ) ( @@CITATION ) .


Still , our definition of coherence may not be restrictive enough : two collections of sentences , one referring to `` black '' ( about black pencils , black pullovers , and black poodles ) , the other one about `` death '' ( war , cancer , etc. ) , connected by a sentence referring to both of these , could be interpreted as one paragraph about the new , broader topic `` black + death . '' This problem may be similar to the situation in which current formal grammars allow nonsensical but parsable collections of words ( e.g. , `` colorless green ideas ... '' ) , while before the advent of Chomskyan formalisms , a sentence was defined as the smallest meaningful collection of words ; Fowler ( 1965 , p. 546 ) gives 10 definitions of a sentence . It then seems worth differentiating between the creation of a new concept like `` black + death , '' with a meaning given by a paraphrase of the example collection of sentences , and the acceptance of the new concept -- storing it in R .

This problem may be similar to the situation in which current formal grammars allow nonsensical but parsable collections of words ( e.g. , `` colorless green ideas ... '' ) , while before the advent of Chomskyan formalisms , a sentence was defined as the smallest meaningful collection of words ; @@CITATION , p. 546 ) gives 10 definitions of a sentence .


combining labeled and unlabeled data with cotraining

This approach assumes that there are enough existing labeled data to train the individual parsers . Another technique for making better use of unlabeled data is cotraining ( Blum and Mitchell 1998 ) , in which two sufficiently different learners help each other learn by labeling training data for one another . The work of Sarkar ( 2001 ) and Steedman , Osborne , et al. ( 2003 ) suggests that co-training can be helpful for statistical parsing .

Another technique for making better use of unlabeled data is cotraining ( @@CITATION ) , in which two sufficiently different learners help each other learn by labeling training data for one another .


Michael Collins
Jan Hajic
Lance Ramshaw
Christoph Tillmann

In the past , it has been shown that if we can recognize the relevant morphological features in assignment configurations well enough , then they contribute to parsing accuracy . For example , modeling CASE in Czech improves Czech parsing ( Collins et al. 1999 ) : CASE is relevant , not redundant , and can be predicted with sufficient accuracy . It has been more difficult showing that agreement morphology helps parsing , however , with negative results for dependency parsing in several languages ( Eryigit , Nivre , and Oflazer 2008 ; Nivre , Boguslavsky , and Iomdin 2008 ; Nivre 2009 ) .

For example , modeling CASE in Czech improves Czech parsing ( @@CITATION ) : CASE is relevant , not redundant , and can be predicted with sufficient accuracy .


a program for aligning sentences in bilingual corporaquot

However , the IBM models , which attempt to capture a broad range of translation phenomena , are computationally expensive to apply . Table look-up using an explicit translation lexicon is sufficient and preferable for many multilingual NLP applications , including `` crummy '' MT on the World Wide Web ( Church & Hovy , 1993 ) , certain machine-assisted translation tools ( e.g. ( Macklovitch , 1994 ; Melamed , 1996b ) ) , concordancing for bilingual lexicography ( Catizone et al. , 1993 ; Gale & Church , 1991 ) , computerassisted language learning , corpus linguistics ( Melby . 1981 ) , and cross-lingual information retrieval ( Oard & Dorr , 1996 ) .

Table look-up using an explicit translation lexicon is sufficient and preferable for many multilingual NLP applications , including `` crummy '' MT on the World Wide Web ( Church & Hovy , 1993 ) , certain machine-assisted translation tools ( e.g. ( Macklovitch , 1994 ; Melamed , 1996b ) ) , concordancing for bilingual lexicography ( Catizone et al. , 1993 ; @@CITATION ) , computerassisted language learning , corpus linguistics ( Melby .


stochastic text structuring using the principle of continuity

Nikiforos Karamanis
Hisar Maruli Manurung

Following our previous work ( Karamanis and Manurung 2002 ; Althaus , Karamanis , and Koller 2004 ) , the input to information ordering is an unordered set of informationbearing items represented as CF lists . A set of candidate orderings is produced by creating different permutations of these lists .

Following our previous work ( @@CITATION ; Althaus , Karamanis , and Koller 2004 ) , the input to information ordering is an unordered set of informationbearing items represented as CF lists .


stemming algorithms a case study for detailed evaluation

There has been some controversy , at least for simple stemmers ( Lovins , 1968 ; Porter , 1980 ) , about the effectiveness of morphological analysis for document retrieval ( Harman , 1991 ; Krovetz , 1993 ; Hull , 1996 ) . The key for quality improvement seems to be rooted mainly in the presence or absence of some form of dictionary .

There has been some controversy , at least for simple stemmers ( Lovins , 1968 ; Porter , 1980 ) , about the effectiveness of morphological analysis for document retrieval ( Harman , 1991 ; Krovetz , 1993 ; @@CITATION ) .


an introduction to modern information retrieval

The example in Figure 1 ( b ) illustrates a situation where specific words in the request ( docking station and install ) are also mentioned in the response . This situation suggests a response-automation approach that follows the document retrieval paradigm ( Salton and McGill 1983 ) , where a new request is matched with existing response documents ( e-mails ) . However , specific words in the request do not always match a response well , and sometimes do not match a response at all , as demonstrated by the examples in Figures 1 ( a ) and 1 ( c ) , respectively .

This situation suggests a response-automation approach that follows the document retrieval paradigm ( @@CITATION ) , where a new request is matched with existing response documents ( e-mails ) .


a semantic approach to recognizing textual entailment

2 Lexical resources for TE and CLTE All current approaches to monolingual TE , either syntactically oriented ( Rus et al. , 2005 ) , or applying logical inference ( Tatu and Moldovan , 2005 ) , or adopting transformation-based techniques ( Kouleykov and Magnini , 2005 ; Bar-Haim et al. , 2008 ) , incorporate different types of lexical knowledge to support textual inference . Such information ranges from i ) lexical paraphrases ( textual equivalences between terms ) to ii ) lexical relations preserving entailment between words , and iii ) wordlevel similarity/relatedness scores .

All current approaches to monolingual TE , either syntactically oriented ( Rus et al. , 2005 ) , or applying logical inference ( Tatu and @@CITATION ) , or adopting transformation-based techniques ( Kouleykov and Magnini , 2005 ; Bar-Haim et al. , 2008 ) , incorporate different types of lexical knowledge to support textual inference .


getting the structure right for word alignment leaf

One solution to this problem is to add more complexity to the model to better reflect the translation process . This is the approach taken by IBM Models 4 + ( Brown et al. 1993b ; Och and Ney 2003 ) , and more recently by the LEAF model ( Fraser and Marcu 2007 ) . Unfortunately , these changes make the models probabilistically deficient and intractable , requiring approximations and heuristic learning and inference prone to search errors .

This is the approach taken by IBM Models 4 + ( Brown et al. 1993b ; Och and Ney 2003 ) , and more recently by the LEAF model ( @@CITATION ) .


automatically evaluating answers to definition questions

The system should collate concurrences , that is , if multiple abstracts arrive at the same conclusion -- it need not be repeated unless the physician wishes to `` drill down '' ; the system should reconcile contradictions , for example , if two abstracts disagree on a particular treatment because they studied different patient populations . We have noted that many of these desiderata make complex question answering quite similar to multi-document summarization ( Lin and Demner-Fushman 2005b ) , but these features are also beyond the capabilities of current summarization systems . It is clear that the type of answers desired by physicians require a level of semantic analysis that is beyond the current state of the art , even with the aid of existing medical ontologies .

We have noted that many of these desiderata make complex question answering quite similar to multi-document summarization ( @@CITATIONb ) , but these features are also beyond the capabilities of current summarization systems .


syntactic argumentation and the structure of english

Clearly , there are other syntactic and semantic tests for this distinction , ( see eg . Perlmutter and Soames , 1979:472 ) , but these are the only ones which are explicit in the LDOCE coding system . Once the semantic type for a verb sense has been determined , the sequence of codes in the associated code field is translated , as before , on a code-by-code basis .

@@CITATION:472 ) , but these are the only ones which are explicit in the LDOCE coding system .


This paper describes an approach for sharing resources in various grammar formalisms such as Feature-Based Lexicalized Tree Adjoining Grammar ( FB-LTAG1 ) ( Vijay-Shanker , 1987 ; Vijay-Shanker and Joshi , 1988 ) and Head-Driven Phrase Structure Grammar ( HPSG ) ( Pollard and Sag , 1994 ) by a method of grammar conversion . The RenTAL system automatically converts an FB-LTAG grammar into a strongly equivalent HPSG-style grammar ( Yoshinaga and Miyao , 2001 ) .

This paper describes an approach for sharing resources in various grammar formalisms such as Feature-Based Lexicalized Tree Adjoining Grammar ( FB-LTAG1 ) ( Vijay-Shanker , 1987 ; Vijay-Shanker and Joshi , 1988 ) and Head-Driven Phrase Structure Grammar ( HPSG ) ( @@CITATION ) by a method of grammar conversion .


What is required is that QLFs are , as here , expressed in a typed higher-order logic , augmented with constructs representing the interpretation of context-dependent elements ( pronouns , ellipsis , focus , etc. ) . These constructs correspond as directly as possible to properties of the linguistic structure that express them and are , to as small an extent as possible , dependent on the requirements of contextual resolution ( unlike , say , the metavariables of standard QLFs [ Alshawi and Crouch 1992 ] , or the labels of UDRS [ Reyle 1996 ] , which are motivated entirely by the mechanisms that operate on them after grammatical processing ) . Syntactic properties relevant for binding constraints , parallelism , scope constraints , and so on , are not directly represented at QLF ( again unlike standard QLFs ) but are assumed to be available as components of the linguistic context . '

These constructs correspond as directly as possible to properties of the linguistic structure that express them and are , to as small an extent as possible , dependent on the requirements of contextual resolution ( unlike , say , the metavariables of standard QLFs [ @@CITATION ] , or the labels of UDRS [ Reyle 1996 ] , which are motivated entirely by the mechanisms that operate on them after grammatical processing ) .


the linguists search engine getting started guide

Baroni and Bernardini ( 2004 ) built a corpus by iteratively searching Google for a small set of seed terms . Prototypes of Internet search engines for linguists , corpus linguists and lexicographers have been proposed : WebCorp ( Kehoe and Renouf , 2002 ) , KWiCFinder ( Fletcher , 2004a ) and the Linguist 's Search Engine ( Kilgarriff , 2003 ; Resnik and Elkiss , 2003 ) . A key concern in corpus linguistics and related disciplines is verifiability and replicability of the results of studies .

Prototypes of Internet search engines for linguists , corpus linguists and lexicographers have been proposed : WebCorp ( Kehoe and Renouf , 2002 ) , KWiCFinder ( Fletcher , 2004a ) and the Linguist 's Search Engine ( Kilgarriff , 2003 ; @@CITATION ) .


a geometric approach to mapping bitext correspondencequot

Table look-up using an explicit translation lexicon is sufficient and preferable for many multilingual NLP applications , including `` crummy '' MT on the World Wide Web ( Church & Hovy , 1993 ) , certain machine-assisted translation tools ( e.g. ( Macklovitch , 1994 ; @@CITATIONb ) ) , concordancing for bilingual lexicography ( Catizone et al. , 1993 ; Gale & Church , 1991 ) , computerassisted language learning , corpus linguistics ( Melby .


The usefulness of the methodology described above was tested in the implementation of a connected speech understanding system . An off-the-shelf speech recognition device , a Nippon Electric Corporation DP-200 , was added to an existing natural language processing system , the Natural Language Computer ( NLC ) ( Ballard 1979 , Biermann and Ballard 1980 ) . The expectation system provided the intermediate processing between the errorful output of the speech recognizer and the deep semantics of NLC .

An off-the-shelf speech recognition device , a Nippon Electric Corporation DP-200 , was added to an existing natural language processing system , the Natural Language Computer ( NLC ) ( Ballard 1979 , @@CITATION ) .


simple supervised document geolocation with geodesic grids

Others provide automatic mappings of natural language instructions to executable actions , such as interpreting navigation directions ( Chen and Mooney , 2011 ) or robot commands ( Tellex et al. , 2011 ; Matuszek et al. , 2012 ) . Some efforts have tackled tasks such as automatic image caption generation ( Feng and Lapata , 2010a ; Ordonez et al. , 2011 ) , text illustration ( Joshi et al. , 2006 ) , or automatic location identification of Twitter users ( Eisenstein et al. , 2010 ; Wing and Baldridge , 2011 ; Roller et al. , 2012 ) . Another line of research approaches grounded language knowledge by augmenting distributional approaches of word meaning with perceptual information ( Andrews et al. , 2009 ; Steyvers , 2010 ; Feng and Lapata , 2010b ; Bruni et al. , 2011 ; Silberer and Lapata , 2012 ; Johns and Jones , 2012 ; Bruni et al. , 2012a ; Bruni et al. , 2012b ; Silberer et al. , 2013 ) .

Some efforts have tackled tasks such as automatic image caption generation ( Feng and Lapata , 2010a ; Ordonez et al. , 2011 ) , text illustration ( Joshi et al. , 2006 ) , or automatic location identification of Twitter users ( Eisenstein et al. , 2010 ; @@CITATION ; Roller et al. , 2012 ) .


statistical decisiontree models for parsing

The system was trained on the Penn Treebank ( Marcus et al. , 1993 ) WSJ Sections 221 and tested on Section 23 ( Table 1 ) , same as used by Magerman ( 1995 ) , Collins ( 1997 ) , and Ratnaparkhi ( 1997 ) , and became a common testbed . The tasks were selected so as to demonstrate the benefit of using internal structure

The system was trained on the Penn Treebank ( Marcus et al. , 1993 ) WSJ Sections 221 and tested on Section 23 ( Table 1 ) , same as used by @@CITATION , Collins ( 1997 ) , and Ratnaparkhi ( 1997 ) , and became a common testbed .


automatic extraction of subcategorization from corpora

Applying his technique to approximately four million words of New York Times newswire , Manning acquired 4,900 verb-subcategorization frame pairs for 3,104 verbs , an average of 1.6 frames per verb . Briscoe and Carroll ( 1997 ) predefine 163 verbal subcategorization frames , obtained by manually merging the classes exemplified in the COMLEX ( MacLeod , Grishman , and Meyers 1994 ) and ANLT ( Boguraev et al. 1987 ) dictionaries and adding around 30 frames found by manual inspection . The frames incorporate control information and details of specific prepositions .

@@CITATION predefine 163 verbal subcategorization frames , obtained by manually merging the classes exemplified in the COMLEX ( MacLeod , Grishman , and Meyers 1994 ) and ANLT ( Boguraev et al. 1987 ) dictionaries and adding around 30 frames found by manual inspection .


iterative classification in relational data

Zhu ( 2005 ) maintains a survey of this area . Recently , several alternative , often quite sophisticated approaches to collective classification have been proposed ( Neville and Jensen , 2000 ; Lafferty et al. , 2001 ; Getoor et al. , 2002 ; Taskar et al. , 2002 ; Taskar et al. , 2003 ; Taskar et al. , 2004 ; McCallum and Wellner , 2004 ) . It would be interesting to investigate the application of such methods to our problem .

Recently , several alternative , often quite sophisticated approaches to collective classification have been proposed ( @@CITATION ; Lafferty et al. , 2001 ; Getoor et al. , 2002 ; Taskar et al. , 2002 ; Taskar et al. , 2003 ; Taskar et al. , 2004 ; McCallum and Wellner , 2004 ) .


We will enforce an invariant : the weight of any pathset H must be ( & EÎ  P ( Ï ) , & EÎ  P ( Ï ) val ( Ï ) ) E R > 0 x V , from which ( 1 ) is trivial to compute . Berstel and Reutenauer ( 1988 ) give a sufficiently general finite-state framework to allow this : weights may fall in any set K ( instead of R ) . Multiplication and addition are replaced by binary operations Â® and Â® on K. Thus Â® is used to combine arc weights into a path weight and Â® is used to combine the weights of alternative paths .

@@CITATION give a sufficiently general finite-state framework to allow this : weights may fall in any set K ( instead of R ) .


feature structures based tree adjoining grammars

Adjunction grafts an auxiliary tree with the root node and foot node labeled x onto an internal node of another tree with the same symbol x ( Figure 4 ) . FBLTAG ( Vijay-Shanker , 1987 ; Vijay-Shanker and Joshi , 1988 ) is an extension of the LTAG formalism . In FB-LTAG , each node in the elementary trees has a feature structure , containing grammatical constraints on the node .

FBLTAG ( Vijay-Shanker , 1987 ; @@CITATION ) is an extension of the LTAG formalism .


using structured queries for disambiguation in crosslanguage information retrievalquot

This approach limits how much credit the retrieval algorithm can give to a single term in the original query and prevents the translations of one or a few terms from swamping the whole query . There are several variations of such a method ( Ballesteros and Croft , 1998 ; Pirkola , 1998 ; Hull 1997 ) . One such method is to treat different translations of the same term as synonyms .

There are several variations of such a method ( Ballesteros and Croft , 1998 ; Pirkola , 1998 ; @@CITATION ) .


towards a semantics for lexical rules as used in hpsg

The result is displayed description language . 12 In order to focus on the computational aspects of the covariation approach , in this paper we will not go into a discussion of the full lexical rule specification language introduced in Meurers ( 1995 ) . The reader interested in that language and its precise interpretation can find the relevant details in that paper .

12 In order to focus on the computational aspects of the covariation approach , in this paper we will not go into a discussion of the full lexical rule specification language introduced in @@CITATION .


from sad to glad emotional computer voices

Existing text-to-speech systems perform well on word pronunciation and short sentences ,12 but when it comes to long sentences and paragraphs , synthetic speech tends to be difficult to listen to and understand . Many investigators ( e.g. Allen 1976 ; Elowitz et al. 1976 ; Luce et al. 1983 ; Cahn 1988 ) have suggested that the poor prosody of synthetic speech , in comparison with natural speech , is the primary factor leading to difficulties in the comprehension of fluent synthetic speech . And while researchers in text-tospeech synthesis have adopted a variety of approaches to prosodic phrase generation -- from the simple punctuationbased rules and function word listings of existing commercial systems to the sophisticated prosodic heuristics described in Emorine and Martin ( 1988 ) and O'Shaughnessy ( 1989 ) -- the generation of appropriate prosodic phrasing in unrestricted text has remained a problem .

Many investigators ( e.g. Allen 1976 ; Elowitz et al. 1976 ; Luce et al. 1983 ; @@CITATION ) have suggested that the poor prosody of synthetic speech , in comparison with natural speech , is the primary factor leading to difficulties in the comprehension of fluent synthetic speech .


The issues of control are not so important for us at this point ; we restrict ourselves to describing the logic . This Principle of Finitism is also assumed by Johnson-Laird ( 1983 ) , Jackendoff ( 1983 ) , Kamp ( 1981 ) , and implicitly or explicitly by almost all researchers in computational linguistics . As a logical postulate it is not very radical ; it is possible within a finitary framework to develop that part of mathematics that is used or has potential applications in natural science , such as mathematical analysis ( cfXXX Mycielski 1981 ) .

This Principle of Finitism is also assumed by @@CITATION , Jackendoff ( 1983 ) , Kamp ( 1981 ) , and implicitly or explicitly by almost all researchers in computational linguistics .


the mathematics of statistical machine translation parameter estimation

P F Brown
S A Della Pietra
V J Della Pietra
R L Mercer

This shows that our method was successful in producing a more focused lexicon probability distribution . We performed translation experiments with an implementation of the IBM-4 translation model ( Brown et al. , 1993 ) . A description of the system can be found in ( Tillmann and Ney , 2002 ) .

We performed translation experiments with an implementation of the IBM-4 translation model ( @@CITATION ) .


representation trees and stringtree correspondences

Much of theoretical linguistics can be formulated in a very natural manner as stating correspondences ( translations ) between layers of representation structures ( Rambow & Satta , 1996 ) . In this paper , a flexible annotation schema called Structured String-Tree Correspondence ( SSTC ) ( Boitet & Zaharin , 1988 ) will be introduced to capture a natural language text , its corresponding abstract linguistic representation and the mapping ( correspondence ) between these two . The correspondence between the string and its associated representation tree structure is defined in terms of the sub-correspondence between parts of the string ( substrings ) and parts of the tree structure ( subtrees ) , which can be interpreted for both analysis and generation .

In this paper , a flexible annotation schema called Structured String-Tree Correspondence ( SSTC ) ( @@CITATION ) will be introduced to capture a natural language text , its corresponding abstract linguistic representation and the mapping ( correspondence ) between these two .


These four lists can be acquired completely automatically from raw ( unlabeled ) texts . For the development of these lists we used a collection of texts of about 300,000 words derived from the New York Times ( NYT ) corpus that was supplied as training data for the 7th Message Understanding Conference ( MUC-7 ) ( Chinchor 1998 ) . We used these texts because the approach described in this article was initially designed to be part of a named-entity recognition system ( Mikheev , Grover , and Moens 1998 ) developed for MUC-7 .

For the development of these lists we used a collection of texts of about 300,000 words derived from the New York Times ( NYT ) corpus that was supplied as training data for the 7th Message Understanding Conference ( MUC-7 ) ( @@CITATION ) .


three generative lexicalised models for statistical parsing

We perform our comparison using two state-ofthe-art parsers . For the full parser , we use the one developed by Michael Collins ( Collins , 1996 ; Collins , 1997 ) -- one of the most accurate full parsers around . It represents a full parse tree as a set of basic phrases and a set of dependency relationships between them .

For the full parser , we use the one developed by Michael Collins ( Collins , 1996 ; @@CITATION ) -- one of the most accurate full parsers around .


detection of agreement vs disagreement in meetings training with unlabeled data

Detecting agreement We used a simple method to learn to identify cross-speaker references indicating agreement . More sophisticated approaches have been proposed ( Hillard et al. , 2003 ) , including an extension that , in an interesting reversal of our problem , makes use of sentimentpolarity indicators within speech segments ( Galley et al. , 2004 ) . Also relevant is work on the general problems of dialog-act tagging ( Stolcke et al. , 2000 ) , citation analysis ( Lehnert et al. , 1990 ) , and computational rhetorical analysis ( Marcu , 2000 ; Teufel and Moens , 2002 ) .

More sophisticated approaches have been proposed ( @@CITATION ) , including an extension that , in an interesting reversal of our problem , makes use of sentimentpolarity indicators within speech segments ( Galley et al. , 2004 ) .


using argumentation to retrieve articles with similar citations an inquiry into improving related articles search in the medline digital library

Imad Tbahriti
Christine Chichester
Fr´ed´erique Lisacek
Patrick Ruch

For example , McKnight and Srinivasan ( 2003 ) describe a machine learning approach to automatically label sentences as belonging to introduction , methods , results , or conclusion using structured abstracts as training data ( see also Lin et al. 2006 ) . Tbahriti et al. ( 2006 ) have demonstrated that differential weighting of automatically labeled sections can lead to improved retrieval performance . Note , however , that such labels are orthogonal to PICO frame elements , and hence are not directly relevant to knowledge extraction for clinical question answering .

@@CITATION have demonstrated that differential weighting of automatically labeled sections can lead to improved retrieval performance .


using statistical testing in the evaluation of retrieval experimentsquot

Furthermore , the improvement on Trec5C appears to be caused by big improvements for a small number of queries . The one-sided t-test ( Hull , 1993 ) at significance level 0.05 indicated that the improvement on Trec5C is not statistically significant . It seems surprising that disambiguation does not help at all for Trec6C .

The one-sided t-test ( @@CITATION ) at significance level 0.05 indicated that the improvement on Trec5C is not statistically significant .


For English , known for its limited number of inflection patterns , lexicon-free general-purpose stem1 ` ' denotes the string concatenation operator . mers ( Lovins , 1968 ; Porter , 1980 ) demonstrably improve retrieval performance . This has been reported for other languages , too , dependent on the generality of the chosen approach ( J Â¨ appinen and Niemist Â¨ o , 1988 ; Choueka , 1990 ; Popovic and Willett , 1992 ; Ekmekc Â¸ ioglu et al. , 1995 ; Hedlund et al. , 2001 ; Pirkola , 2001 ) .

mers ( Lovins , 1968 ; @@CITATION ) demonstrably improve retrieval performance .


expert systems a technology before its time ai expert available at wwwstanfordedugroup scipavsgtexpertsystemsaiexperthtml

circumstances can make each inquiry unique , and hence care must be taken to compose a response that does not confuse , irritate , or mislead the customer . It is therefore no surprise that early attempts at response automation were knowledge-driven ( Barr and Tessler 1995 ; Watson 1997 ; Delic and Lahaix 1998 ) . These systems were carefully designed to produce relevant and correct responses , but required significant human input and maintenance ( Delic and Lahaix 1998 ) .

It is therefore no surprise that early attempts at response automation were knowledge-driven ( @@CITATION ; Watson 1997 ; Delic and Lahaix 1998 ) .