listening to napster in peertopeer harnessing the power of disruptive technologies

While such an approach promises much in terms of emerging infrastructure , we wish to exploit existing computing infrastructure that is more accessible to linguists via a P2P approach . In simple terms , P2P is a technology that takes advantage of the resources and services available at the edge of the Internet ( Shirky , 2001 ) . Better known for file-sharing and Instant Messenger applications , P2P has increasingly been applied in distributed computational systems .

In simple terms , P2P is a technology that takes advantage of the resources and services available at the edge of the Internet ( @@CITATION ) .


a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining

hybrid recommender systems user modeling and useradapted interaction

In this section , we describe a meta-level process which can automatically select a response-generation method to address a new request without using such thresholds . A common way to combine different models consists of selecting the model that is most confident regarding its decision ( Burke 2002 ) . However , in our case , the individual confidence ( applicability ) measures employed by our response-generation methods are not comparable ( e.g. , the retrieval score in Doc-Ret is different in nature from the prediction probability in Doc-Pred ) .

A common way to combine different models consists of selecting the model that is most confident regarding its decision ( @@CITATION ) .


Common sense ( as well as the Gricean maxims ; Grice 1975 ) suggests that vague descriptions are preferred by speakers over quantitative ones whenever the additional information provided by a quantitative description is irrelevant to the purpose of the communication . We are not aware of any empirical validation of this idea , but the fact that vague descriptions are frequent is fairly well documented .

Common sense ( as well as the Gricean maxims ; @@CITATION ) suggests that vague descriptions are preferred by speakers over quantitative ones whenever the additional information provided by a quantitative description is irrelevant to the purpose of the communication .


This approach is taken , for example , in LKB ( Copestake 1992 ) where lexical rules are introduced on a par with phrase structure rules and the parser makes no distinction between lexical and nonlexical rules ( Copestake 1993 , 31 ) . A similar method is included in PATR-II ( Shieber et al. 1983 ) and can be used to encode lexical rules as binary relations in the CUF system ( Dorre and Eisele 1991 ; Done and Dorna 1993b ) or the TFS system ( Emele and Zajac 1990 ; Emele 1994 ) . The covariation approach described in this paper can be viewed as a domain-specific refinement of such a treatment of lexical rules .

A similar method is included in PATR-II ( Shieber et al. 1983 ) and can be used to encode lexical rules as binary relations in the CUF system ( Dorre and Eisele 1991 ; Done and Dorna 1993b ) or the TFS system ( @@CITATION ; Emele 1994 ) .


extracting paraphrases from a parallel corpus

For this we need to combine the highlevel rules with rules for paraphrasing the text in the monologue with text for the dialogue acts that express the same information in dialogue form . For automatically extracting these surface level mappings we will draw on the approach to learning paraphrases from a corpus that is described in Barzilay and McKeown ( 2001 ) . An important component of our future effort will be to evaluate whether automatically generating dialogues from naturally-occurring monologues , following the approach described here , results in dialogues that are fluent and coherent and preserve the information from the input monologue .

For automatically extracting these surface level mappings we will draw on the approach to learning paraphrases from a corpus that is described in @@CITATION .


a logical formalism for headdriven phrase structure grammar

The formalization of DLRs provided by Meurers ( 1995 ) defines a formal lexical rule specification language and provides a semantics for that language in two steps : A rewrite system enriches the lexical rule specification into a fully explicit description of the kind shown in Figure 1 . This description can then be given the standard set-theoretical interpretation of King ( 1989 , 1994 ) . ' 10 Note that the passivization lexical rule in Figure 2 is only intended to illustrate the mechanism .

This description can then be given the standard set-theoretical interpretation of @@CITATION , 1994 ) . '


Thomas L Griffiths
Mark Steyvers
Joshua B Tenenbaum

cue word and name the first ( or several ) associated words that come to mind ( e.g. , Nelson et al. ( 2004 ) ) , and feature norms , where subjects are given a cue word and asked to describe typical properties of the cue concept ( e.g. , McRae et al. ( 2005 ) ) . Griffiths et al. ( 2007 ) helped pave the path for cognitive-linguistic multimodal research , showing that Latent Dirichlet Allocation outperformed Latent Semantic Analysis ( Deerwester et al. , 1990 ) in the prediction of association norms . Andrews et al. ( 2009 ) furthered this work by showing that a bimodal topic model , consisting of both text and feature norms , outperformed models using only one modality on the prediction of association norms , word substitution errors , and semantic interference tasks .

@@CITATION helped pave the path for cognitive-linguistic multimodal research , showing that Latent Dirichlet Allocation outperformed Latent Semantic Analysis ( Deerwester et al. , 1990 ) in the prediction of association norms .


should corpora texts be gold standards for nlg

FOG does not appear to have generic rules governing the use of gradable notions : it does not compute the meaning of a vague term based on the context , but uses fixed boundary values instead . A more flexible approach is used by Reiter and Sripada ( 2002 ) , where users can specify boundary values for attributes like rainfall , specifying , for example , rain counts as moderate above 7 mm/h , as heavy above 20 mm/h , and so on . A third approach was implemented in Dial Your Disc ( DYD ) , where the extension of a gradable adjective like famous was computed rather than specified by hand ( van Deemter and Odijk 1997 ) .

A more flexible approach is used by @@CITATION , where users can specify boundary values for attributes like rainfall , specifying , for example , rain counts as moderate above 7 mm/h , as heavy above 20 mm/h , and so on .


discriminative reranking for natural language parsing

feature sets , but then efficiency becomes a problem . Collins and Duffy ( 2002 ) define a kernel over parse trees and apply it to re-ranking the output of a parser , but the resulting feature space is restricted by the need to compute the kernel efficiently , and the results are not as good as Collins ' previous work on re-ranking using a finite set of features ( Collins , 2000 ) . In this work we use a method for automatically inducing a finite set of features for representing the derivation history .

Collins and Duffy ( 2002 ) define a kernel over parse trees and apply it to re-ranking the output of a parser , but the resulting feature space is restricted by the need to compute the kernel efficiently , and the results are not as good as Collins ' previous work on re-ranking using a finite set of features ( @@CITATION ) .


the use of classifiers in sequential inference

The reported results for the full parse tree ( on section 23 ) are recall/precision of 88.1 / 87.5 ( Collins , 1997 ) . The shallow parser used is the SNoW-based CSCL parser ( Punyakanok and Roth , 2001 ; Munoz et al. , 1999 ) . SNoW ( Carleson et al. , 1999 ; Roth , 1998 ) is a multi-class classifier that is specifically tailored for learning in domains in which the potential number of information sources ( features ) taking part in decisions is very large , of which NLP is a principal example .

The shallow parser used is the SNoW-based CSCL parser ( @@CITATION ; Munoz et al. , 1999 ) .


discriminative training methods for hidden markov models theory and experiments with perceptron algorithms

Generalization for Online-to-Batch Conversion . In practice , perceptron-type algorithms are often applied in a batch learning scenario , i.e. , the algorithm is applied for K epochs to a training sample of size T and then used for prediction on an unseen test set ( Freund and Schapire , 1999 ; Collins , 2002 ) . The difference to the online learning scenario is that we treat the multi-epoch algorithm as an empirical risk minimizer that selects a final weight vector wT , K whose expected loss on unseen data we would like to bound .

In practice , perceptron-type algorithms are often applied in a batch learning scenario , i.e. , the algorithm is applied for K epochs to a training sample of size T and then used for prediction on an unseen test set ( Freund and Schapire , 1999 ; @@CITATION ) .


introduction to the conll2000 shared task chunking

We start by reporting the results in which we compare the full parser and the shallow parser on the `` clean '' WSJ data . Table 2 shows the results on identifying all phrases -- chunking in CoNLL2000 ( Tjong Kim Sang and Buchholz , 2000 ) terminology . The results show that for the tasks of identifying phrases , learning directly , as done by the shallow parser outperforms the outcome from the full parser .

Table 2 shows the results on identifying all phrases -- chunking in CoNLL2000 ( Tjong Kim @@CITATION ) terminology .


a discriminative language model with pseudonegative samples

As these are computationally very efficient , the authors could use a variant of Gibbs sampling for generating negative samples . Unfortunately , as shown in ( Okanohara and Tsujii , 2007 ) , with the represetation of sentences that we use , linear classifiers can not discriminate real sentences from sentences sampled from a trigram , which is the model we use as a baseline , so here we resort to a non-linear large-margin classifier ( see section 3 for details ) . While large-margin classifiers consistently out-perform other learning algorithms in many NLP tasks , their non-linear variations are also notoriously slow when it comes to computing their decision function -- taking time that can be linear in the size of their training data .

Unfortunately , as shown in ( @@CITATION ) , with the represetation of sentences that we use , linear classifiers can not discriminate real sentences from sentences sampled from a trigram , which is the model we use as a baseline , so here we resort to a non-linear large-margin classifier ( see section 3 for details ) .


answer extraction semantic clustering and extractive summarization for clinical question answering

Perhaps a graphical rendering of the semantic predicates present in relevant abstracts might more effectively convey the desired information ; see , for example , Fiszman , Rindflesch , and Kilicoglu ( 2004 ) . Perhaps some variation of multi-level bulleted lists , appropriately integrated with interface elements for expanding and hiding items , might provide physicians a better overview of the information landscape ; see , for example , Demner-Fushman and Lin ( 2006 ) . Recognizing this complex set of issues , we decided to take a simple extractive approach to answer generation .

Perhaps some variation of multi-level bulleted lists , appropriately integrated with interface elements for expanding and hiding items , might provide physicians a better overview of the information landscape ; see , for example , @@CITATION .


limitations of cotraining for natural language learning from large datasets

The work of Sarkar ( 2001 ) and Steedman , Osborne , et al. ( 2003 ) suggests that co-training can be helpful for statistical parsing . Pierce and Cardie ( 2001 ) have shown , in the context of base noun identification , that combining sample selection and cotraining can be an effective learning framework for large-scale training . Similar approaches are being explored for parsing ( Steedman , Hwa , et al. 2003 ; Hwa et al. 2003 ) .

@@CITATION have shown , in the context of base noun identification , that combining sample selection and cotraining can be an effective learning framework for large-scale training .


independence and commitment assumptions for rapid training and execution of rulebased pos taggers

Four algorithms are compared during the following experiments : â¢ The regular TBL , as described in section 2 ; â¢ An improved version of TBL , which makes extensive use of indexes to speed up the rules ' update ; â¢ The FastTBL algorithm ; â¢ The ICA algorithm ( Hepple , 2000 ) .

â¢ The regular TBL , as described in section 2 ; â¢ An improved version of TBL , which makes extensive use of indexes to speed up the rules ' update ; â¢ The FastTBL algorithm ; â¢ The ICA algorithm ( @@CITATION ) .


distinguishing the communicative functions of gestures

Kristiina Jokinen
Costanza Navarretta
Patrizia Paggio

Others have looked at the application of machine learning algorithms to annotated multimodal corpora . For example , Jokinen and Ragni ( 2007 ) and Jokinen et al. ( 2008 ) find that machine learning algorithms can be trained to recognise some of the functions of head movements , while Reidsma et al. ( 2009 ) show that there is a dependence between focus of attention and assignment of dialogue act labels . Related are also the studies by Rieks op den Akker and Schulz ( 2008 ) and Murray and Renals ( 2008 ) : both achieve promising results in the automatic segmentation of dialogue acts using the annotations in a large multimodal corpus .

For example , Jokinen and Ragni ( 2007 ) and @@CITATION find that machine learning algorithms can be trained to recognise some of the functions of head movements , while Reidsma et al. ( 2009 ) show that there is a dependence between focus of attention and assignment of dialogue act labels .


discovery procedures for sublanguage selectional patterns initial experimentsquot

Then the system could propose to a human expert a set of filters for each node , based on its observations , and the human could make the final decision on whether to accept the proposals . This approach resembles the work by Grishman et al. ( 1986 ) and Hirschman et al. ( 1975 ) on selectional restrictions . The semantic conditions that pass could even ultimately be associated with probabilities , obtained by frequency counts on their occurrences .

This approach resembles the work by @@CITATION and Hirschman et al. ( 1975 ) on selectional restrictions .


estimation of probabilities from sparse data for the language model component of a speech recognizerquot assp35

In the absence of a sufficient amount of training data , some arcs will inevitably be zeroed out . Unless it is desired to intentionally filter these out as being outside of the new domain , one can insert some arbitrarily small probability for these arcs , using , for example , an N-gram back-off model ( Katz 1987 ) .

Unless it is desired to intentionally filter these out as being outside of the new domain , one can insert some arbitrarily small probability for these arcs , using , for example , an N-gram back-off model ( @@CITATION ) .


measuring nominal scale agreement among many raters

The inter-coder agreement figures obtained for the three types of annotation are given in Table 2 . feature Cohen 's k corrected k agreement 73.59 98.74 dial act 84.53 98.87 turn 73.52 99.16 Table 2 : Inter-coder agreement on feedback expression annotation Although researchers do not totally agree on how to measure agreement in various types of annotated data and on how to interpret the resulting figures , see Artstein and Poesio ( 2008 ) , it is usually assumed that Cohen 's kappa figures over 60 are good while those over 75 are excellent ( Fleiss , 1971 ) . Looking at the cases of disagreement we could see that many of these are due to the fact that the annotators had forgotten to remove some of the features automatically proposed by ANVIL from the latest annotated element .

feature Cohen 's k corrected k agreement 73.59 98.74 dial act 84.53 98.87 turn 73.52 99.16 Table 2 : Inter-coder agreement on feedback expression annotation Although researchers do not totally agree on how to measure agreement in various types of annotated data and on how to interpret the resulting figures , see Artstein and Poesio ( 2008 ) , it is usually assumed that Cohen 's kappa figures over 60 are good while those over 75 are excellent ( @@CITATION ) .


zeroshot learning through crossmodal transfer

Richard Socher
Milind Ganjoo
Hamsa Sridhar
Osbert Bastani
Christopher D Manning
Andrew Y Ng

The Computer Vision community has also benefited greatly from efforts to unify the two modalities . To name a few examples , Rohrbach et al. ( 2010 ) and Socher et al. ( 2013 ) show how semantic information from text can be used to improve zero-shot classification ( i.e. , classifying never-before-seen objects ) , and Motwani and Mooney ( 2012 ) show that verb clusters can be used to improve activity recognition in videos .

To name a few examples , Rohrbach et al. ( 2010 ) and @@CITATION show how semantic information from text can be used to improve zero-shot classification ( i.e. , classifying never-before-seen objects ) , and Motwani and Mooney ( 2012 ) show that verb clusters can be used to improve activity recognition in videos .


The key for quality improvement seems to be rooted mainly in the presence or absence of some form of dictionary . Empirical evidence has been brought forward that inflectional and/or derivational stemmers augmented by dictionaries indeed perform substantially better than those without access to such lexical repositories ( Krovetz , 1993 ; Kraaij and Pohlmann , 1996 ; Tzoukermann et al. , 1997 ) . This result is particularly valid for natural languages with a rich morphology -- both in terms of derivation and ( single-word ) composition .

Empirical evidence has been brought forward that inflectional and/or derivational stemmers augmented by dictionaries indeed perform substantially better than those without access to such lexical repositories ( Krovetz , 1993 ; @@CITATION ; Tzoukermann et al. , 1997 ) .


Christy Doran
Beth Ann Hockey
Anoop Sarkar
B Srinivas
Fei Xia

There are several grammars developed in the FB-LTAG formalism , including the XTAG English grammar , a large-scale grammar for English ( The XTAG Research Group , 2001 ) . The XTAG group ( Doran et al. , 2000 ) at the University of Pennsylvania is also developing Korean , Chinese , and Hindi grammars . Development of a large-scale French grammar ( Abeill Â´ e and Candito , 2000 ) has also started at the University of Pennsylvania and is expanded at University of Paris 7 .

The XTAG group ( @@CITATION ) at the University of Pennsylvania is also developing Korean , Chinese , and Hindi grammars .


HOLMES is given the following set of six domainindependent rules , which are similar to the upward monotone rules introduced by ( MacCartney and Manning , 2007 ) . 1 .

HOLMES is given the following set of six domainindependent rules , which are similar to the upward monotone rules introduced by ( @@CITATION ) .


upper modeling organizing knowledge for natural language processing

The resulting approach has at its center a lexicon that partly implements current theories of lexical semantics such as Jackendoff 's ( 1990 ) and Levin 's ( 1993 ) . The lexicon is used to mediate and map between a language-independent domain model and a language-dependent ontology widely used in NLG , the Upper Model ( Bateman 1990 ) . Although the idea of a two-level representation accommodating language-neutral and language-specific requirements is not new ( see for example Nirenburg and Levin [ 1992 ] , Dorr and Voss [ 1993 ] , and Di Eugenio [ 1998 ] ) , Stede is among the few who make effective use of those two levels in a complex system .

The lexicon is used to mediate and map between a language-independent domain model and a language-dependent ontology widely used in NLG , the Upper Model ( @@CITATION ) .


imagenet a largescale hierarchical image database

Jia Deng
Wei Dong
Richard Socher
Li-Jia Li
Kai Li
Li Fei-Fei

BilderNetle ( `` little ImageNet '' in Swabian German ) is our new data set of German noun-to-ImageNet synset mappings . ImageNet is a large-scale and widely used image database , built on top of WordNet , which maps words into groups of images , called synsets ( Deng et al. , 2009 ) . Multiple synsets exist for each meaning of a word .

ImageNet is a large-scale and widely used image database , built on top of WordNet , which maps words into groups of images , called synsets ( @@CITATION ) .


online largemargin training of dependency parsers

â¢ Graph-based : An implementation of graph - based parsing algorithms with an arc-factored parameterization ( McDonald et al. , 2005 ) . We use the non-projective k-best MST algorithm to generate k-best lists ( Hall , 2007 ) , where k = 8 for the experiments in this paper .

based parsing algorithms with an arc-factored parameterization ( @@CITATION ) .


With respect to these systems , the contribution of our work lies in the consideration of different kinds of corpus-based approaches ( namely , retrieval and prediction ) applied at different levels of granularity ( namely , document and sentence ) . Two applications that , like help-desk , deal with question -- answer pairs are : summarization of e-mail threads ( Dalli , Xia , and Wilks 2004 ; Shrestha and McKeown 2004 ) , and answer extraction in FAQs ( Frequently Asked Questions ) ( Berger and Mittal 2000 ; Berger et al. 2000 ; Jijkoun and de Rijke 2005 ; Soricut and Brill 2006 ) .

Two applications that , like help-desk , deal with question -- answer pairs are : summarization of e-mail threads ( Dalli , Xia , and Wilks 2004 ; Shrestha and McKeown 2004 ) , and answer extraction in FAQs ( Frequently Asked Questions ) ( @@CITATION ;


automatic text processing the transformation analysis and retrieval ofinformation by computer

It crawls text/HTML files , produces an inverted file index , and assigns salience weights to terms and documents based on a simple tf-idf metric . The retrieval process relies on the vector space model ( Salton , 1989 ) , with the cosine measure expressing the similarity between a query and a document . The search engine produces a ranked output of documents .

The retrieval process relies on the vector space model ( @@CITATION ) , with the cosine measure expressing the similarity between a query and a document .


pcfg models of linguistic tree representations

These nodes are the left-corner ancestor of top , ( which is below top , on the stack ) , top 's left-corner child ( its leftmost child , if any ) , and top 's most recent child ( which was top , _ 1 , if any ) . For right-branching structures , the leftcorner ancestor is the parent , conditioning on which has been found to be beneficial ( Johnson , 1998 ) , as has conditioning on the left-corner child ( Roark and Johnson , 1999 ) . Because these inputs include the history features of both the leftcorner ancestor and the most recent child , a derivation step i always has access to the history features from the previous derivation step i -- 1 , and thus ( by induction ) any information from the entire previous derivation history could in principle be stored in the history features .

For right-branching structures , the leftcorner ancestor is the parent , conditioning on which has been found to be beneficial ( @@CITATION ) , as has conditioning on the left-corner child ( Roark and Johnson , 1999 ) .


seeing stars exploiting class relationships for sentiment categorization with respect to rating scales

Most sentiment-polarity classifiers proposed in the recent literature categorize each document independently . A few others incorporate various measures of inter-document similarity between the texts to be labeled ( Agarwal and Bhattacharyya , 2005 ; Pang and Lee , 2005 ; Goldberg and Zhu , 2006 ) . Many interesting opinion-oriented documents , however , can be linked through certain relationships that occur in the context of evaluative discussions .

A few others incorporate various measures of inter-document similarity between the texts to be labeled ( Agarwal and Bhattacharyya , 2005 ; @@CITATION ; Goldberg and Zhu , 2006 ) .


sentiment analysis a new approach for effective use of linguistic knowledge and exploiting similarities in a set of documents to be classified

A few others incorporate various measures of inter-document similarity between the texts to be labeled ( @@CITATION ; Pang and Lee , 2005 ; Goldberg and Zhu , 2006 ) .


In capitalized-word disambiguation , however , we use this assumption with caution and first apply strategies that rely not just on single words but on words together with their local contexts ( n-grams ) . This is similar to `` one sense per collocation '' idea of Yarowsky ( 1993 ) . The description of the EAGLE workbench for linguistic engineering ( Baldwin et al. 1997 ) mentions a case normalization module that uses a heuristic in which a capitalized word in an ambiguous position should be rewritten without capitalization if it is found lower-cased in the same document .

This is similar to `` one sense per collocation '' idea of @@CITATION .


The last decade of the 20th century saw a number of anaphora resolution projects for languages other than English such as French , German , Japanese , Spanish , Portuguese , and Turkish . Against the background of a growing interest in multilingual NLP , multilingual anaphora / coreference resolution has gained considerable momentum in recent years ( Aone and McKee 1993 ; Azzam , Humphreys , and Gaizauskas 1998 ; Harabagiu and Maiorano 2000 ; Mitkov and Barbu 2000 ; Mitkov 1999 ; Mitkov and Stys 1997 ; Mitkov , Belguith , and Stys 1998 ) . Other milestones of recent research include the deployment of probabilistic and machine learning techniques ( Aone and Bennett 1995 ; Kehler 1997 ; Ge , Hale , and Charniak 1998 ; Cardie and Wagstaff 1999 ; the continuing interest in centering , used either in original or in revised form ( Abracos and Lopes 1994 ; Strube and Hahn 1996 ; Hahn and Strube 1997 ; Tetreault 1999 ) ; and proposals related to the evaluation methodology in anaphora resolution ( Mitkov 1998a , 2001b ) .

Against the background of a growing interest in multilingual NLP , multilingual anaphora / coreference resolution has gained considerable momentum in recent years ( Aone and McKee 1993 ; Azzam , Humphreys , and Gaizauskas 1998 ; Harabagiu and Maiorano 2000 ; Mitkov and Barbu 2000 ; @@CITATION ; Mitkov and Stys 1997 ; Mitkov , Belguith , and Stys 1998 ) .


can be captured within plug-ins that can then integrate with the environment and utilise its functionality . This system has been successfully tested with the development of plug-ins supporting instant messaging , distributed video encoding ( Hughes and Walkerdine , 2005 ) , distributed virtual worlds ( Hughes et al. , 2005 ) and digital library management ( Walkerdine and Rayson , 2004 ) . It is our intention to implement our distributed corpus annotation framework as a plugin .

This system has been successfully tested with the development of plug-ins supporting instant messaging , distributed video encoding ( Hughes and Walkerdine , 2005 ) , distributed virtual worlds ( Hughes et al. , 2005 ) and digital library management ( @@CITATION ) .


Alessandro Moschitti
Ana-Maria Giuglea
Bonaventura Coppola
Roberto Basili

The architectures of hierarchical semantic role classifiers can 2 Extra features e.g. predicate may be still useful because that the information , provided by the high-level description of selfdescriptive features , e.g. phrase type , are limited . be found in figure 2 , which is similar with that in Moschitti et al. ( 2005 ) . As what has been shown in figure 2 , a semantic role will first be determined whether it is a numbered argument or an ARGM by a binary-category classifier .

be found in figure 2 , which is similar with that in @@CITATION .


design challenges and misconceptions in named entity recognition

In this section we describe in detail the baseline NER system we use . It is inspired by the system described in Ratinov and Roth ( 2009 ) . Because NER annotations are commonly not nested ( for example , in the text `` the US Army '' , `` US Army '' is treated as a single entity , instead of the location `` US '' and the organization `` US Army '' ) it is possible to treat NER as a sequence labeling problem , where each token in the sentence receives a label which depends on which entity type it belongs to and its position in the entity .

It is inspired by the system described in @@CITATION .


building effective question answering characters

â¢ Only an automatic evaluation was performed , which relied on having model responses ( Berger and Mittal 2000 ; Berger et al. 2000 ) . â¢ A user study was performed , but it was either very small compared to the corpus ( Carmel , Shtalhaim , and Soffer 2000 ; Jijkoun and de Rijke 2005 ) , or the corpus itself was significantly smaller than ours ( Feng et al. 2006 ; Leuski et al. 2006 ) . The representativeness of the sample size was not discussed in any of these studies .

â¢ A user study was performed , but it was either very small compared to the corpus ( Carmel , Shtalhaim , and Soffer 2000 ; Jijkoun and de Rijke 2005 ) , or the corpus itself was significantly smaller than ours ( Feng et al. 2006 ; @@CITATION ) .


the tipster summac text summarization evaluation

I Mani
T Firmin
D House
G Klein
B Sundheim
L Hirschman

The goal for query-dependent summarization algorithms is to provide a short summary of a document with respect to a specific query . Although a number of methods for query-dependent text summarization are beginning to be developed and evaluated in a variety of realistic settings ( Mani et al. , 1999 ) , we again propose the use of vector space methods from IR , which can be easily extended to the summarization task ( Salton et al. , 1994 ) : 1 .

Although a number of methods for query-dependent text summarization are beginning to be developed and evaluated in a variety of realistic settings ( @@CITATION ) , we again propose the use of vector space methods from IR , which can be easily extended to the summarization task ( Salton et al. , 1994 ) :


In a number of proposals , lexical generalizations are captured using lexical underspecification ( Kathol 1994 ; Krieger and Nerbonne 1992 ; Riehemann 1993 ; Oliva 1994 ; Frank 1994 ; Opalka 1995 ; Sanfilippo 1995 ) . The lexical entries are only partially specified , and various specializations are encoded via the type hierarchy , definite clause attachments , or a macro hierarchy .

Riehemann 1993 ; @@CITATION ; Frank 1994 ; Opalka 1995 ; Sanfilippo 1995 ) .


small statistical models by random feature mixing

To speed up classifiers used in a real-time application , we can build fstries incrementally by using feature vectors generated from user inputs . When we run our classifiers on resource-tight environments such as cell-phones , we can use a random feature mixing technique ( Ganchev and Dredze , 2008 ) or a memory-efficient trie implementation based on a succinct data structure ( Jacobson , 1989 ; Delpratt et al. , 2006 ) to reduce required memory usage . We will combine our method with other techniques that provide sparse solutions , for example , kernel methods on a budget ( Dekel and Singer , 2007 ; Dekel et al. , 2008 ; Orabona et al. , 2008 ) or kernel approximation ( surveyed in Kashima et al. ( 2009 ) ) .

When we run our classifiers on resource-tight environments such as cell-phones , we can use a random feature mixing technique ( @@CITATION ) or a memory-efficient trie implementation based on a succinct data structure ( Jacobson , 1989 ; Delpratt et al. , 2006 ) to reduce required memory usage .


integrating translations from multiple sources with the pangloss mark iii machine translation system

Robert Frederking
Sergei Nirenburg
David Farwell
Steven Helmreich
Eduard Hovy
Kevin Knight
Stephen Beale
Constantin Domashnev
Donna Attardo
Dean Grannes
Ralf Brown

These phrases were then translated automatically by three on-line MT systems . These translations gave rise to a number of automatically constructed linguistic resources : ( 1 ) the original ( source , target ) phrasal translation pairs , ( 2 ) the marker lexicon , ( 3 ) the gen11 Thanks are due to one of the anonymous reviewers for pointing out that our wEBMT system , seeded with input from multiple translation systems , with a postvalidation process via the Web ( amounting to an n-gram target language model ) , in effect forms a multiengine MT system as described by Frederking and Nirenburg ( 1994 ) , Frederking et al. ( 1994 ) , and Hogan and Frederking ( 1998 ) . eralized lexicon , and ( 4 ) the word-level lexicon .

These translations gave rise to a number of automatically constructed linguistic resources : ( 1 ) the original ( source , target ) phrasal translation pairs , ( 2 ) the marker lexicon , ( 3 ) the gen11 Thanks are due to one of the anonymous reviewers for pointing out that our wEBMT system , seeded with input from multiple translation systems , with a postvalidation process via the Web ( amounting to an n-gram target language model ) , in effect forms a multiengine MT system as described by Frederking and Nirenburg ( 1994 ) , @@CITATION , and Hogan and Frederking ( 1998 ) .


statistical decisiontree models for parsing

A variety of statistical methods were proposed over the recent years for learning to produce a full parse of free-text sentences ( e.g. , Bod ( 1992 ) , Magerman ( 1995 ) , Collins ( 1997 ) , Ratnaparkhi ( 1997 ) , and Sekine ( 1998 ) ) . In parallel , a lot of work is being done on shallow parsing ( Abney , 1991 ; Greffenstette , 1993 ) , focusing on partial analysis of sentences at the level of local phrases and the relations between them .

A variety of statistical methods were proposed over the recent years for learning to produce a full parse of free-text sentences ( e.g. , Bod ( 1992 ) , @@CITATION , Collins ( 1997 ) , Ratnaparkhi ( 1997 ) , and Sekine ( 1998 ) ) .


text categorization with support vector machines learning with many relevant features

Although our results were not obtained from the same exact collection as those used by authors of these two previous studies , comparable experiments suggest that our techniques are competitive in terms of performance , and may offer additional advantages as well . Discriminative approaches ( especially SVMs ) have been shown to be very effective for many supervised classification tasks ; see , for example , ( Joachims , 1998 ; Ng and Jordan , 2001 ) . However , their high computational complexity ( quadratic in the number of training samples ) renders them prohibitive for massive data processing .

Discriminative approaches ( especially SVMs ) have been shown to be very effective for many supervised classification tasks ; see , for example , ( @@CITATION ; Ng and Jordan , 2001 ) .


a systematic comparison of various statistical alignment models

One solution to this problem is to add more complexity to the model to better reflect the translation process . This is the approach taken by IBM Models 4 + ( Brown et al. 1993b ; Och and Ney 2003 ) , and more recently by the LEAF model ( Fraser and Marcu 2007 ) . Unfortunately , these changes make the models probabilistically deficient and intractable , requiring approximations and heuristic learning and inference prone to search errors .

This is the approach taken by IBM Models 4 + ( Brown et al. 1993b ; @@CITATION ) , and more recently by the LEAF model ( Fraser and Marcu 2007 ) .


seeing stars when there aren’t many stars graphbased semisupervised learning for sentiment categorization

A few others incorporate various measures of inter-document similarity between the texts to be labeled ( Agarwal and Bhattacharyya , 2005 ; Pang and Lee , 2005 ; @@CITATION ) .


The traditional ( First I Rest ) list notation is used , and the operator ED stands for the append relation in the usual way . 11 Manandhar ( 1995 ) proposes to unify these two steps by including an update operator in the The computational treatment we discuss in the rest of the paper follows this setup in that it automatically computes , for each lexical rule specification , the frames necessary to preserve the properties not changed by it . '

11 @@CITATION proposes to unify these two steps by including an update operator in the


pilot implementation of a bilingual knowledge bank

Note that these constraints can be used to license only the linguistically meaningful synchronous correspondences between the two SSTCs of the S-SSTC ( i.e. between the two languages ) . For instance , when building translation units in EBMT approaches ( Richardson et al. , 2001 ) , ( Aramaki , 2001 ) , ( AlAdhaileh & Tang , 1999 ) , ( Sato & Nagao , 1990 ) , ( Sato , 1991 ) , ( Sadler & Vendelmans , 1990 ) , etc. , where S-SSTC can be used to represent the entries of the BKB or when S-SSTC used as an annotation schema to find the translation correspondences ( lexical and structural correspondences ) for transferrules ' extraction from parallel parsed corpus ( Menezes & Richardson , 2001 ) , ( Watanabe et al. , 2000 ) , ( Meyers et al. , 2000 ) , ( Matsumoto et al. , 1993 ) and ( kaji et al. , 1992 ) .

For instance , when building translation units in EBMT approaches ( Richardson et al. , 2001 ) , ( Aramaki , 2001 ) , ( AlAdhaileh & Tang , 1999 ) , ( Sato & Nagao , 1990 ) , ( Sato , 1991 ) , ( @@CITATION ) , etc. , where S-SSTC can be used to represent the entries of the BKB or when S-SSTC used as an annotation schema to find the translation correspondences ( lexical and structural correspondences ) for transferrules ' extraction from parallel parsed corpus ( Menezes & Richardson , 2001 ) , ( Watanabe et al. ,


grounded models of semantic representation

Johns and Jones ( 2012 ) take an entirely different approach by showing that one can successfully infer held out feature norms from weighted mixtures based on textual similarity . Silberer and Lapata ( 2012 ) introduce a new method of multimodal integration based on Canonical Correlation Analysis , and performs a systematic comparison between their CCA-based model and others on association norm prediction , held out feature prediction , and word similarity . As computer vision techniques have improved over the past decade , other research has begun directly using visual information in place of feature norms .

@@CITATION introduce a new method of multimodal integration based on Canonical Correlation Analysis , and performs a systematic comparison between their CCA-based model and others on association norm prediction , held out feature prediction , and word similarity .


machine translation divergences a formal description and proposed solution

Figure 8 gives an English-French transfer rule applied to a weather domain for the transfer of a verb modified by the adverb ALMOST : More details on how the structural divergences described in ( Don , 1994 ) can be accounted for using our formalism can be found in ( Nasr et al. , 1998 ) .

More details on how the structural divergences described in ( @@CITATION ) can be accounted for using our formalism can be found in ( Nasr et al. , 1998 ) .


dealing with interpretation errors in tutorial dialogue

Myroslava O Dzikovska
Charles B Callaway
Elaine Farrow
Johanna D Moore
Natalie B Steinhauser
Gwendolyn C Campbell

The tutorial policy makes a high-level decision as to which strategy to use ( for example , `` acknowledge the correct part and give a high specificity hint '' ) based on the answer analysis and dialogue context . At present , the system takes into consideration the number of incorrect answers received in response to the current question and the number of uninterpretable answers .1 In addition to a remediation policy , the tutorial planner implements an error recovery policy ( Dzikovska et al. , 2009 ) . Since the system accepts unrestricted input , interpretation errors are unavoidable .

At present , the system takes into consideration the number of incorrect answers received in response to the current question and the number of uninterpretable answers .1 In addition to a remediation policy , the tutorial planner implements an error recovery policy ( @@CITATION ) .


models of semantic representation with visual attributes

Carina Silberer
Vittorio Ferrari
Mirella Lapata

Bruni et al. ( 2012b ) show that the contextual visual words ( i.e. the visual features around an object , rather than of the object itself ) are even more useful at times , suggesting the plausibility of a sort of distributional hypothesis for images . More recently , Silberer et al. ( 2013 ) show that visual attribute classifiers , which have been immensely successful in object recognition ( Farhadi et al. , 2009 ) , act as excellent substitutes for feature norms .

More recently , @@CITATION show that visual attribute classifiers , which have been immensely successful in object recognition ( Farhadi et al. , 2009 ) , act as excellent substitutes for feature


paraphrase fragment extraction from monolingual comparable corpora

However , precision is usually manually evaluated , so the figures are at least indicative for a comparison with previous work : One state-of-theart system introduced by Zhao et al. ( 2008 ) extracts paraphrase fragments from bilingual parallel corpora and reaches a precision of 0.67 . We found the same number using our previous approach ( Wang and Callison-Burch , 2011 ) , which is roughly equivalent to our core module . Our approach outperforms both by 17 % with similar estimated productivity .

We found the same number using our previous approach ( @@CITATION ) , which is roughly equivalent to our core module .


But if big is applied to a person then it is far from clear that there is one canonical formula for mapping the different dimensions of your body into one overall dimension , and this complicates the situation . Similar things hold for multifaceted properties like intelligence ( Kamp 1975 ) . Color terms are a case apart .

Similar things hold for multifaceted properties like intelligence ( @@CITATION ) .


disambiguating prepositional phrase attachments by using online dictionary definitionsquot computational linguistics 1334251260 special issue on the lexicon

Gricean maxims belong there ; Section 6 will be devoted to a presentation of the metalevel rules corresponding to them . We have shown elsewhere ( Jensen and Binot 1988 ; Zadrozny 1987a , 1987b ) that natural language programs , such as on-line grammars and dictionaries , can be used as referential levels for commonsense reasoning -- for example , to disambiguate PP attachment . This means that information contained in grammars and dictionaries can be used to constrain possible interpretations of the logical predicates of an object-level theory .

We have shown elsewhere ( @@CITATION ; Zadrozny 1987a , 1987b ) that natural language programs , such as on-line grammars and dictionaries , can be used as referential levels for commonsense reasoning -- for example , to disambiguate PP attachment .


a simplex armijo downhill algorithm for optimizing statistical machine translation decoding parameters

Several works have proposed discriminative techniques to train log-linear model for SMT . ( Och and Ney , 2002 ; Blunsom et al. , 2008 ) used maximum likelihood estimation to learn weights for MT. ( Och , 2003 ; Moore and Quirk , 2008 ; Zhao and Chen , 2009 ; Galley and Quirk , 2011 ) employed an evaluation metric as a loss function and directly optimized it . ( Watanabe et al. , 2007 ; Chiang et al. , 2008 ; Hopkins and May , 2011 ) proposed other optimization objectives by introducing a margin-based and ranking-based indirect loss functions .

( Och and Ney , 2002 ; Blunsom et al. , 2008 ) used maximum likelihood estimation to learn weights for MT. ( Och , 2003 ; Moore and Quirk , 2008 ; @@CITATION ; Galley and Quirk , 2011 ) employed an evaluation metric as a loss function and directly optimized it .


There has been some controversy , at least for simple stemmers ( Lovins , 1968 ; Porter , 1980 ) , about the effectiveness of morphological analysis for document retrieval ( Harman , 1991 ; Krovetz , 1993 ; Hull , 1996 ) . The key for quality improvement seems to be rooted mainly in the presence or absence of some form of dictionary .

There has been some controversy , at least for simple stemmers ( @@CITATION ; Porter , 1980 ) , about the effectiveness of morphological analysis for document retrieval ( Harman , 1991 ; Krovetz , 1993 ; Hull , 1996 ) .


In our experiment , intra-subject correlation was r = .670 for the first and r = .623 for the second individual who repeated the experiment , yielding a summarized intra-subject correlation of r = .647 . Rubenstein and Goodenough ( 1965 ) reported an intra-subject correlation of r = .85 for 15 subjects judging the similarity of a subset ( 36 ) of the original 65 word pairs . The values may again not be compared directly .

@@CITATION reported an intra-subject correlation of r = .85 for 15 subjects judging the similarity of a subset ( 36 ) of the original 65 word pairs .


entitybased crossdocument coreferencing using the vector space model

The most basic is a Bag of Words ( BoW ) representation of the document text . Withindocument coreference resolution has been applied to produce summaries of text surrounding occurrences of the name ( Bagga and Baldwin , 1998 ; Gooi and Allan , 2004 ) . Nevertheless , the full document text is present in most systems , sometimes as the only feature ( Sugiyama and Okumura , 2007 ) and sometimes in combination with others see for instance ( Chen and Martin , 2007 ; Popescu and Magnini , 2007 ) - .

Withindocument coreference resolution has been applied to produce summaries of text surrounding occurrences of the name ( @@CITATION ; Gooi and Allan , 2004 ) .


subsentential exploitation of translation memories

â¢ Learnability ( Zernik and Dyer 1987 ) â¢ Text generation ( Hovy 1988 ; Milosavljevic , Tulloch , and Dale 1996 ) â¢ Speech generation ( Rayner and Carter 1997 ) â¢ Localization ( Sch Â¨ aler 1996 ) More recently , Simard and Langlais ( 2001 ) have proposed the exploitation of TMs at a subsentential level , while Carl , Way , and Sch Â¨ aler ( 2002 ) and Sch Â¨ aler , Way , and Carl ( 2003 , pages 108 -- 109 ) describe how phrasal lexicons might come to occupy a central place in a future hybrid integrated translation environment . This , they suggest , may result in a paradigm shift from TM to EBMT via the phrasal lexicon : Translators are on the whole wary of MT technology , but once subsentential alignment is enabled , translators will become aware of the benefits to be gained from ( source , target ) phrasal segments , and from there they suggest that `` it is a reasonably short step to enabling an automated solution via the recombination element of EBMT systems such as those described in [ Carl and Way 2003 ] . ''

More recently , @@CITATION have proposed the exploitation of TMs at a subsentential level , while Carl , Way , and Sch Â¨ aler ( 2002 ) and Sch Â¨ aler , Way , and Carl ( 2003 , pages 108 -- 109 ) describe how phrasal lexicons might come to occupy a central place in a future hybrid integrated translation environment .


on argument structure and the lexical expression of syntactic relations

Although the effectiveness and coverage of my parser remains to be seen , similar approaches have been successful at capturing complex linguistic phenomena . With a minimal set of features and a small number of lexical entries , Niyogi ( 2001 ) has successfully modeled many of the argument alternations described by Levin ( 1993 ) using a Hale and Keyser ( 1993 ) style analysis . I believe that with a suitable lexicon ( either hand crafted or automatically induced ) , my framework can be elaborated into a system whose performance is comparable to that of current statistical parsers , but with the added advantage of simultaneously providing a richer lexical semantic representation of the input sentence than flat predicate argument structures based on semantic roles .

With a minimal set of features and a small number of lexical entries , Niyogi ( 2001 ) has successfully modeled many of the argument alternations described by Levin ( 1993 ) using a @@CITATION style analysis .


What we said above has also disregarded elements of the `` global '' ( i.e. , not immediately available ) context . For some adjectives , including the ones that Bierwisch ( 1989 ) called evaluative ( as opposed to dimensional ) , this is clearly inadequate . He argued that evaluative adjectives ( such as beautiful and its antonym ugly ; smart and its antonym stupid , etc. ) can be recognized by the way in which they compare with antonyms .

For some adjectives , including the ones that @@CITATION called evaluative ( as opposed to dimensional ) , this is clearly inadequate .


understanding unsegmented user utterances in realtime spoken dialogue systems

Mikio Nakano
Noboru Miyazalci
Jun-ichi Hirasawa
Kohji Dohsaka
Takeshi Kawabata

$ Implementation WIT has been implemented in Common Lisp and C on UNIX , and we have built several experimental and demonstration dialogue systems using it , including a meeting room reservation system ( Nakano et al. , 1999b ) , a video-recording programming system , a schedule management system ( Nakano et al. , 1999a ) , and a weather infomiation system ( Dohsaka et al. , 2000 ) . The meeting room reservation system has vocabulary of about 140 words , around 40 phrase structure rules , nine attributes in the semantic frame , and around 100 speech files .

WIT has been implemented in Common Lisp and C on UNIX , and we have built several experimental and demonstration dialogue systems using it , including a meeting room reservation system ( @@CITATIONb ) , a video-recording programming system , a schedule management system ( Nakano et al. , 1999a ) , and a weather infomiation system ( Dohsaka et al. , 2000 ) .


training and scaling preference functions for disambiguation

One is to adopt Pinkal 's `` radical underspecification '' approach ( Pirikal 1995 ) and use underspecified representations for all types of ambiguity , even syntactic ambiguity . The more conservative approach is to try to integrate existing statistical disambiguation schemes for QLFs , either individually or in a `` packed '' structure ( Alshawi and Carter 1994 ) , with the resolution process as described here . Alternatively , I believe it is worth exploring the approach to disambiguation described in Pulman ( 2000 ) , which would mesh nicely with the theory presented here .

The more conservative approach is to try to integrate existing statistical disambiguation schemes for QLFs , either individually or in a `` packed '' structure ( @@CITATION ) , with the resolution process as described here .


tracking and summarizing news on a daily basis with columbias newsblaster

Kathleen R McKeown
Regina Barzilay
David Evans
Vasileios Hatzivassiloglou
Judith L Klavans
Ani Nenkova
Carl Sable
Barry Schiffman
Sergey Sigelman

Paraphrase tables ( PPHT ) contain pairs of corresponding phrases in the same language , possibly associated with probabilities . They proved to be useful in a number of NLP applications such as natural language generation ( Iordanskaja et al. , 1991 ) , multidocument summarization ( McKeown et al. , 2002 ) , automatic evaluation of MT ( Denkowski and Lavie , 2010 ) , and TE ( Dinu and Wang , 2009 ) . One of the proposed methods to extract paraphrases relies on a pivot-based approach using phrase alignments in a bilingual parallel corpus ( Bannard and Callison-Burch , 2005 ) .

They proved to be useful in a number of NLP applications such as natural language generation ( Iordanskaja et al. , 1991 ) , multidocument summarization ( @@CITATION ) , automatic evaluation of MT ( Denkowski and Lavie , 2010 ) , and TE ( Dinu and Wang , 2009 ) .


Textual Entailment systems are given two textual fragments , text T and hypothesis H , and attempt to decide if the meaning of H can be inferred from the meaning of T ( Dagan et al. , 2005 ) . While many approaches have addressed this problem , our work is most closely related to that of ( Raina et al. , 2005 ; MacCartney and Manning , 2007 ; Tatu and Moldovan , 2006 ; Braz et al. , 2005 ) , which convert the inputs into logical forms and then attempt to ` prove ' H from T plus a set of axioms . For instance , ( Braz et al. , 2005 ) represents T , H , and a set of rewrite rules in a description logic framework , and determines entailment by solving an integer lin -

While many approaches have addressed this problem , our work is most closely related to that of ( Raina et al. , 2005 ; @@CITATION ; Tatu and Moldovan , 2006 ; Braz et al. , 2005 ) , which convert the inputs into logical forms and then attempt to ` prove ' H from T plus a set of axioms .


the use of morphosemantic regularities in the medical vocabulary for automatic lexical coding methods ofinformation in

Furthermore , medical terminology is characterized by a typical mix of Latin and Greek roots with the corresponding host language ( e.g. , German ) , often referred to as neo-classical compounding ( McCray et al. , 1988 ) . While this is simply irrelevant for general-purpose morphological analyzers , dealing with such phenomena is crucial for any attempt to cope adequately with medical free-texts in an IR setting ( Wolff , 1984 ) . We here propose an approach to document retrieval which is based on the idea of segmenting query and document terms into basic subword units .

While this is simply irrelevant for general-purpose morphological analyzers , dealing with such phenomena is crucial for any attempt to cope adequately with medical free-texts in an IR setting ( @@CITATION ) .


a statistical model for multilingual entity detection and tracking

R Florian
H Hassan
A Ittycheriah
H Jing
N Kambhatla
X Luo
N Nicolov
S Roukos

In this paper we focus on the Entity Detection and Recognition task ( EDR ) for Arabic as described in ACE 2004 framework ( ACE , 2004 ) . The EDR has close ties to the named entity recognition ( NER ) and coreference resolution tasks , which have been the focus of several recent investigations ( Bikel et al. , 1997 ; Miller et al. , 1998 ; Borthwick , 1999 ; Mikheev et al. , 1999 ; Soon et al. , 2001 ; Ng and Cardie , 2002 ; Florian et al. , 2004 ) , and have been at the center of evaluations such as : MUC-6 , MUC-7 , and the CoNLL '02 and CoNLL '03 shared tasks . Usually , in computational linguistics literature , a named entity is an instance of a location , a person , or an organization , and the NER task consists of identifying each of these occurrences .

The EDR has close ties to the named entity recognition ( NER ) and coreference resolution tasks , which have been the focus of several recent investigations ( Bikel et al. , 1997 ; Miller et al. , 1998 ; Borthwick , 1999 ; Mikheev et al. , 1999 ; Soon et al. , 2001 ; Ng and Cardie , 2002 ; @@CITATION ) , and have been at the center of evaluations such as : MUC-6 , MUC-7 , and the CoNLL '02 and CoNLL '03 shared tasks .


Unless Small Gaps and Dichotomy forbid it , we expected that preference should be given to the base form . In English , where the base form is morphologically simpler than the other two , this rule could be argued to follow from Gricean principles ( Grice 1975 ) . To keep matters simple , linguistic realization could choose the base form if and only if the gap between s â and s + surpasses a certain value , which is specified interactively by the user .

In English , where the base form is morphologically simpler than the other two , this rule could be argued to follow from Gricean principles ( @@CITATION ) .


distributional clustering of english words

Fernando Pereira
Naftali Tishby
Lilian Lee

for which semantic information would be available . More generally , distributional clustering techniques ( Sch Â¨ utze , 1992 ; Pereira et al. , 1993 ) could be applied to extract semantic classes from the corpus itself . Since the constraints on adjective ordering in English depend largely on semantic classes , the addition of semantic information to the model ought to improve the results .

More generally , distributional clustering techniques ( Sch Â¨ utze , 1992 ; @@CITATION ) could be applied to extract semantic classes from the corpus itself .


This corpus annotation bottleneck becomes even more problematic for voluminous data sets drawn from the web . The use of the web as a corpus for teaching and research on language has been proposed a number of times ( Kilgarriff , 2001 ; Robb , 2003 ; Rundell , 2000 ; Fletcher , 2001 , 2004b ) and received a special issue of the journal Computational Linguistics ( Kilgarriff and Grefenstette , 2003 ) . Studies have used several different methods to mine web data .

The use of the web as a corpus for teaching and research on language has been proposed a number of times ( Kilgarriff , 2001 ; Robb , 2003 ; @@CITATION ; Fletcher , 2001 , 2004b ) and received a special issue of the journal Computational Linguistics ( Kilgarriff and Grefenstette , 2003 ) .


further experiments in bilingual text alignment

Fung and McKeown ( 1997 ) attempt to translate technical terms using word relation matrices , although the resource from which such relations are derived is a pair of nonparallel corpora . Somers ( 1998 ) replicates the work of Fung and McKeown with different language pairs using the simpler metric of Levenshtein distance . Boutsis and Piperidis ( 1998 ) use a tagged parallel corpus to extract translationally equivalent English-Greek clauses on the basis of word occurrence and co-occurrence probabilities .

@@CITATION replicates the work of Fung and McKeown with different language pairs using the simpler metric of Levenshtein distance .


â¢ Only qualitative observations of the responses were reported ( no formal evaluation was performed ) ( Lapalme and Kosseim 2003 ; Roy and Subramaniam 2006 ) . â¢ Only an automatic evaluation was performed , which relied on having model responses ( Berger and Mittal 2000 ; Berger et al. 2000 ) . â¢ A user study was performed , but it was either very small compared to the corpus ( Carmel , Shtalhaim , and Soffer 2000 ; Jijkoun and de Rijke 2005 ) , or the corpus itself was significantly smaller than ours ( Feng et al. 2006 ; Leuski et al. 2006 ) .

â¢ Only an automatic evaluation was performed , which relied on having model responses ( @@CITATION ; Berger et al. 2000 ) .


In this paper we investigate the selective application of magic to typed feature grammars a type of constraint-logic grammar based on Typed Feature Logic ( T r ; G6tz , 1995 ) . Typed feature grammars can be used as the basis for implementations of Head-driven Phrase Structure Grammar ( HPSG ; Pollard and Sag , 1994 ) as discussed in ( Gotz and Meurers , 1997a ) and ( Meurers and Minnen , 1997 ) . Typed feature grammar constraints that are inexpensive to resolve are dealt with using the top-down interpreter of the ConTroll grammar development system ( GOtz and Meurers , 1997b ) which uses an advanced search function , an advanced selection function and incorporates a coroutining mechanism which supports delayed interpretation .

Typed feature grammars can be used as the basis for implementations of Head-driven Phrase Structure Grammar ( HPSG ; @@CITATION ) as discussed in ( Gotz and Meurers , 1997a ) and ( Meurers and Minnen , 1997 ) .


evaluation of a largescale email response system

These limitations reinforce the notion that automated responses should be assessed on their own merit , rather than with respect to some model response . In Marom and Zukerman ( 2007a ) we identified several systems that resemble ours in that they provide answers to queries . These systems addressed the evaluation issue as follows .

In @@CITATIONa ) we identified several systems that resemble ours in that they provide answers to queries .


parse fitting and prose fixing getting a hold on illformedness

A detailed description of the kinds of expectation mechanisms appearing in these systems appears in Fink ( 1983 ) . The problem of handling ill-formed input has been studied by Carbonell and Hayes ( 1983 ) , Granger ( 1983 ) , Jensen et al. ( 1983 ) , Kwasny and Sondheimer ( 1981 ) , Riesbeck and Schank ( 1976 ) , Thompson ( 1980 ) , Weischedel and Black ( 1980 ) , and Weischedel and Sondheimer ( 1983 ) . A wide variety of techniques have been developed for addressing problems at the word , phrase , sentence , and in some cases , dialogue level .

The problem of handling ill-formed input has been studied by Carbonell and Hayes ( 1983 ) , Granger ( 1983 ) , @@CITATION , Kwasny and Sondheimer ( 1981 ) , Riesbeck and Schank ( 1976 ) , Thompson ( 1980 ) , Weischedel and Black ( 1980 ) , and Weischedel and Sondheimer ( 1983 ) .


celex a guide for users centre for lexical information

This list includes common words for a given language , but no supplementary information such as POS or morphological information is required to be present in this list . A variety of such lists for many languages are already available ( e.g. , Burnage 1990 ) . Words in such lists are usually supplemented with morphological and POS information ( which is not required by our method ) .

A variety of such lists for many languages are already available ( e.g. , @@CITATION ) .


If the usefulness of NLG resides in its ability to present data in human-accessible form , then vagueness must surely be one of its central instruments , because it allows the suppression of irrelevant detail . In principle , this might be done by providing the generator with vague input -- in which case no special algorithms are needed -- but suitably contextualized vague input is often not available ( Mellish 2000 ) . The only practical alternative is to provide the generator with `` crisp '' ( i.e. , quantitative ) input , allowing the generator to be hooked on to a general-purpose database .

In principle , this might be done by providing the generator with vague input -- in which case no special algorithms are needed -- but suitably contextualized vague input is often not available ( @@CITATION ) .


words are not enough sentence level natural language watermarking

Mercan Topkara
Umut Topkara
Mikhail J Atallah

In other words , instead of performing lexical substitution directly to the text , the secret message is embedded into syntactic parse trees of the sentences . Liu et al. ( 2005 ) , Meral et al. ( 2007 ) , Murphy ( 2001 ) , Murphy and Vogel ( 2007 ) and Topkara et al. ( 2006a ) all belong to the syntactic transformation category . After embedding the secret message , modified deep structure forms are converted into the surface structure format via language generation tools .

Liu et al. ( 2005 ) , Meral et al. ( 2007 ) , Murphy ( 2001 ) , Murphy and Vogel ( 2007 ) and @@CITATIONa ) all belong to the syntactic transformation category .


a program for aligning sentences in bilingual corporaquot

For each kind of evaluation , we have found one case where we can come close . We induced a two-class word-to-word model of translational equivalence from 13 million words of the Canadian Hansards , aligned using the method in ( Gale & Church , 1991 ) . One class represented content-word links and the other represented function-word links4 .

We induced a two-class word-to-word model of translational equivalence from 13 million words of the Canadian Hansards , aligned using the method in ( @@CITATION ) .


grammaticalizing aspect and affectedness

Accomplishments and achievements both express a change of state , and hence are temporally bounded ( telic ) ; achievements are punctual , whereas accomplishments extend over a period of time . Tenny ( 1987 ) observes that accomplishments differ from achievements only in terms of event duration , which is often a question of granularity . From typological studies , it appears that states , change of states , and activities form the most basic ontology of event types .

@@CITATION observes that accomplishments differ from achievements only in terms of event duration , which is often a question of granularity .


natural language with discrete speech as a mode for humantomachine communication

The resulting speech understanding system is called the Voice Natural Language Computer with Expectation ( VNLCE , Fink 1983 ) . [ The current system should be distinguished from an earlier voice system ( VNLC , Biermann et al. 1985 ) , which had no expectation and which handled discrete speech where a 300 millisecond pause must follow each word . ] It should be emphasized , of course , that the central issue here is the study of expectation mechanisms and the details of the design decisions could have been made in rather different ways .

[ The current system should be distinguished from an earlier voice system ( VNLC , @@CITATION ) , which had no expectation and which handled discrete speech where a 300 millisecond pause must follow each word . ]


text chunking using transformationbased learning

While earlier work in this direction concentrated on manual construction of rules , most of the recent work has been motivated by the observation that shallow syntactic information can be extracted using local information by examining the pattern itself , its nearby context and the local part-of-speech information . Thus , over the past few years , along with advances in the use of learning and statistical methods for acquisition of full parsers ( Collins , 1997 ; Charniak , 1997a ; Charniak , 1997b ; Ratnaparkhi , 1997 ) , significant progress has been made on the use of statistical learning methods to recognize shallow parsing patterns syntactic phrases or words that participate in a syntactic relationship ( Church , 1988 ; Ramshaw and Marcus , 1995 ; Argamon et al. , 1998 ; Cardie and Pierce , 1998 ; Munoz et al. , 1999 ; Punyakanok and Roth , 2001 ; Buchholz et al. , 1999 ; Tjong Kim Sang and Buchholz , 2000 ) . Research on shallow parsing was inspired by psycholinguistics arguments ( Gee and Grosjean , 1983 ) that suggest that in many scenarios ( e.g. , conversational ) full parsing is not a realistic strategy for sentence processing and analysis , and was further motivated by several arguments from a natural language engineering viewpoint .

Thus , over the past few years , along with advances in the use of learning and statistical methods for acquisition of full parsers ( Collins , 1997 ; Charniak , 1997a ; Charniak , 1997b ; Ratnaparkhi , 1997 ) , significant progress has been made on the use of statistical learning methods to recognize shallow parsing patterns syntactic phrases or words that participate in a syntactic relationship ( Church , 1988 ; @@CITATION ; Argamon et al. , 1998 ; Cardie and Pierce , 1998 ; Munoz et al. , 1999 ; Punyakanok and Roth , 2001 ; Buchholz et al. , 1999 ; Tjong Kim Sang and Buchholz , 2000 ) .


The first chronicled endeavour to connect text elements and organise connections between them goes back to the 51h century B.C. and the work of Paninil . He was a grammarian who analysed Sanskrit ( Misra , 1966 ) . The idea resurfaced forcefully at several points in the more recent history of linguistic research ( Tesni`ere , 1959 ; Gruber , 1965 ; Fillmore , 1968 ) .

He was a grammarian who analysed Sanskrit ( @@CITATION ) .


automatically identifying health outcome information in medline records

Dina Demner-Fushman
Barbara Few
Susan E Hauser
George Thoma

Of the remaining citations , 275 were used for training and rule derivation , as described in the following sections . After much exploration , Demner-Fushman et al. ( 2006 ) discovered that it was not practical to annotate PICO entities at the phrase level due to significant unresolvable disagreement and interannotator reliability issues . Consider the following segment : This double-blind , placebo-controlled , randomized , 3-period , complete block , 6-week crossover study examined the efficacy of simvastatin in adult men and women ( N = 151 ) with stable type 2 DM , low density lipoprotein-cholesterol 100 mg/dL , HDL-C < 40 mg/dL , and fasting triglyceride level > 150 and < 700 mg/dL .

After much exploration , @@CITATION discovered that it was not practical to annotate PICO entities at the phrase level due to significant unresolvable disagreement and interannotator reliability issues .


This equality i = i ' can not be proven , but it may be reasonably assumed -- we know that in this case the infection i ' caused the illness , which , in turn , caused the death . The necessity of this kind of merging of arguments has been recognized before : Charniak and McDermott ( 1985 ) call it abductive unification/matching , Hobbs ( 1978 , 1979 ) refers to such operations using the terms knitting or petty conversational implicature . Neither Hobbs nor Charniak and McDermott tried then to make this notion precise , but the paper by Hobbs et al. ( 1988 ) moves in that direction .

The necessity of this kind of merging of arguments has been recognized before : @@CITATION call it abductive unification/matching , Hobbs ( 1978 , 1979 ) refers to such operations using the terms knitting or petty conversational implicature .


conll2012 shared task modeling multilingual unrestricted coreference in ontonotes

S Pradhan
A Moschitti
N Xue
O Uryupina
Y Zhang

We use a standard split of 268 training documents , 68 development documents , and 106 testing documents ( Culotta et al. , 2007 ; Bengtson and Roth , 2008 ) . The OntoNotes-5 .0 dataset , which is released for the CoNLL-2012 Shared Task ( Pradhan et al. , 2012 ) , contains 3,145 annotated documents . These documents come from a wide range of sources which include newswire , bible , transcripts , magazines , and web blogs .

The OntoNotes-5 .0 dataset , which is released for the CoNLL-2012 Shared Task ( @@CITATION ) , contains 3,145 annotated documents .


coreference resolution using competitive learning approach

positional features that have been employed by highwe can see , the baseline achieves an F-measure of performing resolvers such as Ng and Cardie ( 2002 ) 57.0 and a resolution accuracy of 48.4 . and Yang et al. ( 2003 ) , as described below . To get a better sense of how strong our baseline Lexical features .


a sentimental education sentiment analysis using subjectivity summarization based on minimum cuts

Thus , observing the rationales helps us infer the true 0 . We collect substring rationales for a sentiment classification task ( Pang and Lee , 2004 ) and use them to obtain significant accuracy improvements for each annotator . Our new generative approach exploits the rationales more effectively than our previous `` masking SVM '' approach .

We collect substring rationales for a sentiment classification task ( @@CITATION ) and use them to obtain significant accuracy improvements for each annotator .


repetition priming and frequency attenuation in lexical access

We apply two different priming experiments namely , the cross modal priming and masked priming experiment discussed in ( Forster and Davis , 1984 ; Rastle et al. , 2000 ; Marslen-Wilson et al. , 1994 ; Marslen-Wilson et al. , 2008 ) for Bangla morphologically complex words . Here , the prime is morphologically derived form of the target presented auditorily ( for cross modal priming ) or visually ( for masked priming ) .

We apply two different priming experiments namely , the cross modal priming and masked priming experiment discussed in ( @@CITATION ; Rastle et al. , 2000 ; Marslen-Wilson et al. , 1994 ; Marslen-Wilson et al. , 2008 ) for Bangla morphologically complex words .


Zhu ( 2005 ) maintains a survey of this area . Recently , several alternative , often quite sophisticated approaches to collective classification have been proposed ( Neville and Jensen , 2000 ; Lafferty et al. , 2001 ; Getoor et al. , 2002 ; Taskar et al. , 2002 ; Taskar et al. , 2003 ; Taskar et al. , 2004 ; McCallum and Wellner , 2004 ) . It would be interesting to investigate the application of such methods to our problem .

Recently , several alternative , often quite sophisticated approaches to collective classification have been proposed ( Neville and Jensen , 2000 ; Lafferty et al. , 2001 ; Getoor et al. , 2002 ; Taskar et al. , 2002 ; Taskar et al. , 2003 ; @@CITATION ; McCallum and Wellner , 2004 ) .


identifying agreement and disagreement in conversational speech use of bayesian networks to model pragmatic dependencies

M Galley
K McKeown
J Hirschberg
E Shriberg

Detecting agreement We used a simple method to learn to identify cross-speaker references indicating agreement . More sophisticated approaches have been proposed ( Hillard et al. , 2003 ) , including an extension that , in an interesting reversal of our problem , makes use of sentimentpolarity indicators within speech segments ( Galley et al. , 2004 ) . Also relevant is work on the general problems of dialog-act tagging ( Stolcke et al. , 2000 ) , citation analysis ( Lehnert et al. , 1990 ) , and computational rhetorical analysis ( Marcu , 2000 ; Teufel and Moens , 2002 ) .

More sophisticated approaches have been proposed ( Hillard et al. , 2003 ) , including an extension that , in an interesting reversal of our problem , makes use of sentimentpolarity indicators within speech segments ( @@CITATION ) .


transition network grammars for natural language analysis

Also , they can simply be added and subtracted rather than multiplied and divided in the hundreds of calculations required for a single sentence parse . The expectation parser uses an ATN-like representation for its grammar ( Woods 1970 ) . Its strategy is top-down .

The expectation parser uses an ATN-like representation for its grammar ( @@CITATION ) .


bridging the lexical chasm statistical approaches to answerfinding

A Berger
R Caruana
D Cohn
D Freitag
V Mittal

â¢ Only qualitative observations of the responses were reported ( no formal evaluation was performed ) ( Lapalme and Kosseim 2003 ; Roy and Subramaniam 2006 ) . â¢ Only an automatic evaluation was performed , which relied on having model responses ( Berger and Mittal 2000 ; Berger et al. 2000 ) . â¢ A user study was performed , but it was either very small compared to the corpus ( Carmel , Shtalhaim , and Soffer 2000 ; Jijkoun and de Rijke 2005 ) , or the corpus itself was significantly smaller than ours ( Feng et al. 2006 ; Leuski et al. 2006 ) .

â¢ Only an automatic evaluation was performed , which relied on having model responses ( Berger and Mittal 2000 ; @@CITATION ) .


some applications of treebased modeling to speech and language indexing”

Despite its simplicity , the performance of our approach was on the level with the previously highest reported results on the same test collections . The error rate on sentence boundaries in the Brown corpus was not significantly worse than the lowest quoted before ( Riley 1989 : 0.28 % vs. 0.20 % error rate ) . On the WSJ corpus our system performed slightly better than the combination of the Alembic and SATZ systems described in Palmer and Hearst ( 1997 ) ( 0.44 % vs. 0.5 % error rate ) .

The error rate on sentence boundaries in the Brown corpus was not significantly worse than the lowest quoted before ( @@CITATION : 0.28 % vs. 0.20 % error rate ) .


cascading collective classification for bridging anaphora recognition using a rich linguistic feature set

Poesio and Vieira ( 1998 ) and Bunescu ( 2003 ) include cases where antecedent and anaphor are coreferent but do not share the same head noun ( different-head coreference ) . We follow our previous work ( Hou et al. , 2013b ) and restrict bridging to non-coreferential cases . We also exclude comparative anaphora ( Modjeska et al. , 2003 ) .

We follow our previous work ( @@CITATIONb ) and restrict bridging to non-coreferential cases .


an information measure for classification

The idea behind the Doc-Pred method is similar to Bickel and Scheffer 's ( 2004 ) : Response documents are grouped into clusters , one of these clusters is predicted for a new request on the basis of the request 's features , and the response that is most representative of the predicted cluster ( closest to the centroid ) is selected . In our case , the clustering is performed by the program Snob , which implements mixture modeling combined with model selection based on the Minimum Message Length ( MML ) criterion ( Wallace and Boulton 1968 ; Wallace 2005 ) . We chose this program because the number of clusters does not have to be specified in advance , and it returns a probabilistic interpretation for its clusters ( this interpretation is used by the Sent-Pred method , Section 3.2.2 ) .

In our case , the clustering is performed by the program Snob , which implements mixture modeling combined with model selection based on the Minimum Message Length ( MML ) criterion ( @@CITATION ; Wallace 2005 ) .


power of confidence how poll scores impact topic dynamics in political debates

Vinodkumar Prabhakaran
Ashima Arora
Owen Rambow

Candidates who are higher up in the polls tend to stay on topic while the candidates with less power attempt to shift topics more often . This is in line with our previous findings from ( Prabhakaran et al. , 2014 ) that candidates with higher power attempt to shift topics less often than others when responding to moderators . It is also in line with the findings by Prabhakaran et al. ( 2013a ) that candidates with higher power tend not to interrupt others .

This is in line with our previous findings from ( @@CITATION ) that candidates with higher power attempt to shift topics less often than others when responding to moderators .


A minimum-cost assignment thus represents an optimum way to classify the speech segments so that each one tends not to be put into the class that the individual-document classifier disprefers , but at the same time , highly associated speech segments tend not to be put in different classes . As has been previously observed and exploited in the NLP literature ( Pang and Lee , 2004 ; Agarwal and Bhattacharyya , 2005 ; Barzilay and Lapata , 2005 ) , the above optimization function , unlike many others that have been proposed for graph or set partitioning , can be solved exactly in an provably efficient manner via methods for finding minimum cuts in graphs . In our view , the contribution of our work is the examination of new types of relationships , not the method by which such relationships are incorporated into the classification decision .

As has been previously observed and exploited in the NLP literature ( @@CITATION ; Agarwal and Bhattacharyya , 2005 ; Barzilay and Lapata , 2005 ) , the above optimization function , unlike many others that have been proposed for graph or set partitioning , can be solved exactly in an provably efficient manner via methods for finding minimum cuts in graphs .


robust word alignment for machine aided translationquot

This step significantly reduces the computational burden of the algorithm . It is analogous to the step in other translation model induction algorithms that sets all probabilities below a certain threshold to negligible values ( Brown et al. , 1990 ; Dagan et al. , 1993 ; Chen , 1996 ) . To retain word type pairs that are at least twice as likely to be mutual translations than not , the threshold can be raised to 2 .

It is analogous to the step in other translation model induction algorithms that sets all probabilities below a certain threshold to negligible values ( Brown et al. , 1990 ; @@CITATION ; Chen , 1996 ) .


extended named entity ontology with attribute information

OAK7 is a rule based English analyser that includes many functionalities ( POS tagger , stemmer , chunker , Named Entity ( NE ) tagger , dependency analyser , parser , etc ) . It provides a fine grained NE recognition covering 100 different NE types ( Sekine , 2008 ) . Given the sparseness of most of these fine-grained NE types , we have merged them in coarser groups : event , facility , location , person , organisation , product , periodx , timex and numex .

It provides a fine grained NE recognition covering 100 different NE types ( @@CITATION ) .


aligning a parallel englishchinese corpus statistically with lexical criteria

However , a major obstacle to this approach is the lack of parallel corpora for model training . Only a few such corpora exist , including the Hansard English-French corpus and the HKUST EnglishChinese corpus ( Wu , 1994 ) . In this paper , we will describe a method which automatically searches for parallel texts on the Web .

Only a few such corpora exist , including the Hansard English-French corpus and the HKUST EnglishChinese corpus ( @@CITATION ) .


discriminative probabilistic models for relational data

Recently , several alternative , often quite sophisticated approaches to collective classification have been proposed ( Neville and Jensen , 2000 ; Lafferty et al. , 2001 ; Getoor et al. , 2002 ; @@CITATION ; Taskar et al. , 2003 ; Taskar et al. , 2004 ; McCallum and Wellner , 2004 ) .


Unfortunately , we could not pursue this avenue of research owing to time limitations . In FAQs , Berger and Mittal ( 2000 ) employed a sentence retrieval approach based on a language model where the entire response to an FAQ is considered a sentence , and the questions and answers are embedded in an FAQ document . They complemented this approach with machine learning techniques that automatically learn the weights of different retrieval models .

In FAQs , @@CITATION employed a sentence retrieval approach based on a language model where the entire response to an FAQ is considered a sentence , and the questions and answers are embedded in an FAQ document .


statistical significance tests for machine translation evaluation

The translation quality is evaluated by case-insensitive BLEU-4 with the shortest length penalty . The statistical significance test is performed by the re-sampling approach ( Koehn , 2004 ) . To create the baseline system , we use the opensource Joshua 4.0 system ( Ganitkevitch et al. , 2012 ) to build a hierarchical phrase-based ( HPB ) system , and a syntax-augmented MT ( SAMT ) 11 system ( Zollmann and Venugopal , 2006 ) respectively .

The statistical significance test is performed by the re-sampling approach ( @@CITATION ) .


english verb classes and alternations a preliminary investigation

Although the effectiveness and coverage of my parser remains to be seen , similar approaches have been successful at capturing complex linguistic phenomena . With a minimal set of features and a small number of lexical entries , Niyogi ( 2001 ) has successfully modeled many of the argument alternations described by Levin ( 1993 ) using a Hale and Keyser ( 1993 ) style analysis . I believe that with a suitable lexicon ( either hand crafted or automatically induced ) , my framework can be elaborated into a system whose performance is comparable to that of current statistical parsers , but with the added advantage of simultaneously providing a richer lexical semantic representation of the input sentence than flat predicate argument structures based on semantic roles .

With a minimal set of features and a small number of lexical entries , Niyogi ( 2001 ) has successfully modeled many of the argument alternations described by @@CITATION using a Hale and Keyser ( 1993 ) style analysis .


the tunareg challenge 2009 overview and evaluation results

Furthermore , our result shows that the graphbased approaches perform quite competitively under the condition of perfect knowledge and perception . Although evaluated on different data sets , this result is consistent with results from previous work ( Gatt and Belz , 2008 ; Gatt et al. , 2009 ) . However , what is more interesting here is that while graph-based approaches perform well when the agent has perfect knowledge of the environment , as its human partner , these approaches literally fall apart with close to 40 % performance degradation when applied to

Although evaluated on different data sets , this result is consistent with results from previous work ( Gatt and Belz , 2008 ; @@CITATION ) .


using the structure of a conceptual network in computing semantic relatedness

In our experiment , we annotated a high number of pairs similar in size to the test sets by Finkelstein ( 2002 ) and Gurevych ( 2006 ) . We used the revised experimental setup ( Gurevych , 2005 ) , based on discrete relatedness scores and presentation of word pairs in isolation , that is scalable to the higher number of pairs . We annotated semantic relatedness instead of similarity and included also non noun-noun pairs .

We used the revised experimental setup ( @@CITATION ) , based on discrete relatedness scores and presentation of word pairs in isolation , that is scalable to the higher number of pairs .


Few established parsing systems have substantial lexicons and even those which employ very comprehensive grammars ( eg . Robinson , 1982 ; Bobrow , 1978 ) consult relatively small lexicons , typically generated by hand . Two exceptions to this generalisation are the Linguistic String Project ( Sager , 1981 ) and the IBM CRITIQUE ( formerly EPISTLE ) Project ( Heidorn et al. , 1982 ; Byrd , 1983 ) ; the former employs a dictionary of approximately 10,000 words , most of which are specialist medical terms , the latter has well over 100,000 entries , gathered from machine readable sources .

@@CITATION ; Bobrow , 1978 ) consult relatively small lexicons , typically generated by hand .


For expository reasons we represent the ARG n features of the append relation as separate arguments . Typed feature grammars can be used as the basis for implementations of Head-driven Phrase Structure Grammar ( Pollard and Sag , 1994 ) .3 ( Meurers and Minnen , 1997 ) propose a compilation of lexical rules into TIT definite clauses 2This view of typed feature structures differs from the perspective on typed feature structures as modeling partial information as in ( Carpenter , 1992 ) .

Typed feature grammars can be used as the basis for implementations of Head-driven Phrase Structure Grammar ( @@CITATION ) .3 ( Meurers and Minnen , 1997 ) propose a compilation of lexical rules into TIT definite clauses


electronic rulemaking new frontiers in public participation prepared for the annual meeting of the american political science association

online accessibility of politically oriented texts in particular , however , is a phenomenon that some have gone so far as to say will have a potentially society-changing effect . In the United States , for example , governmental bodies are providing and soliciting political documents via the Internet , with lofty goals in mind : electronic rulemaking ( eRulemaking ) initiatives involving the `` electronic collection , distribution , synthesis , and analysis of public commentary in the regulatory rulemaking process '' , may `` [ alter ] the citizen-government relationship '' ( Shulman and Schlosberg , 2002 ) . Additionally , much media attention has been focused recently on the potential impact that Internet sites may have on politics2 , or at least on political journalism3 .

In the United States , for example , governmental bodies are providing and soliciting political documents via the Internet , with lofty goals in mind : electronic rulemaking ( eRulemaking ) initiatives involving the `` electronic collection , distribution , synthesis , and analysis of public commentary in the regulatory rulemaking process '' , may `` [ alter ] the citizen-government relationship '' ( @@CITATION ) .


It would be interesting to evaluate the retrieval effectiveness ( in terms of precision and recall ) of different versions of the synonym class indexing approach in those cases where retrieval using word or subword indexes fails due to a complete mismatch between query and documents . This will become even more interesting when mappings of our synonym identifiers to a large medical thesaurus ( MeSH , ( NLM , 2001 ) ) are incorporated into our system . Alternatively , we may think of user-centered comparative studies ( Hersh et al. , 1995 ) .

This will become even more interesting when mappings of our synonym identifiers to a large medical thesaurus ( MeSH , ( @@CITATION ) ) are incorporated into our system .


random restarts in minimum error rate training for statistical machine translation

Several works have proposed discriminative techniques to train log-linear model for SMT . ( Och and Ney , 2002 ; Blunsom et al. , 2008 ) used maximum likelihood estimation to learn weights for MT. ( Och , 2003 ; Moore and Quirk , 2008 ; Zhao and Chen , 2009 ; Galley and Quirk , 2011 ) employed an evaluation metric as a loss function and directly optimized it . ( Watanabe et al. , 2007 ; Chiang et al. , 2008 ; Hopkins and May , 2011 ) proposed other optimization objectives by introducing a margin-based and ranking-based indirect loss functions .

( Och and Ney , 2002 ; Blunsom et al. , 2008 ) used maximum likelihood estimation to learn weights for MT. ( Och , 2003 ; @@CITATION ; Zhao and Chen , 2009 ; Galley and Quirk , 2011 ) employed an evaluation metric as a loss function and directly optimized it .


dcu aspectbased polarity classification for semeval task 4

Joachim Wagner
Piyush Arora
Santiago Cortes
Utsab Barman
Dasha Bogdanova
Jennifer Foster
Lamia Tounsi

Length of words ( L ) : Instead of using the raw length value as a feature , we follow our previous work ( Rubino et al. , 2013 ; Wagner et al. , 2014 ) and create multiple features for length using a decision tree ( J48 ) . We use length as the only feature to train a decision tree for each fold and use the nodes obtained from the tree to create boolean features .

raw length value as a feature , we follow our previous work ( Rubino et al. , 2013 ; @@CITATION ) and create multiple features for length using a decision tree ( J48 ) .


new ranking algorithms for parsing and tagging kernels over discrete structures and the voted perceptron

Most DOP models , such as in Bod ( 1993 ) , Goodman ( 1996 ) , Bonnema et al. ( 1997 ) , Sima'an ( 2000 ) and Collins & Duffy ( 2002 ) , use a likelihood criterion in defining the best parse tree : they take ( some notion of ) the most likely ( i.e. most probable ) tree as a candidate for the best tree of a sentence . We will refer to these models as Likelihood-DOP models , but in this paper we will specifically mean by `` Likelihood-DOP '' the PCFG-reduction of Bod ( 2001 ) given in Section 2.2 .

Most DOP models , such as in Bod ( 1993 ) , Goodman ( 1996 ) , Bonnema et al. ( 1997 ) , Sima'an ( 2000 ) and @@CITATION , use a likelihood criterion in defining the best parse tree : they take ( some notion of ) the most likely ( i.e. most probable ) tree as a candidate for the best tree of a sentence .


nymble a high performance learning namefinder”

Daniel Bikel
Scott Miller
Richard Schwartz
Ralph Weischedel

Named-entity recognition systems usually use sets of complex hand-crafted rules that employ a gazetteer and a local context ( Krupa and Hausman 1998 ) . In some systems such dependencies are learned from labeled examples ( Bikel et al. 1997 ) . The advantage of the namedentity approach is that the system not only identifies proper names but also determines their semantic class .

In some systems such dependencies are learned from labeled examples ( @@CITATION ) .


efficient contextsensitive generation of referring expressions

For example , consider a relational description ( cfXXX , Dale and Haddock 1991 ) involving a gradable adjective , as in the dog in the large shed . CD for this type of descriptions along the lines of Section 4 is not difficult once relational descriptions are integrated with a standard GRE algorithm ( Krahmer and Theune 2002 , Section 8.6.2 ) : Suppose an initial description is generated describing the set of all those dogs that are in sheds over a given size ( say , size 5 ) ; if this description happens to distinguish an individual dog then this legitimizes the use of the noun phrase the dog in the large shed . Note that this is felicitous even if the shed is not the largest one in the domain , as is true for d2 in the following situation ( contains-a = b means that a is contained by b ) :

CD for this type of descriptions along the lines of Section 4 is not difficult once relational descriptions are integrated with a standard GRE algorithm ( @@CITATION , Section 8.6.2 ) : Suppose an initial description is generated describing the set of all those dogs that are in sheds over a given size ( say , size 5 ) ; if this description happens to distinguish an individual dog then this legitimizes the use of the noun phrase the dog in the large shed .


it will function as the logical subject of the predicate complement . Michiels proposed rules for doing this for infinitive complement codes ; however there seems to be no principled reason not to extend this approach to computing the underlying relations in other types of VP as well as in cases of NP , AP and PP predication ( see Williams ( 1980 ) , for further discussion ) . The five rules which are applied to the grammar codes associated with a verb sense are ordered in a way which reflects the filtering of the verb sense through a series of syntactic tests .

Michiels proposed rules for doing this for infinitive complement codes ; however there seems to be no principled reason not to extend this approach to computing the underlying relations in other types of VP as well as in cases of NP , AP and PP predication ( see @@CITATION , for further discussion ) .


the wiki way  quick collaboration on the web

The main source of Novelle are wikis and blogs . While wikis have spread from a detailed design ( Cunningham and Leuf , 2001 ) , unfortunately blogs have not been designed under a model . So we have tested and compared the most used tools available for blogging : Bloggers , WordPress , MovableType and LiveJournal .

While wikis have spread from a detailed design ( @@CITATION ) , unfortunately blogs have not been designed under a model .


computing semantic relatedness across parts of speech

To our knowledge , this study is the first to include concept pairs and to automatically generate the test dataset . In our experiment , we annotated a high number of pairs similar in size to the test sets by Finkelstein ( 2002 ) and Gurevych ( 2006 ) . We used the revised experimental setup ( Gurevych , 2005 ) , based on discrete relatedness scores and presentation of word pairs in isolation , that is scalable to the higher number of pairs .

In our experiment , we annotated a high number of pairs similar in size to the test sets by Finkelstein ( 2002 ) and @@CITATION .


The logical notation of Montague ( 1970 ) is more sophisticated , and may be considered another possibility . Jackendoff 's ( 1983 ) formalism is richer and resembles more closely an English grammar .

notation of @@CITATION is more sophisticated , and may be considered another possibility .


a robust system for natural spoken dialogue

James F Allen
Bradford W Miller
Eric K Ringger
Teresa Sikorsld

The recent great advances in speech and language technologies have made it possible to build fully implemented spoken dialogue systems ( Aust et al. , 1995 ; Allen et al. , 1996 ; Zue et al. , 2000 ; Walker et al. , 2000 ) . One of the next research goals is to make these systems task-portable , that is , to simplify the process of porting to another task domain .

The recent great advances in speech and language technologies have made it possible to build fully implemented spoken dialogue systems ( Aust et al. , 1995 ; @@CITATION ; Zue et al. , 2000 ; Walker et al. , 2000 ) .


classbased construction of a verb lexicon in

Karin Kipper
Hoa Trang Dang
Martha Palmer

In current work on semantic relation analysis , the focus is on semantic roles -- relations between verbs and their arguments . Most approaches rely on VerbNet ( Kipper et al. , 2000 ) and FrameNet ( Baker et al. , 1998 ) to provide associations between verbs and semantic roles , that are then mapped onto the current instance , as shown by the systems competing in semantic role labelling competitions ( Carreras and Marquez , 2004 ; Carreras and Marquez , 2005 ) and also ( Gildea and Jurafsky , 2002 ; Pradhan et al. , 2005 ; Shi and Mihalcea , 2005 ) . These systems share two ideas which make them different from the approach presented here : they all analyse verb-argument relations , and they all use machine learning or probabilistic approaches ( Pradhan et al. , 2005 ) to assign a label to a new instance .

Most approaches rely on VerbNet ( @@CITATION ) and FrameNet ( Baker et al. , 1998 ) to provide associations between verbs and semantic roles , that are then mapped onto the current instance , as shown by the systems competing in semantic role labelling competitions ( Carreras and Marquez , 2004 ; Carreras and Marquez , 2005 ) and also ( Gildea and Jurafsky , 2002 ; Pradhan et al. , 2005 ; Shi and Mihalcea , 2005 ) .


a method of text watermarking using presuppositions

Atallah et al. ( 2002 ) used semantic transformations and embed information in textmeaning representation ( TMR ) trees of the text by either pruning , grafting or substituting the tree structure with information available from ontological semantic resources . Vybornova and Macq ( 2007 ) aimed to embed information by exploiting the linguistic phenomenon of presupposition , with the idea that some presuppositional information can be removed without changing the meaning of a sentence .

@@CITATION aimed to embed information by exploiting the linguistic phenomenon of presupposition , with the idea that some presuppositional information can be removed without changing the meaning of a sentence .


feature selection for unbalanced class distribution and naive bayes

The n-gram based classifier is also a naive Bayes classifier , but it operates on a different set of features . We first identified the most informative unigrams and bigrams using the information gain measure ( Yang and Pedersen 1997 ) , and then selected only the positive outcome predictors using odds ratio ( Mladenic and Grobelnik 1999 ) . Diseasespecific terms , such as rheumatoid arthritis , were then manually removed .

We first identified the most informative unigrams and bigrams using the information gain measure ( Yang and Pedersen 1997 ) , and then selected only the positive outcome predictors using odds ratio ( @@CITATION ) .