some applications of treebased modeling to speech and language indexing”

Automatically trainable software is generally seen as a way of producing systems that are quickly retrainable for a new corpus , for a new domain , or even for another language . Thus , the second class of SBD systems employs machine learning techniques such as decision tree classifiers ( Riley 1989 ) , neural networks ( Palmer and Hearst 1994 ) , and maximum-entropy modeling ( Reynar and Ratnaparkhi 1997 ) . Machine learning systems treat the SBD task as a classification problem , using features such as word spelling , capitalization , suffix , and word class found in the local context of a potential sentence-terminating punctuation sign .

Thus , the second class of SBD systems employs machine learning techniques such as decision tree classifiers ( @@CITATION ) , neural networks ( Palmer and Hearst 1994 ) , and maximum-entropy modeling ( Reynar and Ratnaparkhi 1997 ) .


a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining

what makes a good answer the role of context in question answering

Jimmy Lin
Dennis Quan
Vineet Sinha
Karun Bakshi
David Huynh
Boris Katz
David R Karger

The design and implementation of our current system leaves many open avenues for future exploration , one of which concerns our assumptions about the query interface . Previously , a user study ( Lin et al. 2003 ) has shown that people are reluctant to type full natural language questions , even after being told that they were using a questionanswering system and that typing complete questions would result in better performance . We have argued that a query interface based on structured PICO frames will yield better-formulated queries , although it is unclear whether physicians would invest

Previously , a user study ( @@CITATION ) has shown that people are reluctant to type full natural language questions , even after being told that they were using a questionanswering system and that typing complete questions would result in better performance .


efficient contextsensitive generation of referring expressions

We will examine the worst-case complexity of interpretation as well as generation to shed some light on the hypothesis that vague descriptions are more difficult to process than others because they involve a comparison between objects ( Beun and Cremers 1998 , Krahmer and Theune 2002 ) . Before we do this , consider the tractability of the original IA .

We will examine the worst-case complexity of interpretation as well as generation to shed some light on the hypothesis that vague descriptions are more difficult to process than others because they involve a comparison between objects ( Beun and Cremers 1998 , @@CITATION ) .


statistical and inductive inference by minimum message length

The idea behind the Doc-Pred method is similar to Bickel and Scheffer 's ( 2004 ) : Response documents are grouped into clusters , one of these clusters is predicted for a new request on the basis of the request 's features , and the response that is most representative of the predicted cluster ( closest to the centroid ) is selected . In our case , the clustering is performed by the program Snob , which implements mixture modeling combined with model selection based on the Minimum Message Length ( MML ) criterion ( Wallace and Boulton 1968 ; Wallace 2005 ) . We chose this program because the number of clusters does not have to be specified in advance , and it returns a probabilistic interpretation for its clusters ( this interpretation is used by the Sent-Pred method , Section 3.2.2 ) .

In our case , the clustering is performed by the program Snob , which implements mixture modeling combined with model selection based on the Minimum Message Length ( MML ) criterion ( Wallace and Boulton 1968 ; @@CITATION ) .


translingual information retrieval a comparative evaluationquot

J Carbonell
Y Yang
R Frederlcing
R Brown
Y Geng
D Lee

Sanderson , 1994 studied the issue of disambiguation for mono-lingual M. The third approach to cross-lingual retrieval is to map queries and documents to some intermediate representation , e.g latent semantic indexing ( LSI ) ( Littman et al , 1998 ) , or the General Vector space model ( GVSM ) , ( Carbonell et al , 1997 ) . We believe our approach is computationally less costly than ( LSI and GVSM ) and assumes less resources ( WordNet in Diekema et al. , 1999 ) .

The third approach to cross-lingual retrieval is to map queries and documents to some intermediate representation , e.g latent semantic indexing ( LSI ) ( Littman et al , 1998 ) , or the General Vector space model ( GVSM ) , ( @@CITATION ) .


gate – a general architecture for text engineering

Hamish Cunningham
Yorick Wilks
Robert J Gaizauskas

There are a number of generalised NLP systems in the literature . Many provide graphical user interfaces ( GUI ) for manual annotation ( e.g. General Architecture for Text Engineering ( GATE ) ( Cunningham et al. , 1997 ) and the Alembic Workbench ( Day et al. , 1997 ) ) as well as NLP tools and resources that can be manipulated from the GUI . For instance , GATE currently provides a POS tagger , named entity recogniser and gazetteer and ontology editors ( Cunningham et al. , 2002 ) .

Many provide graphical user interfaces ( GUI ) for manual annotation ( e.g. General Architecture for Text Engineering ( GATE ) ( @@CITATION ) and the Alembic Workbench ( Day et al. , 1997 ) ) as well as NLP tools and resources that can be manipulated from the GUI .


We compute SURF keypoints for every image in our data set using SimpleCV3 and randomly sample 1 % of the keypoints . The keypoints are clustered into 5,000 visual codewords ( centroids ) using k-means clustering ( Sculley , 2010 ) , and images are then quantized over the 5,000 codewords . All images for a given word are summed together to provide an average representation for the word .

The keypoints are clustered into 5,000 visual codewords ( centroids ) using k-means clustering ( @@CITATION ) , and images are then quantized over the 5,000 codewords .


a maximumentropy partial parser for unrestricted text

The inferences process is cascaded , and a clear improvement was obtained by passing results across cascades . Another approach for partial parsing was presented by Skut and Brants ( 1998 ) . Their method is an extension of that of Church ( 1988 ) for finding NP 's , achieved by extending the feature space to include structural information .

Another approach for partial parsing was presented by @@CITATION .


a corpusbased evaluation of centering and pronoun resolution

In the past decade , knowledge-lean approaches have significantly influenced research in noun phrase ( NP ) coreference resolution -- the problem of determining which NPs refer to the same real-world entity in a document . In knowledge-lean approaches , coreference resolvers employ only morpho-syntactic cues as knowledge sources in the resolution process ( e.g. , Mitkov ( 1998 ) , Tetreault ( 2001 ) ) . While these approaches have been reasonably successful ( see Mitkov ( 2002 ) ) , Kehler et al. ( 2004 ) speculate that deeper linguistic knowledge needs to be made available to resolvers in order to reach the next level of performance .

In knowledge-lean approaches , coreference resolvers employ only morpho-syntactic cues as knowledge sources in the resolution process ( e.g. , Mitkov ( 1998 ) , @@CITATION ) .


towards a medical questionanswering system a feasibility study

Patient information is no doubt important to answering clinical questions , and our work could certainly benefit from experiences gained in the PERSIVAL project . The application of domain models and deep semantic knowledge to question answering has been explored by a variety of researchers ( e.g. , Jacquemart and Zweigenbaum 2003 , Rinaldi et al. 2004 ) , and was also the focus of recent workshops on question answering in restricted domains at ACL 2004 and AAAI 2005 . Our work contributes to this ongoing discourse by demonstrating a specific application in the domain of clinical medicine .

The application of domain models and deep semantic knowledge to question answering has been explored by a variety of researchers ( e.g. , @@CITATION , Rinaldi et al. 2004 ) , and was also the focus of recent workshops on question answering in restricted domains at ACL 2004 and AAAI 2005 .


grounded models of semantic representation

The 2D models employing feature norms and association norms do significantly better than the text-only model ( two-tailed t-test ) . This result is consistent with other works using this model with these features ( Andrews et al. , 2009 ; Silberer and Lapata , 2012 ) . We also see that the SURF visual words are able to provide notable , albeit not significant , improvements over the text-only modality .

This result is consistent with other works using this model with these features ( Andrews et al. , 2009 ; @@CITATION ) .


modlisation et traitement informatique de la synonymi linguisticae investigationes

Depending on the type of paraphrastic means involved , constructing a paraphrastic set ( the set of all lexical items related by a paraphrastic link be it parallel , shuffling or definitional ) is more or less easy as resources for that specific means may or may not be readily available . Cases of intracategorial synonymy are relatively straigthtforward as several electronic synonym dictionnaries for french are available ( Ploux , 1997 ) . Multi word expressions however remain a problem as they are often not or only partially included in such dictionnaries .

Cases of intracategorial synonymy are relatively straigthtforward as several electronic synonym dictionnaries for french are available ( @@CITATION ) .


comparison of extended lexicon models in search and rescoring for smt

Besides , our system complexity is not increased because no additional language model is introduced . The feature of head word trigger which we apply to the log-linear model is motivated by the trigger-based approach ( Hasan and Ney , 2009 ) . Hasan and Ney ( 2009 ) introduced a second word to trigger the target word without considering any linguistic information .

The feature of head word trigger which we apply to the log-linear model is motivated by the trigger-based approach ( @@CITATION ) .


Michaela Regneri
Marcus Rohrbach
Dominikus Wetzel
Stefan Thater
Bernt Schiele
Manfred Pinkal

norms . Other work on modeling the meanings of verbs using video recognition has also begun showing great promise ( Mathe et al. , 2008 ; Regneri et al. , 2013 ) . The Computer Vision community has also benefited greatly from efforts to unify the two modalities .

Other work on modeling the meanings of verbs using video recognition has also begun showing great promise ( Mathe et al. , 2008 ; @@CITATION ) .


online largemargin training of dependency parsers

â¢ Graph-based : An implementation of graph - based parsing algorithms with an arc-factored parameterization ( McDonald et al. , 2005 ) . We use the non-projective k-best MST algorithm to generate k-best lists ( Hall , 2007 ) , where k = 8 for the experiments in this paper .

based parsing algorithms with an arc-factored parameterization ( @@CITATION ) .


a dictionary and morphological analyser for english

Graham Russell
Steve Pulman
Graeme Ritchie
Alan Black

However , the LDOCE coding of verbs is more comprehensive than elsewhere , so verbs are the obvious place to start in an evaluation of the usefulness of the coding system . No attempt has been made to map any closed class entries from LDOCE , as a 3,000 word lexicon containing most closed class items has been developed independently by one of the groups collaborating with us to develop the general purpose morphological and syntactic analyser ( see the Introduction and Russell et al. , 1986 ) . Initially the transformation of the LDOCE codes was performed on a code-by-code basis , within a code field associated with each individual word sense .

No attempt has been made to map any closed class entries from LDOCE , as a 3,000 word lexicon containing most closed class items has been developed independently by one of the groups collaborating with us to develop the general purpose morphological and syntactic analyser ( see the Introduction and @@CITATION ) .


towards a lexicon support environment for real time parsing

Hiyan Alshawi
Branimir Boguraev
Ted Briscoe

( Michiels ( 1982 ) contains further description and discussion of LDOCE . ) In this paper we focus on the exploitation of the LDOCE grammar coding system ; Alshawi et al. ( 1985 ) and Alshawi ( 1987 ) describe further research in Cambridge utilising different types of information available in LDOCE . The information available in the dictionary is both very rich and diverse , but also typically only semiformalised , as it is intended for human , rather than machine , interpetation .

In this paper we focus on the exploitation of the LDOCE grammar coding system ; @@CITATION and Alshawi ( 1987 ) describe further research in Cambridge utilising different types of information available in LDOCE .


adaptive sentence boundary disambiguation”

Automatically trainable software is generally seen as a way of producing systems that are quickly retrainable for a new corpus , for a new domain , or even for another language . Thus , the second class of SBD systems employs machine learning techniques such as decision tree classifiers ( Riley 1989 ) , neural networks ( Palmer and Hearst 1994 ) , and maximum-entropy modeling ( Reynar and Ratnaparkhi 1997 ) . Machine learning systems treat the SBD task as a classification problem , using features such as word spelling , capitalization , suffix , and word class found in the local context of a potential sentence-terminating punctuation sign .

Thus , the second class of SBD systems employs machine learning techniques such as decision tree classifiers ( Riley 1989 ) , neural networks ( @@CITATION ) , and maximum-entropy modeling ( Reynar and Ratnaparkhi 1997 ) .


transformationbased errordriven learning and natural language parsing a case study in partofspeech tagging

This requires resolving sentence boundaries before tagging . We see no good reason , however , why such text spans should necessarily be sentences , since the majority of tagging paradigms ( e.g. , Hidden Markov Model [ HMM ] [ Kupiec 1992 ] , Brill 's [ Brill 1995a ] , and MaxEnt [ Ratnaparkhi 1996 ] ) do not attempt to parse an entire sentence and operate only in the local window of two to three tokens . The only reason why taggers traditionally operate on the sentence level is that a sentence naturally represents a text span in which POS information does not depend on the previous and following history .

We see no good reason , however , why such text spans should necessarily be sentences , since the majority of tagging paradigms ( e.g. , Hidden Markov Model [ HMM ] [ Kupiec 1992 ] , Brill 's [ @@CITATIONa ] , and MaxEnt [ Ratnaparkhi 1996 ] ) do not attempt to parse an entire sentence and operate only in the local window of two to three tokens .


automatic paraphrase acquisition from news articles

For instance , ( Lin and Pantel , 2001 ) acquire two-argument templates ( inference rules ) from corpora using an extended version of the distributional analysis in which paths in dependency trees that have similar arguments are taken to be close in meaning . Similarly , ( Barzilay and Lee , 2003 ) and ( Shinyanma et al. , 2002 ) learn sentence level paraphrase templates from a corpus of news articles stemming from different news source . And ( Glickman and Dagan , 2003 ) use clustering and similarity measures to identify similar contexts in a single corpus and extract verbal paraphrases from these contexts .

Similarly , ( Barzilay and Lee , 2003 ) and ( @@CITATION ) learn sentence level paraphrase templates from a corpus of news articles stemming from different news source .


classbased ngram models of natural language

F Brown
Vincent J Della Pietra
Peter V deSouza
Jenifer C Lai
Robert L Mercer

The sentence representation we chose for this work is rather simple , and was intended primarily to demonstrate the efficacy of our approach . In future work we plan to experiment with richer representations , e.g. including long-range n-grams ( Rosenfeld , 1996 ) , class n-grams ( Brown et al. , 1992 ) , grammatical features ( Amaya and Benedy , 2001 ) , etc ' . The main computational bottleneck in our approach is the generation of negative samples from the current model .

In future work we plan to experiment with richer representations , e.g. including long-range n-grams ( Rosenfeld , 1996 ) , class n-grams ( @@CITATION ) , grammatical features ( Amaya and Benedy , 2001 ) , etc ' .


an efficient algorithm for easyfirst nondirectional dependency parsing

Our work is the first to show gains using agreement in MaltParser and in Arabic dependency parsing , and the first to use functional features for this task . Furthermore , we demonstrate that our results carry over successfully to another parser , the Easy-First Parser ( Goldberg and Elhadad 2010 ) ( Section 6 ) . Hohensee and Bender ( 2012 ) have conducted a study on dependency parsing for 21 languages using features that encode whether the values for certain attributes are equal or not for a node and its governor .

Furthermore , we demonstrate that our results carry over successfully to another parser , the Easy-First Parser ( @@CITATION ) ( Section 6 ) .


It should not come as a surprise that we can now use this apparatus for text/discourse analysis ; after all , many natural language inferences are based on defaults , and quite often they can be reduced to choosing most plausible interpretations of predicates . For instance , relating `` they '' to `` apples '' in the sentence ( cfXXX Haugeland 1985 p. 195 ; Zadrozny 1987a ) : We bought the boys apples because they were so cheap can be an example of such a most plausible choice .

For instance , relating `` they '' to `` apples '' in the sentence ( cfXXX @@CITATION p. 195 ; Zadrozny 1987a ) : We bought the boys apples because they were so cheap


building a korean web corpus for analyzing learner language

Markus Dickinson
Ross Israel
Sun-Hee Lee

In selecting features for Korean , we have to account for relatively free word order ( Chung et al. , 2010 ) . We follow our previous work ( Dickinson et al. , 2010 ) in our feature choices , using a fiveword window that includes the target stem and two words on either side for context ( see also Tetreault and Chodorow , 2008 ) . Each word is broken down into : stem , affixes , stem POS , and affixes POS .

We follow our previous work ( @@CITATION ) in our feature choices , using a fiveword window that includes the target stem and two words on either side for context ( see also Tetreault and Chodorow , 2008 ) .


Much recent work in lexical semantics has been concerned with accounting for regular polysemy , i.e. , the regular and predictable sense alternations certain classes of words are subject to . Adjectives , more than other categories , are a striking example of regular polysemy since they are able to take on different meanings depending on their context , viz. , the noun or noun class they modify ( see Pustejovsky ( 1995 ) and the references therein ) . The adjective fast in ( 1 ) receives different interpretations when modifying the nouns programmer , plane and scientist .

Adjectives , more than other categories , are a striking example of regular polysemy since they are able to take on different meanings depending on their context , viz. , the noun or noun class they modify ( see @@CITATION and the references therein ) .


lexical functional grammar volume 34 of syntax and semantics

The argument list can be empty , as in the PRED value for judge in Figure 1 . According to Dalrymple ( 2001 ) , LFG assumes the following universally available inventory of grammatical functions : SUBJ ( ect ) , OBJ ( ect ) , OBJe , COMP , XCOMP , OBL ( ique ) e , ADJ ( unct ) , XADJ . OBJe and OBLe represent families of grammatical functions indexed by their semantic role , represented by the theta subscript .

According to @@CITATION , LFG assumes the following universally available inventory of grammatical functions : SUBJ ( ect ) , OBJ ( ect ) , OBJe , COMP , XCOMP , OBL ( ique ) e , ADJ ( unct ) , XADJ .


unsupervised multilingual learning for morphological segmentation

MT system combination ( Matusov , Ueffing , and Ney 2006 ) . But their importance has grown far beyond machine translation : for instance , transferring annotations between languages ( Yarowsky and Ngai 2001 ; Hwa et al. 2005 ; Ganchev , Gillenwater , and Taskar 2009 ) ; discovery of paraphrases ( Bannard and Callison-Burch 2005 ) ; and joint unsupervised POS and parser induction across languages ( Snyder and Barzilay 2008 ) . IBM Models 1 and 2 and the HMM are simple and tractable probabilistic models , which produce the target sentence one target word at a time by choosing a source word and generating its translation .

But their importance has grown far beyond machine translation : for instance , transferring annotations between languages ( Yarowsky and Ngai 2001 ; Hwa et al. 2005 ; Ganchev , Gillenwater , and Taskar 2009 ) ; discovery of paraphrases ( Bannard and Callison-Burch 2005 ) ; and joint unsupervised POS and parser induction across languages ( @@CITATION ) .


open and closed world types in nlp systems

To avoid confusion , we will only use the terminology introduced in the text . 4 This interpretation of the signature is sometimes referred to as closed world ( Gerdemann and King 1994 ; Gerdemann 1995 ) . 5 An in-depth discussion including a comparison of both approaches is provided in Calcagno , Meurers , and Pollard ( in preparation ) .

4 This interpretation of the signature is sometimes referred to as closed world ( Gerdemann and King 1994 ; @@CITATION ) .


inducing a semantically annotated lexicon via embased clustering

Mats Rooth
Stefan Riezler
Detlef Prescher
Glenn Carroll
Franz Beil

Similarity-smoothed models can make use of the regularities across similar verbs , but not the finergrained stringand token-based features . Our training examples are similar to the data created for pseudodisambiguation , the usual evaluation task for SP models ( Erk , 2007 ; Keller and Lapata , 2003 ; Rooth et al. , 1999 ) . This data consists of triples ( v , n , n â² ) where v , n is a predicateargument pair observed in the corpus and v , n â² has not been observed .

Our training examples are similar to the data created for pseudodisambiguation , the usual evaluation task for SP models ( Erk , 2007 ; Keller and Lapata , 2003 ; @@CITATION ) .


a distributed architecture for robust automatic speech recognition

This standardisation of remote procedures is very exciting from a software engineering viewpoint since it allows systems to be totally distributed . There have already been several attempts to develop distributed NLP systems for dialogue systems ( Bayer et al. , 2001 ) and speech recognition ( Hacioglu and Pellom , 2003 ) . Web services will allow components developed by different researchers in different locations to be composed to build larger systems .

There have already been several attempts to develop distributed NLP systems for dialogue systems ( Bayer et al. , 2001 ) and speech recognition ( @@CITATION ) .


The Generative Programming approach to NLP infrastructure development will allow tools such as sentence boundary detectors , POS taggers , chunkers and named entity recognisers to be rapidly composed from many elemental components . For instance , implementing an efficient version of the MXPOST POS tagger ( Ratnaparkhi , 1996 ) will simply involve composing and configuring the appropriate text file reading component , with the sequential tagging component , the collection of feature extraction components and the maximum entropy model component . The individual components will provide state of the art accuracy and be highly optimised for both time and space efficiency .

For instance , implementing an efficient version of the MXPOST POS tagger ( @@CITATION ) will simply involve composing and configuring the appropriate text file reading component , with the sequential tagging component , the collection of feature extraction components and the maximum entropy model component .


semantic feature production norms for a large set of living and nonliving things

Ken McRae
George S Cree
Mark S Seidenberg
Chris McNorgan

1http : / / stephenroller.com/research/ emnlp13 cue word and name the first ( or several ) associated words that come to mind ( e.g. , Nelson et al. ( 2004 ) ) , and feature norms , where subjects are given a cue word and asked to describe typical properties of the cue concept ( e.g. , McRae et al. ( 2005 ) ) . Griffiths et al. ( 2007 ) helped pave the path for cognitive-linguistic multimodal research , showing that Latent Dirichlet Allocation outperformed Latent Semantic Analysis ( Deerwester et al. , 1990 ) in the prediction of association norms .

cue word and name the first ( or several ) associated words that come to mind ( e.g. , Nelson et al. ( 2004 ) ) , and feature norms , where subjects are given a cue word and asked to describe typical properties of the cue concept ( e.g. , @@CITATION ) .


now lets talk about now identifying cue phrases intonationally

To our knowledge , no work has explicitly explored the relation between the length of a constituent and its status in the discourse . Hirschberg and Litman ( 1987 ) and Litman and Hirschberg ( 1990 ) also examine the relation between discourse and prosodic phrasing . Their work succeeds in distinguishing the use of items like now , so , and well as discourse cues from their denotative lexical use on the basis of a complex combination of pitch accent type and phrasing .

@@CITATION and Litman and Hirschberg ( 1990 ) also examine the relation between discourse and prosodic phrasing .


automatic extraction of subcategorization frames for czech

Still , to date this is the largest number of verbs used in any of the evaluations of the systems for English described in Section 3 . Sarkar and Zeman ( 2000 ) evaluate 914 Czech verbs against a custom-made gold standard and record a token recall of 88 % . However , their evaluation does not examine the extracted subcategorization frames but rather the argument -- adjunct distinctions posited by their system .

@@CITATION evaluate 914 Czech verbs against a custom-made gold standard and record a token recall of 88 % .


an introduction to modern information retrieval

Although this method of assessment is less informative than human-based evaluations , it enables us to evaluate the performance of our system with substantial amounts of data , and produce representative results for a large corpus such as ours . We use two measures from Information Retrieval to determine the quality of an automatically generated response : precision and F-score ( van Rijsbergen 1979 ; Salton and McGill 1983 ) . Precision measures how much of the information in an automatically generated response is correct ( i.e. , appears in the model response ) , and F-score measures the overall similarity between the automatically generated response and the model response .

We use two measures from Information Retrieval to determine the quality of an automatically generated response : precision and F-score ( van Rijsbergen 1979 ; @@CITATION ) .


applying casebased reasoning techniques for enterprise systems

The automation of help-desk responses has been previously tackled using mainly knowledge-intensive paradigms , such as expert systems ( Barr and Tessler 1995 ) and case-based reasoning ( Watson 1997 ) . Such technologies require significant human input , and are difficult to create and maintain ( Delic and Lahaix 1998 ) .

The automation of help-desk responses has been previously tackled using mainly knowledge-intensive paradigms , such as expert systems ( Barr and Tessler 1995 ) and case-based reasoning ( @@CITATION ) .


calibrating features for semantic role labeling

So the hierarchical system in their paper performs a little worse than the traditional SRL systems , although it is more efficient . Xue and Palmer ( 2004 ) did very encouraging work on the feature calibration of semantic role labeling . They found out that different features suited for different sub tasks of SRL , i.e. semantic role identification and classification .

@@CITATION did very encouraging work on the feature calibration of semantic role labeling .


symbolic word clustering for mediumsized corpora

Benoit Habert
Ellie Naulleau
Adeline Nazarenko

A number of applications have relied on distributional analysis ( Harris , 1971 ) in order to build classes of semantically related terms . This approach , which uses words that appear in the context of terms to formulate hypotheses on their semantic relatedness ( Habert et al. , 1996 , for example ) , does not specify the relationship itself . Hence , synonyms , co-hyponyms , hyperonyms , etc. are not differentiated .

This approach , which uses words that appear in the context of terms to formulate hypotheses on their semantic relatedness ( @@CITATION , for example ) , does not specify the relationship itself .


identifying lexical paraphrases from a single corpus a case study for verbs

Similarly , ( Barzilay and Lee , 2003 ) and ( Shinyanma et al. , 2002 ) learn sentence level paraphrase templates from a corpus of news articles stemming from different news source . And ( Glickman and Dagan , 2003 ) use clustering and similarity measures to identify similar contexts in a single corpus and extract verbal paraphrases from these contexts . Such machine learning approaches have known pros and cons .

And ( @@CITATION ) use clustering and similarity measures to identify similar contexts in a single corpus and extract verbal paraphrases from these contexts .


on implementing an hpsg theory aspects of the logical architecture the formalization and the implementation of headdriven phrase structure grammars

This idea of preserving properties can be considered an instance of the well-known frame problem in AT ( McCarthy and Hayes 1969 ) , and we will therefore refer to the specifications left implicit by the linguist as the frame specification , or simply frame , of a lexical rule . Not having to represent the frame explicitly not only enables the linguist to express only the relevant things , but also allows a more compact representation of lexical rules where explicit framing would require the rules to be split up ( Meurers 1994 ) . One thus needs to distinguish the lexical rule specification provided by the linguist from the fully explicit lexical rule relations integrated into the theory .

Not having to represent the frame explicitly not only enables the linguist to express only the relevant things , but also allows a more compact representation of lexical rules where explicit framing would require the rules to be split up ( @@CITATION ) .


a preliminary investigation into sentiment analysis of informal political discourse

Politically-oriented text Sentiment analysis has specifically been proposed as a key enabling technology in eRulemaking , allowing the automatic analysis of the opinions that people submit ( Shulman et al. , 2005 ; Cardie et al. , 2006 ; Kwon et al. , 2006 ) . There has also been work focused upon determining the political leaning ( e.g. , `` liberal '' vs. `` conservative '' ) of a document or author , where most previously-proposed methods make no direct use of relationships between the documents to be classified ( the `` unlabeled '' texts ) ( Laver et al. , 2003 ; Efron , 2004 ; Mullen and Malouf , 2006 ) . An exception is Grefenstette et al. ( 2004 ) , who experimented with determining the political orientation of websites essentially by classifying the concatenation of all the documents found on that site .

There has also been work focused upon determining the political leaning ( e.g. , `` liberal '' vs. `` conservative '' ) of a document or author , where most previously-proposed methods make no direct use of relationships between the documents to be classified ( the `` unlabeled '' texts ) ( Laver et al. , 2003 ; Efron , 2004 ; @@CITATION ) .


a languageneutral sparsedata algorithm for extracting translation patterns

Watanabe ( 1993 ) combines lexical and dependency mappings to form his generalizations . Other similar approaches include those of Cicekli and G Â¨ uvenir ( 1996 ) , McTait and Trujillo ( 1999 ) , Carl ( 1999 ) , and Brown ( 2000 ) , inter alia . In our system , in some cases the smallest chunk obtainable via the marker-based segmentation process may be something like ( 27 ) : ( 27 ) <DET> the good man : le bon homme In such cases , if our system were confronted with a good man , it would not be able to translate such a phrase , assuming this to be missing from the marker lexicon .

Other similar approaches include those of Cicekli and G Â¨ uvenir ( 1996 ) , @@CITATION , Carl ( 1999 ) , and Brown ( 2000 ) , inter alia .


toward an arabic web page classifierquot master project

To sum up , this work has been carried out to automatically classify Arabic documents using the NB algorithm , with the use of a different data set , a different number of categories , and a different root extraction algorithm from those used in ( Yahyaoui , 2001 ) . In this work , the average accuracy over all categories is : 68.78 % in cross validation and 62 % in evaluation set experiments .

To sum up , this work has been carried out to automatically classify Arabic documents using the NB algorithm , with the use of a different data set , a different number of categories , and a different root extraction algorithm from those used in ( @@CITATION ) .


automatic detection of poor speech recognition at the dialogue level

The research reported here is the first that we know of to automatically analyze a corpus of logs from a spoken dialogue system for the purpose of learning to predict problematic situations . Our work builds on earlier research on learning to identify dialogues in which the user experienced poor speech recognizer performance ( Litman et al. , 1999 ) . However , that work was based on a much smaller set of experimental dialogues where the notion of a good or bad dialogue was automatically approximated rather than being labelled by humans .

Our work builds on earlier research on learning to identify dialogues in which the user experienced poor speech recognizer performance ( @@CITATION ) .


ccgbank a corpus of ccg derivations and dependency structures extracted from the penn treebank

We now give an overview of the training algorithm , which is crucial to both the speed and accuracy of the resulting decoder . CCGBank ( Hockenmaier and Steedman 2007 ) is used to train the model . For each training sentence , the corresponding CCGBank derivation together with all its sub-derivations are treated as gold-standard hypotheses .

CCGBank ( @@CITATION ) is used to train the model .


conceptual structuring through term variation

Hence , synonyms , co-hyponyms , hyperonyms , etc. are not differentiated . More recent work on terminology structuring has focussed on formal similarity to develop hypotheses on the semantic relationships between terms : Daille ( 2003 ) uses derivational morphology ; Grabar and Zweigenbaum ( 2002 ) use , as a starting point , a number of identical characters . Up to now , the focus has been on nouns and adjectives , since these structuring methods have been applied to lists of extracted candidate terms ( Habert et al. , 1996 ; Daille , 2003 ) or to lists of admitted terms ( Grabar and Zweigenbaum , 2002 ) .

More recent work on terminology structuring has focussed on formal similarity to develop hypotheses on the semantic relationships between terms : @@CITATION uses derivational morphology ; Grabar and Zweigenbaum ( 2002 ) use , as a starting point , a number of identical characters .


named entity disambiguation a hybrid statistical and rulebased incremental approach

Other representations use the link structure ( Malin , 2005 ) or generate graph representations of the extracted features ( Kalashnikov et al. , 2007 ) . Some researchers ( Cucerzan , 2007 ; Nguyen and Cao , 2008 ) have explored the use of Wikipedia information to improve the disambiguation process . Wikipedia provides candidate entities that are linked to specific mentions in a text .

Some researchers ( Cucerzan , 2007 ; @@CITATION ) have explored the use of Wikipedia information to improve the disambiguation process .


a corpus for modeling morphosyntactic agreement in arabic gender number and rationality

The ElixirFM lexical resource used previously provided functional NUMBER feature values but no functional GENDER values , nor RAT ( rationality , or humanness ) values . To address this issue , we use a version of the PATB3 training and dev sets manually annotated with functional gender , number , and rationality ( Alkuhlani and Habash 2011 ) .18 This is the first resource providing all three features ( ElixirFm only provides functional number , and to some extent functional gender ) . We conducted experiments with gold features to assess the potential of these features , and with predicted features , obtained from training a simple maximum likelihood estimation classifier on this resource ( Alkuhlani and Habash 2012 ) .19 The first part of Table 8 shows that the RAT ( rationality ) feature is very relevant ( in gold ) , but suffers from low accuracy ( no gains in machine-predicted input ) .

To address this issue , we use a version of the PATB3 training and dev sets manually annotated with functional gender , number , and rationality ( @@CITATION ) .18 This is the first resource providing all three features ( ElixirFm only provides functional number , and to some extent functional gender ) .


a critical assessment of the ldoce coding system to appear in

This type of error and inconsistency arises because grammatical codes are constructed by hand and no automatic checking procedure is attempted ( see Michiels , 1982 , for further comment ) . One approach to this problem is that taken by the ASCOT project ( Akkerman et al. , 1985 ; Akkerman , 1986 ) . In this project , a new lexicon is being manually derived from LDOCE .

One approach to this problem is that taken by the ASCOT project ( Akkerman et al. , 1985 ; @@CITATION ) .


free software free society selected essays of

We consider the Creative Commons model as the most suitable one to let each author choose the rights to reserve ( Lessig , 2004 ) . Narrative writings or essays are creative works and they generally treat ownership as authorship , even for the most enthusiastic fellows of free culture ( Stallman , 2001 ) .

Narrative writings or essays are creative works and they generally treat ownership as authorship , even for the most enthusiastic fellows of free culture ( @@CITATION ) .


building another bridge over the generation gap

For example , DIOGENES ( Nirenburg et al. 1988 ) , EPICURE ( Dale 1989 ) , SPOKESMAN ( Meteer 1989 ) , Sibun 's work on local organization of text ( Sibun 1991 ) , and COMET ( Fisher and McKeown 1990 ) all are organized this way . McDonald has even argued for extending the model to a large number of components ( McDonald 1988 ) , and several systems have indeed added an additional component between the planner and the linguistic component ( Meteer 1994 ; Panaget 1994 ; Wanner 1994 ) . Reiter describes a pipelined modular approach as a consensus architecture underlying most recent work in generation ( Reiter 1994 ) .

McDonald has even argued for extending the model to a large number of components ( McDonald 1988 ) , and several systems have indeed added an additional component between the planner and the linguistic component ( Meteer 1994 ; Panaget 1994 ; @@CITATION ) .


a maximum entropy model for partofspeech tagging

The architecture remains applicable to a large variety of languages . According to current tagger comparisons ( van Halteren et al. , 1998 ; Zavrel and Daelemans , 1999 ) , and according to a comparsion of the results presented here with those in ( Ratnaparkhi , 1996 ) , the Maximum Entropy framework seems to be the only other approach yielding comparable results to the one presented here . It is a very interesting future research topic to determine the advantages of either of these approaches , to find the reason for their high accuracies , and to find a good combination of both .

According to current tagger comparisons ( van Halteren et al. , 1998 ; Zavrel and Daelemans , 1999 ) , and according to a comparsion of the results presented here with those in ( @@CITATION ) , the Maximum Entropy framework seems to be the only other approach yielding comparable results to the one presented here .


Bashir ( 1993 ) tried to construct a semantic analysis based on `` prepared '' and `` unprepared mind '' . Similar findings have been proposed by Pandharipande ( 1993 ) that points out V1 and V2 are paired on the basis of their semantic compatibility , which is subject to syntactic constraints . Paul ( 2004 ) tried to represent Bangla CVs in terms of HPSG formalism .

Similar findings have been proposed by @@CITATION that points out V1 and V2 are paired on the basis of their semantic compatibility , which is subject to syntactic constraints .


hiding the hidden a software system for concealing ciphertext as innocuous text

The simplest and most straightforward subliminal modification of text is to substitute selected words with their synonyms . The first lexical substitution method was proposed by Chapman and Davida ( 1997 ) . Later works , such as Atallah et al. ( 2001a ) , Bolshakov ( 2004 ) , Taskiran et al. ( 2006 ) and Topkara et al. ( 2006b ) , further made use of part-ofspeech taggers and electronic dictionaries , such as WordNet and VerbNet , to increase the robustness of the method .

The first lexical substitution method was proposed by @@CITATION .


We shall focus on the more challenging case where the output of the generator is less precise than the input , as is the case in FOG and DYD . This can be a hazardous affair , since vague expressions tend to be interpreted in different ways by different people ( Toogood 1980 ) , sometimes in stark contrast with the intention of the speaker/writer ( Berry , Knapp , and Raynor 2002 ) . We shall therefore focus -- unlike earlier computational accounts -- on vague descriptions , that is , vague expressions in definite descriptions .

This can be a hazardous affair , since vague expressions tend to be interpreted in different ways by different people ( @@CITATION ) , sometimes in stark contrast with the intention of the speaker/writer ( Berry , Knapp , and Raynor 2002 ) .


a maximum entropy model for partofspeech tagging”

This requires resolving sentence boundaries before tagging . We see no good reason , however , why such text spans should necessarily be sentences , since the majority of tagging paradigms ( e.g. , Hidden Markov Model [ HMM ] [ Kupiec 1992 ] , Brill 's [ Brill 1995a ] , and MaxEnt [ Ratnaparkhi 1996 ] ) do not attempt to parse an entire sentence and operate only in the local window of two to three tokens . The only reason why taggers traditionally operate on the sentence level is that a sentence naturally represents a text span in which POS information does not depend on the previous and following history .

We see no good reason , however , why such text spans should necessarily be sentences , since the majority of tagging paradigms ( e.g. , Hidden Markov Model [ HMM ] [ Kupiec 1992 ] , Brill 's [ Brill 1995a ] , and MaxEnt [ @@CITATION ] ) do not attempt to parse an entire sentence and operate only in the local window of two to three tokens .


Suppose , for example , that the KB contains information about height as well as width , then we have inequalities of the forms ( a ) height > x , ( b ) height < x , ( c ) width > x , and ( d ) width < x. Which of these should come first ? Hermann and Deutsch ( 1976 ; also reported in Levelt 1989 ) show that greater differences are most likely to be chosen , presumably because they are more striking . In experiments involving candles of different heights and widths , if the referent is both the tallest and the fattest candle , subjects tended to say ` the tall candle ' when the tallest candle is much taller than all others whereas the same candle is only slightly wider than the others ; if the reverse is the case , the preference switches to ` the fat candle . '

@@CITATION ; also reported in Levelt 1989 ) show that greater differences are most likely to be chosen , presumably because they are more striking .


robust pronoun resolution with limited knowledge

The acquisition of such knowledge is time-consuming , difficult , and error-prone . Nevertheless , recent results show that knowledge-poor methods perform with amazing accuracy ( cfXXX ( Mitkov , 1998 ) , ( Kennedy and Boguraev , 1996 ) ( Kameyama , 1997 ) ) . For example , CogNIAC ( Baldwin , 1997 ) , a system based on seven ordered heuristics , generates high-precision resolution ( over 90 % ) for some cases of pronominal reference .

Nevertheless , recent results show that knowledge-poor methods perform with amazing accuracy ( cfXXX ( @@CITATION ) , ( Kennedy and Boguraev , 1996 ) ( Kameyama , 1997 ) ) .


can nominal expressions achieve multiple goals an empirical study

Through corpus annotation , we wish to answer the question of what will be the probability of a given piece of information occupying a given syntactic position ( a value of type ) on the basis of the semantic and pragmatic properties of that information and relevant NP features , for example , whether a certain color attribute should be expressed by means of a prenominal adjective or a prepositional phrase in a definite NP . Notice that it is not possible to use corpus annotation to determine the likelihood of a given property to be chosen , unless we know in advance all of the properties that can be attributed to a given object , as in the case of Jordan 's work on the COCONUT domain ( Jordan , 2000 ) . Below we briefly introduce the major values of the three modifier features .

Notice that it is not possible to use corpus annotation to determine the likelihood of a given property to be chosen , unless we know in advance all of the properties that can be attributed to a given object , as in the case of Jordan 's work on the COCONUT domain ( @@CITATION ) .


prepositional phrase attachment through a backedoff model

Researchers have proposed many computational models for resolving PPattachment ambiguities . Some well-known approaches include rule-based models ( Brill and Resnik 1994 ) , backed-off models ( Collins and Brooks 1995 ) , and a maximumentropy model ( Ratnaparkhi 1998 ) . Following the tradition of using learning PPattachment as a way to gain insight into the parsing problem , we first apply sample selection to reduce the amount of annotation used in training a PP-attachment model .

Some well-known approaches include rule-based models ( Brill and Resnik 1994 ) , backed-off models ( @@CITATION ) , and a maximumentropy model ( Ratnaparkhi 1998 ) .


the episode schema in story processingquot

Bond and Hayes found three major formal devices that are used , by readers , to identify a paragraph : ( 1 ) the repetition of content words ( nouns , verbs , adjectives , adverbs ) ; ( 2 ) pronoun reference ; and ( 3 ) paragraph length , as determined by spatial and/or sentence-count information . Other psycholing-uistic studies that confirm the validity of paragraph units can be found in Black and Bower ( 1979 ) and Haberlandt et al. ( 1980 ) . The textualist approach to paragraph analysis is exemplified by E. J. Crothers .

Other psycholing-uistic studies that confirm the validity of paragraph units can be found in Black and Bower ( 1979 ) and @@CITATION .


never look back an alternative to centering

In particular , both developer-oriented ( e.g. , related to the selection of optimal resolution factors ) and application-oriented ( e.g. , related to the requirement of the application , as in the case of information extraction , where a proper name antecedent is needed ) evaluation metrics should be considered . Tetreault 's contribution features comparative evaluation involving the author 's own centering-based pronoun resolution algorithm called the Left-Right Centering algorithm ( LRC ) as well as three other pronoun resolution methods : Hobbs 's naive algorithm ( Hobbs 1978 ) , BFP ( Brennan , Friedman , and Pollard 1987 ) , and Strube 's 5list approach ( Strube 1998 ) . The LRC is an alternative to the original BFP algorithm in that it processes utterances incrementally .

Tetreault 's contribution features comparative evaluation involving the author 's own centering-based pronoun resolution algorithm called the Left-Right Centering algorithm ( LRC ) as well as three other pronoun resolution methods : Hobbs 's naive algorithm ( Hobbs 1978 ) , BFP ( Brennan , Friedman , and Pollard 1987 ) , and Strube 's 5list approach ( @@CITATION ) .


mercure towards an automatic email followup system

In addition , rather than including actual response sentences in a reply , their system matches response sentences to pre-existing templates and returns the templates . Lapalme and Kosseim ( 2003 ) investigated three approaches to the automatic generation of response e-mails : text classification , case-based reasoning , and question answering . Text classification was used to group request e-mails into broad categories , some of which , such as requests for financial reports , can be automatically addressed .

@@CITATION investigated three approaches to the automatic generation of response e-mails : text classification , case-based reasoning , and question answering .


machine translation divergences a formal description and proposed solution

For example , headwords in both languages are chosen to force a synchronized alignment ( for better or worse ) in order to simplify cases involving so-called head-switching . This contrasts with one of the traditional approaches ( e.g. , Dorr 1994 ; Watanabe 1995 ) to posing the translation problem , i.e. , the approach in which translation problems are seen in terms of bridging the gap between the most natural monolingual representations underlying the sentences of each language . The training method has four stages : ( i ) Compute co-occurrence statistics from the training data .

This contrasts with one of the traditional approaches ( e.g. , @@CITATION ; Watanabe 1995 ) to posing the translation problem , i.e. , the approach in which translation problems are seen in terms of bridging the gap between the most natural monolingual representations underlying the sentences of each language .


verbmobil a translation system for facetoface dialog

Stanford University is developing the English Resource Grammar , an HPSG grammar for English , as a part of the Linguistic Grammars Online ( LinGO ) project ( Flickinger , 2000 ) . In practical context , German , English , and Japanese HPSG-based grammars are developed and used in the Verbmobil project ( Kay et al. , 1994 ) . Our group has developed a wide-coverage HPSG grammar for Japanese ( Mitsuishi et al. , 1998 ) , which is used in a high-accuracy Japanese dependency analyzer ( Kanayama et al. , 2000 ) .

In practical context , German , English , and Japanese HPSG-based grammars are developed and used in the Verbmobil project ( @@CITATION ) .


the use of classifiers in sequential inference

While earlier work in this direction concentrated on manual construction of rules , most of the recent work has been motivated by the observation that shallow syntactic information can be extracted using local information by examining the pattern itself , its nearby context and the local part-of-speech information . Thus , over the past few years , along with advances in the use of learning and statistical methods for acquisition of full parsers ( Collins , 1997 ; Charniak , 1997a ; Charniak , 1997b ; Ratnaparkhi , 1997 ) , significant progress has been made on the use of statistical learning methods to recognize shallow parsing patterns syntactic phrases or words that participate in a syntactic relationship ( Church , 1988 ; Ramshaw and Marcus , 1995 ; Argamon et al. , 1998 ; Cardie and Pierce , 1998 ; Munoz et al. , 1999 ; Punyakanok and Roth , 2001 ; Buchholz et al. , 1999 ; Tjong Kim Sang and Buchholz , 2000 ) . Research on shallow parsing was inspired by psycholinguistics arguments ( Gee and Grosjean , 1983 ) that suggest that in many scenarios ( e.g. , conversational ) full parsing is not a realistic strategy for sentence processing and analysis , and was further motivated by several arguments from a natural language engineering viewpoint .

Thus , over the past few years , along with advances in the use of learning and statistical methods for acquisition of full parsers ( Collins , 1997 ; Charniak , 1997a ; Charniak , 1997b ; Ratnaparkhi , 1997 ) , significant progress has been made on the use of statistical learning methods to recognize shallow parsing patterns syntactic phrases or words that participate in a syntactic relationship ( Church , 1988 ; Ramshaw and Marcus , 1995 ; Argamon et al. , 1998 ; Cardie and Pierce , 1998 ; Munoz et al. , 1999 ; @@CITATION ; Buchholz et al. , 1999 ; Tjong Kim Sang and Buchholz , 2000 ) .


chartbased transfer rule application in machine translation

Due to these limitations , instead of investigating into the synchronization of two grammars , we propose a flexible annotation schema ( i.e. Synchronous Structured String-Tree Correspondence ( S-SSTC ) ) to realize additional power and flexibility in expressing structural correspondences at the level of language sentence pairs . For example , such schema can serve as a mean to represent translation examples , or find structural correspondences for the purpose of transfer grammar learning ( Menezes & Richardson , 2001 ) , ( Aramaki et al. , 2001 ) , ( Watanabe et al. , 2000 ) , ( Meyers et al. , 2000 ) , ( Matsumoto et al. , 1993 ) , ( kaji et al. , 1992 ) , and example-base machine translation EBMT3 ( Sato & Nagao , 1990 ) , ( Sato , 1991 ) , ( Richardson et al. , 2001 ) , ( Al-Adhaileh & Tang , 1999 ) .

For example , such schema can serve as a mean to represent translation examples , or find structural correspondences for the purpose of transfer grammar learning ( Menezes & Richardson , 2001 ) , ( Aramaki et al. , 2001 ) , ( Watanabe et al. , 2000 ) , ( @@CITATION ) , ( Matsumoto et al. , 1993 ) , ( kaji et al. , 1992 ) , and example-base machine translation EBMT3 ( Sato & Nagao , 1990 ) , ( Sato , 1991 ) , ( Richardson et al. , 2001 ) , ( Al-Adhaileh & Tang , 1999 ) .


the effects of redundant communications on listeners when more is less child development

While IA is generally thought to be consistent with findings on human language production ( Hermann and Deutsch 1976 ; Levelt 1989 ; Pechmann 1989 ; Sonnenschein 1982 ) , the hypothesis that incrementality is a good model of human GRE seems unfalsifiable until a preference order is specified for the properties on which it operates . ( Wildly redundant descriptions can result if the ` wrong ' preference order are chosen . )

While IA is generally thought to be consistent with findings on human language production ( Hermann and Deutsch 1976 ; Levelt 1989 ; Pechmann 1989 ; @@CITATION ) , the hypothesis that incrementality is a good model of human GRE seems unfalsifiable until a preference order is specified for the properties on which it operates .


building concept reprezentations from reusable components

In the Rapid Knowledge Formation Project ( RKF ) a support system was developed for domain experts . It helps them build complex knowledge bases by combining components : events , entities and modifiers ( Clark and Porter , 1997 ) . The system 's interface facilitates the expert 's task of creating and manipulating structures which represent domain concepts , and assigning them relations from a relation dictionary .

It helps them build complex knowledge bases by combining components : events , entities and modifiers ( @@CITATION ) .


hpsgstyle underspecified japanese grammar with wide coverage

Yutaka Mitsuishi
Kentaro Torisawa
Jun’ichi Tsujii

In practical context , German , English , and Japanese HPSG-based grammars are developed and used in the Verbmobil project ( Kay et al. , 1994 ) . Our group has developed a wide-coverage HPSG grammar for Japanese ( Mitsuishi et al. , 1998 ) , which is used in a high-accuracy Japanese dependency analyzer ( Kanayama et al. , 2000 ) .

Our group has developed a wide-coverage HPSG grammar for Japanese ( @@CITATION ) , which is used in a high-accuracy Japanese dependency analyzer ( Kanayama et al. , 2000 ) .


web googles missing pages mystery solved httpaixtalblogspotcom200502webgooglesmissingpagesmysteryhtml accessed

A key concern in corpus linguistics and related disciplines is verifiability and replicability of the results of studies . Word frequency counts in internet search engines are inconsistent and unreliable ( Veronis , 2005 ) . Tools based on static corpora do not suffer from this problem , e.g. BNCweb7 , developed at the University of Zurich , and View 8 ( Variation in English Words and Phrases , developed at Brigham Young University )

Word frequency counts in internet search engines are inconsistent and unreliable ( @@CITATION ) .


evaluating anaphora resolution approaches

Against the background of a growing interest in multilingual NLP , multilingual anaphora / coreference resolution has gained considerable momentum in recent years ( Aone and McKee 1993 ; Azzam , Humphreys , and Gaizauskas 1998 ; Harabagiu and Maiorano 2000 ; Mitkov and Barbu 2000 ; Mitkov 1999 ; Mitkov and Stys 1997 ; Mitkov , Belguith , and Stys 1998 ) . Other milestones of recent research include the deployment of probabilistic and machine learning techniques ( Aone and Bennett 1995 ; Kehler 1997 ; Ge , Hale , and Charniak 1998 ; Cardie and Wagstaff 1999 ; the continuing interest in centering , used either in original or in revised form ( Abracos and Lopes 1994 ; Strube and Hahn 1996 ; Hahn and Strube 1997 ; Tetreault 1999 ) ; and proposals related to the evaluation methodology in anaphora resolution ( Mitkov 1998a , 2001b ) . For a more detailed survey of the state of the art in anaphora resolution , see Mitkov ( forthcoming ) .

Other milestones of recent research include the deployment of probabilistic and machine learning techniques ( Aone and Bennett 1995 ; Kehler 1997 ; Ge , Hale , and Charniak 1998 ; Cardie and Wagstaff 1999 ; the continuing interest in centering , used either in original or in revised form ( Abracos and Lopes 1994 ; Strube and Hahn 1996 ; Hahn and Strube 1997 ; Tetreault 1999 ) ; and proposals related to the evaluation methodology in anaphora resolution ( @@CITATIONa , 2001b ) .


the semeval2007 weps evaluation establishing a benchmark for the web people search task

Javier Artiles
Julio Gonzalo
Satoshi Sekine

Most of early research work on person name ambiguity focuses on the CDC problem or uses methods found in the WSD literature . It is only recently that the web name ambiguity has been approached as a separate problem and defined as an NLP task Web People Search on its own ( Artiles et al. , 2005 ; Artiles et al. , 2007 ) . Therefore , it is useful to point out some crucial differences between WSD , CRC and WePS :

It is only recently that the web name ambiguity has been approached as a separate problem and defined as an NLP task Web People Search on its own ( Artiles et al. , 2005 ; @@CITATION ) .


nearoptimal hashing algorithms for approximate nearest neighbor in high dimensions

Further , compared to the retrieval , the local training is not the bottleneck . Actually , if we use LSH technique ( Andoni and Indyk , 2008 ) in retrieval process , the local method can be easily scaled to a larger training data .

Actually , if we use LSH technique ( @@CITATION ) in retrieval process , the local method can be easily scaled to a larger training data .


the automatic acquisition of frequencies of verb subcategorization frames from tagged corpora

Akira Ushioda
David Evans
Ted Gibson
Alex Waibel

However , as it stands , neither of these functions betrays anything about the syntactic nature of the constructs in question . Many lexicons , both automatically acquired and manually created , are more fine grained in their approaches to subcategorized clausal arguments , differentiating , for example , between a that-clause and a to + infinitive clause ( Ushioda et al. 1993 ) . With only a slight modification , our system , along with the details provided by the automatically generated f-structures , allows us to extract frames with an equivalent level of detail .

Many lexicons , both automatically acquired and manually created , are more fine grained in their approaches to subcategorized clausal arguments , differentiating , for example , between a that-clause and a to + infinitive clause ( @@CITATION ) .


learning to interpret natural language navigation instructions from observations

Some approaches apply semantic parsing , where words and sentences are mapped to logical structure meaning ( Kate and Mooney , 2007 ) . Others provide automatic mappings of natural language instructions to executable actions , such as interpreting navigation directions ( Chen and Mooney , 2011 ) or robot commands ( Tellex et al. , 2011 ; Matuszek et al. , 2012 ) . Some efforts have tackled tasks such as automatic image caption generation ( Feng and Lapata , 2010a ; Ordonez et al. , 2011 ) , text illustration ( Joshi et al. , 2006 ) , or automatic location identification of Twitter users ( Eisenstein et al. , 2010 ; Wing and Baldridge , 2011 ; Roller et al. , 2012 ) .

Others provide automatic mappings of natural language instructions to executable actions , such as interpreting navigation directions ( @@CITATION ) or robot commands ( Tellex et al. , 2011 ; Matuszek et al. , 2012 ) .


coefficient kappa some uses misuses and alternatives

A measure was derived for each annotated feature using the agreement analysis facility provided in ANVIL . Agreement between two annotation sets is calculated here in terms of Cohen 's kappa ( Cohen , 1960 ) 1 and corrected kappa ( Brennan and Prediger , 1981 ) 2 . Anvil divides the annotations in slices and compares each slice .

Agreement between two annotation sets is calculated here in terms of Cohen 's kappa ( Cohen , 1960 ) 1 and corrected kappa ( @@CITATION ) 2 .


the interaction of domain knowledge and linguistic structure in natural language processing interpreting hypernymic propositions in biomedical text

First , substantial understanding of the domain has already been codified in the Unified Medical Language System ( UMLS ) ( Lindberg , Humphreys , and McCray 1993 ) . Second , software for utilizing this ontology already exists : MetaMap ( Aronson 2001 ) identifies concepts in free text , and SemRep ( Rindflesch and Fiszman 2003 ) extracts relations between the concepts . Both systems utilize and propagate semantic information from UMLS knowledge sources : the Metathesaurus , the Semantic Network , and the SPECIALIST lexicon .

Second , software for utilizing this ontology already exists : MetaMap ( Aronson 2001 ) identifies concepts in free text , and SemRep ( @@CITATION ) extracts relations between the concepts .


bootstrapping postaggers using unlabelled data

Stephen Clark
James R Curran
Miles Osborne

We can also load a lexicon into memory that is shared between all of the components , reducing the memory use . The implementation has been inspired by experience in extracting information from very large corpora ( Curran and Moens , 2002 ) and performing experiments on maximum entropy sequence tagging ( Curran and Clark , 2003 ; Clark et al. , 2003 ) . We have already implemented a POS tagger , chunker , CCG supertagger and named entity recogniser using the infrastructure .

The implementation has been inspired by experience in extracting information from very large corpora ( Curran and Moens , 2002 ) and performing experiments on maximum entropy sequence tagging ( Curran and Clark , 2003 ; @@CITATION ) .


im2text describing images using 1 million captioned photographs

Vicente Ordonez
Girish Kulkarni
Tamara L Berg

Others provide automatic mappings of natural language instructions to executable actions , such as interpreting navigation directions ( Chen and Mooney , 2011 ) or robot commands ( Tellex et al. , 2011 ; Matuszek et al. , 2012 ) . Some efforts have tackled tasks such as automatic image caption generation ( Feng and Lapata , 2010a ; Ordonez et al. , 2011 ) , text illustration ( Joshi et al. , 2006 ) , or automatic location identification of Twitter users ( Eisenstein et al. , 2010 ; Wing and Baldridge , 2011 ; Roller et al. , 2012 ) . Another line of research approaches grounded language knowledge by augmenting distributional approaches of word meaning with perceptual information ( Andrews et al. , 2009 ; Steyvers , 2010 ; Feng and Lapata , 2010b ; Bruni et al. , 2011 ; Silberer and Lapata , 2012 ; Johns and Jones , 2012 ; Bruni et al. , 2012a ; Bruni et al. , 2012b ; Silberer et al. , 2013 ) .

Some efforts have tackled tasks such as automatic image caption generation ( Feng and Lapata , 2010a ; @@CITATION ) , text illustration ( Joshi et al. , 2006 ) , or automatic location identification of Twitter users ( Eisenstein et al. , 2010 ; Wing and Baldridge , 2011 ; Roller et al. , 2012 ) .


Numbers under `` ECMF '' are Entity-Constrained-Mention F-measure and numbers under `` ACE-Val '' are ACE-values . These types of features result in an improvement in both the mention detection and coreference resolution performance , as shown through experiments on the ACE 2004 Arabic data . The experiments are performed on a clearly specified partition of the data , so comparisons against the presented work can be correctly and accurately made in the future .

These types of features result in an improvement in both the mention detection and coreference resolution performance , as shown through experiments on the @@CITATION Arabic data .


This corpus annotation bottleneck becomes even more problematic for voluminous data sets drawn from the web . The use of the web as a corpus for teaching and research on language has been proposed a number of times ( Kilgarriff , 2001 ; Robb , 2003 ; Rundell , 2000 ; Fletcher , 2001 , 2004b ) and received a special issue of the journal Computational Linguistics ( Kilgarriff and Grefenstette , 2003 ) . Studies have used several different methods to mine web data .

The use of the web as a corpus for teaching and research on language has been proposed a number of times ( Kilgarriff , 2001 ; @@CITATION ; Rundell , 2000 ; Fletcher , 2001 , 2004b ) and received a special issue of the journal Computational Linguistics ( Kilgarriff and Grefenstette , 2003 ) .


discriminative reranking for natural language parsing

We show that these PCFG-reductions result in a 60 times speedup in processing time w.r.t. Bod ( 2001 , 2003 ) . But while Bod 's estimator obtains state-of-the-art results on the WSJ , comparable to Charniak ( 2000 ) and Collins ( 2000 ) , Bonnema et al. 's estimator performs worse and is comparable to Collins ( 1996 ) . In the second part of this paper , we extend our experiments with a new notion of the best parse tree .

But while Bod 's estimator obtains state-of-the-art results on the WSJ , comparable to Charniak ( 2000 ) and @@CITATION , Bonnema et al. 's estimator performs worse and is comparable to Collins ( 1996 ) .


The implementation has been inspired by experience in extracting information from very large corpora ( @@CITATION ) and performing experiments on maximum entropy sequence tagging ( Curran and Clark , 2003 ; Clark et al. , 2003 ) .


models of semantic representation with visual attributes

Carina Silberer
Vittorio Ferrari
Mirella Lapata

Some efforts have tackled tasks such as automatic image caption generation ( Feng and Lapata , 2010a ; Ordonez et al. , 2011 ) , text illustration ( Joshi et al. , 2006 ) , or automatic location identification of Twitter users ( Eisenstein et al. , 2010 ; Wing and Baldridge , 2011 ; Roller et al. , 2012 ) . Another line of research approaches grounded language knowledge by augmenting distributional approaches of word meaning with perceptual information ( Andrews et al. , 2009 ; Steyvers , 2010 ; Feng and Lapata , 2010b ; Bruni et al. , 2011 ; Silberer and Lapata , 2012 ; Johns and Jones , 2012 ; Bruni et al. , 2012a ; Bruni et al. , 2012b ; Silberer et al. , 2013 ) . Although these approaches have differed in model definition , the general goal in this line of research has been to enhance word meaning with perceptual information in order to address one of the most common criticisms of distributional semantics : that the `` meaning of words is entirely given by other words '' ( Bruni et al. , 2012b ) .

Another line of research approaches grounded language knowledge by augmenting distributional approaches of word meaning with perceptual information ( Andrews et al. , 2009 ; Steyvers , 2010 ; Feng and Lapata , 2010b ; Bruni et al. , 2011 ; Silberer and Lapata , 2012 ; Johns and Jones , 2012 ; Bruni et al. , 2012a ; Bruni et al. , 2012b ; @@CITATION ) .


headdriven statistical models for natural language parsing

We do not use any other lexical 0-features that reference x , for fear that they would enable the learner to explain the rationales without changing 0 as desired ( see the end of section 5.3 ) . 14We parse each sentence with the Collins parser ( Collins , 1999 ) . Then the document has one big parse tree , whose root is DOC , with each sentence being a child of DOC .

14We parse each sentence with the Collins parser ( @@CITATION ) .


chunkbased verb reordering in vso sentences for arabicenglish statistical machine translation

Word reordering between German and English is a complex problem . Encouraged by the success of chunk-based verb reordering lattices on ArabicEnglish ( Bisazza and Federico , 2010 ) , we tried to adapt the same approach to the German-English language pair . It turned out that there is a larger variety of long reordering patterns in this case .

Encouraged by the success of chunk-based verb reordering lattices on ArabicEnglish ( @@CITATION ) , we tried to adapt the same approach to the German-English language pair .


morphological decomposition and the reverse base frequency effect

In order to validate such claim we perform a lexical decision experiment using 32 native Bangla speakers with 92 different verb sequences . We followed the same experimental procedure as discussed in ( Taft , 2004 ) for English polymorphemic words . However , rather than derived words , the subjects were shown a verb sequence and asked whether they recognize them as a valid combination .

We followed the same experimental procedure as discussed in ( @@CITATION ) for English polymorphemic words .


thumbs up sentiment classification using machine learning techniques

In our experiments , we employed the well-known classifier SVM `` ght to obtain individual-document classification scores , treating Y as the positive class and using plain unigrams as features .5 Following standard practice in sentiment analysis ( Pang et al. , 2002 ) , the input to SVM `` ght consisted of normalized presence-of-feature ( rather than frequency-of-feature ) vectors . The ind value 5SVMlight is available at svmlight.joachims.org .

In our experiments , we employed the well-known classifier SVM `` ght to obtain individual-document classification scores , treating Y as the positive class and using plain unigrams as features .5 Following standard practice in sentiment analysis ( @@CITATION ) , the input to SVM `` ght consisted of normalized presence-of-feature ( rather than frequency-of-feature ) vectors .


relaxation techniques for parsing grammatically illformed input in natural language understanding systems

A detailed description of the kinds of expectation mechanisms appearing in these systems appears in Fink ( 1983 ) . The problem of handling ill-formed input has been studied by Carbonell and Hayes ( 1983 ) , Granger ( 1983 ) , Jensen et al. ( 1983 ) , Kwasny and Sondheimer ( 1981 ) , Riesbeck and Schank ( 1976 ) , Thompson ( 1980 ) , Weischedel and Black ( 1980 ) , and Weischedel and Sondheimer ( 1983 ) . A wide variety of techniques have been developed for addressing problems at the word , phrase , sentence , and in some cases , dialogue level .

The problem of handling ill-formed input has been studied by Carbonell and Hayes ( 1983 ) , Granger ( 1983 ) , Jensen et al. ( 1983 ) , @@CITATION , Riesbeck and Schank ( 1976 ) , Thompson ( 1980 ) , Weischedel and Black ( 1980 ) , and Weischedel and Sondheimer ( 1983 ) .


un outil multilingue de generation de ltag  application au francais et a l’italien

Generally , the problem is not so much to state the correspondances between synonymic but syntactically different constructs as to do this in a general way while not overgeneralising . To address this problem , we are currently working on developing a metagrammar in the sense of ( Candito , 1999 ) . This metagrammar allows us to factorise both syntactic and semantic information .

To address this problem , we are currently working on developing a metagrammar in the sense of ( @@CITATION ) .


For example , in considering the connection between syntax and phrasing , the linguistic literature most often refers to examples of embedded sentences . Sentences like 12 , from Chomsky ( 1965 ) , are frequently cited . ( Square brackets mark off the NP constituents that contain embedded sentences . )

Sentences like 12 , from @@CITATION , are frequently cited .


annotating the propositions in the penn chinese treebank

This paper made the first attempt on Chinese SRL and produced promising results . After the PropBank ( Xue and Palmer 2003 ) was built , Xue and Palmer ( 2005 ) and Xue ( 2008 ) have produced more complete and systematic research on Chinese SRL . Moschitti et al. ( 2005 ) has made some preliminary attempt on the idea of hierarchical semantic

After the PropBank ( @@CITATION ) was built , Xue and Palmer ( 2005 ) and Xue ( 2008 ) have produced more complete and systematic research on Chinese SRL .


bayesian inference for pcfgs via markov chain monte carlo

Mark Johnson
Thomas Griffiths
Sharon Goldwater

In this paper , we seek to learn from only raw data and an incomplete dictionary mapping some words to sets of potential supertags . In order to estimate the parameters of our model , we develop a blocked sampler based on that of Johnson et al. ( 2007 ) to sample parse trees for sentences in the raw training corpus according to their posterior probabilities . However , due to the very large sets of potential supertags used in a parse , computing inside charts is intractable , so we design a Metropolis-Hastings step that allows us to sample efficiently from the correct posterior .

In order to estimate the parameters of our model , we develop a blocked sampler based on that of @@CITATION to sample parse trees for sentences in the raw training corpus according to their posterior probabilities .


statistical decision tree models for parsing

Chen and Vijay-Shanker ( 2000 ) explore a number of related approaches to the extraction of a lexicalized TAG from the Penn-II Treebank with the aim of constructing a statistical model for parsing . The extraction procedure utilizes a head percolation table as introduced by Magerman ( 1995 ) in combination with a variation of Collins 's ( 1997 ) approach to the differentiation between complement and adjunct . This results in the construction of a set of lexically anchored elementary trees which make up the TAG in question .

The extraction procedure utilizes a head percolation table as introduced by @@CITATION in combination with a variation of Collins 's ( 1997 ) approach to the differentiation between complement and adjunct .


This means that the microplanner will not be able to make optimal pronominalization decisions in cases where le or la are unambiguous , but l' is not , since it does not know word order and hence whether the pronoun will be abbreviated . Many other such cases are described in Danlos 's book ( Danlos 1987 ) . The common theme behind many of these examples is that pipelines have difficulties satisfying linguistic constraints ( such as unambiguous reference ) or performing linguistic optimizations ( such as using pronouns instead of longer referring expressions whenever possible ) in cases where the constraints or optimizations depend on decisions made in multiple modules .

Many other such cases are described in Danlos 's book ( @@CITATION ) .


For example , the pattern `` What is the population '' gets replaced by `` NUMBER$ population '' . â¢ Before indexing the text , we process it with Textract ( Byrd and Ravin , 1998 ; Wacholder et al. , 1997 ) , which performs lemmatization , and discovers proper names and technical terms . We added a new module ( Resporator ) which annotates text segments with QA-Tokens using pattern matching .

â¢ Before indexing the text , we process it with Textract ( Byrd and Ravin , 1998 ; @@CITATION ) , which performs lemmatization , and discovers proper names and technical terms .


arabic tokenization partofspeech tagging and morphological disambiguation in one fell swoop

Put differently , we are interested in the tradeoff between relevance and accuracy . Therefore , we repeated the experiments with POS tags predicted by the MADA toolkit ( Habash and Rambow 2005 ; Habash , Rambow , and Roth 2012 ) 15 ( see Table 2 , 14 Some parsers predict POS tags internally , instead of receiving them as input , but this is not the case in this article . 15 We use MADA v3 .1 in all of our experiments .

Therefore , we repeated the experiments with POS tags predicted by the MADA toolkit ( @@CITATION ; Habash , Rambow , and Roth 2012 ) 15 ( see Table 2 , 14 Some parsers predict POS tags internally , instead of receiving them as input , but this is not the case in this article .


automatic semantic role labeling for chinese verbs

For semantic analysis , developing features that capture the right kind of information is crucial . Experiments on Chinese SRL ( Xue and Palmer 2005 , Xue 2008 ) reassured these findings . In this paper , we mainly focus on the semantic role classification ( SRC ) process .

Experiments on Chinese SRL ( @@CITATION , Xue 2008 ) reassured these findings .


maximum entropy models for natural language ambiguity resolution

However , it will be increasingly important as techniques become more complex and corpus sizes grow . An example of this is the estimation of maximum entropy models , from simple iterative estimation algorithms used by Ratnaparkhi ( 1998 ) that converge very slowly , to complex techniques from the optimisation literature that converge much more rapidly ( Malouf , 2002 ) . Other attempts to address efficiency include the fast Transformation Based Learning ( TBL ) Toolkit ( Ngai and Florian , 2001 ) which dramatically speeds up training TBL systems , and the translation of TBL rules into finite state machines for very fast tagging ( Roche and Schabes , 1997 ) .

An example of this is the estimation of maximum entropy models , from simple iterative estimation algorithms used by @@CITATION that converge very slowly , to complex techniques from the optimisation literature that converge much more rapidly ( Malouf , 2002 ) .


evaluating wordnetbased measures of semantic distance

The knowledge sources used for computing relatedness can be as different as dictionaries , ontologies or large corpora . According to Budanitsky and Hirst ( 2006 ) , there are three prevalent approaches for evaluating SR measures : mathematical analysis , applicationspecific evaluation and comparison with human judgments . Mathematical analysis can assess a measure with respect to some formal properties , e.g. whether a measure is a metric ( Lin , 1998 ) .4 However , mathematical analysis can not tell us whether a measure closely resembles human judgments or whether it performs best when used in a certain application .

According to @@CITATION , there are three prevalent approaches for evaluating SR measures : mathematical analysis , applicationspecific evaluation and comparison with human judgments .


algorithm selection and model adaptation for esl correction tasks

The other system components use the preprocessing tools only as part of candidate generation ( e.g. , to identify all nouns in the data for the noun classifier ) . The choice of learning algorithm for each classifier is motivated by earlier findings showing that discriminative classifiers outperform other machine-learning methods on error correction tasks ( Rozovskaya and Roth , 2011 ) . Thus , the classifiers trained on the learner data make use of a discriminative model .

The choice of learning algorithm for each classifier is motivated by earlier findings showing that discriminative classifiers outperform other machine-learning methods on error correction tasks ( @@CITATION ) .


a reexamination of text categorization methods”

For example , ( Fang et al. , 2001 ) discusses the evaluation of two different text categorization strategies with several variations of their feature spaces . A good study comparing document categorization algorithms can be found in ( Yang and Liu , 1999 ) . More recently , ( Sebastiani , 2002 ) has performed a good survey of document categorization ; recent works can also be found in ( Joachims , 2002 ) , ( Crammer and Singer , 2003 ) , and ( Lewis et al. , 2004 ) .

A good study comparing document categorization algorithms can be found in ( @@CITATION ) .


an inequality and associated maximization technique in statistical estimation of probabilistic functions of a markov process

â¢ In many cases of interest , Ti is an acyclic graph .20 Then Tar an 's method computes w0j for each j in topologically sorted order , thereby finding ti in a linear number of â and â operations . For HMMs ( footnote 11 ) , Ti is the familiar trellis , and we would like this computation of ti to reduce to the forwardbackward algorithm ( Baum , 1972 ) . But notice that it has no backward pass .

For HMMs ( footnote 11 ) , Ti is the familiar trellis , and we would like this computation of ti to reduce to the forwardbackward algorithm ( @@CITATION ) .


productive generation of compound words in statistical machine translation

This approach resulted in too many compounds . We follow Stymne and Cancedda ( 2011 ) , for compound merging . We trained a CRF using ( nearly all ) of the features they used and found their approach to be effective ( when combined with inflection and portmanteau merging ) on one of our two test sets .

We follow @@CITATION , for compound merging .


the case for casequot in universals in linguistic theory

In this case , the verb has no information concerning its subject , and so it identifies it as an unbound pronoun . Semantic filters can also be used to prevent multiple versions of the same case frame ( Fillmore 1968 ) showing up as complements . For instance , the set of complements [ from-place ] , [ to-place ] , and [ at-time ] are freely ordered following a movement verb such as `` leave . ''

Semantic filters can also be used to prevent multiple versions of the same case frame ( @@CITATION ) showing up as complements .


termextraction using nontechnical corpora as a point of leverage

CompuTerm 2004 3rd International Workshop on Computational Terminology 43 To construct this test set , we have focused our attention on ten domain-specific terms : commande ( command ) , configuration , fichier ( file ) , Internet , logiciel ( software ) , option , ordinateur ( computer ) , serveur ( server ) , systeme ( system ) , utilisateur ( user ) . The terms have been identified as the most specific to our corpus by a program developed by Drouin ( 2003 ) and called TER1vloSTAT . The ten most specific nouns have been produced by comparing our corpus of computing to the French corpus Le Monde , composed of newspaper articles ( Lemay et al. , 2004 ) .

The terms have been identified as the most specific to our corpus by a program developed by @@CITATION and called TER1vloSTAT .


algorithms for deterministic incremental dependency parsing

Unlabeled attachment accuracy score ( UAS ) and label accuracy ( dependency relation regardless of parent , LS ) are also given . For statistical significance , we use McNemar 's test on non-gold LAS , as implemented by Nilsson and Nivre ( 2008 ) . We denote p < 0.05 and p < 0.01 with + and + + , respectively .

For statistical significance , we use McNemar 's test on non-gold LAS , as implemented by Nilsson and @@CITATION .


a rational design for a weighted finitestate transducer library

An artificial example will appear in Â§ 2 . The availability of toolkits for this weighted case ( Mohri et al. , 1998 ; van Noord and Gerdemann , 2001 ) promises to unify much of statistical NLP . Such tools make it easy to run most current approaches to statistical markup , chunking , normalization , segmentation , alignment , and noisy-channel decoding , ' including classic models for speech recognition ( Pereira and Riley , 1997 ) and machine translation ( Knight and Al-Onaizan , 1998 ) .

The availability of toolkits for this weighted case ( @@CITATION ; van Noord and Gerdemann , 2001 ) promises to unify much of statistical NLP .


In the CLE-QLF approach , as ra - tionally reconstructed by Alshawi and Crouch ( 1992 ) and Crouch and Putman ( 1994 ) , the context-independent meaning of a sentence is given by one or more QLFs that are built directly from syntactic and semantic rules . Just as here , these QLFs represent the basic predicate argument structure of the sentence , and contain constructs which represent those aspects of the meaning of the sentence that are dependent on context .

tionally reconstructed by @@CITATION and Crouch and Putman ( 1994 ) , the context-independent meaning of a sentence is given by one or more QLFs that are built directly from syntactic and semantic rules .


understanding the value of features for coreference resolution

Datasets The ACE-2004 dataset contains 443 documents . We use a standard split of 268 training documents , 68 development documents , and 106 testing documents ( Culotta et al. , 2007 ; Bengtson and Roth , 2008 ) . The OntoNotes-5 .0 dataset , which is released for the CoNLL-2012 Shared Task ( Pradhan et al. , 2012 ) , contains 3,145 annotated documents .

We use a standard split of 268 training documents , 68 development documents , and 106 testing documents ( Culotta et al. , 2007 ; @@CITATION ) .


Fraser ( 2009 ) tried to solve the inflection prediction problem by simply building an SMT system for translating from stems to inflected forms . Bojar and Kos ( 2010 ) improved on this by marking prepositions with the case they mark ( one of the most important markups in our system ) . Both efforts were ineffective on large data sets .

@@CITATION improved on this by marking prepositions with the case they mark ( one of the most important markups in our system ) .


efficient generation in primitive optimality theory

Just like OT grammars , HMM Viterbi decoders are functions that pick the optimal output from E * , based on criteria of well-formedness ( transition probabilities ) and faithfulness to the input ( emission probabilities ) . But typical OT grammars offer much richer finite-state models of left context ( Eisner 1997a ) than provided by the traditional HMM finite-state topologies . Now , among methods that use a Gibbs distribution to choose among linguistic forms , OT generation is special in that the distribution ranks the features strictly , rather than weighting them in a gentler way that allows tradeoffs .

But typical OT grammars offer much richer finite-state models of left context ( @@CITATIONa ) than provided by the traditional HMM finite-state topologies .


Mehryar Mohri
Fernando C N Pereira
Michael Riley

This gives a greater flexibility but the tradeoff is that these tools can run very slowly . Other tools have been designed around particular techniques , such as finite state machines ( Karttunen et al. , 1997 ; Mohri et al. , 1998 ) . However , the source code for these tools is not freely available , so they can not be extended .

Other tools have been designed around particular techniques , such as finite state machines ( Karttunen et al. , 1997 ; @@CITATION ) .


utilizing citations of foreign words in corpusbased dictionary generation

As can be seen , with an average score of 51.8 the improvement over the English only variant ( 50.6 ) is minimal . This contrasts with the findings described in Rapp & Zock ( 2010 ) where significant improvements could be achieved by increasing the number of source languages . So this casts some doubt on these .

This contrasts with the findings described in @@CITATION where significant improvements could be achieved by increasing the number of source languages .


FindBestValue selects the ` best value ' from among the Values of a given Attribute , assuming that these are linearly ordered in terms of specificity . The function selects the Value that removes most distractors , but in case of a tie , the least specific contestant is chosen , as long as it is not less specific than the basic-level Value ( i.e. , the most commonly occurring and psychologically most fundamental level , Rosch 1978 ) . IAPlur can refer to individuals as well as sets , since reference to a target individual r can be modeled as reference to the singleton set -LCB- r -RCB- .

The function selects the Value that removes most distractors , but in case of a tie , the least specific contestant is chosen , as long as it is not less specific than the basic-level Value ( i.e. , the most commonly occurring and psychologically most fundamental level , @@CITATION ) .


However , even with the present setup , automatic extraction of concept pairs performs remarkably well and can be used to quickly create balanced test datasets . Budanitsky and Hirst ( 2006 ) pointed out that distribution plots of judgments for the word pairs used by Rubenstein and Goodenough display an empty horizontal band that could be used to separate related and unrelated pairs . This empty band is not observed here .

@@CITATION pointed out that distribution plots of judgments for the word pairs used by Rubenstein and Goodenough display an empty horizontal band that could be used to separate related and unrelated pairs .


has a consensus nl generation architecture appeared and is it psycholinguistically plausible

This approach is the one taken ( implicitly or explicitly ) in the majority of generators . In fact , Reiter has even argued in favor of this approach , claiming that the interactions are sufficiently minor to be ignored ( or at least handled on an ad hoc basis ) ( Reiter 1994 ) . While this certainly has appeal as a design methodology , it seems reckless to assume that problems will never appear .

In fact , Reiter has even argued in favor of this approach , claiming that the interactions are sufficiently minor to be ignored ( or at least handled on an ad hoc basis ) ( @@CITATION ) .


reranking and selftraining for parser adaptation

The parse with the best reordering score is then fixed and added back to the training set and a new parser is trained on resulting data . The method is called targeted self-training as it is similar in vein to self-training ( McClosky et al. , 2006 ) , with the exception that the new parse data is targeted to produce accurate word reorderings . Our method differs as it does not statically fix a new parse , but dynamically updates the parameters and parse selection by incorporating the additional loss in the inner loop of online learning .

The method is called targeted self-training as it is similar in vein to self-training ( @@CITATION ) , with the exception that the new parse data is targeted to produce accurate word reorderings .


what do we know about conversation participants experiments on conversation entailment

Here we address a different angle regarding conversation scripts , namely conversation entailment . In our previous work ( Zhang and Chai , 2009 ) , we started an initial investigation on conversation entailment . We have collected a dataset of 875 instances .

In our previous work ( @@CITATION ) , we started an initial investigation on conversation entailment .


Butt ( 1993 ) argues CV formations in Hindi and Urdu are either morphological or syntactical and their formation take place at the argument structure . Bashir ( 1993 ) tried to construct a semantic analysis based on `` prepared '' and `` unprepared mind '' . Similar findings have been proposed by Pandharipande ( 1993 ) that points out V1 and V2 are paired on the basis of their semantic compatibility , which is subject to syntactic constraints .

@@CITATION tried to construct a semantic analysis based on `` prepared '' and `` unprepared mind '' .


a corpusbased approach to automatic compound extraction

One way to increase the precision of the mapping process is to impose some linguistic constraints on the sequences such as simple noun-phrase contraints ( Gaussier , 1995 ; Kupiec , 1993 ; hua Chen and Chen , 94 ; Fung , 1995 ; Evans and Zhai , 1996 ) . It is also possible to focus on non-compositional compounds , a key point in bilingual applications ( Su et al. , 1994 ; Melamed , 1997 ; Lin , 99 ) . Another interesting approach is to restrict sequences to those that do not cross constituent boundary patterns ( Wu , 1995 ; Furuse and Iida , 96 ) .

It is also possible to focus on non-compositional compounds , a key point in bilingual applications ( @@CITATION ; Melamed , 1997 ; Lin , 99 ) .


a computational morphology system for arabic”

In Arabic , however , the use of stems will not yield satisfactory categorization . This is mainly due to the fact that Arabic is a non-concatenative language ( Al-Shalabi and Evens , 1998 ) , and that the stem/infix obtained by suppression of infix and prefix add-ons is not the same for words derived from the same origin called the root . The infix form ( or stem ) needs further to be processed in order to obtain the root .

This is mainly due to the fact that Arabic is a non-concatenative language ( @@CITATION ) , and that the stem/infix obtained by suppression of infix and prefix add-ons is not the same for words derived from the same origin called the root .


4 http://mallet.cs.umass.edu/ ear regression adapted for classification ( Ting and Witten 1999 ) , which can be described by the following equation : Pk is the probability that a sentence specifies an outcome , as determined by classifier k ( for classifiers that do not return actual probabilities , we normalized the scores and treated them as such ) .

ear regression adapted for classification ( @@CITATION ) , which can be described by the following equation :


Not only do these methods require additional programming outside the toolkit , but they are limited to particular kinds of models and training regimens . For example , the forward-backward algorithm ( Baum , 1972 ) trains only Hidden Markov Models , while ( Ristad and Yianilos , 1996 ) trains only stochastic edit distance . In short , current finite-state toolkits include no training algorithms , because none exist for the large space of statistical models that the toolkits can in principle describe and run .

For example , the forward-backward algorithm ( Baum , 1972 ) trains only Hidden Markov Models , while ( @@CITATION ) trains only stochastic edit distance .


automatic extraction of systematic polysemy using treecut

Using the tree-cut technique described above , our previous work ( Tomuro , 2000 ) extracted systematic polysemy from WordNet . In this section , we give a summary of this method , and describe the cluster pairs obtained by the method .

Using the tree-cut technique described above , our previous work ( @@CITATION ) extracted systematic polysemy from WordNet .


optimal search for minimum error rate training

Several works have proposed discriminative techniques to train log-linear model for SMT . ( Och and Ney , 2002 ; Blunsom et al. , 2008 ) used maximum likelihood estimation to learn weights for MT. ( Och , 2003 ; Moore and Quirk , 2008 ; Zhao and Chen , 2009 ; Galley and Quirk , 2011 ) employed an evaluation metric as a loss function and directly optimized it . ( Watanabe et al. , 2007 ; Chiang et al. , 2008 ; Hopkins and May , 2011 ) proposed other optimization objectives by introducing a margin-based and ranking-based indirect loss functions .

( Och and Ney , 2002 ; Blunsom et al. , 2008 ) used maximum likelihood estimation to learn weights for MT. ( Och , 2003 ; Moore and Quirk , 2008 ; Zhao and Chen , 2009 ; @@CITATION ) employed an evaluation metric as a loss function and directly optimized it .


the design implementation and use of computational linguistics volume 35 number 4 the ngram statistics package in cicling

Nonetheless , in the future , it may be worth investigating a TF.IDF-based representation . 5 Significant bigrams are obtained using the n-gram statistics package NSP ( Banerjee and Pedersen 2003 ) , which offers statistical tests to decide whether to accept or reject the null hypothesis regarding a bigram ( that it is not a collocation ) . As discussed in Section 2 , there are situations that can not be addressed by a document-level approach , because requests only predict or match portions of responses .

5 Significant bigrams are obtained using the n-gram statistics package NSP ( @@CITATION ) , which offers statistical tests to decide whether to accept or reject the null hypothesis regarding a bigram ( that it is not a collocation ) .


the syntax of concealment reliable methods for plain text information hiding

In other words , instead of performing lexical substitution directly to the text , the secret message is embedded into syntactic parse trees of the sentences . Liu et al. ( 2005 ) , Meral et al. ( 2007 ) , Murphy ( 2001 ) , Murphy and Vogel ( 2007 ) and Topkara et al. ( 2006a ) all belong to the syntactic transformation category . After embedding the secret message , modified deep structure forms are converted into the surface structure format via language generation tools .

Liu et al. ( 2005 ) , Meral et al. ( 2007 ) , Murphy ( 2001 ) , @@CITATION and Topkara et al. ( 2006a ) all belong to the syntactic transformation category .


multidocument statistical fact extraction and fusion

We generated word n-grams of length 2 to 5 , 2The WePS-1 corpus includes data from the Web03 testbed ( Mann , 2006 ) which follows similar annotation guidelines , although the number of document per ambiguous name is more variable . 3Both corpora are available from the WePS website http://nlp.uned.es/weps 4A very sparse feature might never occur in a sentence with the person name .

2The WePS-1 corpus includes data from the Web03 testbed ( @@CITATION ) which follows similar annotation guidelines , although the number of document per ambiguous name is more variable .