lexicalfunctional grammar a formal system for grammatical representation in jbresnan ed the mental representation of grammatical relations

This paper describes the extraction of this , and other , information from LDOCE and discusses the utility of the coding system for automated natural language processing . Recent developments in linguistics , and especially on grammatical theory -- for example , Generalised Phrase Structure Grammar ( GPSG ) ( Gazdar et al. , 1985 ) , Lexical Functional Grammar ( LFG ) ( Kaplan and Bresnan , 1982 ) -- and on natural language parsing frameworks -- for example , Functional Unification Grammar ( FUG ) ( Kay , 1984a ) , PATR-II ( Shieber , 1984 ) -- make it feasible to consider the implementation of efficient systems for the syntactic analysis of substantial fragments of natural language . These developments also emphasise that if natural language processing systems are to be able to handle the grammatical and semantic idiosyncracies of individual lexical items elegantly and efficiently , then the lexicon must be a central component of the parsing system .

Recent developments in linguistics , and especially on grammatical theory -- for example , Generalised Phrase Structure Grammar ( GPSG ) ( Gazdar et al. , 1985 ) , Lexical Functional Grammar ( LFG ) ( @@CITATION ) -- and on natural language parsing frameworks -- for example , Functional Unification Grammar ( FUG ) ( Kay , 1984a ) , PATR-II ( Shieber , 1984 ) -- make it feasible to consider the implementation of efficient systems for the syntactic analysis of substantial fragments of natural language .


a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining

srilm  an extensible language modeling toolkit

We run GIZA + + ( Och and Ney , 2000 ) on the training corpus in both directions ( Koehn et al. , 2003 ) to obtain the word alignment for each sentence pair . We train a 4-gram language model on the Xinhua portion of the English Gigaword corpus using the SRILM Toolkits ( Stolcke , 2002 ) with modified Kneser-Ney smoothing ( Chen and Goodman , 1998 ) . In our experiments the translation performances are measured by case-insensitive BLEU4 metric ( Papineni et al. , 2002 ) and we use mtevalv13a.pl as the evaluation tool .

We train a 4-gram language model on the Xinhua portion of the English Gigaword corpus using the SRILM Toolkits ( @@CITATION ) with modified Kneser-Ney smoothing ( Chen and Goodman , 1998 ) .


a testbed for people searching strategies in the www

Javier Artiles
Julio Gonzalo
Felisa Verdejo

Most of early research work on person name ambiguity focuses on the CDC problem or uses methods found in the WSD literature . It is only recently that the web name ambiguity has been approached as a separate problem and defined as an NLP task Web People Search on its own ( Artiles et al. , 2005 ; Artiles et al. , 2007 ) . Therefore , it is useful to point out some crucial differences between WSD , CRC and WePS :

It is only recently that the web name ambiguity has been approached as a separate problem and defined as an NLP task Web People Search on its own ( @@CITATION ; Artiles et al. , 2007 ) .


a key to the brandeis verb catalog unpublished mimeo under nsf grant ist8420073 quotinformation structure of a natural language lexiconquot

This example also highlights a deficiency in the LDOCE coding system since prefer occurs much more naturally with a sentential complement if it collocates with a modal such as `` would '' . This deficiency is rectified in the verb classification system employed by Jackendoff and Grimshaw ( 1985 ) in the Brandeis verb catalogue . The main source of error comes from the misclassification of Object Raising into Object Equi verbs .

This deficiency is rectified in the verb classification system employed by @@CITATION in the Brandeis verb catalogue .


cues and control in expertclient dialogues

3.2.3 Strategy Selection Previous work has argued that initiative affects the degree of control an agent has in the dialogue interaction ( Whittaker and Stenton , 1988 ; Walker and Whittaker , 1990 ; Chu-Carroll and Brown , 1998 ) . Thus , a cooperative system may adopt different strategies to achieve the same goal depending on the initiative distribution .

Previous work has argued that initiative affects the degree of control an agent has in the dialogue interaction ( @@CITATION ; Walker and Whittaker , 1990 ; Chu-Carroll and Brown , 1998 ) .


aide a lacquisition de connaissances a partir de corpus

Most of these endeavours have focused on purely statistical acquisition techniques ( Church and Hanks , ` However , our interpretation of LFs in this work is much looser , since we admitted verbs that would not be considered to be members of true collocations as Mel ` cuk et al. ( 1984 1999 ) define them , i.e. groups of lexical units that share a restricted cooccurrence relationship . 1990 ) , on linguisitic acquisition ( by the use of Part-of-Speech filters hand-crafted by a linguist ) ( Oueslati , 1999 ) or , more frequently , on a combination of the two ( Smadja , 1993 ; Kilgarriff and Tugwell , 2001 , for example ) . It is worth noting that although these techniques are able to identify N-V pairs , they do not specify the relationship between N and V , nor are they capable of focusing on a subset of N-V pairs .

1990 ) , on linguisitic acquisition ( by the use of Part-of-Speech filters hand-crafted by a linguist ) ( @@CITATION ) or , more frequently , on a combination of the two ( Smadja , 1993 ; Kilgarriff and Tugwell , 2001 , for example ) .


visual and semantic similarity in imagenet

The vector does not find points of interest in the image , but rather attempts to provide a representation for the overall `` gist '' of the whole image . It is frequently used in tasks like scene identification , and Deselaers and Ferrari ( 2011 ) shows that distance in GIST space correlates well with semantic distance in WordNet . After computing the GIST vectors , each textual word is represented as the centroid GIST vector of all its images , forming the GIST modality .

It is frequently used in tasks like scene identification , and @@CITATION shows that distance in GIST space correlates well with semantic distance in WordNet .


a bayesian model of syntaxdirected tree to string grammar induction

The base distribution P0 ( r | N ) is designed to assign prior probabilities to the STSG production rules . Because each rule r consists of a target tree fragment frag and a source string str in the model , we follow Cohn and Blunsom ( 2009 ) and decompose the prior probability P0 ( r | N ) into two factors as follows : where P ( frag | N ) is the probability of producing the target tree fragment frag .

Because each rule r consists of a target tree fragment frag and a source string str in the model , we follow @@CITATION and decompose the prior probability P0 ( r | N ) into two factors as follows :


arabic tokenization partofspeech tagging and morphological disambiguation in one fell swoop

A similar inconsistency appears in feminine nominals that are not inflected using sound gender suffixes , for example , the feminine form of the masculine singular adjective S , l Ãzraq + Ï ( ` blue ' ) is Abj zarqA ' + Ï not U , j l * * Ãzraq + ah . To address this inconsistency in the correspondence between inflectional features and morphemes , and inspired by SmrÅ¾ ( 2007 ) , we distinguish between two types of inflectional features : formbased ( a.k.a. surface , or illusory ) features and functional features .6 Most available Arabic NLP tools and resources model morphology using formbased ( `` surface '' ) inflectional features , and do not mark rationality ; this includes the Penn Arabic Treebank ( PATB ) ( Maamouri et al. 2004 ) , the Buckwalter morphological analyzer ( Buckwalter 2004 ) , and tools using them such as the Morphological Analysis and Disambiguation for Arabic ( MADA ) toolkit ( Habash and Rambow 2005 ; Habash , Rambow , and Roth 2012 ) . The Elixir-FM analyzer ( SmrÅ¾ 2007 ) readily provides the

To address this inconsistency in the correspondence between inflectional features and morphemes , and inspired by SmrÅ¾ ( 2007 ) , we distinguish between two types of inflectional features : formbased ( a.k.a. surface , or illusory ) features and functional features .6 Most available Arabic NLP tools and resources model morphology using formbased ( `` surface '' ) inflectional features , and do not mark rationality ; this includes the Penn Arabic Treebank ( PATB ) ( Maamouri et al. 2004 ) , the Buckwalter morphological analyzer ( Buckwalter 2004 ) , and tools using them such as the Morphological Analysis and Disambiguation for Arabic ( MADA ) toolkit ( @@CITATION ; Habash , Rambow , and Roth 2012 ) .


automatically predicting peerreview helpfulness

Such an intelligent component could enable peer-review systems to 1 ) control the quality of peer reviews that are sent back to authors , so authors can focus on the helpful ones ; and 2 ) provide feedback to reviewers with respect to their reviewing performance , so students can learn to write better reviews . In our prior work ( Xiong and Litman , 2011 ) , we examined whether techniques used for predicting the helpfulness of product reviews ( Kim et al. , 2006 ) could be tailored to our peer-review domain , where the definition of helpfulness is largely influenced by the educational context of peer review . While previously we used the average of two expert-provided ratings as our gold standard of peer-review helpfulness1 , there are other types of helpfulness rating ( e.g. author perceived helpfulness ) that could be the gold standard , and that could potentially impact the features used to build the helpfulness model .

In our prior work ( @@CITATION ) , we examined whether techniques used for predicting the helpfulness of product reviews ( Kim et al. , 2006 ) could be tailored to our peer-review domain , where the definition of helpfulness is largely influenced by the educational context of peer review .


sentiment analysis a new approach for effective use of linguistic knowledge and exploiting similarities in a set of documents to be classified

Relationships between the unlabeled items Carvalho and Cohen ( 2005 ) consider sequential relations between different types of emails ( e.g. , between requests and satisfactions thereof ) to classify messages , and thus also explicitly exploit the structure of conversations . Previous sentiment-analysis work in different domains has considered inter-document similarity ( Agarwal and Bhattacharyya , 2005 ; Pang and Lee , 2005 ; Goldberg and Zhu , 2006 ) or explicit inter-document references in the form of hyperlinks ( Agrawal et al. , 2003 ) .

Previous sentiment-analysis work in different domains has considered inter-document similarity ( @@CITATION ; Pang and Lee , 2005 ; Goldberg and Zhu , 2006 ) or explicit


Elia Bruni
Gemma Boleda
Marco Baroni
NamKhanh Tran

The topic model using the bimodal vocabulary outperforms a purely textual based model in word association and word similarity prediction . Bruni et al. ( 2012a ) show how a BoVW model may be easily combined with a distributional vector space model of language using only vector concatenation . Bruni et al. ( 2012b ) show that the contextual visual words ( i.e. the visual features around an object , rather than of the object itself ) are even more useful at times , suggesting the plausibility of a sort of distributional hypothesis for images .

@@CITATIONa ) show how a BoVW model may be easily combined with a distributional vector space model of language using only vector concatenation .


A more detailed discussion of the various available Arabic tag sets can be found in Habash ( 2010 ) . The following are the various tag sets we use in this article : ( a ) the core POS tag sets CORE44 and the newly introduced CORE12 ; ( b ) CATiB Treebank tag set ( CATIB6 ) ( Habash and Roth 2009 ) and its newly introduced extension of CATIBEX created using simple regular expressions on word form , indicating particular morphemes such as the prefix JI Al + or the suffix v ' + wn ; this tag set is the best-performing tag set for Arabic on predicted values as reported in Section 4 ; ( c ) the PATB full tag set with complete morphological tag ( BW ) ( Buckwalter 2004 ) ; and two extensions of the PATB reduced tag set ( PENN POS , a.k.a. RTS , size 24 [ Diab , Hacioglu , and Jurafsky 2004 ] ) , both outperforming it : ( d ) Kulick , Gabbard , and Marcus ( 2006 ) 's tag set ( KULICK ) , size 43 , one of whose most important extensions is the marking of the definite article clitic , and ( e ) Diab and Benajiba 's ( in preparation ) EXTENDED RTS tag set ( ERTS ) , which marks gender , number , and definiteness , size 134 .

The following are the various tag sets we use in this article : ( a ) the core POS tag sets CORE44 and the newly introduced CORE12 ; ( b ) CATiB Treebank tag set ( CATIB6 ) ( @@CITATION ) and its newly introduced extension of CATIBEX created using simple regular expressions on word form , indicating particular morphemes such as the prefix JI Al + or the suffix v ' + wn ; this tag set is the best-performing tag set for Arabic on predicted values as reported in Section 4 ; ( c ) the PATB full tag set with complete morphological tag ( BW ) ( Buckwalter 2004 ) ; and two extensions of the PATB reduced tag set ( PENN POS , a.k.a. RTS , size 24 [ Diab , Hacioglu , and Jurafsky 2004 ] ) , both outperforming it : ( d ) Kulick , Gabbard , and Marcus ( 2006 ) 's tag set ( KULICK ) , size 43 , one of whose most important extensions is the marking of the definite article clitic , and ( e ) Diab and Benajiba 's ( in preparation ) EXTENDED RTS tag set ( ERTS ) , which marks gender , number , and definiteness , size 134 .


fitting words vague language in context linguistics and philosophy

Clearly , what it takes for the adjective to be applicable has not been cast in stone , but is open to fiat : the speaker may decide that 8 cm is enough , or the speaker may set the standards higher ( cfXXX , Kennedy 1999 ) . The numeral ( whether it is implicit , as in ( 3 ) , or explicit ) can be construed as allowing the reader to draw inferences about the standards employed ( Kyburg and Morreau 2000 ; DeVault and Stone 2004 ) : ( 3 ) , for example , implies a standard that counts 10 cm as large and 8 cm as not large . Our own proposal will abstract away from the effects of linguistic context .

The numeral ( whether it is implicit , as in ( 3 ) , or explicit ) can be construed as allowing the reader to draw inferences about the standards employed ( @@CITATION ; DeVault and Stone 2004 ) : ( 3 ) , for example , implies a standard that counts 10 cm as large and 8 cm as not large .


a coefficient of agreement for nominal scales

A measure was derived for each annotated feature using the agreement analysis facility provided in ANVIL . Agreement between two annotation sets is calculated here in terms of Cohen 's kappa ( Cohen , 1960 ) 1 and corrected kappa ( Brennan and Prediger , 1981 ) 2 . Anvil divides the annotations in slices and compares each slice .

Agreement between two annotation sets is calculated here in terms of Cohen 's kappa ( @@CITATION ) 1 and corrected kappa ( Brennan and Prediger , 1981 ) 2 .


adaptive multilingual sentence boundary disambiguation

The error rate on sentence boundaries in the Brown corpus was not significantly worse than the lowest quoted before ( Riley 1989 : 0.28 % vs. 0.20 % error rate ) . On the WSJ corpus our system performed slightly better than the combination of the Alembic and SATZ systems described in Palmer and Hearst ( 1997 ) ( 0.44 % vs. 0.5 % error rate ) . Although these error rates seem to be very small , they are quite significant .

On the WSJ corpus our system performed slightly better than the combination of the Alembic and SATZ systems described in @@CITATION ( 0.44 % vs. 0.5 % error rate ) .


word sense disambiguation and information retrievalquot

Other studies on the value of disambiguation for cross-lingual IR include Hiemstra and de Jong , 1999 ; Hull , 1997 . Sanderson , 1994 studied the issue of disambiguation for mono-lingual M. The third approach to cross-lingual retrieval is to map queries and documents to some intermediate representation , e.g latent semantic indexing ( LSI ) ( Littman et al , 1998 ) , or the General Vector space model ( GVSM ) , ( Carbonell et al , 1997 ) .

@@CITATION studied the issue of disambiguation for mono-lingual M.


conditional random fields probabilistic models for segmenting and labeling sequence data

Zhu ( 2005 ) maintains a survey of this area . Recently , several alternative , often quite sophisticated approaches to collective classification have been proposed ( Neville and Jensen , 2000 ; Lafferty et al. , 2001 ; Getoor et al. , 2002 ; Taskar et al. , 2002 ; Taskar et al. , 2003 ; Taskar et al. , 2004 ; McCallum and Wellner , 2004 ) . It would be interesting to investigate the application of such methods to our problem .

Recently , several alternative , often quite sophisticated approaches to collective classification have been proposed ( Neville and Jensen , 2000 ; @@CITATION ; Getoor et al. , 2002 ; Taskar et al. , 2002 ; Taskar et al. , 2003 ; Taskar et al. , 2004 ; McCallum and Wellner , 2004 ) .


buckwalter arabic morphological analyzer version 20 linguistic data consortium

To address this inconsistency in the correspondence between inflectional features and morphemes , and inspired by SmrÅ¾ ( 2007 ) , we distinguish between two types of inflectional features : formbased ( a.k.a. surface , or illusory ) features and functional features .6 Most available Arabic NLP tools and resources model morphology using formbased ( `` surface '' ) inflectional features , and do not mark rationality ; this includes the Penn Arabic Treebank ( PATB ) ( Maamouri et al. 2004 ) , the Buckwalter morphological analyzer ( @@CITATION ) , and tools using them such as the Morphological Analysis and Disambiguation for Arabic ( MADA ) toolkit ( Habash and Rambow 2005 ; Habash , Rambow , and Roth 2012 ) .


0 is a ground instance of a formula 0 , if 0 contains no variables , and 0 = 00 , for some substitution O. Thus , we do not require Th ( T ) to be closed under substitution instances of tautologies . Although in this paper we take modus ponens as the main rule of inference , in general one can consider deductive closures with respect to weaker , nonstandard logics , ( cfXXX Levesque 1984 ; Frisch 1987 ; Patel-Schneider 1985 ) . But we wo n't pursue this topic further here .

Although in this paper we take modus ponens as the main rule of inference , in general one can consider deductive closures with respect to weaker , nonstandard logics , ( cfXXX Levesque 1984 ; @@CITATION ; Patel-Schneider 1985 ) .


statische programmtransformationen zur effizienten verarbeitung constraintbasierter grammatiken diplomarbeit

In a number of proposals , lexical generalizations are captured using lexical underspecification ( Kathol 1994 ; Krieger and Nerbonne 1992 ; Riehemann 1993 ; Oliva 1994 ; Frank 1994 ; Opalka 1995 ; Sanfilippo 1995 ) . The lexical entries are only partially specified , and various specializations are encoded via the type hierarchy , definite clause attachments , or a macro hierarchy .

Riehemann 1993 ; Oliva 1994 ; Frank 1994 ; @@CITATION ; Sanfilippo 1995 ) .


automatic question answering using the web beyond the factoid

Two applications that , like help-desk , deal with question -- answer pairs are : summarization of e-mail threads ( Dalli , Xia , and Wilks 2004 ; Shrestha and McKeown 2004 ) , and answer extraction in FAQs ( Frequently Asked Questions ) ( Berger and Mittal 2000 ; Berger et al. 2000 ; Jijkoun and de Rijke 2005 ; Soricut and Brill 2006 ) . An important difference between these applications and help-desk is that help-desk request e-mails are not simple queries .

Berger et al. 2000 ; Jijkoun and de Rijke 2005 ; @@CITATION ) .


object reference in a shared domain of conversation pragmatics and cognition

We will examine the worst-case complexity of interpretation as well as generation to shed some light on the hypothesis that vague descriptions are more difficult to process than others because they involve a comparison between objects ( Beun and Cremers 1998 , Krahmer and Theune 2002 ) . Before we do this , consider the tractability of the original IA .

We will examine the worst-case complexity of interpretation as well as generation to shed some light on the hypothesis that vague descriptions are more difficult to process than others because they involve a comparison between objects ( @@CITATION , Krahmer and Theune 2002 ) .


anaphora for everyone pronominal anaphora resolution without a parser

However , the pressing need for the development of robust and inexpensive solutions to meet the demands of practical NLP systems encouraged many researchers to move away from extensive domain and linguistic knowledge and to embark instead upon knowledge-poor anaphora resolution strategies . A number of proposals in the 1990s deliberately limited the extent to which they relied on domain and/or linguistic knowledge and reported promising results in knowledge-poor operational environments ( Dagan and Itai 1990 , 1991 ; Lappin and Leass 1994 ; Nasukawa 1994 ; Kennedy and Boguraev 1996 ; Williams , Harvey , and Preston 1996 ; Baldwin 1997 ; Mitkov 1996 , 1998b ) . The drive toward knowledge-poor and robust approaches was further motivated by the emergence of cheaper and more reliable corpus-based NLP tools such as partof-speech taggers and shallow parsers , alongside the increasing availability of corpora and other NLP resources ( e.g. , ontologies ) .

A number of proposals in the 1990s deliberately limited the extent to which they relied on domain and/or linguistic knowledge and reported promising results in knowledge-poor operational environments ( Dagan and Itai 1990 , 1991 ; Lappin and Leass 1994 ; Nasukawa 1994 ; @@CITATION ; Williams , Harvey , and Preston 1996 ; Baldwin 1997 ; Mitkov 1996 , 1998b ) .


what is a natural language and how to describe it meaningtext approaches in contrast with generative approaches

From the Meaning-Text Theory ( MTT ) 1 point of view , Natural Language ( NL ) is considered as a correspondence between meanings and texts ( Kahane , 2001 ) . The MTT point of view , even if it has been introduced in different formulations , is more or less accepted by the whole linguistic community .

From the Meaning-Text Theory ( MTT ) 1 point of view , Natural Language ( NL ) is considered as a correspondence between meanings and texts ( @@CITATION ) .


Unless explicitly stated otherwise , we assume that formulas are expressed in a certain ( formal ) language L without equality ; the extension L ( =-RRB- of L is going to be used only in Section 5 for dealing with noun phrase references . This means that natural language expressions such as `` A is B , '' `` A is the same as B , '' etc. are not directly represented by logical equality ; similarly , `` not '' is often not treated as logical negation ; cfXXX Hintikka ( 1985 ) . All logical notions that we are going to consider , such as theory or model , will be finitary .

This means that natural language expressions such as `` A is B , '' `` A is the same as B , '' etc. are not directly represented by logical equality ; similarly , `` not '' is often not treated as logical negation ; cfXXX @@CITATION .


lexical representation of derivational relation

Most of the studies are designed to support one of the two mutually exclusive paradigms : the full-listing and the morphemic model . The full-listing model claims that polymorphic words are represented as a whole in the human mental lexicon ( Bradley , 1980 ; Butterworth , 1983 ) . On the other hand , morphemic model argues that morphologically complex words are decomposed and represented in terms of the smaller morphemic units .

The full-listing model claims that polymorphic words are represented as a whole in the human mental lexicon ( @@CITATION ; Butterworth , 1983 ) .


conllx shared task on multilingual dependency parsing

Looking at Hebrew , a Semitic language related to Arabic , Tsarfaty and Sima'an ( 2007 ) report that extending POS and phrase structure tags with definiteness information helps unlexicalized PCFG parsing . As for work on Arabic ( MSA ) , results have been reported on the PATB ( Kulick , Gabbard , and Marcus 2006 ; Diab 2007 ; Green and Manning 2010 ) , the Prague Dependency Treebank ( PADT ) ( Buchholz and Marsi 2006 ; Nivre 2008 ) and the CATiB ( Habash and Roth 2009 ) . Recently , Green and Manning ( 2010 ) analyzed the PATB for annotation consistency , and introduced an enhanced split-state constituency grammar , including labels for short idafa constructions and verbal or equational clauses .

As for work on Arabic ( MSA ) , results have been reported on the PATB ( Kulick , Gabbard , and Marcus 2006 ; Diab 2007 ; Green and Manning 2010 ) , the Prague Dependency Treebank ( PADT ) ( @@CITATION ; Nivre 2008 ) and the CATiB ( Habash and Roth 2009 ) .


comparing knowledge sources for nominal anaphora resolution

Another type of semantic knowledge that has been employed by coreference resolvers is the semantic class ( SC ) of an NP , which can be used to disallow coreference between semantically incompatible NPs . However , learning-based resolvers have not been able to benefit from having an SC agreement feature , presumably because the method used to compute the SC of an NP is too simplistic : while the SC of a proper name is computed fairly accurately using a named entity ( NE ) recognizer , many resolvers simply assign to a common noun the first ( i.e. , most frequent ) WordNet sense as its SC ( e.g. , Soon et al. ( 2001 ) , Markert and Nissim ( 2005 ) ) . It is not easy to measure the accuracy of this heuristic , but the fact that the SC agreement feature is not used by Soon et al. 's decision tree coreference classifier seems to suggest that the SC values of the NPs are not computed accurately by this first-sense heuristic .

However , learning-based resolvers have not been able to benefit from having an SC agreement feature , presumably because the method used to compute the SC of an NP is too simplistic : while the SC of a proper name is computed fairly accurately using a named entity ( NE ) recognizer , many resolvers simply assign to a common noun the first ( i.e. , most frequent ) WordNet sense as its SC ( e.g. , Soon et al. ( 2001 ) , @@CITATION ) .


While earlier work in this direction concentrated on manual construction of rules , most of the recent work has been motivated by the observation that shallow syntactic information can be extracted using local information by examining the pattern itself , its nearby context and the local part-of-speech information . Thus , over the past few years , along with advances in the use of learning and statistical methods for acquisition of full parsers ( Collins , 1997 ; Charniak , 1997a ; Charniak , 1997b ; Ratnaparkhi , 1997 ) , significant progress has been made on the use of statistical learning methods to recognize shallow parsing patterns syntactic phrases or words that participate in a syntactic relationship ( Church , 1988 ; Ramshaw and Marcus , 1995 ; Argamon et al. , 1998 ; Cardie and Pierce , 1998 ; Munoz et al. , 1999 ; Punyakanok and Roth , 2001 ; Buchholz et al. , 1999 ; Tjong Kim Sang and Buchholz , 2000 ) . Research on shallow parsing was inspired by psycholinguistics arguments ( Gee and Grosjean , 1983 ) that suggest that in many scenarios ( e.g. , conversational ) full parsing is not a realistic strategy for sentence processing and analysis , and was further motivated by several arguments from a natural language engineering viewpoint .

Thus , over the past few years , along with advances in the use of learning and statistical methods for acquisition of full parsers ( Collins , 1997 ; Charniak , 1997a ; Charniak , 1997b ; Ratnaparkhi , 1997 ) , significant progress has been made on the use of statistical learning methods to recognize shallow parsing patterns syntactic phrases or words that participate in a syntactic relationship ( Church , 1988 ; Ramshaw and Marcus , 1995 ; Argamon et al. , 1998 ; Cardie and Pierce , 1998 ; @@CITATION ; Punyakanok and Roth , 2001 ; Buchholz et al. , 1999 ; Tjong Kim Sang and Buchholz , 2000 ) .


what’s yours and what’s mine determining intellectual attribution in scientific text

fields generally follow the pattern of `` introduction '' , `` methods '' , `` results '' , and `` conclusions '' ( SalangerMeyer , 1990 ; Swales , 1990 ; OrËasan , 2001 ) . The ability to explicitly identify these sections in unstructured text could play an important role in applications such as document summarization ( Teufel and Moens , 2000 ) , information retrieval ( Tbahriti et al. , 2005 ) , information extraction ( Mizuta et al. , 2005 ) , and question answering . Although there is a trend towards analysis of full article texts , we believe that abstracts still provide a tremendous amount of information , and much value can still be extracted from them .

The ability to explicitly identify these sections in unstructured text could play an important role in applications such as document summarization ( @@CITATION ) , information retrieval ( Tbahriti et al. , 2005 ) , information extraction ( Mizuta et al. , 2005 ) , and question answering .


towards historybased grammars using richer models for probabilistic parsing

E Black
F Jelinek
J Lafferty
D Magerman
R Mercer
S Roukos

Many statistical parsers ( Ratnaparkhi , 1999 ; Collins , 1999 ; Charniak , 2001 ) are based on a history-based probability model ( Black et al. , 1993 ) , where the probability of each decision in a parse is conditioned on the previous decisions in the parse . A major challenge in this approach is choosing a representation of the parse history from which the probability for the next parser decision can be accurately estimated .

Many statistical parsers ( Ratnaparkhi , 1999 ; Collins , 1999 ; Charniak , 2001 ) are based on a history-based probability model ( @@CITATION ) , where the probability of each decision in a parse is conditioned on the previous decisions in the parse .


Due to these limitations , instead of investigating into the synchronization of two grammars , we propose a flexible annotation schema ( i.e. Synchronous Structured String-Tree Correspondence ( S-SSTC ) ) to realize additional power and flexibility in expressing structural correspondences at the level of language sentence pairs . For example , such schema can serve as a mean to represent translation examples , or find structural correspondences for the purpose of transfer grammar learning ( Menezes & Richardson , 2001 ) , ( Aramaki et al. , 2001 ) , ( Watanabe et al. , 2000 ) , ( Meyers et al. , 2000 ) , ( Matsumoto et al. , 1993 ) , ( kaji et al. , 1992 ) , and example-base machine translation EBMT3 ( Sato & Nagao , 1990 ) , ( Sato , 1991 ) , ( Richardson et al. , 2001 ) , ( Al-Adhaileh & Tang , 1999 ) .

For example , such schema can serve as a mean to represent translation examples , or find structural correspondences for the purpose of transfer grammar learning ( Menezes & Richardson , 2001 ) , ( Aramaki et al. , 2001 ) , ( Watanabe et al. , 2000 ) , ( Meyers et al. , 2000 ) , ( Matsumoto et al. , 1993 ) , ( kaji et al. , 1992 ) , and example-base machine translation EBMT3 ( @@CITATION ) , ( Sato , 1991 ) , ( Richardson et al. , 2001 ) , ( Al-Adhaileh & Tang , 1999 ) .


discovery of inference rules for question answering natural language engineering

Because of the large , open domain corpora these systems deal with , coverage and robustness are key issues and much on the work on paraphrases in that domain is based on automatic learning techniques . For instance , ( Lin and Pantel , 2001 ) acquire two-argument templates ( inference rules ) from corpora using an extended version of the distributional analysis in which paths in dependency trees that have similar arguments are taken to be close in meaning . Similarly , ( Barzilay and Lee , 2003 ) and ( Shinyanma et al. , 2002 ) learn sentence level paraphrase templates from a corpus of news articles stemming from different news source .

For instance , ( @@CITATION ) acquire two-argument templates ( inference rules ) from corpora using an extended version of the distributional analysis in which paths in dependency trees that have similar arguments are taken to be close in meaning .


expectation semirings flexible em for finitestate transducers

Then the predicted vector given Î¸ is Ej , a dj , a Â· ( expected feature counts on a randomly chosen arc in Dj , a ) . Per-state joint normalization ( Eisner , 2001b , Â§ 8.2 ) is similar but drops the dependence on a . The difficult case is global conditional normalization .

Per-state joint normalization ( @@CITATIONb , Â§ 8.2 ) is similar but drops the dependence on a .


using structured queries for disambiguation in crosslanguage information retrievalquot

While word sense disambiguation has been a central topic in previous studies for cross-lingual IR , our study suggests that using multiple weighted translations and compensating for the incompleteness of the lexicon may be more valuable . Other studies on the value of disambiguation for cross-lingual IR include Hiemstra and de Jong , 1999 ; Hull , 1997 . Sanderson , 1994 studied the issue of disambiguation for mono-lingual M.

Other studies on the value of disambiguation for cross-lingual IR include Hiemstra and de Jong , 1999 ; @@CITATION .


full integration of speech and language understanding in the mit spoken language systemquot

D Goodine
S Seneff
L Hirschman
M Phillips

Following the Viterbi search , each partial theory is first extended by the parser to specify possible next words , which are then scored by the recognizer . We have not yet made use of TINA 'S probabilities in adjusting the recognizer scores on the fly , but we have been able to incorporate linguistic scores to resort N-best outputs , giving a significant improvement in performance ( Goodine et al. 1991 ) . Ultimately we want to incorporate TINA 's probabilities directly into the A * search , but it is as yet unclear how to provide an appropriate upper bound for the probability estimate of the unseen portion of the linguistic model .

We have not yet made use of TINA 'S probabilities in adjusting the recognizer scores on the fly , but we have been able to incorporate linguistic scores to resort N-best outputs , giving a significant improvement in performance ( @@CITATION ) .


soft syntactic constraints for hierarchical phrasedbased translation

We incorporate into the ME based model the following informative context-based features to train CBSM and CBTM . These features are carefully designed to reduce the data sparseness problem and some of them are inspired by previous work ( He et al. , 2008 ; Gimpel and Smith , 2008 ; Marton and Resnik , 2008 ; Chiang et al. , 2009 ; Setiawan et al. , 2009 ; Shen et al. , 2009 ; Xiong et al. , 2009 ) : 1 . Function word features , which indicate whether the hierarchical source-side/targetside rule strings and sub-phrases covered by non-terminals contain function words that are often important clues of predicting syntactic structures .

These features are carefully designed to reduce the data sparseness problem and some of them are inspired by previous work ( He et al. , 2008 ; Gimpel and Smith , 2008 ; @@CITATION ; Chiang et al. , 2009 ; Setiawan et al. , 2009 ; Shen et al. , 2009 ; Xiong et al. , 2009 ) : 1 .


cucomsem exploring rich features for unsupervised web personal name disambiguation

Withindocument coreference resolution has been applied to produce summaries of text surrounding occurrences of the name ( Bagga and Baldwin , 1998 ; Gooi and Allan , 2004 ) . Nevertheless , the full document text is present in most systems , sometimes as the only feature ( Sugiyama and Okumura , 2007 ) and sometimes in combination with others see for instance ( Chen and Martin , 2007 ; Popescu and Magnini , 2007 ) - . Other representations use the link structure ( Malin , 2005 ) or generate graph representations of the extracted features ( Kalashnikov et al. , 2007 ) .

Nevertheless , the full document text is present in most systems , sometimes as the only feature ( Sugiyama and Okumura , 2007 ) and sometimes in combination with others see for instance ( @@CITATION ; Popescu and Magnini , 2007 ) - .


machine learning in automated text categorization”

A good study comparing document categorization algorithms can be found in ( Yang and Liu , 1999 ) . More recently , ( Sebastiani , 2002 ) has performed a good survey of document categorization ; recent works can also be found in ( Joachims , 2002 ) , ( Crammer and Singer , 2003 ) , and ( Lewis et al. , 2004 ) . Concerning Arabic , one automatic categorizer has been reported to have been put under operational use to classify Arabic documents ; it is referred to as `` Sakhr 's categorizer '' ( Sakhr , 2004 ) .

More recently , ( @@CITATION ) has performed a good survey of document categorization ; recent works can also be found in ( Joachims , 2002 ) , ( Crammer and Singer , 2003 ) , and ( Lewis et al. , 2004 ) .


generating event descriptions with sage a simulation and generation environment

For example , DIOGENES ( Nirenburg et al. 1988 ) , EPICURE ( Dale 1989 ) , SPOKESMAN ( Meteer 1989 ) , Sibun 's work on local organization of text ( Sibun 1991 ) , and COMET ( Fisher and McKeown 1990 ) all are organized this way . McDonald has even argued for extending the model to a large number of components ( McDonald 1988 ) , and several systems have indeed added an additional component between the planner and the linguistic component ( Meteer 1994 ; Panaget 1994 ; Wanner 1994 ) . Reiter describes a pipelined modular approach as a consensus architecture underlying most recent work in generation ( Reiter 1994 ) .

McDonald has even argued for extending the model to a large number of components ( McDonald 1988 ) , and several systems have indeed added an additional component between the planner and the linguistic component ( @@CITATION ; Panaget 1994 ; Wanner 1994 ) .


empirical studies in strategies for arabic information retrieval

derivational and inflectional process , most prepositions , conjunctions , pronouns , and possessive forms are attached to the Arabic surface word . It is these orthographic variations and complex morphological structure that make Arabic language processing challenging ( Xu et al. , 2001 ; Xu et al. , 2002 ) . Both tasks are performed with a statistical framework : the mention detection system is similar to the one presented in ( Florian et al. , 2004 ) and the coreference resolution system is similar to the one described in ( Luo et al. , 2004 ) .

It is these orthographic variations and complex morphological structure that make Arabic language processing challenging ( Xu et al. , 2001 ; @@CITATION ) .


the hearsayii speech understanding system integrating knowledge to resolve uncertainty

A number of speech understanding systems have been developed during the past fifteen years ( Barnett et al. 1980 , Dixon and Martin 1979 , Erman et al. 1980 , Haton and Pierrel 1976 , Lea 1980 , Lowerre and Reddy 1980 , Medress 1980 , Reddy 1976 , Walker 1978 , and Wolf and Woods 1980 ) . Most of these efforts concentrated on the interaction between low level information sources from a speech recognizer and a natural language processor to discover the meaning of an input sentence .

A number of speech understanding systems have been developed during the past fifteen years ( Barnett et al. 1980 , Dixon and Martin 1979 , @@CITATION , Haton and Pierrel 1976 , Lea 1980 , Lowerre and Reddy 1980 , Medress 1980 , Reddy 1976 , Walker 1978 , and Wolf and Woods 1980 ) .


parsing indian languages with maltparser

For example , modeling CASE in Czech improves Czech parsing ( Collins et al. 1999 ) : CASE is relevant , not redundant , and can be predicted with sufficient accuracy . It has been more difficult showing that agreement morphology helps parsing , however , with negative results for dependency parsing in several languages ( Eryigit , Nivre , and Oflazer 2008 ; Nivre , Boguslavsky , and Iomdin 2008 ; Nivre 2009 ) . In this article we investigate morphological features for dependency parsing of Modern Standard Arabic ( MSA ) .

It has been more difficult showing that agreement morphology helps parsing , however , with negative results for dependency parsing in several languages ( Eryigit , Nivre , and Oflazer 2008 ; Nivre , Boguslavsky , and Iomdin 2008 ; @@CITATION ) .


how many words is a picture worth automatic caption generation for news images

Others provide automatic mappings of natural language instructions to executable actions , such as interpreting navigation directions ( Chen and Mooney , 2011 ) or robot commands ( Tellex et al. , 2011 ; Matuszek et al. , 2012 ) . Some efforts have tackled tasks such as automatic image caption generation ( Feng and Lapata , 2010a ; Ordonez et al. , 2011 ) , text illustration ( Joshi et al. , 2006 ) , or automatic location identification of Twitter users ( Eisenstein et al. , 2010 ; Wing and Baldridge , 2011 ; Roller et al. , 2012 ) . Another line of research approaches grounded language knowledge by augmenting distributional approaches of word meaning with perceptual information ( Andrews et al. , 2009 ; Steyvers , 2010 ; Feng and Lapata , 2010b ; Bruni et al. , 2011 ; Silberer and Lapata , 2012 ; Johns and Jones , 2012 ; Bruni et al. , 2012a ; Bruni et al. , 2012b ; Silberer et al. , 2013 ) .

Some efforts have tackled tasks such as automatic image caption generation ( @@CITATIONa ; Ordonez et al. , 2011 ) , text illustration ( Joshi et al. , 2006 ) , or automatic location identification of Twitter users ( Eisenstein et al. , 2010 ; Wing and Baldridge , 2011 ; Roller et al. , 2012 ) .


finitestate approximation of constraintbased grammars using leftcorner grammar transforms

By restricting the height of the stack of a pushdown automaton , one obstructs recognition of a set of strings in the context-free language , and therefore a subset approximation results . This idea was proposed by Krauwer and des Tombe ( 1981 ) , Langendoen and Langsam ( 1987 ) , and Pulman ( 1986 ) , and was rediscovered by Black ( 1989 ) and recently by Johnson ( 1998 ) . Since the latest publication in this area is more explicit in its presentation , we will base our treatment on this , instead of going to the historical roots of the method .

This idea was proposed by Krauwer and des Tombe ( 1981 ) , Langendoen and Langsam ( 1987 ) , and Pulman ( 1986 ) , and was rediscovered by Black ( 1989 ) and recently by @@CITATION .


automatic grammar induction and parsing free text a transformationbased approach

However , many other classifier architectures are applicable to the tasks discussed , in particular to DA classification . A nonprobabilistic approach for DA labeling proposed by Samuel , Carberry , and Vijay-Shanker ( 1998 ) is transformation-based learning ( Brill 1993 ) . Finally it should be noted that there are other tasks with a mathematical structure similar to that of DA tagging , such as shallow parsing for natural language processing ( Munk 1999 ) and DNA classification tasks ( Ohler , Harbeck , and Niemann 1999 ) , from which further techniques could be borrowed .

A nonprobabilistic approach for DA labeling proposed by Samuel , Carberry , and Vijay-Shanker ( 1998 ) is transformation-based learning ( @@CITATION ) .


a linear observed time statistical parser based on maximum entropy models

Overall , the driving force behind the work on learning shallow parsers was the desire to get better performance and higher reliability . However , since work in this direction has started , a significant progress has also been made in the research on statistical learning of full parsers , both in terms of accuracy and processing time ( Charniak , 1997b ; Charniak , 1997a ; Collins , 1997 ; Ratnaparkhi , 1997 ) . This paper investigates the question of whether work on shallow parsing is worthwhile .

However , since work in this direction has started , a significant progress has also been made in the research on statistical learning of full parsers , both in terms of accuracy and processing time ( Charniak , 1997b ; Charniak , 1997a ; Collins , 1997 ; @@CITATION ) .


optimal search for minimum error rate training

h is a feature vector which is scaled by a weight W. Parameter estimation is one of the most important components in SMT , and various training methods have been proposed to tune W . Some methods are based on likelihood ( Och and Ney , 2002 ; Blunsom et al. , 2008 ) , error rate ( Och , 2003 ; Zhao and Chen , 2009 ; Pauls et al. , 2009 ; Galley and Quirk , 2011 ) , margin ( Watanabe et al. , 2007 ; Chiang et al. , 2008 ) and ranking ( Hopkins and May , 2011 ) , and among which minimum error rate training ( MERT ) ( Och , 2003 ) is the most popular one . All these training methods follow the same pipeline : they train only a single weight on a given development set , and then use it to translate all the sentences in a test set .

Some methods are based on likelihood ( Och and Ney , 2002 ; Blunsom et al. , 2008 ) , error rate ( Och , 2003 ; Zhao and Chen , 2009 ; Pauls et al. , 2009 ; @@CITATION ) , margin ( Watanabe et al. , 2007 ; Chiang et al. , 2008 ) and ranking ( Hopkins and May , 2011 ) , and among which minimum error rate training ( MERT ) ( Och , 2003 ) is the most popular one .


unsupervised word sense disambiguation rivaling supervised methods

These are split further for each leaf class , as explained in Section 2.3 . The algorithm we implemented is inspired by the work of Yarowsky ( 1995 ) on word sense disambiguation . He classified the senses of a word on the basis of other words that the given word co-occurs with .

The algorithm we implemented is inspired by the work of @@CITATION on word sense disambiguation .


cooccurrence retrieval a flexible framework for lexical distributional similarity

Various approaches for computing semantic relatedness of words or concepts have been proposed , e.g. dictionary-based ( Lesk , 1986 ) , ontology-based ( Wu and Palmer , 1994 ; Leacock and Chodorow , 1998 ) , information-based ( Resnik , 1995 ; Jiang and Conrath , 1997 ) or distributional ( Weeds and Weir , 2005 ) . The knowledge sources used for computing relatedness can be as different as dictionaries , ontologies or large corpora .

Various approaches for computing semantic relatedness of words or concepts have been proposed , e.g. dictionary-based ( Lesk , 1986 ) , ontology-based ( Wu and Palmer , 1994 ; Leacock and Chodorow , 1998 ) , information-based ( Resnik , 1995 ; Jiang and Conrath , 1997 ) or distributional ( @@CITATION ) .


a new view of the em algorithm that justifies incremental sparse and other variants

Because of the latent alignment variables z , the log-likelihood function for the HMM model is not concave , and the model is fit using the Expectation Maximization ( EM ) algorithm ( Dempster , Laird , and Rubin 1977 ) . EM maximizes G ( 0 ) via block-coordinate ascent on a lower bound F ( q , 0 ) using an auxiliary distribution over the latent variables q ( z | x , y ) ( Neal and Hinton 1998 ) : step uses qt +1 to fill the values of alignments z and estimate parameters This step is particularly easy for HMMs , where simply involves normalizing ( expected ) counts .

EM maximizes G ( 0 ) via block-coordinate ascent on a lower bound F ( q , 0 ) using an auxiliary distribution over the latent variables q ( z | x , y ) ( @@CITATION ) :


capturing the interaction between aggregation and text planning in two generation systems

There is no in-depth discussion of the problem of generating non-referring modifiers in general . It has been argued that generating such modifiers is not a trivial decision because it interferes with the planning of both local and global coherence ( in the sense of ( Grosz and Sidner , 1986 ) ) ( Cheng and Mellish , 2000a ) . NP subordination , as an alternative to sententialisation , is a major way to achieve conciseness as it reduces the number of sentences in generated texts .

It has been argued that generating such modifiers is not a trivial decision because it interferes with the planning of both local and global coherence ( in the sense of ( Grosz and Sidner , 1986 ) ) ( @@CITATIONa ) .


mercure towards an automatic email followup system

These systems addressed the evaluation issue as follows . â¢ Only qualitative observations of the responses were reported ( no formal evaluation was performed ) ( Lapalme and Kosseim 2003 ; Roy and Subramaniam 2006 ) . â¢ Only an automatic evaluation was performed , which relied on having model responses ( Berger and Mittal 2000 ; Berger et al. 2000 ) .

â¢ Only qualitative observations of the responses were reported ( no formal evaluation was performed ) ( @@CITATION ; Roy and Subramaniam 2006 ) .


what do we know about conversation participants experiments on conversation entailment

were categorized into four types : ( 1 ) fact : profile and social relations of conversation participants ( accounted for 47 % of the development data and 49 % of the testing data ) ; ( 2 ) belief : participants ' beliefs and opinions ( 34 % and 35 % ) ; ( 3 ) desire : participants ' desire of certain actions or outcomes ( 11 % and 4 % ) ; ( 4 ) intent : communicative intent that captures some perlocutionary force from one participant to the other ( e.g. . A stops B from doing something ; A disagreees with B on something , 8 % and 12 % ) Note that in our original work ( Zhang and Chai , 2009 ) , only development data were used to show some initial observations . Here we trained our models on the development data and results shown are from the testing data .

A stops B from doing something ; A disagreees with B on something , 8 % and 12 % ) Note that in our original work ( @@CITATION ) , only development data were used to show some initial observations .


building a large annotated corpus of english the penn treebank

Mitchell P Marcus
Beatrice Santorini
Mary Ann Marcinkiewicz

In our evaluation we compared our supertagcontext approach to ( our reimplementation of ) the best-performing model of our previous work ( Garrette et al. , 2015 ) , which SCM extends . We evaluated on the English CCGBank ( Hockenmaier and Steedman , 2007 ) , which is a transformation of the Penn Treebank ( Marcus et al. , 1993 ) ; the CTBCCG ( Tse and Curran , 2010 ) transformation of the Penn Chinese Treebank ( Xue et al. , 2005 ) ; and the CCG-TUT corpus ( Bos et al. , 2009 ) , built from the TUT corpus of Italian text ( Bosco et al. , 2000 ) . Each corpus was divided into four distinct data sets : a set from which we extract the tag dictionaries , a set of raw ( unannotated ) sentences , a development set , and a test set .

We evaluated on the English CCGBank ( Hockenmaier and Steedman , 2007 ) , which is a transformation of the Penn Treebank ( @@CITATION ) ; the CTBCCG ( Tse and Curran , 2010 ) transformation of the Penn Chinese Treebank ( Xue et al. , 2005 ) ; and the CCG-TUT corpus ( Bos et al. , 2009 ) , built from the TUT corpus of Italian text ( Bosco et al. , 2000 ) .


maximum likelihood from incomplete data via the em algorithm

In a log-linear parameterization , for example , a prior that penalizes feature strengths far from 1 can be used to do feature selection and avoid overfitting ( Chen and Rosenfeld , 1999 ) . The EM algorithm ( Dempster et al. , 1977 ) can maximize these functions . Roughly , the E step guesses hidden information : if ( xi , yi ) was generated from the current fÎ¸ , which FST paths stand a chance of having been the path used ?

The EM algorithm ( @@CITATION ) can maximize these functions .


head gestures for perceptual interfaces the role of context in improving recognition

Louis-Philippe Morency
Candace Sidner
Christopher Lee
Trevor Darrell

Louwerse et al. ( 2006 ) and Louwerse et al. ( 2007 ) study the relation between eye gaze , facial expression , pauses and dialogue structure in annotated English map-task dialogues ( Anderson et al. , 1991 ) and find correlations between the various modalities both within and across speakers . Finally , feedback expressions ( head nods and shakes ) are successfully predicted from speech , prosody and eye gaze in interaction with Embodied Communication Agents as well as human communication ( Fujie et al. , 2004 ; Morency et al. , 2005 ; Morency et al. , 2007 ; Morency et al. , 2009 ) . Our work is in line with these studies , all of which focus on the relation between linguistic expressions , prosody , dialogue content and gestures .

Finally , feedback expressions ( head nods and shakes ) are successfully predicted from speech , prosody and eye gaze in interaction with Embodied Communication Agents as well as human communication ( Fujie et al. , 2004 ; Morency et al. , 2005 ; @@CITATION ; Morency et al. , 2009 ) .


automatic retrieval and clustering of similar words

Multi word expressions however remain a problem as they are often not or only partially included in such dictionnaries . For these or for a specific domain , basic synonymic dictionaries can be complemented using learning methods based on distributional similarity ( Pereira et al. , 1993 ; Lin , 1998 ) . techniques .

For these or for a specific domain , basic synonymic dictionaries can be complemented using learning methods based on distributional similarity ( Pereira et al. , 1993 ; @@CITATION ) .


integrating graphbased and transitionbased dependency parsers

Belief propagation improves non-projective dependency parsing with features that would make exact inference intractable . For projective parsing , it is significantly faster than exact dynamic programming , at the cost of small amounts of search error , We are interested in extending these ideas to phrase-structure and lattice parsing , and in trying other higher-order features , such as those used in parse reranking ( Charniak and Johnson , 2005 ; Huang , 2008 ) and history-based parsing ( Nivre and McDonald , 2008 ) . We could also introduce new variables , e.g. , nonterminal refinements ( Matsuzaki et al. , 2005 ) , or secondary links Mid ( not constrained by TREE/PTREE ) that augment the parse with representations of control , binding , etc. ( Sleator and Temperley , 1993 ; Buch-Kromann , 2006 ) .

For projective parsing , it is significantly faster than exact dynamic programming , at the cost of small amounts of search error , We are interested in extending these ideas to phrase-structure and lattice parsing , and in trying other higher-order features , such as those used in parse reranking ( Charniak and Johnson , 2005 ; Huang , 2008 ) and history-based parsing ( @@CITATION ) .


a mentionsynchronous coreference resolution algorithm based on the bell tree

Xiaoqiang Luo
Abe Ittycheriah
Hongyan Jing
Nanda Kambhatla
Salim Roukos

`` Mary '' and `` student '' are in the same entity since both refer to the same person . The coreference system system is similar to the Bell tree algorithm as described by ( Luo et al. , 2004 ) . In our implementation , the link model between a candidate entity e and the current mention m is computed as

The coreference system system is similar to the Bell tree algorithm as described by ( @@CITATION ) .


disambiguation algorithm for people search on the web in

Dmitri V Kalashnikov
Stella Chen
Rabia Nuray
Sharad Mehrotra
Naveen Ashish

Nevertheless , the full document text is present in most systems , sometimes as the only feature ( Sugiyama and Okumura , 2007 ) and sometimes in combination with others see for instance ( Chen and Martin , 2007 ; Popescu and Magnini , 2007 ) - . Other representations use the link structure ( Malin , 2005 ) or generate graph representations of the extracted features ( Kalashnikov et al. , 2007 ) . Some researchers ( Cucerzan , 2007 ; Nguyen and Cao , 2008 ) have explored the use of Wikipedia information to improve the disambiguation process .

Other representations use the link structure ( Malin , 2005 ) or generate graph representations of the extracted features ( @@CITATION ) .


a dictionary and morphological analyser for english

Graham Russell
Steve Pulman
Graeme Ritchie
Alan Black

Real-time parsing imposes stringent requirements on a dictionary support environment ; at the very least it must allow frequent and rapid access to the information in the dictionary via the dictionary head words . The research described below is taking place in the context of three collaborative projects ( Boguraev , 1987 ; Russell et al. , 1986 ; Phillips and Thompson , 1986 ) to develop a general-purpose , wide coverage morphological and syntactic analyser for English . One motivation for our interest in machine readable dictionaries is to attempt to provide a substantial lexicon with lexical entries containing grammatical information compatible with the grammatical framework employed by the analyser .

The research described below is taking place in the context of three collaborative projects ( Boguraev , 1987 ; @@CITATION ; Phillips and Thompson , 1986 ) to develop a general-purpose , wide coverage morphological and syntactic analyser for English .


unsupervised models for named entity classification

Learning algorithms . We experiment with four learners commonly employed in language learning : Decision List ( DL ) : We use the DL learner as described in Collins and Singer ( 1999 ) , motivated by its success in the related tasks of word sense disambiguation ( Yarowsky , 1995 ) and NE classification ( Collins and Singer , 1999 ) . We apply add-one smoothing to smooth the class posteriors .

We experiment with four learners commonly employed in language learning : Decision List ( DL ) : We use the DL learner as described in @@CITATION , motivated by its success in the related tasks of word sense disambiguation ( Yarowsky , 1995 ) and NE classification ( Collins and Singer , 1999 ) .


a tale of two parsers investigating and combining graphbased and transitionbased dependency parsing

â¢ Transition-based : An implementation of the transition-based dependency parsing framework ( Nivre , 2008 ) using an arc-eager transition strategy and are trained using the perceptron algorithm as in Zhang and Clark ( 2008 ) with a beam size of 8 . Beams with varying sizes can be used to produce k-best lists .

transition-based dependency parsing framework ( Nivre , 2008 ) using an arc-eager transition strategy and are trained using the perceptron algorithm as in @@CITATION with a beam size of 8 .


syntacticsemantic structures for textual entailment recognition

Yashar Mehdad
Alessandro Moschitti
Fabio Massimo Zanzotto

start from the acquisition and use of lexical knowledge , which represents the basic building block of any TE system . Using the basic solution proposed by ( Mehdad et al. , 2010 ) as a term of comparison , we experiment with different sources of multilingual lexical knowledge to address the following questions : ( 1 ) What is the potential of the existing multilingual lexical resources to approach CLTE ? To answer this question we experiment with lexical knowledge extracted from bilingual dictionaries , and from a multilingual lexical database .

Using the basic solution proposed by ( @@CITATION ) as a term of comparison , we experiment with different sources of multilingual lexical knowledge to address the following questions : ( 1 ) What is the potential of the existing multilingual lexical resources to approach CLTE ?


asj continuous speech corpus for research

Tetsunori Kobayashi
Shuichi Itahashi
Satoru Hayamizu
Toshiyuld Takezawa

As the recognition engine , either VoiceRex , developed by NTT ( Noda et al. , 1998 ) , or HTK from Entropic Research can be used . Acoustic models for HTK is trained with the continuous speech database of the Acoustical Society of Japan ( Kobayashi et al. , 1992 ) . This recognizer incrementally outputs word hypotheses as soon as they are found in the best-scored path in the forward search ( Hirasawa et al. , 1998 ) using the ISTAR ( Incremental Structure Transmitter And Receiver ) protocol , which conveys word graph information as well as word hypotheses .

Acoustic models for HTK is trained with the continuous speech database of the Acoustical Society of Japan ( @@CITATION ) .


an evaluation of statistical approaches to text categorization”

As such , one of the primary objectives of automatic text categorization has been the enhancement and the support of information retrieval tasks to tackle problems , such as information filtering and routing , clustering of related documents , and the classification of documents into pre-specified subject themes . Automatic text categorization has been used in search engines , digital library systems , and document management systems ( Yang , 1999 ) . Such applications have included electronic email filtering , newsgroups classification , and survey data grouping .

Automatic text categorization has been used in search engines , digital library systems , and document management systems ( @@CITATION ) .


the wacky wide web a collection of very large linguistically processed webcrawled corpora language resources and evaluation

Marco Baroni
Silvia Bernardini
Adriano Ferraresi
Eros Zanchetta

For our Text modality , we use deWaC , a large German web corpus created by the WaCKy group ( Baroni et al. , 2009 ) containing approximately 1.7 B word tokens . We filtered the corpus by : removing words with unprintable characters or encoding troubles ; removing all stopwords ; removing word types with a total frequency of less than 500 ; and removing documents with a length shorter than 100 .

For our Text modality , we use deWaC , a large German web corpus created by the WaCKy group ( @@CITATION ) containing approximately 1.7 B word tokens .


automated coding of diagnoses three methods compared

It is comparable to WS at low recall levels ( ) , but at high ones its precision decreases almost dramatically . Unless very high rates of misspellings are to be expected ( this explains the favorable results for trigram indexing in ( Franz et al. , 2000 ) ) one can not really recommend this method . The subword approach ( SU ) clearly outperforms the previously discussed approaches .

Unless very high rates of misspellings are to be expected ( this explains the favorable results for trigram indexing in ( @@CITATION ) ) one can not really recommend this method .


Another known method consists in developing and using a test suite that is , a set of negative and positive items against which the grammar can be systematically tested . For english , there is for instance the 15 year old HewlettPackard test suite , a simple text file listing test sentences and grouping them according to linguistics phenomena ( Flickinger et al. , 1987 ) ; and more recently , the much more sophisticated TSNLP ( Test Suite for Natural Language Processing ) which includes some 9500 test items for English , French and German , each of them being annotated with syntactic and application related information ( Oepen and Flickinger , 1998 ) . Yet because they do not take into account the semantic dimension , none of these tools are adequate for evaluating the paraphrastic power of a grammar .

For english , there is for instance the 15 year old HewlettPackard test suite , a simple text file listing test sentences and grouping them according to linguistics phenomena ( @@CITATION ) ; and more recently , the much more sophisticated TSNLP ( Test Suite for Natural Language Processing ) which includes some 9500 test items for English , French and German , each of them being annotated with syntactic and application related information ( Oepen and Flickinger , 1998 ) .


Compared to the research on English , the research on Chinese SRL is still in its infancy stage . Previous work on Chinese SRL mainly focused on how to transplant the machine learning methods which has been successful with English , such as Sun and Jurafsky ( 2004 ) , Xue and Palmer ( 2005 ) and Xue ( 2008 ) . Sun and Jurafsky ( 2004 ) did the preliminary work on Chinese SRL without any large semantically annotated corpus of Chinese .

Previous work on Chinese SRL mainly focused on how to transplant the machine learning methods which has been successful with English , such as @@CITATION , Xue and Palmer ( 2005 ) and Xue ( 2008 ) .


the formalism and implementation of patr ii

Stuart Shieber
Hans Uszkoreit
Fernando Pereira
Jane Robinson
Mabry Tyson

This approach is taken , for example , in LKB ( Copestake 1992 ) where lexical rules are introduced on a par with phrase structure rules and the parser makes no distinction between lexical and nonlexical rules ( Copestake 1993 , 31 ) . A similar method is included in PATR-II ( Shieber et al. 1983 ) and can be used to encode lexical rules as binary relations in the CUF system ( Dorre and Eisele 1991 ; Done and Dorna 1993b ) or the TFS system ( Emele and Zajac 1990 ; Emele 1994 ) . The covariation approach described in this paper can be viewed as a domain-specific refinement of such a treatment of lexical rules .

A similar method is included in PATR-II ( @@CITATION ) and can be used to encode lexical rules as binary relations in the CUF system ( Dorre and Eisele 1991 ; Done and Dorna 1993b ) or the TFS system ( Emele and Zajac 1990 ; Emele 1994 ) .


using the web to obtain frequencies for unseen bigrams

Similarity-smoothed models can make use of the regularities across similar verbs , but not the finergrained stringand token-based features . Our training examples are similar to the data created for pseudodisambiguation , the usual evaluation task for SP models ( Erk , 2007 ; Keller and Lapata , 2003 ; Rooth et al. , 1999 ) . This data consists of triples ( v , n , n â² ) where v , n is a predicateargument pair observed in the corpus and v , n â² has not been observed .

Our training examples are similar to the data created for pseudodisambiguation , the usual evaluation task for SP models ( Erk , 2007 ; @@CITATION ; Rooth et al. , 1999 ) .


mining the biomedical literature in the genomic era an overview

With the use of computers in storing the explosive amount of biological information , natural language processing ( NLP ) approaches have been explored to make the task of managing information recorded in free text more feasible [ 1 , 2 ] . One requirement for NLP is the ability to accurately recognize terms that represent biological entities in free text .

With the use of computers in storing the explosive amount of biological information , natural language processing ( NLP ) approaches have been explored to make the task of managing information recorded in free text more feasible @@CITATION .


intended models circumscription and commonsense reasoningquot

The set of all preferred models of T is denoted by PM ( T ) . A formula q5 of L ( =-RRB- , the language with equality , is weakly R + M-abductible from an object theory T , denoted by T I-R + m 0 , iff there exists a partial theory T e PT ( T ) and a preferred model M E PM ( T ) such that M = 0 , i.e. 0 is true in at least one preferred model of the partial theory T. Note : The notions of strong provability and strong R + M-abduction can be introduced by replacing `` there exists '' by `` all '' in the above definitions ( cfXXX Zadrozny 1987b ) . We will have , however , no need for `` strong '' notions in this paper .

A formula q5 of L ( =-RRB- , the language with equality , is weakly R + M-abductible from an object theory T , denoted by T I-R + m 0 , iff there exists a partial theory T e PT ( T ) and a preferred model M E PM ( T ) such that M = 0 , i.e. 0 is true in at least one preferred model of the partial theory T. Note : The notions of strong provability and strong R + M-abduction can be introduced by replacing `` there exists '' by `` all '' in the above definitions ( cfXXX @@CITATIONb ) .


speech database development design and analysis of the acousticphonetic corpusquot

To date , four distinct domain-specific versions of TINA have been implemented . The first version ( TIMIT ) was developed for the 450 phonetically rich sentences of the TIMIT database ( Lamel et al. 1986 ) . The second version ( RM ) concerns the Resource Management task ( Pallett 1989 ) that has been popular within the DARPA community in recent years .

The first version ( TIMIT ) was developed for the 450 phonetically rich sentences of the TIMIT database ( @@CITATION ) .


The resolution mechanism is not intended to be reversible , although by redefining resolution rules , reversibility is achievable to some extent within the limitations just discussed ( Hurst 1994 ) . A third problem arises with the approach to the semantics of QLFs that this notion of the relationship between QLF and RQLF encourages one to adopt : it is that taken by Alshawi and Crouch ( 1992 ) . This describes the semantics of QLFs via a supervaluation over the semantics of the RQLFs that they subsume .

A third problem arises with the approach to the semantics of QLFs that this notion of the relationship between QLF and RQLF encourages one to adopt : it is that taken by @@CITATION .


event structure and the encoding of arguments the syntax of the english and mandarin verb phrase

Given this framework , deadjectival verbs such as flatten can be directly derived in the syntax : ( 15 ) The tire flattened . In ( Lin , 2004 ) , I present evidence from Mandarin Chinese that this analysis is on the right track . The rest of this paper , however , will be concerned with the computational implementation of my theoretical framework .

In ( @@CITATION ) , I present evidence from Mandarin Chinese that this analysis is on the right track .


information state and dialogue management in the trindi dialogue move engine toolkit

Interaction between components is coordinated by the dialogue manager which uses the informationstate approach ( Larsson and Traum , 2000 ) . The dialogue state is represented by a cumulative answer analysis which tracks , over multiple turns , the correct , incorrect , and not-yet-mentioned parts 1Other factors such as student confidence could be considered as well ( Callaway et al. , 2007 ) .

Interaction between components is coordinated by the dialogue manager which uses the informationstate approach ( @@CITATION ) .


online mendelian inheritance in man omim a knowledgebase of human genes and genetic disorders nucleic acids res

A Hamosh
Scott AF
Amberger JS
Bocchini CA
McKusick VA

The Semantic Network contains information about the types or categories ( e.g. , `` Disease or Syndrome '' , `` Virus '' ) to which all META concepts have been assigned . Other molecular biology databases We also included several model organism databases or nomenclature databases in the construction of the dictionary , i.e. , mouse Mouse Genome Database ( MGD ) [ 18 ] , fly FlyBase [ 19 ] , yeast Saccharomyces Genome Database ( SGD ) [ 20 ] , rat -- Rat Genome Database ( RGD ) [ 21 ] , worm -- WormBase [ 22 ] , Human Nomenclature Database ( HUGO ) [ 23 ] , Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man ( OMIM ) [ 24 ] , and Enzyme Nomenclature Database ( ECNUM ) [ 25 , 26 ] .

Other molecular biology databases We also included several model organism databases or nomenclature databases in the construction of the dictionary , i.e. , mouse Mouse Genome Database ( MGD ) [ 18 ] , fly FlyBase [ 19 ] , yeast Saccharomyces Genome Database ( SGD ) [ 20 ] , rat -- Rat Genome Database ( RGD ) [ 21 ] , worm -- WormBase [ 22 ] , Human Nomenclature Database ( HUGO ) [ 23 ] , Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man ( OMIM ) @@CITATION , and Enzyme Nomenclature Database ( ECNUM ) [ 25 , 26 ] .


On the other hand , donate is coded [ T1 ( to ) ] , which tells us that it does not undergo dative movement but does require a prepositional phrase headed by `` to '' : ( Takes NP NP ToPP ) . There are many more distinctions which are conveyed by the conjunction of grammar codes and word qualifiers ( see Michiels , 1982 , for further details ) . However , exploiting this information to the full would be a non-trivial task , because it would require accessing the relevant knowledge about the words contained in the qualifier fields from their LDOCE entries .

There are many more distinctions which are conveyed by the conjunction of grammar codes and word qualifiers ( see @@CITATION , for further details ) .


a geometric approach to mapping bitext correspondencequot

Word co-occurrence can be defined in various ways . The most common way is to divide each half of the bitext into an equal number of segments and to align the segments so that each pair of segments Si and Ti are translations of each other ( Gale & Church , 1991 ; Melamed , 1996a ) . Then , two word tokens ( u , v ) are said to co-occur in the

The most common way is to divide each half of the bitext into an equal number of segments and to align the segments so that each pair of segments Si and Ti are translations of each other ( Gale & Church , 1991 ; @@CITATIONa ) .


Leech et al. , 1983 ) .

the automatic grammatical tagging of the lob corpus

Geoffrey Leech
Roger Garside
Erik Atwell

In the longer term , therefore , the automatic construction of dictionaries for natural language processing systems may need to be based on techniques for the automatic analysis of large corpora ( eg . Leech et al. , 1983 ) . However , in the short term , the approach outlined in this paper will allow us to produce a relatively sophisticated and useful dictionary rapidly .


finitestate parsing of phrasestructure languages and the status of readjustment rules in grammar

Thus phrasing , in their approach , is only indirectly related to syntax , since readjustment is done by special rules outside the grammar proper . Langendoen ( 1975 ) proposes readjustment rules similar to those of Chomsky and Halle , but he claims that the readjustment of structure is part of the grammar , not part of the performance model . He thus makes explicit what is often a tacit assumption in both the linguistic and psycholinguistic literature2 -- that there is a direct connection between syntactic constituency and prosodic phrasing , with apparent misalignments readjusted before syntax interfaces with prosodic phonology .

@@CITATION proposes readjustment rules similar to those of Chomsky and Halle , but he claims that the readjustment of structure is part of the grammar , not part of the performance model .


Compare an example of a Czech tectogrammatical tree after the lexical transfer step ( Figure 3 ) , with the original English sentence in Figure 2 . financial news , we created a probabilistic CzechEnglish dictionary by running GIZA + + training ( translation models 1-4 , see Och and Ney ( 2000 ) ) on the training part of the English-Czech WSJ parallel corpus extended by the parallel corpus of entry/translation pairs from the manual dictionary . As a result , the entry/translation pairs seen in the parallel corpus of WSJ become more probable .

financial news , we created a probabilistic CzechEnglish dictionary by running GIZA + + training ( translation models 1-4 , see @@CITATION ) on the training part of the English-Czech WSJ parallel corpus extended by the parallel corpus of entry/translation pairs from the manual dictionary .


incremental and decremental support vector machine learning

Compared with retraining mode , incremental training can improve the training efficiency . In the field of machine learning research , incremental training has been employed in the work ( Cauwenberghs and Poggio , 2001 ; Shilton et al. , 2005 ) , but there is little work for tuning parameters of statistical machine translation . The biggest difficulty lies in that the feature vector of a given training example , i.e. translation example , is unavailable until actually decoding the example , since the derivation is a latent variable .

In the field of machine learning research , incremental training has been employed in the work ( @@CITATION ; Shilton et al. , 2005 ) , but there is little work for tuning parameters of statistical machine translation .


the typed feature structure representation formalism

A similar method is included in PATR-II ( Shieber et al. 1983 ) and can be used to encode lexical rules as binary relations in the CUF system ( Dorre and Eisele 1991 ; Done and Dorna 1993b ) or the TFS system ( Emele and Zajac 1990 ; @@CITATION ) .


a gaussian prior for smoothing maximum entropy models

Maximum-posterior estimation tries to maximize P ( 0 ) Â· Hi fÎ¸ ( xi , yi ) where P ( 0 ) is a prior probability . In a log-linear parameterization , for example , a prior that penalizes feature strengths far from 1 can be used to do feature selection and avoid overfitting ( Chen and Rosenfeld , 1999 ) . The EM algorithm ( Dempster et al. , 1977 ) can maximize these functions .

In a log-linear parameterization , for example , a prior that penalizes feature strengths far from 1 can be used to do feature selection and avoid overfitting ( @@CITATION ) .


a modeltheoretic coreference scoring scheme

M Vilain
J Burger
J Aberdeen
D Connolly
L Hirschman

As in SC induction , we use the ACE Phase 2 coreference corpus for evaluation purposes , acquiring the coreference classifiers on the 422 training texts and evaluating their output on the 97 test texts . We report performance in terms of two metrics : ( 1 ) the Fmeasure score as computed by the commonly-used MUC scorer ( Vilain et al. , 1995 ) , and ( 2 ) the accuracy on the anaphoric references , computed as the fraction of anaphoric references correctly resolved . Following Ponzetto and Strube ( 2006 ) , we consider an anaphoric reference , NPi , correctly resolved if NPi and its closest antecedent are in the same coreference chain in the resulting partition .

We report performance in terms of two metrics : ( 1 ) the Fmeasure score as computed by the commonly-used MUC scorer ( @@CITATION ) , and ( 2 ) the accuracy on the anaphoric references , computed as the fraction of anaphoric references correctly resolved .


searching for people on web search engines

Amanda Spink
Bernard Jansen
Jan Pedersen

com are examples of sites which perform web people search , although with limited disambiguation capabilities . A study of the query log of the AllTheWeb and Altavista search sites gives an idea of the relevance of the people search task : 11-17 % of the queries were composed of a person name with additional terms and 4 % were identified as person names ( Spink et al. , 2004 ) . According to the data available from 1990 U.S. Census Bureau , only 90,000 different names are shared by 100 million people ( Artiles et al. , 2005 ) .

A study of the query log of the AllTheWeb and Altavista search sites gives an idea of the relevance of the people search task : 11-17 % of the queries were composed of a person name with additional terms and 4 % were identified as person names ( @@CITATION ) .


transformationbased errordriven learning and natural language parsing a case study in partofspeech tagging

We also used our DCA system to assign capitalized words , abbreviations , and sentence breaks , retaining only cases assigned by the strategies with an accuracy not less than 99.8 % . This was done because purely unsupervised techniques ( e.g. , Baum-Welch [ Baum and Petrie 1966 ] or Brill 's [ Brill 1995b ] ) enable regularities to be induced for word classes which contain many entries , exploiting the fact that individual words that belong to a POS class occur in different ambiguity patterns . Counting all possible POS combinations in these ambiguity patterns over multiple patterns usually produces the right combinations as the most frequent .

This was done because purely unsupervised techniques ( e.g. , Baum-Welch [ Baum and Petrie 1966 ] or Brill 's [ @@CITATIONb ] ) enable regularities to be induced for word classes which contain many entries , exploiting the fact that individual words that belong to a POS class occur in different ambiguity patterns .


a discriminative latent variable model for statistical machine translation

This problem is exacerbated by syntax-augmented MT with its thousands of nonterminals , and made even worse by its joint source-and-target extension . Future research should apply the work of Blunsom et al. ( 2008 ) and Blunsom and Osborne ( 2008 ) , who marginalize over derivations to find the most probable translation rather than the most probable derivation , to these multi-nonterminal grammars . All source code underlying this work is available under the GNU Lesser General Public License as part of the ` SAMT ' system at : www.cs.cmu.edu/Ëzollmann/samt

Future research should apply the work of @@CITATION and Blunsom and Osborne ( 2008 ) , who marginalize over derivations to find the most probable translation rather than the most probable derivation , to these multi-nonterminal grammars .


automatic evaluation and uniform filter cascades for inducing nbest translation lexicons

For example , Gale and Church ( 1991 , 154 ) suggest that `` 02 , a x2-like statistic , seems to be a particularly good choice because it makes good use of the off-diagonal cells '' in the contingency table . In informal experiments described elsewhere ( Melamed 1995 ) , I found that the G2 statistic suggested by Dunning ( 1993 ) slightly outperforms 02 . Let the cells of the contingency table be named as follows :

In informal experiments described elsewhere ( @@CITATION ) , I found that the G2 statistic suggested by Dunning ( 1993 ) slightly outperforms 02 .


a machine learning approach to coreference resolution of noun phrases

Recall that there are eight ways of incorto select an antecedent for each NP in a test text . porating these two KSs into our resolver : they can Following Soon et al. ( 2001 ) , we select as the aneach be represented as a constraint or as a feature , tecedent of each NP , NPS , the closest preceding NP and they can be applied to the resolver in isolation that is classified as coreferent with NPS . If no such and in combination .

porating these two KSs into our resolver : they can Following @@CITATION , we select as the aneach be represented as a constraint or as a feature , tecedent of each NP , NPS , the closest preceding NP and they can be applied to the resolver in isolation that is classified as coreferent with NPS .


Steve Young
Gunnar Evermann
Thomas Hain
Dan Kershaw
Gareth Moore
Julian Odell
Dave Ollason
Dan Povey
Valtcho Valtchev
Phil Woodland

The output probabilities were modeled as four-dimensional Gaussians mixtures with diagonal covariance matrices . Using the section labels , the HMM was trained using the HTK toolkit ( Young et al. , 2002 ) , which efficiently performs the forward-backward algorithm and BaumWelch estimation . For testing , we performed a Viterbi ( maximum likelihood ) estimation of the label of each test sentence/vector ( also using the HTK toolkit ) .

Using the section labels , the HMM was trained using the HTK toolkit ( @@CITATION ) , which efficiently performs the forward-backward algorithm and BaumWelch estimation .


toward an arabic web page classifierquot master project

On the other hand , ( Rogati and Yang , 2002 ) reports the X2 to produce best performance . In this paper , we use TF-IDF ( a kind of augmented DF ) as a feature selection criterion , in order to ensure results are comparable with those in ( Yahyaoui , 2001 ) . TF-IDF ( term frequency-inverse document frequency ) is one of the widely used feature selection techniques in information retrieval ( Yates and Neto , 1999 ) .

In this paper , we use TF-IDF ( a kind of augmented DF ) as a feature selection criterion , in order to ensure results are comparable with those in ( @@CITATION ) .


a linear observed time statistical parser based on maximum entropy models

A variety of statistical methods were proposed over the recent years for learning to produce a full parse of free-text sentences ( e.g. , Bod ( 1992 ) , Magerman ( 1995 ) , Collins ( 1997 ) , Ratnaparkhi ( 1997 ) , and Sekine ( 1998 ) ) . In parallel , a lot of work is being done on shallow parsing ( Abney , 1991 ; Greffenstette , 1993 ) , focusing on partial analysis of sentences at the level of local phrases and the relations between them .

A variety of statistical methods were proposed over the recent years for learning to produce a full parse of free-text sentences ( e.g. , Bod ( 1992 ) , Magerman ( 1995 ) , Collins ( 1997 ) , @@CITATION , and Sekine ( 1998 ) ) .


masked morphological priming in visual word recognition

Their computational significance arises from the issue of their storage in lexical resources like WordNet ( Fellbaum , 1998 ) and raises the questions like , how to store morphologically complex words , in a lexical resource like WordNet keeping in mind the storage and access efficiency . There is a rich literature on organization and lexical access of morphologically complex words where experiments have been conducted mainly for derivational suffixed words of English , Hebrew , Italian , French , Dutch , and few other languages ( Marslen-Wilson et al. , 2008 ; Frost et al. , 1997 ; Grainger , et al. , 1991 ; Drews and Zwitserlood , 1995 ) . However , we do not know of any such investigations for Indian languages , which

There is a rich literature on organization and lexical access of morphologically complex words where experiments have been conducted mainly for derivational suffixed words of English , Hebrew , Italian , French , Dutch , and few other languages ( Marslen-Wilson et al. , 2008 ; Frost et al. , 1997 ; @@CITATION ; Drews and Zwitserlood , 1995 ) .


The best performance on the Brown corpus , a 0.2 % error rate , was reported by Riley ( 1989 ) , who trained a decision tree classifier on a 25-million-word corpus . In the disambiguation of capitalized words , the most widespread method is POS tagging , which achieves about a 3 % error rate on the Brown corpus and a 5 % error rate on the WSJ corpus , as reported in Mikheev ( 2000 ) . We are not aware of any studies devoted to the identification of abbreviations with comprehensive evaluation on either the Brown corpus or the WSJ corpus .

In the disambiguation of capitalized words , the most widespread method is POS tagging , which achieves about a 3 % error rate on the Brown corpus and a 5 % error rate on the WSJ corpus , as reported in @@CITATION .


prepositional phrase attachment through a backedoff model

One response to this problem is to apply some kind of thresholding , and either ignore counts below the threshold , or only apply the test to tables that do not contain low counts . The problem with this approach is that any threshold is , to some extent , arbitrary , and there is evidence to suggest that , for some tasks , low counts are important ( Collins and Brooks , 1995 ) . Another approach would be to use Fisher 's exact test , which can be applied to tables regardless of the size of the counts .

The problem with this approach is that any threshold is , to some extent , arbitrary , and there is evidence to suggest that , for some tasks , low counts are important ( @@CITATION ) .


a wordclass approach to labeling pscfg rules for machine translation

Zollmann and Venugopal ( 2006 ) substituted the non-terminal X in hierarchical phrase-based model by extended syntactic categories . Zollmann and Vogel ( 2011 ) further labeled the SCFG rules with POS tags and unsupervised word classes . Our work differs from theirs in that we present a Bayesian model to learn effective STSG translation rules and U-tree structures for tree-based translation models , rather than designing a labeling strategy for translation rules .

@@CITATION further labeled the SCFG rules with POS tags and unsupervised word classes .


steganography in digital media principles algorithms and applications

Steganography is concerned with hiding information in some cover medium , by manipulating properties of the medium in such a way that the hidden information is not easily detectable by an observer ( Fridrich , 2009 ) . The covert communication is such that the very act of communication is to be kept secret from outside observers .

Steganography is concerned with hiding information in some cover medium , by manipulating properties of the medium in such a way that the hidden information is not easily detectable by an observer ( @@CITATION ) .


compilation of weighted finitestate transducers from decision trees

Each of these probabilities in turn affects multiple arcs in the composed FST of Fig. 1a . We offer a theorem that highlights the broad applicability of these modeling techniques .4 If f ( input , output ) is a weighted regular relation , then the following statements are equivalent : ( 1 ) f is a joint probabilistic relation ; ( 2 ) f can be computed by a Markovian FST that halts with probability 1 ; ( 3 ) f can be expressed as a probabilistic regexp , i.e. , a regexp built up from atomic expressions a : b ( for a E E U -LCB- E -RCB- , b E A U -LCB- E -RCB- ) using concatenation , probabilistic union + p , and probabilistic closure * p. For defining conditional relations , a good regexp language is unknown to us , but they can be defined in several other ways : ( 1 ) via FSTs as in Fig. 1c , ( 2 ) by compilation of weighted rewrite rules ( Mohri and Sproat , 1996 ) , ( 3 ) by compilation of decision trees ( Sproat and Riley , 1996 ) , ( 4 ) as a relation that performs contextual left-to-right replacement of input substrings by a smaller conditional relation ( Gerdemann and van Noord , 1999 ) ,5 ( 5 ) by conditionalization of a joint relation as discussed below . A central technique is to define a joint relation as a noisy-channel model , by composing a joint relation with a cascade of one or more conditional relations as in Fig. 1 ( Pereira and Riley , 1997 ; Knight and Graehl , 1998 ) .

We offer a theorem that highlights the broad applicability of these modeling techniques .4 If f ( input , output ) is a weighted regular relation , then the following statements are equivalent : ( 1 ) f is a joint probabilistic relation ; ( 2 ) f can be computed by a Markovian FST that halts with probability 1 ; ( 3 ) f can be expressed as a probabilistic regexp , i.e. , a regexp built up from atomic expressions a : b ( for a E E U -LCB- E -RCB- , b E A U -LCB- E -RCB- ) using concatenation , probabilistic union + p , and probabilistic closure * p. For defining conditional relations , a good regexp language is unknown to us , but they can be defined in several other ways : ( 1 ) via FSTs as in Fig. 1c , ( 2 ) by compilation of weighted rewrite rules ( Mohri and Sproat , 1996 ) , ( 3 ) by compilation of decision trees ( @@CITATION ) , ( 4 ) as a relation that performs contextual left-to-right replacement of input substrings by a smaller conditional relation ( Gerdemann and van Noord , 1999 ) ,5 ( 5 ) by conditionalization of a joint relation as discussed below .


lexikalischsemantische wortnetze chapter computerlinguistik und sprachtechnologie

were noun-noun pairs , 15 % noun-verb pairs and so on . Word pairs containing polysemous words are expanded to concept pairs using GermaNet ( Kunze , 2004 ) , the German equivalent to WordNet , as a sense inventory for each word . It is the most complete resource of this type for German .

Word pairs containing polysemous words are expanded to concept pairs using GermaNet ( @@CITATION ) , the German equivalent to WordNet , as a sense inventory for each word .


Michel Galley
Mark Hopkins
Kevin Knight
Daniel Marcu

The created tree nodes are labeled by the non-terminals described in section 3 . Using the initial target U-trees , source sentences and word alignment , we extract minimal GHKM translation rules7 in terms of frontier nodes ( Galley et al. , 2004 ) . Frontier nodes are the tree nodes that can map onto contiguous substrings on the source side via word alignment .

Using the initial target U-trees , source sentences and word alignment , we extract minimal GHKM translation rules7 in terms of frontier nodes ( @@CITATION ) .


insideoutside reestimation from partially bracketed corpora

Many learning tasks for natural language processing require supervised training ; that is , the system successfully learns a concept only if it has been given annotated training data . For example , while it is difficult to induce a grammar with raw text alone , the task is tractable when the syntactic analysis for each sentence is provided as a part of the training data ( Pereira and Schabes 1992 ) . Current state-of-the-art statistical parsers ( Collins 1999 ; Charniak 2000 ) are all trained on large annotated corpora such as the Penn Treebank ( Marcus , Santorini , and Marcinkiewicz 1993 ) .

For example , while it is difficult to induce a grammar with raw text alone , the task is tractable when the syntactic analysis for each sentence is provided as a part of the training data ( @@CITATION ) .


three generative lexicalised models for statistical parsing

Tjong Kim Sang ( 1999 ) presented result for composite NP , obtained by repeated cascading , similar to our results with seperate base and composite NPs and no internal structure . Our results are lower than those of full parsers , e.g. , Collins ( 1997 ) as might be expected since much less structural data , and no lexical data are being used .

Our results are lower than those of full parsers , e.g. , @@CITATION as might be expected since much less structural data , and no lexical data are being used .


automatic generation of tamil lyrics for melodies

Ananth Ramakrishnan A
Sankar Kuppan
Sobha Lalitha Devi

The majority of NLG focuses on the satisfaction of a communicative goal , with examples such as Belz ( 2008 ) which produces weather reports from structured data or Mitchell et al. ( 2013 ) which generates descriptions of objects from images . Our work is more similar to NLG work that concentrates on structural constraints such as generative poetry ( Greene et al. , 2010 ) ( Colton et al. , 2012 ) ( Jiang and Zhou , 2008 ) or song lyrics ( Wu et al. , 2013 ) ( Ramakrishnan A et al. , 2009 ) , where specified meter or rhyme schemes are enforced . In these papers soft semantic goals are sometimes also introduced that seek responses to previous lines of poetry or lyric .

Our work is more similar to NLG work that concentrates on structural constraints such as generative poetry ( Greene et al. , 2010 ) ( Colton et al. , 2012 ) ( Jiang and Zhou , 2008 ) or song lyrics ( Wu et al. , 2013 ) ( Ramakrishnan @@CITATION ) , where specified meter or rhyme schemes are enforced .


Suppose , for example , that the KB contains information about height as well as width , then we have inequalities of the forms ( a ) height > x , ( b ) height < x , ( c ) width > x , and ( d ) width < x. Which of these should come first ? Hermann and Deutsch ( 1976 ; also reported in Levelt 1989 ) show that greater differences are most likely to be chosen , presumably because they are more striking . In experiments involving candles of different heights and widths , if the referent is both the tallest and the fattest candle , subjects tended to say ` the tall candle ' when the tallest candle is much taller than all others whereas the same candle is only slightly wider than the others ; if the reverse is the case , the preference switches to ` the fat candle . '

Hermann and Deutsch ( 1976 ; also reported in @@CITATION ) show that greater differences are most likely to be chosen , presumably because they are more striking .


algorithms for deterministic incremental dependency parsing

This is likely a result of MSA having a rich agreement system , covering both verb -- subject and noun -- adjective relations . The result holds for both the MaltParser ( Nivre 2008 ) and the Easy-First Parser ( Goldberg and Elhadad 2010 ) . Additionally , almost all work to date in MSA morphological analysis and part-ofspeech ( POS ) tagging has concentrated on the morphemic form of the words .

The result holds for both the MaltParser ( @@CITATION ) and the Easy-First Parser ( Goldberg and Elhadad 2010 ) .


distributed video encoding over a peertopeer network

can be captured within plug-ins that can then integrate with the environment and utilise its functionality . This system has been successfully tested with the development of plug-ins supporting instant messaging , distributed video encoding ( Hughes and Walkerdine , 2005 ) , distributed virtual worlds ( Hughes et al. , 2005 ) and digital library management ( Walkerdine and Rayson , 2004 ) . It is our intention to implement our distributed corpus annotation framework as a plugin .

This system has been successfully tested with the development of plug-ins supporting instant messaging , distributed video encoding ( @@CITATION ) , distributed virtual worlds ( Hughes et al. , 2005 ) and digital library management ( Walkerdine and Rayson , 2004 ) .


lexical functional grammar a formal system for grammatical representation

In modern syntactic theories ( e.g. , lexical-functional grammar [ LFG ] [ Kaplan and Bresnan 1982 ; Bresnan 2001 ; Dalrymple 2001 ] , head-driven phrase structure grammar [ HPSG ] [ Pollard and Sag 1994 ] , tree-adjoining grammar [ TAG ] [ Joshi 1988 ] , and combinatory categorial grammar [ CCG ] [ Ades and Steedman 1982 ] ) , the lexicon is the central repository for much morphological , syntactic , and semantic information . * National Centre for Language Technology , School of Computing , Dublin City University , Glasnevin , Dublin 9 , Ireland .

In modern syntactic theories ( e.g. , lexical-functional grammar [ LFG ] [ @@CITATION ; Bresnan 2001 ; Dalrymple 2001 ] , head-driven phrase structure grammar [ HPSG ] [ Pollard and Sag 1994 ] , tree-adjoining grammar [ TAG ] [ Joshi 1988 ] , and combinatory categorial grammar [ CCG ] [ Ades and Steedman 1982 ] ) , the lexicon is the central repository for much morphological , syntactic , and semantic information .


headdriven statistical models for natural language parsing

3 ) , we train on a set of candidates with precision larger than 50 % . We then use Illinois Chunker ( Punyakanok and Roth , 2001 ) 6 to extract more noun phrases from the text and employ Collins head rules ( Collins , 1999 ) to identify their heads . When these extracted heads do not overlap with gold mention heads , we treat them as negative examples .

We then use Illinois Chunker ( Punyakanok and Roth , 2001 ) 6 to extract more noun phrases from the text and employ Collins head rules ( @@CITATION ) to identify their heads .


conscious choice and some light verbs in urduquot

Hook ( 1981 ) considers the second verb V2 as an aspectual complex comparable to the auxiliaries . Butt ( 1993 ) argues CV formations in Hindi and Urdu are either morphological or syntactical and their formation take place at the argument structure . Bashir ( 1993 ) tried to construct a semantic analysis based on `` prepared '' and `` unprepared mind '' .

@@CITATION argues CV formations in Hindi and Urdu are either morphological or syntactical and their formation take place at the argument structure .