a machine learning approach to coreference resolution of noun phrases

Another type of semantic knowledge that has been employed by coreference resolvers is the semantic class ( SC ) of an NP , which can be used to disallow coreference between semantically incompatible NPs . However , learning-based resolvers have not been able to benefit from having an SC agreement feature , presumably because the method used to compute the SC of an NP is too simplistic : while the SC of a proper name is computed fairly accurately using a named entity ( NE ) recognizer , many resolvers simply assign to a common noun the first ( i.e. , most frequent ) WordNet sense as its SC ( e.g. , Soon et al. ( 2001 ) , Markert and Nissim ( 2005 ) ) . It is not easy to measure the accuracy of this heuristic , but the fact that the SC agreement feature is not used by Soon et al. 's decision tree coreference classifier seems to suggest that the SC values of the NPs are not computed accurately by this first-sense heuristic .

However , learning-based resolvers have not been able to benefit from having an SC agreement feature , presumably because the method used to compute the SC of an NP is too simplistic : while the SC of a proper name is computed fairly accurately using a named entity ( NE ) recognizer , many resolvers simply assign to a common noun the first ( i.e. , most frequent ) WordNet sense as its SC ( e.g. , @@CITATION , Markert and Nissim ( 2005 ) ) .


a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining

guiding semisupervision with constraintdriven learning

There have been a number of efforts to exploit weak or external signals of quality to train better prediction models . This includes work on generalized expectation ( Mann and McCallum , 2010 ) , posterior regularization ( Ganchev et al. , 2010 ) and constraint driven learning ( Chang et al. , 2007 ; Chang et al. , 2010 ) . The work of Chang et al. ( 2007 ) on constraint driven learning is perhaps the closest to our framework and we draw connections to it in Section 5 .

This includes work on generalized expectation ( Mann and McCallum , 2010 ) , posterior regularization ( Ganchev et al. , 2010 ) and constraint driven learning ( @@CITATION ; Chang et al. , 2010 ) .


an empirical study of smoothing techinques for language modeling

The second machine is a dictionary that accepts characters and produces identifiers corresponding to dictionary entries . The final machine is a trigram language model , specifically a Kneser-Ney ( Chen and Goodman , 1998 ) based backoff language model . Differing from ( Lee et al. , 2003 ) , we have also introduced an explicit model for un ` As an example , we do not chain mentions with different gender , number , etc. known words based upon a character unigram model , although this model is dominated by an empirically chosen unknown word penalty .

The final machine is a trigram language model , specifically a Kneser-Ney ( @@CITATION ) based backoff language model .


generating natural language linder pragmatic constraints lawrence erlbaum

In IGEN , the plans can involve any goals or actions that could be achieved via communication . Hovy has described another text planner that builds similar plans ( Hovy 1988b ) . This system , however , starts with a list of information to be expressed and merely arranges it into a coherent pattern ; it is thus not a planner in the sense used here ( as Hovy makes clear ) .

Hovy has described another text planner that builds similar plans ( @@CITATIONb ) .


thumbs up sentiment classification using machine learning techniques

Task properties Determining whether or not a speaker supports a proposal falls within the realm of sentiment analysis , an extremely active research area devoted to the computational treatment of subjective or opinion-oriented language ( early work includes Wiebe and Rapaport ( 1988 ) , Hearst ( 1992 ) , Sack ( 1994 ) , and Wiebe ( 1994 ) ; see Esuli ( 2006 ) for an active bibliography ) . In particular , since we treat each individual speech within a debate as a single `` document '' , we are considering a version of document-level sentiment-polarity classification , namely , automatically distinguishing between positive and negative documents ( Das and Chen , 2001 ; Pang et al. , 2002 ; Turney , 2002 ; Dave et al. , 2003 ) . Most sentiment-polarity classifiers proposed in the recent literature categorize each document independently .

In particular , since we treat each individual speech within a debate as a single `` document '' , we are considering a version of document-level sentiment-polarity classification , namely , automatically distinguishing between positive and negative documents ( Das and Chen , 2001 ; @@CITATION ; Turney , 2002 ; Dave et al. , 2003 ) .


algorithms for deterministic incremental dependency parsing

â¢ Transition-based : An implementation of the transition-based dependency parsing framework ( Nivre , 2008 ) using an arc-eager transition strategy and are trained using the perceptron algorithm as in Zhang and Clark ( 2008 ) with a beam size of 8 . Beams with varying sizes can be used to produce k-best lists .

transition-based dependency parsing framework ( @@CITATION ) using an arc-eager transition strategy and are trained using the perceptron algorithm as in Zhang and Clark ( 2008 ) with a beam size of 8 .


Peter F Brown
Stephen A Della Pietra
Vincent J Della Pietra
Meredith J Goldsmith
Jan Hajic
Robert L Mercer
Surya Mohanty

A kind of word order correlation bias can be effected by conditioning the auxiliary parameters on the relative positions of linked word tokens in their respective texts . Just as easily , we can model link types that coincide with entries in an on-line bilingual dictionary separately from those that do not ( cfXXX Brown et al. 1993 ) . When the auxiliary parameters are conditioned on different link classes , their optimization is carried out separately for each class : B ( links ( u , v ) Icooc ( u , v ) , A-zF ) ( 37 ) scorec ( u , viz = class ( u , v ) ) = log B ( links ( u , v ) lcooc ( u , v ) , ) Section 6.1.1 describes the link classes used in the experiments below .

Just as easily , we can model link types that coincide with entries in an on-line bilingual dictionary separately from those that do not ( cfXXX @@CITATION ) .


natural language question answering the view from here

However , we do not have access to the computational resources necessary to apply knowledge extractors to the 15 million plus citations in the MEDLINE database and directly index their results . As an alternative , we rely on PubMed to retrieve an initial set of hits that we then postprocess in greater detail -- this is the standard pipeline architecture commonly employed in other question-answering systems ( Voorhees and Tice 1999 ; Hirschman and Gaizauskas 2001 ) . The architecture of our system is shown in Figure 1 .

As an alternative , we rely on PubMed to retrieve an initial set of hits that we then postprocess in greater detail -- this is the standard pipeline architecture commonly employed in other question-answering systems ( Voorhees and Tice 1999 ; @@CITATION ) .


minimum error rate training in statistical machine translation

Several works have proposed discriminative techniques to train log-linear model for SMT . ( Och and Ney , 2002 ; Blunsom et al. , 2008 ) used maximum likelihood estimation to learn weights for MT. ( Och , 2003 ; Moore and Quirk , 2008 ; Zhao and Chen , 2009 ; Galley and Quirk , 2011 ) employed an evaluation metric as a loss function and directly optimized it . ( Watanabe et al. , 2007 ; Chiang et al. , 2008 ; Hopkins and May , 2011 ) proposed other optimization objectives by introducing a margin-based and ranking-based indirect loss functions .

( Och and Ney , 2002 ; Blunsom et al. , 2008 ) used maximum likelihood estimation to learn weights for MT. ( @@CITATION ; Moore and Quirk , 2008 ; Zhao and Chen , 2009 ; Galley and Quirk , 2011 ) employed an evaluation metric as a loss function and directly optimized it .


Section 8 compares translations generated from automatically built and manually annotated tectogrammatical representations . We also compare the results with the output generated by the statistical translation system GIZA + + / ISI ReWrite Decoder ( AlOnaizan et al. , 1999 ; Och and Ney , 2000 ; Germann et al. , 2001 ) , trained on the same parallel corpus .

We also compare the results with the output generated by the statistical translation system GIZA + + / ISI ReWrite Decoder ( AlOnaizan et al. , 1999 ; @@CITATION ; Germann et al. , 2001 ) , trained on the same parallel corpus .


the story picturing engine—a system for automatic text illustration

Others provide automatic mappings of natural language instructions to executable actions , such as interpreting navigation directions ( Chen and Mooney , 2011 ) or robot commands ( Tellex et al. , 2011 ; Matuszek et al. , 2012 ) . Some efforts have tackled tasks such as automatic image caption generation ( Feng and Lapata , 2010a ; Ordonez et al. , 2011 ) , text illustration ( Joshi et al. , 2006 ) , or automatic location identification of Twitter users ( Eisenstein et al. , 2010 ; Wing and Baldridge , 2011 ; Roller et al. , 2012 ) . Another line of research approaches grounded language knowledge by augmenting distributional approaches of word meaning with perceptual information ( Andrews et al. , 2009 ; Steyvers , 2010 ; Feng and Lapata , 2010b ; Bruni et al. , 2011 ; Silberer and Lapata , 2012 ; Johns and Jones , 2012 ; Bruni et al. , 2012a ; Bruni et al. , 2012b ; Silberer et al. , 2013 ) .

Some efforts have tackled tasks such as automatic image caption generation ( Feng and Lapata , 2010a ; Ordonez et al. , 2011 ) , text illustration ( @@CITATION ) , or automatic location identification of Twitter users ( Eisenstein et al. , 2010 ; Wing and Baldridge , 2011 ; Roller et al. , 2012 ) .


a generative constituentcontext model for improved grammar induction

Like CCM , this model is deficient since the same supertags are generated multiple times , and parses with conflicting supertags are not valid . Since we are not generating from the model , this does not introduce difficulties ( Klein and Manning , 2002 ) . One additional complication that must be addressed is that left-frontier non-terminal categories -- those whose subtree span includes the first word of the sentence -- do not have a left-side supertag to use as context .

Since we are not generating from the model , this does not introduce difficulties ( @@CITATION ) .


three generative lexicalised models for statistical parsing

Xia ( 1999 ) also presents a similar method for the extraction of a TAG from the Penn Treebank . The extraction procedure consists of three steps : First , the bracketing of the trees in the Penn Treebank is corrected and extended based on the approaches of Magerman ( 1994 ) and Collins ( 1997 ) . Then the elementary trees are read off in a quite straightforward manner .

The extraction procedure consists of three steps : First , the bracketing of the trees in the Penn Treebank is corrected and extended based on the approaches of Magerman ( 1994 ) and @@CITATION .


using the structure of a conceptual network in computing semantic relatedness

GermaNet contains only a few conceptual glosses . As they are required to enable test subjects to distinguish between senses , we use artificial glosses composed from synonyms and hypernyms as a surrogate , e.g. for brother : `` brother , male sibling '' vs. `` brother , comrade , friend '' ( Gurevych , 2005 ) . We removed words which had more than three senses .

As they are required to enable test subjects to distinguish between senses , we use artificial glosses composed from synonyms and hypernyms as a surrogate , e.g. for brother : `` brother , male sibling '' vs. `` brother , comrade , friend '' ( @@CITATION ) .


towards tutorial dialog to support selfexplanation adding natural language understanding to a cognitive tutor

Over the last decade there has been a lot of interest in developing tutorial dialogue systems that understand student explanations ( Jordan et al. , 2006 ; Graesser et al. , 1999 ; Aleven et al. , 2001 ; Buckley and Wolska , 2007 ; Nielsen et al. , 2008 ; VanLehn et al. , 2007 ) , because high percentages of selfexplanation and student contentful talk are known to be correlated with better learning in humanhuman tutoring ( Chi et al. , 1994 ; Litman et al. , 2009 ; Purandare and Litman , 2008 ; Steinhauser et al. , 2007 ) . However , most existing systems use pre-authored tutor responses for addressing student errors .

Over the last decade there has been a lot of interest in developing tutorial dialogue systems that understand student explanations ( Jordan et al. , 2006 ; Graesser et al. , 1999 ; @@CITATION ; Buckley and Wolska , 2007 ; Nielsen et al. , 2008 ; VanLehn et al. , 2007 ) , because high percentages of selfexplanation and student contentful talk are known to be correlated with better learning in humanhuman tutoring ( Chi et al. , 1994 ; Litman et al. , 2009 ; Purandare and Litman , 2008 ; Steinhauser et al. , 2007 ) .


lexical functional grammar volume 34 of syntax and semantics

As a further extension , the extraction procedure reads off the syntactic category of the head of each of the subcategorized syntactic functions : impose ( v , [ subj ( n ) , obj ( n ) , obl : on ] ) .3 In this way , our methodology is able to produce surface syntactic as well as abstract functional subcategorization details . Dalrymple ( 2001 ) argues that there are cases , albeit exceptional ones , in which constraints on syntactic category are an issue in subcategorization . In contrast to much of the work reviewed in Section 3 , which limits itself to the extraction of surface syntactic subcategorization details , our system can provide this information as well as details of grammatical function .

@@CITATION argues that there are cases , albeit exceptional ones , in which constraints on syntactic category are an issue in subcategorization .


detecting and correcting morphosyntactic errors in real texts

An abridged list of the features that are used in the training data is listed in Table 2 and discussed below . Corpus frequency : ( Vosse , 1992 ) differentiates between misspellings and neologisms ( new words ) in terms of their frequency . His algorithm classifies unknown words that appear infrequently as misspellings , and those that appear more frequently as neologisms .

Corpus frequency : ( @@CITATION ) differentiates between misspellings and neologisms ( new words ) in terms of their frequency .


a hierarchical phrasebased model for statistical machine translation

The significance testing is performed by paired bootstrap re-sampling ( Koehn , 2004 ) . We use an in-house developed hierarchical phrase-based translation ( Chiang , 2005 ) as our baseline system , and we denote it as In-Hiero . To obtain satisfactory baseline performance , we tune InHiero system for 5 times using MERT , and then se -

We use an in-house developed hierarchical phrase-based translation ( @@CITATION ) as our baseline system , and we denote it as In-Hiero .


semantic processing for a natural language programming system

Its strategy is top-down . The types of sentences accepted are essentially those accepted by the original NLC grammar , imperative sentences with nested noun groups and conjunctions ( Ballard 1979 ) . An attempt has been made to build as deep a parse as possible so that sentences with the same meaning result in identical parses .

The types of sentences accepted are essentially those accepted by the original NLC grammar , imperative sentences with nested noun groups and conjunctions ( @@CITATION ) .


inducing a semantically annotated lexicon via embased clustering

M Rooth
S Riezler
D Prescher
G Carroll
F Beil

The task we used to compare different generalisation techniques is similar to that used by Pereira et al. ( 1993 ) and Rooth et al. ( 1999 ) . The task is to decide which of two verbs , v and vi , is more likely to take a given noun , n , as an object .

The task we used to compare different generalisation techniques is similar to that used by Pereira et al. ( 1993 ) and @@CITATION .


paraphrasing with bilingual parallel corpora

They proved to be useful in a number of NLP applications such as natural language generation ( Iordanskaja et al. , 1991 ) , multidocument summarization ( McKeown et al. , 2002 ) , automatic evaluation of MT ( Denkowski and Lavie , 2010 ) , and TE ( Dinu and Wang , 2009 ) . One of the proposed methods to extract paraphrases relies on a pivot-based approach using phrase alignments in a bilingual parallel corpus ( Bannard and Callison-Burch , 2005 ) . With this method , all the different phrases in one language that are aligned with the same phrase in the other language are extracted as paraphrases .

One of the proposed methods to extract paraphrases relies on a pivot-based approach using phrase alignments in a bilingual parallel corpus ( @@CITATION ) .


Many alternative strategies are possible . The Nash arbitration plan , for example , would allow a doubly graded description whenever the product of the Values for the referent r exceeds that of all distractors ( Nash 1950 ; cfXXX Gorniak and Roy 2003 ; Thorisson 1994 , for other plans ) . 9.3.2 Multidimensional Adjectives ( and Color ) .

The Nash arbitration plan , for example , would allow a doubly graded description whenever the product of the Values for the referent r exceeds that of all distractors ( @@CITATION ; cfXXX Gorniak and Roy 2003 ; Thorisson 1994 , for other plans ) .


word sense disambiguation by web mining for word cooccurrence probabilities

Studies have used several different methods to mine web data . Turney ( 2001 ) extracts word co-occurrence probabilities from unlabelled text collected from a web crawler . Baroni and Bernardini ( 2004 ) built a corpus by iteratively searching Google for a small set of seed terms .

@@CITATION extracts word co-occurrence probabilities from unlabelled text collected from a web crawler .


inter-document references in the form of hyperlinks ( Agrawal et al. , 2003 ) . Notable early papers on graph-based semisupervised learning include Blum and Chawla ( 2001 ) , Bansal et al. ( 2002 ) , Kondor and Lafferty ( 2002 ) , and Joachims ( 2003 ) . Zhu ( 2005 ) maintains a survey of this area .

Notable early papers on graph-based semisupervised learning include Blum and Chawla ( 2001 ) , @@CITATION , Kondor and Lafferty ( 2002 ) , and Joachims ( 2003 ) .


a systematic comparison of various statistical alignment models

There are many reasons why a simple word-to-word ( 1-to-1 ) correspondence is not possible for every sentence pair : for instance , auxiliary verbs used in one language but not the other ( e.g. , English He walked and French Il est all Â´ e ) , articles required in one language but optional in the other ( e.g. , English Cars use gas and Portuguese Os carros usam gasolina ) , cases where the content is expressed using multiple words in one language and a single word in the other language ( e.g. , agglutination such as English weapons of mass destruction and German Massenvernichtungswaffen ) , and expressions translated indirectly . Due to this inherent ambiguity , manual annotations usually distinguish between sure correspondences for unambiguous translations , and possible , for ambiguous translations ( Och and Ney 2003 ) . The top row of Figure 1 shows two word alignments between an English -- French sentence pair .

Due to this inherent ambiguity , manual annotations usually distinguish between sure correspondences for unambiguous translations , and possible , for ambiguous translations ( @@CITATION ) .


semantics and syntax in lexical functional grammar

`` Semantic grammars '' already exist which describe not only the syntax but also the semantics of natural language . Thus for instance , ( Copestake and Flickinger , 2000 ; Copestake et al. , 2001 ) describes a Head Driven Phrase Structure Grammar ( HPSG ) which supports the parallel construction of a phrase structure ( or derived ) tree and of a semantic representation and ( Dalrymple , 1999 ) show how to equip Lexical Functional grammar ( LFG ) with a glue semantics . These grammars are both efficient and large scale in that they cover an important fragment of the natural language they describe and can be processed by parsers and generators in almost real time .

Thus for instance , ( Copestake and Flickinger , 2000 ; Copestake et al. , 2001 ) describes a Head Driven Phrase Structure Grammar ( HPSG ) which supports the parallel construction of a phrase structure ( or derived ) tree and of a semantic representation and ( @@CITATION ) show how to equip Lexical Functional grammar ( LFG ) with a glue semantics .


linking semantic and knowledge representations in a multidomain dialogue system

Myroslava O Dzikovska
James F Allen
Mary D Swift

The parser provides a domain-independent semantic representation including high-level word senses and semantic role labels . The contextual interpreter then uses a reference resolution approach similar to Byron ( 2002 ) , and an ontology mapping mechanism ( Dzikovska et al. , 2008a ) to produce a domain-specific semantic representation of the student 's output . Utterance content is represented as a set of extracted objects and relations between them .

The contextual interpreter then uses a reference resolution approach similar to Byron ( 2002 ) , and an ontology mapping mechanism ( @@CITATIONa ) to produce a domain-specific semantic representation of the student 's output .


an algorithm for generating quantifier scopings

â¢ in classic examples like : ( 21 ) Every representative in a company saw most samples . only the available five relative scopings of the quantifiers are produced ( Hobbs and Shieber 1987 , 47 ) , but without the need for a free variable constraint -- the HOU algorithm will not produce any solutions in which a previously bound variable becomes free ; â¢ the equivalences are reversible , and thus the above sentences cart be generated from scoped logical forms ; â¢ partial scopings are permitted ( see Reyle [ 19961 ) â¢ scoping can be freely interleaved with other types of reference resolution ; â¢ unscoped or partially scoped forms are available for inference or for generation at every stage .

only the available five relative scopings of the quantifiers are produced ( @@CITATION , 47 ) , but without the need for a free variable constraint -- the HOU algorithm will not produce any solutions in which a previously bound variable becomes free ; â¢ the equivalences are reversible , and thus the above sentences cart be generated from scoped logical forms ; â¢ partial scopings are permitted ( see Reyle [ 19961 ) â¢ scoping can be freely interleaved with other types of reference resolution ; â¢ unscoped or partially scoped forms are available for inference or for generation at every stage .


englishtomandarin speech translation with head transducers

( Formally , the function is partial in that it is not defined on an input when there are no derivations or when there are multiple outputs with the same minimal cost . ) In the transducers produced by the training method described in this paper , the source and target positions are in the set -LCB- -1 , 0,1 -RCB- , though we have also used handcoded transducers ( Alshawi and Xia 1997 ) and automatically trained transducers ( Alshawi and Douglas 2000 ) with a larger range of positions . 2.2 Relationship to Standard FSTs

In the transducers produced by the training method described in this paper , the source and target positions are in the set -LCB- -1 , 0,1 -RCB- , though we have also used handcoded transducers ( @@CITATION ) and automatically trained transducers ( Alshawi and Douglas 2000 ) with a larger range of positions .


corrected cotraining for statistical parsers

Rebecca Hwa
Miles Osborne
Anoop Sarkar
Mark Steedman

Pierce and Cardie ( 2001 ) have shown , in the context of base noun identification , that combining sample selection and cotraining can be an effective learning framework for large-scale training . Similar approaches are being explored for parsing ( Steedman , Hwa , et al. 2003 ; Hwa et al. 2003 ) .

Similar approaches are being explored for parsing ( Steedman , @@CITATION ; Hwa et al. 2003 ) .


mining the peanut gallery opinion extraction and semantic classification of product reviews

Task properties Determining whether or not a speaker supports a proposal falls within the realm of sentiment analysis , an extremely active research area devoted to the computational treatment of subjective or opinion-oriented language ( early work includes Wiebe and Rapaport ( 1988 ) , Hearst ( 1992 ) , Sack ( 1994 ) , and Wiebe ( 1994 ) ; see Esuli ( 2006 ) for an active bibliography ) . In particular , since we treat each individual speech within a debate as a single `` document '' , we are considering a version of document-level sentiment-polarity classification , namely , automatically distinguishing between positive and negative documents ( Das and Chen , 2001 ; Pang et al. , 2002 ; Turney , 2002 ; Dave et al. , 2003 ) . Most sentiment-polarity classifiers proposed in the recent literature categorize each document independently .

In particular , since we treat each individual speech within a debate as a single `` document '' , we are considering a version of document-level sentiment-polarity classification , namely , automatically distinguishing between positive and negative documents ( Das and Chen , 2001 ; Pang et al. , 2002 ; Turney , 2002 ; @@CITATION ) .


introduction to the conll2000 shared task chunking

For example , the sentence `` He reckons the current account deficit will narrow to only $ 1.8 billion in September . '' would be chunked as follows ( Tjong Kim Sang and Buchholz , 2000 ) : [ NP He ] [ VP reckons ] [ NP the current account deficit ] [ VP will narrow ] [ PP â This research is supported by NSF grants IIS-9801638 , ITR-IIS-0085836 and an ONR MURI Award .

would be chunked as follows ( Tjong Kim @@CITATION ) : [ NP He ] [ VP reckons ] [ NP the current account deficit ] [ VP will narrow ] [ PP


effective use of wordnet semantics via kernelbased learning

Roberto Basili
Marco Cammisa
Alessandro Moschitti

It is possible that this could be improved with a better strategy for representing dependency structure for tree kernels , or if the tree kernels could be incorporated into the structural learning framework . The flexible architecture we have presented enables interesting future research : ( i ) a straightforward improvement is the use of lexical similarity to reduce data sparseness , e.g. ( Basili et al. , 2005 ; Basili et al. , 2006 ; Bloehdorn et al. , 2006 ) . However , the similarity between subjective words , which have multiple senses against other words may negatively impact the system accuracy .

The flexible architecture we have presented enables interesting future research : ( i ) a straightforward improvement is the use of lexical similarity to reduce data sparseness , e.g. ( @@CITATION ; Basili et al. , 2006 ; Bloehdorn et al. , 2006 ) .


evaluating response strategies in a webbased spoken dialogue agent

Diane J Litman
Shimei Pan
Marilyn A Walker

Since task initiative models contribution to domain/problemsolving goals , while dialogue initiative affects the cur - 5An alternative strategy to step ( 4 ) is to perform a database lookup based on the ambiguous query and summarize the results ( Litman et al. , 1998 ) , which we leave for future work . rent discourse goal , we developed alternative strategies for achieving the goals in Figure 4 based on initiative distribution , as shown in Table 1 .

5An alternative strategy to step ( 4 ) is to perform a database lookup based on the ambiguous query and summarize the results ( @@CITATION ) , which we leave for future work .


maximum entropy markov models for information extraction and segmentation

The resulting machine must be normalized , either per-state or globally , to obtain a joint or a conditional distribution as desired . Such approaches have been tried recently in restricted cases ( McCallum et al. , 2000 ; Eisner , 2001b ; Lafferty et al. , 2001 ) . Normalization may be postponed and applied instead to the result of combining the FST with other FSTs by composition , union , concatenation , etc. .

Such approaches have been tried recently in restricted cases ( @@CITATION ; Eisner , 2001b ; Lafferty et al. , 2001 ) .


interleaving universal principles and relational constraints over typed feature logic

In this paper we investigate the selective application of magic to typed feature grammars a type of constraint-logic grammar based on Typed Feature Logic ( T r ; G6tz , 1995 ) . Typed feature grammars can be used as the basis for implementations of Head-driven Phrase Structure Grammar ( HPSG ; Pollard and Sag , 1994 ) as discussed in ( Gotz and Meurers , 1997a ) and ( Meurers and Minnen , 1997 ) . Typed feature grammar constraints that are inexpensive to resolve are dealt with using the top-down interpreter of the ConTroll grammar development system ( GOtz and Meurers , 1997b ) which uses an advanced search function , an advanced selection function and incorporates a coroutining mechanism which supports delayed interpretation .

Typed feature grammars can be used as the basis for implementations of Head-driven Phrase Structure Grammar ( HPSG ; Pollard and Sag , 1994 ) as discussed in ( @@CITATIONa ) and ( Meurers and Minnen , 1997 ) .


applying casebased reasoning techniques for enterprise systems

circumstances can make each inquiry unique , and hence care must be taken to compose a response that does not confuse , irritate , or mislead the customer . It is therefore no surprise that early attempts at response automation were knowledge-driven ( Barr and Tessler 1995 ; Watson 1997 ; Delic and Lahaix 1998 ) . These systems were carefully designed to produce relevant and correct responses , but required significant human input and maintenance ( Delic and Lahaix 1998 ) .

It is therefore no surprise that early attempts at response automation were knowledge-driven ( Barr and Tessler 1995 ; @@CITATION ; Delic and Lahaix 1998 ) .


practical experiments with regular approximation of contextfree languages

Arbitrary weights such as 2.7 may be assigned to arcs or sprinkled through a regexp ( to be compiled into E : E/2 .7 â ) arcs ) . A more subtle example is weighted FSAs that approximate PCFGs ( Nederhof , 2000 ; Mohri and Nederhof , 2001 ) , or to extend the idea , weighted FSTs that approximate joint or conditional synchronous PCFGs built for translation . These are parameterized by the PCFG 's parameters , but add or remove strings of the PCFG to leave an improper probability distribution .

A more subtle example is weighted FSAs that approximate PCFGs ( @@CITATION ; Mohri and Nederhof , 2001 ) , or to extend the idea , weighted FSTs that approximate joint or conditional synchronous PCFGs built for translation .


syntacticsemantic structures for textual entailment recognition

Yashar Mehdad
Alessandro Moschitti
Fabio Massimo Zanzotto

These include , just to mention the most popular ones , DIRT ( Lin and Pantel , 2001 ) , VerbOcean ( Chklovski and Pantel , 2004 ) , FrameNet ( Baker et al. , 1998 ) , and Wikipedia ( Mehdad et al. , 2010 ; Kouylekov et al. , 2009 ) . DIRT is a collection of statistically learned inference rules , that is often integrated as a source of lexical paraphrases and entailment rules .

ones , DIRT ( Lin and Pantel , 2001 ) , VerbOcean ( Chklovski and Pantel , 2004 ) , FrameNet ( Baker et al. , 1998 ) , and Wikipedia ( @@CITATION ; Kouylekov et al. , 2009 ) .


ruby on rails web developement that doesn’t hurt url httpwwwrubyonrailsorg retrieved the 03rd of january

This allows to treat data and metadata on different level of abstraction . The Ruby on Rails ( 2006 ) framework permits us to quickly develop web applications without rewriting common functions and classes . We used the Asyncronous Javascript And XML ( or AJAX ) paradigm to create the graphical user interface .

The Ruby on @@CITATION framework permits us to quickly develop web applications without rewriting common functions and classes .


widecoverage efficient statistical parsing with ccg and loglinear models

We follow Lewis and Steedman ( 2014 ) in allowing a small set of generic , linguistically-plausible unary and binary grammar rules . We further add rules for combining with punctuation to the left and right and allow for the merge rule X â X X of Clark and Curran ( 2007 ) .

We further add rules for combining with punctuation to the left and right and allow for the merge rule X â X X of @@CITATION .


using natural language processing to improve erulemaking

Politically-oriented text Sentiment analysis has specifically been proposed as a key enabling technology in eRulemaking , allowing the automatic analysis of the opinions that people submit ( Shulman et al. , 2005 ; Cardie et al. , 2006 ; Kwon et al. , 2006 ) . There has also been work focused upon determining the political leaning ( e.g. , `` liberal '' vs. `` conservative '' ) of a document or author , where most previously-proposed methods make no direct use of relationships between the documents to be classified ( the `` unlabeled '' texts ) ( Laver et al. , 2003 ; Efron , 2004 ; Mullen and Malouf , 2006 ) .

Politically-oriented text Sentiment analysis has specifically been proposed as a key enabling technology in eRulemaking , allowing the automatic analysis of the opinions that people submit ( Shulman et al. , 2005 ; @@CITATION ; Kwon et al. , 2006 ) .


Alessandro Moschitti
Ana-Maria Giuglea
Bonaventura Coppola
Roberto Basili

After the PropBank ( Xue and Palmer 2003 ) was built , Xue and Palmer ( 2005 ) and Xue ( 2008 ) have produced more complete and systematic research on Chinese SRL . Moschitti et al. ( 2005 ) has made some preliminary attempt on the idea of hierarchical semantic role labeling .

@@CITATION has made some preliminary attempt on the idea of hierarchical semantic


Automatic corpus-based selection of word pairs is more objective , leading to a balanced dataset with pairs connected by all kinds of lexical-semantic relations . Morris and Hirst ( 2004 ) pointed out that many relations between words in a text are non-classical ( i.e. other than typical taxonomic relations like synonymy or hypernymy ) and therefore not covered by semantic similarity . Previous studies only considered semantic relatedness ( or similarity ) of words rather than concepts .

@@CITATION pointed out that many relations between words in a text are non-classical ( i.e. other than typical taxonomic relations like synonymy or hypernymy ) and therefore not covered by semantic similarity .


The referential structures we are going to use are collections of logical theories , but the concept of reference is more general . Some of the intuitions we associate with this notion have been very well expressed by Turner ( 1987 , pp. 7-8 ) : ... Semantics is constrained by our models of ourselves and our worlds . We have models of up and down that are based by the way our bodies actually function .

Some of the intuitions we associate with this notion have been very well expressed by @@CITATION , pp. 7-8 ) : ... Semantics is constrained by our models of ourselves and our worlds .


weps 2 evaluation campaign overview of the web people search clustering task

Javier Artiles
Julio Gonzalo
Satoshi Sekine

Other features used by the systems include noun phrases ( Chen and Martin , 2007 ) , word n-grams ( Popescu and Magnini , 2007 ) , emails and URLs ( del ValleAgudo et al. , 2007 ) , etc. . In 2009 , the second WePS campaign showed similar trends regarding the use of NE features ( Artiles et al. , 2009 ) . Due to the complexity of systems , the results of the WePS evaluation do not provide a direct answer regarding the advantages of using NEs over other computationally lighter features such as BoW or word n-grams .

In 2009 , the second WePS campaign showed similar trends regarding the use of NE features ( @@CITATION ) .


natural language parsing as statistical pattern recognition

For example , ( wrote a book in three days , attach-verb ) would be annotated as ( wrote , book , in , days , verb ) . The head words can be automatically extracted using a heuristic table lookup in the manner described by Magerman ( 1994 ) . For this learning problem , the supervision is the one-bit information of whether p should attach to v or to n .

The head words can be automatically extracted using a heuristic table lookup in the manner described by @@CITATION .


has a consensus nl generation architecture appeared and is it psycholinguistically plausible

McDonald has even argued for extending the model to a large number of components ( McDonald 1988 ) , and several systems have indeed added an additional component between the planner and the linguistic component ( Meteer 1994 ; Panaget 1994 ; Wanner 1994 ) . Reiter describes a pipelined modular approach as a consensus architecture underlying most recent work in generation ( Reiter 1994 ) . As this large body of work makes clear , the modular approach has been very useful , simplifying the design of generators and making them more flexible .

Reiter describes a pipelined modular approach as a consensus architecture underlying most recent work in generation ( @@CITATION ) .


xml tools and architecture for named entity recognition

A number of stand-alone tools have also been developed . For example , the suite of LT tools ( Mikheev et al. , 1999 ; Grover et al. , 2000 ) perform tokenization , tagging and chunking on XML marked-up text directly . These tools also store their configuration state , e.g. the transduction rules used in LT CHUNK , in XML configuration files .

For example , the suite of LT tools ( @@CITATION ; Grover et al. , 2000 ) perform tokenization , tagging and chunking on XML marked-up text directly .


Hasan M Meral
Emre Sevinc
Ersin Unkar
Bulent Sankur
A Sumru Ozsoy
Tunga Gungor

In other words , instead of performing lexical substitution directly to the text , the secret message is embedded into syntactic parse trees of the sentences . Liu et al. ( 2005 ) , Meral et al. ( 2007 ) , Murphy ( 2001 ) , Murphy and Vogel ( 2007 ) and Topkara et al. ( 2006a ) all belong to the syntactic transformation category . After embedding the secret message , modified deep structure forms are converted into the surface structure format via language generation tools .

Liu et al. ( 2005 ) , @@CITATION , Murphy ( 2001 ) , Murphy and Vogel ( 2007 ) and Topkara et al. ( 2006a ) all belong to the syntactic transformation category .


a simple similaritybased model for selectional preferences

Considerable research has been done on SP acquisition most of which has involved collecting argument headwords from data and generalizing to WordNet classes . Brockmann and Lapata ( 2003 ) have showed that WordNet-based approaches do not always outperform simple frequency-based models , and a number of techniques have been recently proposed which may offer ideas for refining our current unsupervised approach ( Erk , 2007 ; Bergsma et al. , 2008 ) . The number and type ( and combination ) of GRs for which SPs can be reliably acquired , especially when the data is sparse , requires also further investigation .

Brockmann and Lapata ( 2003 ) have showed that WordNet-based approaches do not always outperform simple frequency-based models , and a number of techniques have been recently proposed which may offer ideas for refining our current unsupervised approach ( @@CITATION ; Bergsma et al. , 2008 ) .


lilfes — towards a practical hpsg parsers

Takaki Makino
Minoru Yoshida
Kentaro Torisawa
Jun’ichi Tsujii

The RenTAL system is implemented in LiLFeS ( Makino et al. , 1998 ) 2 . LiLFeS is one of the fastest inference engines for processing feature structure logic , and efficient HPSG parsers have already been built on this system ( Nishida et al. , 1999 ; Torisawa et al. , 2000 ) .

The RenTAL system is implemented in LiLFeS ( @@CITATION ) 2 .


Our error analysis also revealed some interesting issues associated with using an external standard such as COMLEX . In the future , we hope to evaluate the automatic annotations and extracted lexicon against Propbank ( Kingsbury and Palmer 2002 ) . Apart from the related approach of Miyao , Ninomiya , and Tsujii ( 2004 ) , which does not distinguish between argument and adjunct prepositional phrases , our treebank and automatic f-structure annotation-based architecture for the automatic acquisition of detailed subcategorization frames is quite unlike any of the architectures presented in the literature .

In the future , we hope to evaluate the automatic annotations and extracted lexicon against Propbank ( @@CITATION ) .


the necessity of syntax markers two experiments with artificial languages

The primary resource gathered is a `` phrasal lexicon , '' constructed by extracting over 200,000 phrases from the Penn Treebank and having them translated into French by three Web-based machine translation ( MT ) systems . Each set of translations is stored separately , and for each set the `` marker hypothesis '' ( Green 1979 ) is used to segment the phrasal lexicon into a `` marker lexicon . '' The marker hypothesis is a universal psycholinguistic constraint which states that natural languages are '' marked '' for complex syntactic structure at surface form by a closed set of specific lexemes and morphemes .

Each set of translations is stored separately , and for each set the `` marker hypothesis '' ( @@CITATION ) is used to segment the phrasal lexicon into a `` marker lexicon . ''


an algorithm for finding noun phrase correspondences in bilingual corpora

One way to increase the precision of the mapping process is to impose some linguistic constraints on the sequences such as simple noun-phrase contraints ( Gaussier , 1995 ; Kupiec , 1993 ; hua Chen and Chen , 94 ; Fung , 1995 ; Evans and Zhai , 1996 ) . It is also possible to focus on non-compositional compounds , a key point in bilingual applications ( Su et al. , 1994 ; Melamed , 1997 ; Lin , 99 ) .

One way to increase the precision of the mapping process is to impose some linguistic constraints on the sequences such as simple noun-phrase contraints ( Gaussier , 1995 ; @@CITATION ; hua Chen and Chen , 94 ; Fung , 1995 ; Evans and Zhai , 1996 ) .


text generation using discourse strategies and focus constraints to generate natural language text

Nevertheless , their work bolsters our claims regarding the usefulness of generative models in extrinsic tasks , which we do not describe here . Although this study falls under the general topic of discourse modeling , our work differs from previous attempts to characterize text in terms of domainindependent rhetorical elements ( McKeown , 1985 ; Marcu and Echihabi , 2002 ) . Our task is closer to the work of Teufel and Moens ( 2000 ) , who looked at the problem of intellectual attribution in scientific texts .

Although this study falls under the general topic of discourse modeling , our work differs from previous attempts to characterize text in terms of domainindependent rhetorical elements ( @@CITATION ; Marcu and Echihabi , 2002 ) .


passing markers a theory of contextual influence in language comprehensionquot

The idea of using preferences among theories is new , hence it was described in more detail . `` Coherence , '' as outlined above , can be understood as a declarative ( or static ) version of marker passing ( Hirst 1987 ; Charniak 1983 ) , with one difference : the activation spreads to theories that share a predicate , not through the IS-A hierarchy , and is limited to elementary facts about predicates appearing in the text . The metalevel rules we are going to discuss in Section 6 , and that deal with the Gricean maxims and the meaning of `` but , '' can be easily expressed in the languages of set theory or higher order logic , but not everything expressible in those languages makes sense in natural language .

`` Coherence , '' as outlined above , can be understood as a declarative ( or static ) version of marker passing ( Hirst 1987 ; @@CITATION ) , with one difference : the activation spreads to theories that share a predicate , not through the IS-A hierarchy , and is limited to elementary facts about predicates appearing in the text .


a computational theory of perspective and reference in narrative

Note that from an experimental point of view , this is a very convenient problem to work with because we can automatically determine ground truth ( and thus avoid the need for manual annotation ) simply by consulting publicly available voting records . Task properties Determining whether or not a speaker supports a proposal falls within the realm of sentiment analysis , an extremely active research area devoted to the computational treatment of subjective or opinion-oriented language ( early work includes Wiebe and Rapaport ( 1988 ) , Hearst ( 1992 ) , Sack ( 1994 ) , and Wiebe ( 1994 ) ; see Esuli ( 2006 ) for an active bibliography ) . In particular , since we treat each individual speech within a debate as a single `` document '' , we are considering a version of document-level sentiment-polarity classification , namely , automatically distinguishing between positive and negative documents ( Das and Chen , 2001 ; Pang et al. , 2002 ; Turney , 2002 ; Dave et al. , 2003 ) .

Task properties Determining whether or not a speaker supports a proposal falls within the realm of sentiment analysis , an extremely active research area devoted to the computational treatment of subjective or opinion-oriented language ( early work includes @@CITATION , Hearst ( 1992 ) , Sack ( 1994 ) , and Wiebe ( 1994 ) ; see Esuli ( 2006 ) for an active bibliography ) .


the nyu system for muc6 or where’s syntax in

Research on shallow parsing was inspired by psycholinguistics arguments ( Gee and Grosjean , 1983 ) that suggest that in many scenarios ( e.g. , conversational ) full parsing is not a realistic strategy for sentence processing and analysis , and was further motivated by several arguments from a natural language engineering viewpoint . First , it has been noted that in many natural language applications it is sufficient to use shallow parsing information ; information such as noun phrases ( NPs ) and other syntactic sequences have been found useful in many large-scale language processing applications including information extraction and text summarization ( Grishman , 1995 ; Appelt et al. , 1993 ) . Second , while training a full parser requires a collection of fully parsed sentences as training corpus , it is possible to train a shallow parser incrementally .

First , it has been noted that in many natural language applications it is sufficient to use shallow parsing information ; information such as noun phrases ( NPs ) and other syntactic sequences have been found useful in many large-scale language processing applications including information extraction and text summarization ( @@CITATION ; Appelt et al. , 1993 ) .


a multipurpose interface to an online dictionary

Branimir Boguraev
David Carter
Ted Briscoe

In addition to headwords , dictionary search through the pronunciation field is available ; Carter ( 1987 ) has merged information from the pronunciation and hyphenation fields , creating an enhanced phonological representation which allows access to entries by broad phonetic class and syllable structure ( Huttenlocher and Zue , 1983 ) . In addition , a fully flexible access system allows the retrieval of dictionary entries on the basis of constraints specifying any combination of phonetic , lexical , syntactic , and semantic information ( Boguraev et al. , 1987 ) . Independently , random selection of dictionary entries is also provided to allow the testing of software on an unbiased sample .

In addition , a fully flexible access system allows the retrieval of dictionary entries on the basis of constraints specifying any combination of phonetic , lexical , syntactic , and semantic information ( @@CITATION ) .


language model adaptation using mixtures and an exponentially decaying cache”

But unlike the cache model , it uses a multipass strategy . Clarkson and Robinson ( 1997 ) developed a way of incorporating standard n-grams into the cache model , using mixtures of language models and also exponentially decaying the weight for the cache prediction depending on the recency of the word 's last occurrence .

@@CITATION developed a way of incorporating standard n-grams into the cache model , using mixtures of language models and also exponentially decaying the weight for the cache prediction depending on the recency of the word 's last


lexical polymorphism and word disambiguation

In a number of proposals , lexical generalizations are captured using lexical underspecification ( Kathol 1994 ; Krieger and Nerbonne 1992 ; Riehemann 1993 ; Oliva 1994 ; Frank 1994 ; Opalka 1995 ; Sanfilippo 1995 ) . The lexical entries are only partially specified , and various specializations are encoded via the type hierarchy , definite clause attachments , or a macro hierarchy .

Riehemann 1993 ; Oliva 1994 ; Frank 1994 ; Opalka 1995 ; @@CITATION ) .


a corpusbased appreach to language learning

This is particularly important in NLP because of the high redundancy across tasks and approaches . Machine learning methods should be interchangeable : Transformation-based learning ( TBL ) ( Brill , 1993 ) and Memory-based learning ( MBL ) ( Daelemans et al. , 2002 ) have been applied to many different problems , so a single interchangeable component should be used to represent each method . We will base these components on the design of Weka ( Witten and Frank , 1999 ) .

Machine learning methods should be interchangeable : Transformation-based learning ( TBL ) ( @@CITATION ) and Memory-based learning ( MBL ) ( Daelemans et al. , 2002 ) have been applied to many different problems , so a single interchangeable component should be used to represent each method .


learning probabilistic models of relational structure

Zhu ( 2005 ) maintains a survey of this area . Recently , several alternative , often quite sophisticated approaches to collective classification have been proposed ( Neville and Jensen , 2000 ; Lafferty et al. , 2001 ; Getoor et al. , 2002 ; Taskar et al. , 2002 ; Taskar et al. , 2003 ; Taskar et al. , 2004 ; McCallum and Wellner , 2004 ) . It would be interesting to investigate the application of such methods to our problem .

Recently , several alternative , often quite sophisticated approaches to collective classification have been proposed ( Neville and Jensen , 2000 ; Lafferty et al. , 2001 ; @@CITATION ; Taskar et al. , 2002 ; Taskar et al. , 2003 ; Taskar et al. , 2004 ; McCallum and Wellner , 2004 ) .


the grammar of english predicate complement constructions

It is not clear , in particular , that the rules for computing semantic types for verbs are well enough motivated linguistically or that the LDOCE lexicographers were sensitive enough to the different transformational potential of the various classes of verbs to make a rule such as our one for Object Raising viable . We tested the classification of verbs into semantic types using a verb list of 139 pre-classified items drawn from the lists published in Rosenbaum ( 1967 ) and Stockwell et al. ( 1973 ) . Figure 16 gives the number of verbs classified under each category by these authors and the number successfully classified into the same categories by the system .

We tested the classification of verbs into semantic types using a verb list of 139 pre-classified items drawn from the lists published in @@CITATION and Stockwell et al. ( 1973 ) .


a stochastic parts program and noun phrase parser for unrestricted text

Dialogue Act Modeling sequence with the highest posterior probability : The combination of likelihood and prior modeling , HMMs , and Viterbi decoding is fundamentally the same as the standard probabilistic approaches to speech recognition ( Bahl , Jelinek , and Mercer 1983 ) and tagging ( Church 1988 ) . It maximizes the probability of getting the entire DA sequence correct , but it does not necessarily find the DA sequence that has the most DA labels correct ( Dermatas and Kokkinakis 1995 ) .

The combination of likelihood and prior modeling , HMMs , and Viterbi decoding is fundamentally the same as the standard probabilistic approaches to speech recognition ( Bahl , Jelinek , and Mercer 1983 ) and tagging ( @@CITATION ) .


probabilistic textual entailment generic applied modeling of language variability

Cross-lingual Textual Entailment ( CLTE ) has been proposed by ( Mehdad et al. , 2010 ) as an extension of Textual Entailment ( Dagan and Glickman , 2004 ) that consists in deciding , given two texts T and H in different languages , if the meaning of H can be inferred from the meaning of T . The task is inherently difficult , as it adds issues related to the multilingual dimension to the complexity of semantic inference at the textual level .

Cross-lingual Textual Entailment ( CLTE ) has been proposed by ( Mehdad et al. , 2010 ) as an extension of Textual Entailment ( @@CITATION ) that consists in deciding , given two texts T and H in different languages , if the meaning of H can be inferred from the meaning of T .


bbn description of the sift system as used for muc7

S Miller
M Crystal
H Fox
L Ramshaw
R Schwarz
R Stone
R Weischedel

In this paper we focus on the Entity Detection and Recognition task ( EDR ) for Arabic as described in ACE 2004 framework ( ACE , 2004 ) . The EDR has close ties to the named entity recognition ( NER ) and coreference resolution tasks , which have been the focus of several recent investigations ( Bikel et al. , 1997 ; Miller et al. , 1998 ; Borthwick , 1999 ; Mikheev et al. , 1999 ; Soon et al. , 2001 ; Ng and Cardie , 2002 ; Florian et al. , 2004 ) , and have been at the center of evaluations such as : MUC-6 , MUC-7 , and the CoNLL '02 and CoNLL '03 shared tasks . Usually , in computational linguistics literature , a named entity is an instance of a location , a person , or an organization , and the NER task consists of identifying each of these occurrences .

The EDR has close ties to the named entity recognition ( NER ) and coreference resolution tasks , which have been the focus of several recent investigations ( Bikel et al. , 1997 ; @@CITATION ; Borthwick , 1999 ; Mikheev et al. , 1999 ; Soon et al. , 2001 ; Ng and Cardie , 2002 ; Florian et al. , 2004 ) , and have been at the center of evaluations such as : MUC-6 , MUC-7 , and the CoNLL '02 and CoNLL '03 shared tasks .


facilitating the compilation and dissemination of adhoc web corpora

Current practise elsewhere includes the distribution of URL lists , but given the dynamic nature of the web , this is not sufficiently robust . Other solutions such as complete caching of the corpora are not typically adopted due to legal concerns over copyright and redistribution of web data , issues considered at length by Fletcher ( 2004a ) . Other requirements for reference corpora such as retrieval and storage of metadata for web pages are beyond the scope of what we propose here .

Other solutions such as complete caching of the corpora are not typically adopted due to legal concerns over copyright and redistribution of web data , issues considered at length by @@CITATIONa ) .


generalized expectation criteria for semisupervised learning with weakly labeled data

There have been a number of efforts to exploit weak or external signals of quality to train better prediction models . This includes work on generalized expectation ( Mann and McCallum , 2010 ) , posterior regularization ( Ganchev et al. , 2010 ) and constraint driven learning ( Chang et al. , 2007 ; Chang et al. , 2010 ) . The work of Chang et al. ( 2007 ) on constraint driven learning is perhaps the closest to our framework and we draw connections to it in Section 5 .

This includes work on generalized expectation ( @@CITATION ) , posterior regularization ( Ganchev et al. , 2010 ) and constraint driven learning ( Chang et al. , 2007 ; Chang et al. , 2010 ) .


contextfree parsing through regular approximation

The full formulation of the integrated grammar transformation and construction of the finite automaton is rather long and is therefore not given here . A very similar formulation , for another grammar transformation , is given in Nederhof ( 1998 ) .

A very similar formulation , for another grammar transformation , is given in @@CITATION .


The development set is NIST02 evaluation data , and the test datasets are NIST05 , NIST06 , and NIST08 . We run GIZA + + ( Och and Ney , 2000 ) on the training corpus in both directions ( Koehn et al. , 2003 ) to obtain the word alignment for each sentence pair . We train a 4-gram language model on the Xinhua portion of the English Gigaword corpus using the SRILM Toolkits ( Stolcke , 2002 ) with modified Kneser-Ney smoothing ( Chen and Goodman , 1998 ) .

We run GIZA + + ( @@CITATION ) on the training corpus in both directions ( Koehn et al. , 2003 ) to obtain the word alignment for each sentence pair .


transformationbased learning in the fast lane

An example of this is the estimation of maximum entropy models , from simple iterative estimation algorithms used by Ratnaparkhi ( 1998 ) that converge very slowly , to complex techniques from the optimisation literature that converge much more rapidly ( Malouf , 2002 ) . Other attempts to address efficiency include the fast Transformation Based Learning ( TBL ) Toolkit ( Ngai and Florian , 2001 ) which dramatically speeds up training TBL systems , and the translation of TBL rules into finite state machines for very fast tagging ( Roche and Schabes , 1997 ) . The TNT POS tagger ( Brants , 2000 ) has also been designed to train and run very quickly , tagging between 30,000 and 60,000 words per second .

Other attempts to address efficiency include the fast Transformation Based Learning ( TBL ) Toolkit ( @@CITATION ) which dramatically speeds up training TBL systems , and the translation of TBL rules into finite state machines for very fast tagging ( Roche and Schabes , 1997 ) .


classifier combination for improved lexical disambiguation

Clearly , the above characterization is very wide ranging . Consequently , fusion has been applied to a wide variety of pattern recognition and decision theoretic problems -- using a plethora of theories , techniques , and tools -- including some applications in computational linguistics ( e.g. , Brill and Wu 1998 ; van Halteren , Zavrel , and Daelemans 1998 ) and speech technology ( e.g. , Bowles and Damper 1989 ; Romary and Pierre11989 ) . According to Abbott ( 1999 , 290 ) , `` While the reasons [ that ] combining models works so well are not rigorously understood , there is ample evidence that improvements over single models are typical ... .

Consequently , fusion has been applied to a wide variety of pattern recognition and decision theoretic problems -- using a plethora of theories , techniques , and tools -- including some applications in computational linguistics ( e.g. , @@CITATION ; van Halteren , Zavrel , and Daelemans 1998 ) and speech technology ( e.g. , Bowles and Damper 1989 ; Romary and Pierre11989 ) .


( to pronounced / tu / ) When it comes to sentence-level prosody , especially phrasing , it is often true , as we will see below , that a sequence of words dominated by the same syntactic node cohere more closely than a sequence of words dominated by two different nodes . This observation has led some researchers , e.g. , Cooper and Paccia-Cooper ( 1980 ) , to claim a direct mapping between the syntactic phrase and the prosodic phrase . However , this claim is controversial because of the misa : ignments that occur between the two levels of phrasing .

This observation has led some researchers , e.g. , @@CITATION , to claim a direct mapping between the syntactic phrase and the prosodic phrase .


rich sourceside context for statistical machine translation

We incorporate into the ME based model the following informative context-based features to train CBSM and CBTM . These features are carefully designed to reduce the data sparseness problem and some of them are inspired by previous work ( He et al. , 2008 ; Gimpel and Smith , 2008 ; Marton and Resnik , 2008 ; Chiang et al. , 2009 ; Setiawan et al. , 2009 ; Shen et al. , 2009 ; Xiong et al. , 2009 ) : 1 . Function word features , which indicate whether the hierarchical source-side/targetside rule strings and sub-phrases covered by non-terminals contain function words that are often important clues of predicting syntactic structures .

These features are carefully designed to reduce the data sparseness problem and some of them are inspired by previous work ( He et al. , 2008 ; @@CITATION ; Marton and Resnik , 2008 ; Chiang et al. , 2009 ; Setiawan et al. , 2009 ; Shen et al. , 2009 ; Xiong et al. , 2009 ) : 1 .


what do we know about conversation participants experiments on conversation entailment

In our previous work ( Zhang and Chai , 2009 ) , conversation entailment is formulated as the following : given a conversation segment D which is represented by a set of clauses D = d1 â§ ... â§ dm , and a hypothesis H represented by another set of clauses H = h1 â§ ... â§ hn , the prediction on whether D entails H is determined by the product of probabilities that each hypothesis clause hj is entailed from all the conversation segment clauses d1 ... dm as follows . This is based on a simple assumption that whether a clause is entailed from a conversation segment is conditionally independent from other clauses .

In our previous work ( @@CITATION ) , conversation entailment is formulated as the following : given a conversation segment D which is represented by a set of clauses D = d1 â§ ... â§ dm , and a hypothesis H represented by another set of clauses H = h1 â§ ... â§ hn , the prediction on whether D entails H is determined by the product of probabilities that each hypothesis clause hj is entailed from all the conversation segment clauses d1 ... dm as follows .


diffusion kernels on graphs and other discrete input spaces

inter-document references in the form of hyperlinks ( Agrawal et al. , 2003 ) . Notable early papers on graph-based semisupervised learning include Blum and Chawla ( 2001 ) , Bansal et al. ( 2002 ) , Kondor and Lafferty ( 2002 ) , and Joachims ( 2003 ) . Zhu ( 2005 ) maintains a survey of this area .

Notable early papers on graph-based semisupervised learning include Blum and Chawla ( 2001 ) , Bansal et al. ( 2002 ) , @@CITATION , and Joachims ( 2003 ) .


identifying agreement and disagreement in conversational speech use of bayesian networks to model pragmatic dependencies

Michel Galley
Kathleen McKeown
Julia Hirschberg
Elizabeth Shriberg

The MI approach discovers the words that are highly associated with Agree/Disagree categories and these words turn to be useful features for classification . In addition , we consider several types of lexical features ( LexF ) inspired by previous work on agreement and disagreement ( Galley et al. , 2004 ; Misra and Walker , 2013 ) . â¢ Sentiment Lexicon ( SL ) : Two features are designed using a sentiment lexicon ( Hu and Liu , 2004 ) where the first feature represents the number of times the Callout and the Target contain a positive emotional word and the second feature represents the number of the negative emotional words .

In addition , we consider several types of lexical features ( LexF ) inspired by previous work on agreement and disagreement ( @@CITATION ; Misra and Walker , 2013 ) .


bridging the lexical chasm statistical approaches to answerfinding

A Berger
R Caruana
D Cohn
D Freitag
V Mittal

They complemented this approach with machine learning techniques that automatically learn the weights of different retrieval models . Berger et al. ( 2000 ) compared two retrieval approaches ( TF.IDF and query expansion ) and two predictive approaches ( statistical translation and latent variable models ) . Jijkoun and de Rijke ( 2005 ) compared different variants of retrieval techniques .

@@CITATION compared two retrieval approaches ( TF.IDF and query expansion ) and two predictive approaches ( statistical translation and latent variable models ) .


learning to parse natural language commands to a robot control system

Cynthia Matuszek
Evan Herbst
Luke Zettlemoyer
Dieter Fox

Some approaches apply semantic parsing , where words and sentences are mapped to logical structure meaning ( Kate and Mooney , 2007 ) . Others provide automatic mappings of natural language instructions to executable actions , such as interpreting navigation directions ( Chen and Mooney , 2011 ) or robot commands ( Tellex et al. , 2011 ; Matuszek et al. , 2012 ) . Some efforts have tackled tasks such as automatic image caption generation ( Feng and Lapata , 2010a ; Ordonez et al. , 2011 ) , text illustration ( Joshi et al. , 2006 ) , or automatic location identification of Twitter users ( Eisenstein et al. , 2010 ; Wing and Baldridge , 2011 ; Roller et al. , 2012 ) .

Others provide automatic mappings of natural language instructions to executable actions , such as interpreting navigation directions ( Chen and Mooney , 2011 ) or robot commands ( Tellex et al. , 2011 ; @@CITATION ) .


Charles B Callaway
Myroslava Dzikovska
Elaine Farrow
Manuel Marques-Pita
Colin Matheson
Johanna D Moore

Interaction between components is coordinated by the dialogue manager which uses the informationstate approach ( Larsson and Traum , 2000 ) . The dialogue state is represented by a cumulative answer analysis which tracks , over multiple turns , the correct , incorrect , and not-yet-mentioned parts 1Other factors such as student confidence could be considered as well ( Callaway et al. , 2007 ) . of the answer .

The dialogue state is represented by a cumulative answer analysis which tracks , over multiple turns , the correct , incorrect , and not-yet-mentioned parts 1Other factors such as student confidence could be considered as well ( @@CITATION ) .


how verb subcategorization frequencies are affected by corpus choice

Another drawback to using an existing external gold standard such as COMLEX to evaluate an automatically induced subcategorization lexicon is that the resources are not necessarily constructed from the same source data . As noted above , it is well documented ( Roland and Jurafsky 1998 ) that subcategorization frames ( and their frequencies ) vary across domains . We have extracted frames from two sources ( the WSJ and the Brown corpus ) , whereas COMLEX was built using examples from the San Jose Mercury News , the Brown corpus , several literary works from the Library of America , scientific abstracts from the U.S. Department of Energy , and the WSJ .

As noted above , it is well documented ( @@CITATION ) that subcategorization frames ( and their frequencies ) vary across domains .


automated extraction of tags from the penn treebank

As these formalisms are fully lexicalized with an invariant ( LTAG and CCG ) or limited ( HPSG ) rule component , the extraction of a lexicon essentially amounts to the creation of a grammar . Chen and Vijay-Shanker ( 2000 ) explore a number of related approaches to the extraction of a lexicalized TAG from the Penn-II Treebank with the aim of constructing a statistical model for parsing . The extraction procedure utilizes a head percolation table as introduced by Magerman ( 1995 ) in combination with a variation of Collins 's ( 1997 ) approach to the differentiation between complement and adjunct .

@@CITATION explore a number of related approaches to the extraction of a lexicalized TAG from the Penn-II Treebank with the aim of constructing a statistical model for parsing .


a statistical approach to machine translation

P J Brown
J Cocke
S A Della Pietra
V J Della Pietra
J Lafferty
R L Mercer
P Rossin

Compared with left-to-right transduction , middle-out transduction also aids robustness because , when complete derivations are not available , partial derivations tend to have meaningful headwords . At the same time , we believe our method has advantages over the approach developed initially at IBM ( Brown et al. 1990 ; Brown et al. 1993 ) for training translation systems automatically . One advantage is that our method attempts to model the natural decomposition of sentences into phrases .

At the same time , we believe our method has advantages over the approach developed initially at IBM ( @@CITATION ; Brown et al. 1993 ) for training translation systems automatically .


catching the drift probabilistic content models with applications to generation and summarization

McKnight and Srinivasan ( 2003 ) have previously examined the task of categorizing sentences in medical abstracts using supervised discriminative machine learning techniques . Building on the work of Ruch et al. ( 2003 ) in the same domain , we present a generative approach that attempts to directly model the discourse structure of MEDLINE abstracts using Hidden Markov Models ( HMMs ) ; cfXXX ( Barzilay and Lee , 2004 ) . Although our results were not obtained from the same exact collection as those used by authors of these two previous studies , comparable experiments suggest that our techniques are competitive in terms of performance , and may offer additional advantages as well .

Building on the work of Ruch et al. ( 2003 ) in the same domain , we present a generative approach that attempts to directly model the discourse structure of MEDLINE abstracts using Hidden Markov Models ( HMMs ) ; cfXXX ( @@CITATION ) .


bootstrapping postaggers using unlabelled data

Stephen Clark
James R Curran
Miles Osborne

Finally , since Python can produce stand-alone executables directly , it will be possible to create distributable code that does not require the entire infrastructure or Python interpreter to be installed . The basic Python reflection has already been implemented and used for large scale experiments with POS tagging , using pyMPI ( a message passing interface library for Python ) to coordinate experiments across a cluster of over 100 machines ( Curran and Clark , 2003 ; Clark et al. , 2003 ) . An example of using the Python tagger interface is shown in Figure 1 .

The basic Python reflection has already been implemented and used for large scale experiments with POS tagging , using pyMPI ( a message passing interface library for Python ) to coordinate experiments across a cluster of over 100 machines ( Curran and Clark , 2003 ; @@CITATION ) .


the trec8 question answering track evaluation

However , we do not have access to the computational resources necessary to apply knowledge extractors to the 15 million plus citations in the MEDLINE database and directly index their results . As an alternative , we rely on PubMed to retrieve an initial set of hits that we then postprocess in greater detail -- this is the standard pipeline architecture commonly employed in other question-answering systems ( Voorhees and Tice 1999 ; Hirschman and Gaizauskas 2001 ) . The architecture of our system is shown in Figure 1 .

As an alternative , we rely on PubMed to retrieve an initial set of hits that we then postprocess in greater detail -- this is the standard pipeline architecture commonly employed in other question-answering systems ( @@CITATION ; Hirschman and Gaizauskas 2001 ) .


congruent embodied representations for visually presented actions and linguistic phrases describing actions

Lisa Aziz-Zadeh
Stephen M Wilson
Giacomo Rizzolatti
Marco Iacoboni

The language grounding problem has received significant attention in recent years , owed in part to the wide availability of data sets ( e.g. Flickr , Von Ahn ( 2006 ) ) , computing power , improved computer vision models ( Oliva and Torralba , 2001 ; Lowe , 2004 ; Farhadi et al. , 2009 ; Parikh and Grauman , 2011 ) and neurological evidence of ties between the language , perceptual and motor systems in the brain ( Pulverm Â¨ uller et al. , 2005 ; Tettamanti et al. , 2005 ; Aziz-Zadeh et al. , 2006 ) . Many approaches to multimodal research have succeeded by abstracting away raw perceptual information and using high-level representations instead .

The language grounding problem has received significant attention in recent years , owed in part to the wide availability of data sets ( e.g. Flickr , Von Ahn ( 2006 ) ) , computing power , improved computer vision models ( Oliva and Torralba , 2001 ; Lowe , 2004 ; Farhadi et al. , 2009 ; Parikh and Grauman , 2011 ) and neurological evidence of ties between the language , perceptual and motor systems in the brain ( Pulverm Â¨ uller et al. , 2005 ; Tettamanti et al. , 2005 ; @@CITATION ) .


a logic of implicit and explicit beliefsquot

0 is a ground instance of a formula 0 , if 0 contains no variables , and 0 = 00 , for some substitution O. Thus , we do not require Th ( T ) to be closed under substitution instances of tautologies . Although in this paper we take modus ponens as the main rule of inference , in general one can consider deductive closures with respect to weaker , nonstandard logics , ( cfXXX Levesque 1984 ; Frisch 1987 ; Patel-Schneider 1985 ) . But we wo n't pursue this topic further here .

Although in this paper we take modus ponens as the main rule of inference , in general one can consider deductive closures with respect to weaker , nonstandard logics , ( cfXXX @@CITATION ; Frisch 1987 ; Patel-Schneider 1985 ) .


processing dictionary definitions with phrasal pattern hierarchies in this issue

A dictionary access process is fired off , which dynamically constructs a search tree and navigates through it from a given homograph directly to the offset in the lispified file from where all the associated information can be retrieved . As Alshawi ( 1987 ) points out , given that no situations were envisaged where the information from the tape would be altered once installed in secondary storage , this simple and convenComputational Linguistics , Volume 13 , Numbers 3-4 , July-December 1987 205 Bran Boguraev and Ted Briscoe Large Lexicons for Natural Language Processing tional access strategy is perfectly adequate . The use of such standard database indexing techniques makes it possible for an active dictionary process to be very undemanding with respect to main memory utilisation .

As @@CITATION points out , given that no situations were envisaged where the information from the tape would be altered once installed in secondary storage , this simple and convenComputational Linguistics , Volume 13 , Numbers 3-4 , July-December 1987 205 Bran Boguraev and Ted Briscoe Large Lexicons for Natural Language Processing tional access strategy is perfectly adequate .


the representation and use of focus in a system for understanding dialogsquot

They are intended as an illustration of the power of abduction , which in this framework helps determine the universe of the model ( that is the set of entities that appear in it ) . Other factors , such as the role of focus ( Grosz 1977 , 1978 ; Sidner 1983 ) or quantifier scoping ( Webber 1983 ) must play a role , too . Determining the relative importance of those factors , the above metarules , and syntactic clues , appears to be an interesting topic in itself .

Other factors , such as the role of focus ( @@CITATION , 1978 ; Sidner 1983 ) or quantifier scoping ( Webber 1983 ) must play a role , too .


This paper describes an approach for sharing resources in various grammar formalisms such as Feature-Based Lexicalized Tree Adjoining Grammar ( FB-LTAG1 ) ( Vijay-Shanker , 1987 ; Vijay-Shanker and Joshi , 1988 ) and Head-Driven Phrase Structure Grammar ( HPSG ) ( Pollard and Sag , 1994 ) by a method of grammar conversion . The RenTAL system automatically converts an FB-LTAG grammar into a strongly equivalent HPSG-style grammar ( Yoshinaga and Miyao , 2001 ) .

This paper describes an approach for sharing resources in various grammar formalisms such as Feature-Based Lexicalized Tree Adjoining Grammar ( FB-LTAG1 ) ( @@CITATION ; Vijay-Shanker and Joshi , 1988 ) and Head-Driven Phrase Structure Grammar ( HPSG ) ( Pollard and Sag , 1994 ) by a method of grammar conversion .


binarizing syntax trees to improve syntaxbased machine translation accuracy

Differently , we require that each multi-word non-terminal node must have two child nodes . This is because the binary structure has been verified to be very effective for tree-based translation ( Wang et al. , 2007 ; Zhang et al. , 2011a ) . The generation process starts at root node N .

This is because the binary structure has been verified to be very effective for tree-based translation ( @@CITATION ; Zhang et al. , 2011a ) .


Fixed roles are too coarsegrained to account for certain semantic distinctions -- the only recourse , to expand the inventory of roles , comes with the price of increased complexity , e.g. , in the syntaxto-semantics mapping . There is a general consensus among theoretical linguists that the proper representation of verbal argument structure is event structure -- representations grounded in a theory of events that decompose semantic roles in terms of primitive predicates representing concepts such as causality and inchoativity ( Dowty , 1979 ; Jackendoff , 1983 ; Pustejovsky , 1991b ; Rappaport Hovav and Levin , 1998 ) . Consider the following example :

There is a general consensus among theoretical linguists that the proper representation of verbal argument structure is event structure -- representations grounded in a theory of events that decompose semantic roles in terms of primitive predicates representing concepts such as causality and inchoativity ( Dowty , 1979 ; @@CITATION ; Pustejovsky , 1991b ; Rappaport Hovav and Levin , 1998 ) .


conllx shared task on multilingual dependency parsing

For some experiments we also measure the standard intrinsic parser metrics unlabeled attachment score ( UAS ) and labeled attachment score ( LAS ) ( Buchholz and Marsi , 2006 ) . In terms of treebank data , the primary training corpus is the Penn Wall Street Journal Treebank ( PTB ) ( Marcus et al. , 1993 ) .

measure the standard intrinsic parser metrics unlabeled attachment score ( UAS ) and labeled attachment score ( LAS ) ( @@CITATION ) .


nymble a highperformance learning namefinder

D M Bikel
S Miller
R Schwartz
R Weischedel

In this paper we focus on the Entity Detection and Recognition task ( EDR ) for Arabic as described in ACE 2004 framework ( ACE , 2004 ) . The EDR has close ties to the named entity recognition ( NER ) and coreference resolution tasks , which have been the focus of several recent investigations ( Bikel et al. , 1997 ; Miller et al. , 1998 ; Borthwick , 1999 ; Mikheev et al. , 1999 ; Soon et al. , 2001 ; Ng and Cardie , 2002 ; Florian et al. , 2004 ) , and have been at the center of evaluations such as : MUC-6 , MUC-7 , and the CoNLL '02 and CoNLL '03 shared tasks . Usually , in computational linguistics literature , a named entity is an instance of a location , a person , or an organization , and the NER task consists of identifying each of these occurrences .

The EDR has close ties to the named entity recognition ( NER ) and coreference resolution tasks , which have been the focus of several recent investigations ( @@CITATION ; Miller et al. , 1998 ; Borthwick , 1999 ; Mikheev et al. , 1999 ; Soon et al. , 2001 ; Ng and Cardie , 2002 ; Florian et al. , 2004 ) , and have been at the center of evaluations such as : MUC-6 , MUC-7 , and the CoNLL '02 and CoNLL '03 shared tasks .


examplebased incremental synchronous interpretation

In our system , in some cases the smallest chunk obtainable via the marker-based segmentation process may be something like ( 27 ) : ( 27 ) <DET> the good man : le bon homme In such cases , if our system were confronted with a good man , it would not be able to translate such a phrase , assuming this to be missing from the marker lexicon . Accordingly , we convert examples such as ( 27 ) into their generalized equivalents , as in ( 28 ) : ( 28 ) <DET> good man : bon homme That is , where Block ( 2000 ) substitutes variables for various words in his templates , we replace certain lexical items with their marker tag . Given that examples such as '` <DET> a : un '' are likely to exist in the word-level lexicon , they may be inserted at the point indicated by the marker tag to form the correct translation un bon homme .

Accordingly , we convert examples such as ( 27 ) into their generalized equivalents , as in ( 28 ) : ( 28 ) <DET> good man : bon homme That is , where @@CITATION substitutes variables for various words in his templates , we replace certain lexical items with their marker tag .


the acquisition and use of dialogue expectation in speech recognition

The comparison that must be made to determine which option is better in a given situation is how often the first will error correct incorrectly as opposed to how much error correcting power we will lose by using the second . How it is done is beyond the scope of this paper but is explained in detail in Fink ( 1983 ) . The Merge function takes two inputs , M1 and M2 , which have been determined by the Mergeable function to be similar in some way by considering their respective environments and meanings .

How it is done is beyond the scope of this paper but is explained in detail in @@CITATION .


a gaussian prior for smoothing maximum entropy models

These tools currently train in less than 10 minutes on the standard training materials and tag faster than TNT , the fastest existing POS tagger . These tools use a highly optimised GIS implementation and provide sophisticated Gaussian smoothing ( Chen and Rosenfeld , 1999 ) . We expect even faster training times when we move to conjugate gradient methods .

These tools use a highly optimised GIS implementation and provide sophisticated Gaussian smoothing ( @@CITATION ) .


summarizing scientific articles experiments with relevance and rhetorical status

More sophisticated approaches have been proposed ( Hillard et al. , 2003 ) , including an extension that , in an interesting reversal of our problem , makes use of sentimentpolarity indicators within speech segments ( Galley et al. , 2004 ) . Also relevant is work on the general problems of dialog-act tagging ( Stolcke et al. , 2000 ) , citation analysis ( Lehnert et al. , 1990 ) , and computational rhetorical analysis ( Marcu , 2000 ; Teufel and Moens , 2002 ) . We currently do not have an efficient means to encode disagreement information as hard constraints ; we plan to investigate incorporating such information in future work .

Also relevant is work on the general problems of dialog-act tagging ( Stolcke et al. , 2000 ) , citation analysis ( Lehnert et al. , 1990 ) , and computational rhetorical analysis ( Marcu , 2000 ; @@CITATION ) .


building natural language generation systems

Architecture ( Section 6 ) . The inference rules that were necessary to convert one list of properties into another do not sit comfortably within the received NLG pipeline model ( e.g. , Reiter and Dale 2000 ) . An example of such an inference rule is the one that transforms a list of the form ( mouse , > 10 cm ) into one of the form ( mouse , size ( x ) = max2 ) if only two mice are larger than 10 cm .

The inference rules that were necessary to convert one list of properties into another do not sit comfortably within the received NLG pipeline model ( e.g. , @@CITATION ) .


a minimalist implementation of verb subcategorization

A simple example of this is the case assignment involved in building a prepositional phrase , i.e. , prepositions must assign case , and DPs much receive case . Niyogi ( 2001 ) has developed an agenda-driven chart parser for the feature-driven formalism described above ; please refer to his paper for a description of the parsing algorithm . I have adapted it for my needs and developed grammar fragments that reflect my non-lexicalist semantic framework .

@@CITATION has developed an agenda-driven chart parser for the feature-driven formalism described above ; please refer to his paper for a description of the parsing algorithm .


Although these dictates are fairly clear , the underlying notion of topic is not . An example of psycholinguistically oriented research work can be found in Bond and Hayes ( 1983 ) . These authors take the position that a paragraph is a psychologically real unit of discourse , and , in fact , a formal grammatical unit .

An example of psycholinguistically oriented research work can be found in @@CITATION .


can nominal expressions achieve multiple goals an empirical study

In addition to a referring function , noun phrases ( NP ) can also serve communicative goals such as providing new information about the referent and expressing the speaker 's emotional attitude towards the referent ( Appelt , 1985 ; Jordan , 2000 ) . In Example ( 1 ) below , the part in italics refers to an object in a museum , and the part in boldface provides additional information about it .

In addition to a referring function , noun phrases ( NP ) can also serve communicative goals such as providing new information about the referent and expressing the speaker 's emotional attitude towards the referent ( Appelt , 1985 ; @@CITATION ) .


statistical models for unsupervised prepositional phrase attachment

Researchers have proposed many computational models for resolving PPattachment ambiguities . Some well-known approaches include rule-based models ( Brill and Resnik 1994 ) , backed-off models ( Collins and Brooks 1995 ) , and a maximumentropy model ( Ratnaparkhi 1998 ) . Following the tradition of using learning PPattachment as a way to gain insight into the parsing problem , we first apply sample selection to reduce the amount of annotation used in training a PP-attachment model .

Some well-known approaches include rule-based models ( Brill and Resnik 1994 ) , backed-off models ( Collins and Brooks 1995 ) , and a maximumentropy model ( @@CITATION ) .


automatic program construction techniques

That is , the current system learns procedures rather than data structures . There is some literature on procedure acquisition such as the LISP synthesis work described in Biermann et al. ( 1984 ) and the PROLOG synthesis method of Shapiro ( 1982 ) . However , the latter methodologies have not been applied to dialogue acquisition .

There is some literature on procedure acquisition such as the LISP synthesis work described in @@CITATION and the PROLOG synthesis method of Shapiro ( 1982 ) .


The last decade of the 20th century saw a number of anaphora resolution projects for languages other than English such as French , German , Japanese , Spanish , Portuguese , and Turkish . Against the background of a growing interest in multilingual NLP , multilingual anaphora / coreference resolution has gained considerable momentum in recent years ( Aone and McKee 1993 ; Azzam , Humphreys , and Gaizauskas 1998 ; Harabagiu and Maiorano 2000 ; Mitkov and Barbu 2000 ; Mitkov 1999 ; Mitkov and Stys 1997 ; Mitkov , Belguith , and Stys 1998 ) . Other milestones of recent research include the deployment of probabilistic and machine learning techniques ( Aone and Bennett 1995 ; Kehler 1997 ; Ge , Hale , and Charniak 1998 ; Cardie and Wagstaff 1999 ; the continuing interest in centering , used either in original or in revised form ( Abracos and Lopes 1994 ; Strube and Hahn 1996 ; Hahn and Strube 1997 ; Tetreault 1999 ) ; and proposals related to the evaluation methodology in anaphora resolution ( Mitkov 1998a , 2001b ) .

Against the background of a growing interest in multilingual NLP , multilingual anaphora / coreference resolution has gained considerable momentum in recent years ( Aone and McKee 1993 ; Azzam , Humphreys , and Gaizauskas 1998 ; @@CITATION ; Mitkov and Barbu 2000 ; Mitkov 1999 ; Mitkov and Stys 1997 ; Mitkov , Belguith , and Stys 1998 ) .


systematic construction of a versatile case system

Ken Barker
Terry Copeck
Sylvain Delisle
Stan Szpakowicz

The list of semantic relations with which we work is based on extensive literature study ( Barker et al. , 1997a ) . Three lists of relations for three syntactic levels -- inter-clause , intra-clause ( case ) and nounmodifier relations -- were next combined based on syntactic and semantic phenomena .

The list of semantic relations with which we work is based on extensive literature study ( @@CITATIONa ) .


a natural language toolkit reconciling theory with practice

Real-time parsing imposes stringent requirements on a dictionary support environment ; at the very least it must allow frequent and rapid access to the information in the dictionary via the dictionary head words . The research described below is taking place in the context of three collaborative projects ( Boguraev , 1987 ; Russell et al. , 1986 ; Phillips and Thompson , 1986 ) to develop a general-purpose , wide coverage morphological and syntactic analyser for English . One motivation for our interest in machine readable dictionaries is to attempt to provide a substantial lexicon with lexical entries containing grammatical information compatible with the grammatical framework employed by the analyser .

The research described below is taking place in the context of three collaborative projects ( @@CITATION ; Russell et al. , 1986 ; Phillips and Thompson , 1986 ) to develop a general-purpose , wide coverage morphological and syntactic analyser for English .


uptraining for accurate deterministic question parsing

S Petrov
P C Chang
M Ringgaard
H Alshawi

This includes work on question answering ( Wang et al. , 2007 ) , sentiment analysis ( Nakagawa et al. , 2010 ) , MT reordering ( Xu et al. , 2009 ) , and many other tasks . In most cases , the accuracy of parsers degrades when run on out-of-domain data ( Gildea , 2001 ; McClosky et al. , 2006 ; Blitzer et al. , 2006 ; Petrov et al. , 2010 ) . But these accuracies are measured with respect to gold-standard out-of-domain parse trees .

In most cases , the accuracy of parsers degrades when run on out-of-domain data ( Gildea , 2001 ; McClosky et al. , 2006 ; Blitzer et al. , 2006 ; @@CITATION ) .


discoursal movements in medical english abstracts and their linguistic exponents a genre analysis study

Demner-Fushman et al. ( 2005 ) found a correlation between the quality and strength of clinical conclusions in the full article texts and abstracts . This paper presents experiments with generative content models for analyzing the discourse structure of medical abstracts , which has been confirmed to follow the four-section pattern discussed above ( Salanger-Meyer , 1990 ) . For a variety of reasons , medicine is an interesting domain of research .

This paper presents experiments with generative content models for analyzing the discourse structure of medical abstracts , which has been confirmed to follow the four-section pattern discussed above ( @@CITATION ) .


a hybrid approach for improving predictive accuracy of collaborative filtering algorithms user modeling and useradapted interaction

These predictions enable our system to recommend a particular method for handling a new ( unseen ) request ( Marom , Zukerman , and Japkowicz 2007 ) . Following Lekakos and Giaglis ( 2007 ) , one approach for achieving this objective consists of applying supervised learning , where a winning method is selected for each case in the training set , all the training cases are labeled accordingly , and then the system is trained to predict a winner for unseen cases . However , in our situation , there is not always one single winner ( two methods can perform similarly well for a given request ) , and there are different ways to pick winners ( for example , based on F-score or precision ) .

Following @@CITATION , one approach for achieving this objective consists of applying supervised learning , where a winning method is selected for each case in the training set , all the training cases are labeled accordingly , and then the system is trained to predict a winner for unseen cases .


a memorybased approach to learning shallow natural language patterns

While earlier work in this direction concentrated on manual construction of rules , most of the recent work has been motivated by the observation that shallow syntactic information can be extracted using local information by examining the pattern itself , its nearby context and the local part-of-speech information . Thus , over the past few years , along with advances in the use of learning and statistical methods for acquisition of full parsers ( Collins , 1997 ; Charniak , 1997a ; Charniak , 1997b ; Ratnaparkhi , 1997 ) , significant progress has been made on the use of statistical learning methods to recognize shallow parsing patterns syntactic phrases or words that participate in a syntactic relationship ( Church , 1988 ; Ramshaw and Marcus , 1995 ; Argamon et al. , 1998 ; Cardie and Pierce , 1998 ; Munoz et al. , 1999 ; Punyakanok and Roth , 2001 ; Buchholz et al. , 1999 ; Tjong Kim Sang and Buchholz , 2000 ) . Research on shallow parsing was inspired by psycholinguistics arguments ( Gee and Grosjean , 1983 ) that suggest that in many scenarios ( e.g. , conversational ) full parsing is not a realistic strategy for sentence processing and analysis , and was further motivated by several arguments from a natural language engineering viewpoint .

Thus , over the past few years , along with advances in the use of learning and statistical methods for acquisition of full parsers ( Collins , 1997 ; Charniak , 1997a ; Charniak , 1997b ; Ratnaparkhi , 1997 ) , significant progress has been made on the use of statistical learning methods to recognize shallow parsing patterns syntactic phrases or words that participate in a syntactic relationship ( Church , 1988 ; Ramshaw and Marcus , 1995 ; @@CITATION ; Cardie and Pierce , 1998 ; Munoz et al. , 1999 ; Punyakanok and Roth , 2001 ; Buchholz et al. , 1999 ; Tjong Kim Sang and Buchholz , 2000 ) .


treetostring alignment template for statistical machine translation

In recent years , tree-based translation models1 are drawing more and more attention in the community of statistical machine translation ( SMT ) . Due to their remarkable ability to incorporate context structure information and long distance reordering into the translation process , tree-based translation models have shown promising progress in improving translation quality ( Liu et al. , 2006 , 2009 ; Quirk et al. , 2005 ; Galley et al. , 2004 , 2006 ; Marcu et al. , 2006 ; Shen et al. , 2008 ; Zhang et al. , 2011b ) . However , tree-based translation models always suffer from two major challenges : 1 ) They are usually built directly from parse trees , which are generated by supervised linguistic parsers .

Due to their remarkable ability to incorporate context structure information and long distance reordering into the translation process , tree-based translation models have shown promising progress in improving translation quality ( @@CITATION , 2009 ; Quirk et al. , 2005 ; Galley et al. , 2004 , 2006 ; Marcu et al. , 2006 ; Shen et al. , 2008 ; Zhang et al. , 2011b ) .


algorithms for deterministic incremental dependency parsing

To recap , it has the following MaltParser attributes ( machine learning features ) : 4 word-form attributes , 7 POS tag attributes , and 5 deprel attributes ( some of which are not useful for the Nivre `` eager '' algorithm ) , totaling 16 attributes and two more for every new feature described in Section 4.3 and on ( e.g. , CASE ) . 11 Nivre ( 2008 ) reports that non-projective and pseudo-projective algorithms outperform the `` eager '' projective algorithm in MaltParser , but our training data did not contain any non-projective dependencies . The Nivre `` standard '' algorithm is also reported there to do better on Arabic , but in a preliminary experimentation , it did slightly worse than the `` eager '' one , perhaps due to the high percentage of right branching ( left headed structures ) in our Arabic training set -- an observation already noted in Nivre ( 2008 ) .

11 @@CITATION reports that non-projective and pseudo-projective algorithms outperform the `` eager '' projective algorithm in MaltParser , but our training data did not contain any non-projective dependencies .


boosting applied to tagging and pp attachment

Steven Abney
Robert E Schapire
Yoram Singer

It would be worthwhile to investigate applying some of the more sophisticated ensemble learning techniques which have been proposed in the literature ( Dietterich , 1997 ) . In particular , boosting ( Schapire , 1999 ; Abney et al. , 1999 ) offers the possibility of achieving high accuracy from a collection of classifiers which individually perform quite poorly .

In particular , boosting ( Schapire , 1999 ; @@CITATION ) offers the possibility of achieving high accuracy from a collection of classifiers which individually perform quite poorly .


a systematic comparison of various statistical alignment models

alignment . For MT the most commonly used heuristic is called grow diagonal final ( Och and Ney 2003 ) . This starts with the intersection of the sets of aligned points and adds points around the diagonal that are in the union of the two sets of aligned points .

For MT the most commonly used heuristic is called grow diagonal final ( @@CITATION ) .


a mentionsynchronous coreference resolution algorithm based on the bell tree

Xiaoqiang Luo
Abe Ittycheriah
Hongyan Jing
Nanda Kambhatla
Salim Roukos

We report results with two metrics : ECM-F and ACEValue . ECM-F is an entity-constrained mention Fmeasure ( cfXXX ( Luo et al. , 2004 ) for how ECM-F is computed ) , and ACE-Value is the official ACE evaluation metric . The result is shown in Table 4 : the baseline numbers without stem features are listed under `` Base , '' and the results of the coreference system with stem features are listed under `` Base + Stem . ''

ECM-F is an entity-constrained mention Fmeasure ( cfXXX ( @@CITATION ) for how ECM-F is computed ) , and ACE-Value is the official ACE evaluation metric .


knowledgefree induction of morphology using latent semantic analysis

This methodology is well-described in the literature ( Landauer , et al. , 1998 ; Manning and SchÃ¼tze , 1999 ) . In order to obtain semantic representations of each word , we apply our previous strategy ( Schone and Jurafsky ( 2000 ) ) . Rather than using a termdocument matrix , we had followed an approach akin to that of SchÃ¼tze ( 1993 ) , who performed SVD on a Nx2N term-term matrix .

In order to obtain semantic representations of each word , we apply our previous strategy ( @@CITATION ) .


placing search in context the concept revisited

Lev Finkelstein
Evgeniy Gabrilovich
Yossi Matias
Ehud Rivlin
Zach Solan
Gadi Wolfman

This setup is also scalable to a higher number of word pairs ( 350 ) as was shown in Gurevych ( 2006 ) . Finkelstein et al. ( 2002 ) annotated a larger set of word pairs ( 353 ) , too . They used a 0-10 range of relatedness scores , but did not give further details about their experimental setup .

@@CITATION annotated a larger set of word pairs ( 353 ) , too .