answer extraction semantic clustering and extractive summarization for clinical question answering

Perhaps a graphical rendering of the semantic predicates present in relevant abstracts might more effectively convey the desired information ; see , for example , Fiszman , Rindflesch , and Kilicoglu ( 2004 ) . Perhaps some variation of multi-level bulleted lists , appropriately integrated with interface elements for expanding and hiding items , might provide physicians a better overview of the information landscape ; see , for example , Demner-Fushman and Lin ( 2006 ) . Recognizing this complex set of issues , we decided to take a simple extractive approach to answer generation .

Perhaps some variation of multi-level bulleted lists , appropriately integrated with interface elements for expanding and hiding items , might provide physicians a better overview of the information landscape ; see , for example , @@CITATION .


a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining

efficient algorithms for parsing the dop model

Most DOP models , such as in Bod ( 1993 ) , Goodman ( 1996 ) , Bonnema et al. ( 1997 ) , Sima'an ( 2000 ) and Collins & Duffy ( 2002 ) , use a likelihood criterion in defining the best parse tree : they take ( some notion of ) the most likely ( i.e. most probable ) tree as a candidate for the best tree of a sentence . We will refer to these models as Likelihood-DOP models , but in this paper we will specifically mean by `` Likelihood-DOP '' the PCFG-reduction of Bod ( 2001 ) given in Section 2.2 .

Most DOP models , such as in Bod ( 1993 ) , @@CITATION , Bonnema et al. ( 1997 ) , Sima'an ( 2000 ) and Collins & Duffy ( 2002 ) , use a likelihood criterion in defining the best parse tree : they take ( some notion of ) the most likely ( i.e. most probable ) tree as a candidate for the best tree of a sentence .


paraphrasing with bilingual parallel corpora

As emerges from the ablation tests reported in ( Bentivogli et al. , 2010 ) , even the most common resources proved to have a positive impact on some systems and a negative impact on others . Some previous works ( Bannard and Callison-Burch , 2005 ; Zhao et al. , 2009 ; Kouylekov et al. , 2009 ) indicate , as main limitations of the mentioned resources , their limited coverage , their low precision , and the fact that they are mostly suitable to capture relations mainly between single words . Addressing CLTE we have to face additional and more problematic issues related to : i ) the stronger need of lexical knowledge , and ii ) the limited availability of multilingual lexical resources .

Some previous works ( @@CITATION ; Zhao et al. , 2009 ; Kouylekov et al. , 2009 ) indicate , as main limitations of the mentioned resources , their limited coverage , their low precision , and the fact that they are mostly suitable to capture relations mainly between single words .


Recently , there is a growing consensus that an evaluation methodology based on the notion of `` information nuggets '' may provide an appropriate framework for assessing the quality of answers to complex questions . Nugget F-score has been employed as a metric in the TREC question-answering track since 2003 , to evaluate so-called definition and `` other '' questions ( Voorhees 2003 ) . A number of studies ( e.g. , Hildebrandt , Katz , and Lin 2004 ) have pointed out shortcomings of the original nugget scoring model , although a number of these issues have been recently addressed ( Lin and Demner-Fushman 2005a , 2006b ) .

Nugget F-score has been employed as a metric in the TREC question-answering track since 2003 , to evaluate so-called definition and `` other '' questions ( @@CITATION ) .


three generative lexicalised models for statistical parsing

Miyao , Ninomiya , and Tsujii ( 2004 ) and Nakanishi , Miyao , and Tsujii ( 2004 ) describe a methodology for acquiring an English HPSG from the Penn-II Treebank . Manually defined heuristics are used to automatically annotate each tree in the treebank with partially specified HPSG derivation trees : Head/argument/modifier distinctions are made for each node in the tree based on Magerman ( 1994 ) and Collins ( 1997 ) ; the whole tree is then converted to a binary tree ; heuristics are applied to deal with phenomena such as LDDs and coordination and to correct some errors in the treebank , and finally an HPSG category is assigned to each node in the tree in accordance with its CFG category .

Manually defined heuristics are used to automatically annotate each tree in the treebank with partially specified HPSG derivation trees : Head/argument/modifier distinctions are made for each node in the tree based on Magerman ( 1994 ) and @@CITATION ;


a semantic kernel for predicate argument classification

Our novel composite kernels , which account for the two syntactic structures , are experimented with the appropriate convolution kernels and show significant improvement with respect to the state-ofthe-art in RE . Regarding future work , there are many research line that may be followed : i ) Capturing more features by employing external knowledge such as ontological , lexical resource or WordNet-based features ( Basili et al. , 2005a ; Basili et al. , 2005b ; Bloehdorn et al. , 2006 ; Bloehdorn and Moschitti , 2007 ) or shallow semantic trees , ( Giuglea and Moschitti , 2004 ; Giuglea and Moschitti , 2006 ; Moschitti and Bejan , 2004 ; Moschitti et al. , 2007 ; Moschitti , 2008 ; Moschitti et al. , 2008 ) . ii ) Design a new tree-based structures , which combines the information of both constituent and dependency parses .

Regarding future work , there are many research line that may be followed : i ) Capturing more features by employing external knowledge such as ontological , lexical resource or WordNet-based features ( Basili et al. , 2005a ; Basili et al. , 2005b ; Bloehdorn et al. , 2006 ; Bloehdorn and Moschitti , 2007 ) or shallow semantic trees , ( Giuglea and Moschitti , 2004 ; Giuglea and Moschitti , 2006 ; @@CITATION ; Moschitti et al. , 2007 ; Moschitti , 2008 ; Moschitti et al. , 2008 ) .


the role of knowledge in conceptual retrieval a study in the domain of clinical medicine

For an overview of systems designed to answer open-domain factoid questions , the TREC QA track overview papers are a good place to start ( Voorhees and Tice 1999 ) . In addition , there has been much work on the application of linguistic and semantic knowledge to information retrieval ; see Lin and Demner-Fushman ( 2006a ) for a brief overview . The idea that clinical information systems should be sensitive to the practice of evidence-based medicine is not new .

In addition , there has been much work on the application of linguistic and semantic knowledge to information retrieval ; see @@CITATIONa ) for a brief overview .


accurate methods for the statistics of surprise and coincidence

The usual statistic encountered in text books is the Pearson chisquared statistic , denoted X2 . However , Dunning ( 1993 ) claims that the log-likelihood chisquared statistic ( G2 ) is more appropriate for corpus-based NLP . In Section 6 , we compare the two statistics in a task-based evaluation .

However , @@CITATION claims that the log-likelihood chisquared statistic ( G2 ) is more appropriate for corpus-based NLP .


a gaussian prior for smoothing maximum entropy models

Maximum-posterior estimation tries to maximize P ( 0 ) Â· Hi fÎ¸ ( xi , yi ) where P ( 0 ) is a prior probability . In a log-linear parameterization , for example , a prior that penalizes feature strengths far from 1 can be used to do feature selection and avoid overfitting ( Chen and Rosenfeld , 1999 ) . The EM algorithm ( Dempster et al. , 1977 ) can maximize these functions .

In a log-linear parameterization , for example , a prior that penalizes feature strengths far from 1 can be used to do feature selection and avoid overfitting ( @@CITATION ) .


a program for aligning sentences in bilingual corpora

After identification of word and sentence boundaries the text is processed into a bi-text by an alignment program . This alignment is done on the basis of both length ( Gale and Church [ 7 ] ) and a notion of cognateness ( Simard [ 16 ] ) . 2 .

This alignment is done on the basis of both length ( Gale and Church @@CITATION ) and a notion of cognateness ( Simard [ 16 ] ) .


The outcomes of these classifiers are then combined in a way that satisfies some constraints -- non-overlapping constraints in this case -- using an efficient constraint satisfaction mechanism that makes use of the confidence in the classifier 's outcomes . Since earlier versions of the SNoW based CSCL were used only to identify single phrases ( Punyakanok and Roth , 2001 ; Munoz et al. , 1999 ) and never to identify a collection of several phrases at the same time , as we do here , we also trained and tested it under the exact conditions of CoNLL-2000 ( Tjong Kim Sang and Buchholz , 2000 ) to compare it to other shallow parsers . Table 1 shows that it ranks among the top shallow parsers evaluated there 1 .

Since earlier versions of the SNoW based CSCL were used only to identify single phrases ( Punyakanok and Roth , 2001 ; @@CITATION ) and never to identify a collection of several phrases at the same time , as we do here , we also trained and tested it under the exact conditions of CoNLL-2000 ( Tjong Kim Sang and Buchholz , 2000 ) to compare it to other shallow parsers .


introduction to arabic natural language processing

These tag sets are hybrids in the sense that they are neither simply the core POS , nor the complete morphologically enriched tag set , but instead they selectively enrich the core POS tag set with only certain morphological features . A more detailed discussion of the various available Arabic tag sets can be found in Habash ( 2010 ) . The following are the various tag sets we use in this article : ( a ) the core POS tag sets CORE44 and the newly introduced CORE12 ; ( b ) CATiB Treebank tag set ( CATIB6 ) ( Habash and Roth 2009 ) and its newly introduced extension of CATIBEX created using simple regular expressions on word form , indicating particular morphemes such as the prefix JI Al + or the suffix v ' + wn ; this tag set is the best-performing tag set for Arabic on predicted values as reported in Section 4 ; ( c ) the PATB full tag set with complete morphological tag ( BW ) ( Buckwalter 2004 ) ; and two extensions of the PATB reduced tag set ( PENN POS , a.k.a. RTS , size 24 [ Diab , Hacioglu , and Jurafsky 2004 ] ) , both outperforming it : ( d ) Kulick , Gabbard , and Marcus ( 2006 ) 's tag set ( KULICK ) , size 43 , one of whose most important extensions is the marking of the definite article clitic , and ( e ) Diab and Benajiba 's ( in preparation ) EXTENDED RTS tag set ( ERTS ) , which marks gender , number , and definiteness , size 134 .

A more detailed discussion of the various available Arabic tag sets can be found in @@CITATION .


online learning for latent dirichlet allocation

Matthew Hoffman
David M Blei
Francis Bach

We do not optimize these hyperparameters or vary them over time . The high Dirichlet priors are chosen to prevent sparsity in topic distributions , while the other parameters are selected as the best from Hoffman et al. ( 2010 ) . In order to optimize the number of topics K , we run five trials of each modality for 2000 iterations for K = 150 , 100 , 150 , 200 , 2501 ( a total of 25 runs per setup ) .

The high Dirichlet priors are chosen to prevent sparsity in topic distributions , while the other parameters are selected as the best from @@CITATION .


the acquisition and use of dialogue expectation in speech recognition

The expectation system provided the intermediate processing between the errorful output of the speech recognizer and the deep semantics of NLC . The resulting speech understanding system is called the Voice Natural Language Computer with Expectation ( VNLCE , Fink 1983 ) . [ The current system should be distinguished from an earlier voice system ( VNLC , Biermann et al. 1985 ) , which had no expectation and which handled discrete speech where a 300 millisecond pause must follow each word . ]

The resulting speech understanding system is called the Voice Natural Language Computer with Expectation ( VNLCE , @@CITATION ) .


syntactic processing using the generalized perceptron and beam search

Second , although we use the term chart , the structure for accepted hypotheses is not a dynamic programming chart in the same way as for the parsing problem . In our previous papers ( Zhang and Clark 2011 ; Zhang , Blackwood , and Clark 2012 ) , we applied a set of beams to this structure , which makes it similar to the data structure used for phrase-based MT decoding ( Koehn 2010 ) . However , we will show later that this structure is unnecessary when the model has more discriminative power , and a conceptually simpler single beam can be used .

In our previous papers ( @@CITATION ; Zhang , Blackwood , and Clark 2012 ) , we applied a set of beams to this structure , which makes it similar to the data structure used for phrase-based MT decoding ( Koehn 2010 ) .


the sdc speech understanding system in lea

A number of speech understanding systems have been developed during the past fifteen years ( Barnett et al. 1980 , Dixon and Martin 1979 , Erman et al. 1980 , Haton and Pierrel 1976 , Lea 1980 , Lowerre and Reddy 1980 , Medress 1980 , Reddy 1976 , Walker 1978 , and Wolf and Woods 1980 ) . Most of these efforts concentrated on the interaction between low level information sources from a speech recognizer and a natural language processor to discover the meaning of an input sentence .

A number of speech understanding systems have been developed during the past fifteen years ( @@CITATION , Dixon and Martin 1979 , Erman et al. 1980 , Haton and Pierrel 1976 , Lea 1980 , Lowerre and Reddy 1980 , Medress 1980 , Reddy 1976 , Walker 1978 , and Wolf and Woods 1980 ) .


grounded models of semantic representation

Some efforts have tackled tasks such as automatic image caption generation ( Feng and Lapata , 2010a ; Ordonez et al. , 2011 ) , text illustration ( Joshi et al. , 2006 ) , or automatic location identification of Twitter users ( Eisenstein et al. , 2010 ; Wing and Baldridge , 2011 ; Roller et al. , 2012 ) . Another line of research approaches grounded language knowledge by augmenting distributional approaches of word meaning with perceptual information ( Andrews et al. , 2009 ; Steyvers , 2010 ; Feng and Lapata , 2010b ; Bruni et al. , 2011 ; Silberer and Lapata , 2012 ; Johns and Jones , 2012 ; Bruni et al. , 2012a ; Bruni et al. , 2012b ; Silberer et al. , 2013 ) . Although these approaches have differed in model definition , the general goal in this line of research has been to enhance word meaning with perceptual information in order to address one of the most common criticisms of distributional semantics : that the `` meaning of words is entirely given by other words '' ( Bruni et al. , 2012b ) .

Another line of research approaches grounded language knowledge by augmenting distributional approaches of word meaning with perceptual information ( Andrews et al. , 2009 ; Steyvers , 2010 ; Feng and Lapata , 2010b ; Bruni et al. , 2011 ; @@CITATION ; Johns and Jones , 2012 ; Bruni et al. , 2012a ; Bruni et al. , 2012b ; Silberer et al. , 2013 ) .


yahoo for amazon extracting market sentiment from stock message boards

Task properties Determining whether or not a speaker supports a proposal falls within the realm of sentiment analysis , an extremely active research area devoted to the computational treatment of subjective or opinion-oriented language ( early work includes Wiebe and Rapaport ( 1988 ) , Hearst ( 1992 ) , Sack ( 1994 ) , and Wiebe ( 1994 ) ; see Esuli ( 2006 ) for an active bibliography ) . In particular , since we treat each individual speech within a debate as a single `` document '' , we are considering a version of document-level sentiment-polarity classification , namely , automatically distinguishing between positive and negative documents ( Das and Chen , 2001 ; Pang et al. , 2002 ; Turney , 2002 ; Dave et al. , 2003 ) . Most sentiment-polarity classifiers proposed in the recent literature categorize each document independently .

In particular , since we treat each individual speech within a debate as a single `` document '' , we are considering a version of document-level sentiment-polarity classification , namely , automatically distinguishing between positive and negative documents ( @@CITATION ; Pang et al. , 2002 ; Turney , 2002 ; Dave et al. , 2003 ) .


aligning sentences in bilingual corpora using lexical information

Aligning English-Chinese parallel texts is already very difficult because of the great differences in the syntactic structures and writing systems of the two languages . A number of alignment techniques have been proposed , varying from statistical methods ( Brown et al. , 1991 ; Gale and Church , 1991 ) to lexical methods ( Kay and Roscheisen , 1993 ; Chen , 1993 ) . The method we adopted is that of Simard et al. ( 1992 ) .

A number of alignment techniques have been proposed , varying from statistical methods ( Brown et al. , 1991 ; Gale and Church , 1991 ) to lexical methods ( Kay and Roscheisen , 1993 ; @@CITATION ) .


Most prominent among these are the rich grammatical subcategorisations of the 60,000 entries , the large amount of information concerning phrasal verbs , noun compounds and idioms , the individual subject , collocational and semantic codes for the entries and the consistent use of a controlled ` core ' vocabulary in defining the words throughout the dictionary . ( Michiels ( 1982 ) contains further description and discussion of LDOCE . ) In this paper we focus on the exploitation of the LDOCE grammar coding system ; Alshawi et al. ( 1985 ) and Alshawi ( 1987 ) describe further research in Cambridge utilising different types of information available in LDOCE .

( @@CITATION contains further description and discussion of LDOCE . )


a psycholinguistic approach to corpusbased machine translation

That is , using the marker hypothesis method of segmentation , smaller aligned segments can be extracted from the phrasal lexicon without recourse to any detailed parsing techniques or complex co-ocurrence measures . Juola ( 1994 , 1997 ) assumes that words ending in - ed are verbs . However , given that verbs are not a closed class , in our approach we do not mark chunks beginning with a verb with any marker category .

@@CITATION , 1997 ) assumes that words ending in - ed are verbs .


These four lists can be acquired completely automatically from raw ( unlabeled ) texts . For the development of these lists we used a collection of texts of about 300,000 words derived from the New York Times ( NYT ) corpus that was supplied as training data for the 7th Message Understanding Conference ( MUC-7 ) ( Chinchor 1998 ) . We used these texts because the approach described in this article was initially designed to be part of a named-entity recognition system ( Mikheev , Grover , and Moens 1998 ) developed for MUC-7 .

For the development of these lists we used a collection of texts of about 300,000 words derived from the New York Times ( NYT ) corpus that was supplied as training data for the 7th Message Understanding Conference ( MUC-7 ) ( @@CITATION ) .


free culture how big media uses technology and the law to lock down culture and control creativity

We want to model views as dynamic objects the creation of context will be still arbitrary , but changes are very easily . We would also provide a user facility for choosing the right licence for every lexia , following the model of Creative Commons licences ( Lessig , 2004 ) .

We would also provide a user facility for choosing the right licence for every lexia , following the model of Creative Commons licences ( @@CITATION ) .


distinctive image features from scaleinvariant keypoints

The language grounding problem has received significant attention in recent years , owed in part to the wide availability of data sets ( e.g. Flickr , Von Ahn ( 2006 ) ) , computing power , improved computer vision models ( Oliva and Torralba , 2001 ; Lowe , 2004 ; Farhadi et al. , 2009 ; Parikh and Grauman , 2011 ) and neurological evidence of ties between the language , perceptual and motor systems in the brain ( Pulverm Â¨ uller et al. , 2005 ; Tettamanti et al. , 2005 ; Aziz-Zadeh et al. , 2006 ) . Many approaches to multimodal research have succeeded by abstracting away raw perceptual information and using high-level representations instead .

The language grounding problem has received significant attention in recent years , owed in part to the wide availability of data sets ( e.g. Flickr , Von Ahn ( 2006 ) ) , computing power , improved computer vision models ( Oliva and Torralba , 2001 ; @@CITATION ; Farhadi et al. , 2009 ; Parikh and Grauman , 2011 ) and neurological evidence of ties between the language , perceptual and motor systems in the brain ( Pulverm Â¨ uller et al. , 2005 ; Tettamanti et al. , 2005 ; Aziz-Zadeh et al. , 2006 ) .


viewing morphology as an inference process

There has been some controversy , at least for simple stemmers ( Lovins , 1968 ; Porter , 1980 ) , about the effectiveness of morphological analysis for document retrieval ( Harman , 1991 ; Krovetz , 1993 ; Hull , 1996 ) . The key for quality improvement seems to be rooted mainly in the presence or absence of some form of dictionary .

There has been some controversy , at least for simple stemmers ( Lovins , 1968 ; Porter , 1980 ) , about the effectiveness of morphological analysis for document retrieval ( Harman , 1991 ; @@CITATION ; Hull , 1996 ) .


That is , we want to allocate a larger portion of the probability space to the phrasal and marker lexicons than to the generalized or wordlevel lexicons . We have yet to import such a constraint into our model , but we plan to do so in the near future using the weighted majority algorithm ( Littlestone and Warmuth 1992 ) .

We have yet to import such a constraint into our model , but we plan to do so in the near future using the weighted majority algorithm ( @@CITATION ) .


genre under construction the diary on the internet

So we have tested and compared the most used tools available for blogging : Bloggers , WordPress , MovableType and LiveJournal . Generally speaking , we find that the personal public diary metaphor behind blogs ( McNeill , 2005 ) may bring to an unsatisfactory representation of the context . The only way to retrieve information is through a search engine or a calendar , i.e. the date of the ` post ' -- a lexia in the jargon of bloggers .

Generally speaking , we find that the personal public diary metaphor behind blogs ( @@CITATION ) may bring to an unsatisfactory representation of the context .


Peter F Brown
Stephen A Della Pietra
Vincent J Della Pietra
Meredith J Goldsmith
Jan Hajic
Robert L Mercer
Surya Mohanty

Most probabilistic translation model reestimation algorithms published to date are variations on the theme proposed by Brown et al. ( 1993b ) . These models involve conditional probabilities , but they can be compared to symmetric models if the latter are normalized by the appropriate marginal distribution .

Most probabilistic translation model reestimation algorithms published to date are variations on the theme proposed by @@CITATIONb ) .


robust method of pronoun resolution using fulltext information

However , the pressing need for the development of robust and inexpensive solutions to meet the demands of practical NLP systems encouraged many researchers to move away from extensive domain and linguistic knowledge and to embark instead upon knowledge-poor anaphora resolution strategies . A number of proposals in the 1990s deliberately limited the extent to which they relied on domain and/or linguistic knowledge and reported promising results in knowledge-poor operational environments ( Dagan and Itai 1990 , 1991 ; Lappin and Leass 1994 ; Nasukawa 1994 ; Kennedy and Boguraev 1996 ; Williams , Harvey , and Preston 1996 ; Baldwin 1997 ; Mitkov 1996 , 1998b ) . The drive toward knowledge-poor and robust approaches was further motivated by the emergence of cheaper and more reliable corpus-based NLP tools such as partof-speech taggers and shallow parsers , alongside the increasing availability of corpora and other NLP resources ( e.g. , ontologies ) .

A number of proposals in the 1990s deliberately limited the extent to which they relied on domain and/or linguistic knowledge and reported promising results in knowledge-poor operational environments ( Dagan and Itai 1990 , 1991 ; Lappin and Leass 1994 ; @@CITATION ; Kennedy and Boguraev 1996 ; Williams , Harvey , and Preston 1996 ; Baldwin 1997 ; Mitkov 1996 , 1998b ) .


statistical significance tests for machine translation evaluation

In our experiments the translation performances are measured by case-insensitive BLEU4 metric ( Papineni et al. , 2002 ) and we use mtevalv13a.pl as the evaluation tool . The significance testing is performed by paired bootstrap re-sampling ( Koehn , 2004 ) . We use an in-house developed hierarchical phrase-based translation ( Chiang , 2005 ) as our baseline system , and we denote it as In-Hiero .

The significance testing is performed by paired bootstrap re-sampling ( @@CITATION ) .


scalable inference and training of contextrich syntactic translation models

Michel Galley
Jonathan Graehl
Kevin Knight
Daniel Marcu
Steve DeNeefe
Wei Wang
Ignacio Thayer

The translation system used for testing the effectiveness of our U-trees is our in-house stringto-tree system ( abbreviated as s2t ) . The system is implemented based on ( Galley et al. , 2006 ) and ( Marcu et al. 2006 ) . In the system , we extract both the minimal GHKM rules ( Galley et al. , 2004 ) , and the rules of SPMT Model 1 ( Galley et al. , 2006 ) with phrases up to length L = 5 on the source side .

The system is implemented based on ( @@CITATION ) and ( Marcu et al. 2006 ) .


The ranks are determined by the similarity to the closest instances and the highest ranked sentence is chosen as the final generation output . IGEN uses standard chart generation techniques ( Kay , 1996 ) in its base generator to efficiently produce generation candidates . The set of candidates forms a subset of the chart edges in that they comprise all edges of syntactic category S .

IGEN uses standard chart generation techniques ( @@CITATION ) in its base generator to efficiently produce generation candidates .


labeling chinese predicates with semantic roles

Head word POS , Head Word of Prepositional Phrases , Constituent tree distance , from Pradhan etc. ( 2004 ) . Position , subcat frame , phrase type , first word , last word , subcat frame + , predicate , path , head word and its POS , predicate + head word , predicate + phrase type , path to BA and BEI , verb class 3 , verb class + head word , verb class + phrase type , from Xue ( 2008 ) . 3 It is a bit different from Xue ( 2008 ) , since we did n't use the syntactic alternation information .

Position , subcat frame , phrase type , first word , last word , subcat frame + , predicate , path , head word and its POS , predicate + head word , predicate + phrase type , path to BA and BEI , verb class 3 , verb class + head word , verb class + phrase type , from @@CITATION .


performance structures a psycholinguistic and linguistic appraisal

The psycholinguistic studies of Martin ( 1970 ) , Allen ( 1975 ) , Hillinger et al. ( 1976 ) , Grosjean et al. ( 1979 ) , Dommergues and Grosjean ( 1983 ) , and Gee and Grosjean ( 1983 ) , responding to the idea of readjusted syntax as the source of prosodic phrasing , show that grammatical structure , even if readjusted , is not in itself a reliable predictor of prosodic phrasing : mismatches between syntax and prosody occur often and systematically , and can be related to specific nonsyntactic factors such as length and word frequency . For example , although prosodic boundaries between subject and verb do occur , there also exist prosodic patterns in which the boundary comes between the verb and object , i.e. , the data reveal both X ( VY ) and ( XV ) Y groupings .

The psycholinguistic studies of Martin ( 1970 ) , Allen ( 1975 ) , Hillinger et al. ( 1976 ) , Grosjean et al. ( 1979 ) , Dommergues and Grosjean ( 1983 ) , and @@CITATION , responding to the idea of readjusted syntax as the source of prosodic phrasing , show that grammatical structure , even if readjusted , is not in itself a reliable predictor of prosodic phrasing : mismatches between syntax and prosody occur often and systematically , and can be related to specific nonsyntactic factors such as length and word frequency .


automatically evaluating answers to definition questions

Nugget F-score has been employed as a metric in the TREC question-answering track since 2003 , to evaluate so-called definition and `` other '' questions ( Voorhees 2003 ) . A number of studies ( e.g. , Hildebrandt , Katz , and Lin 2004 ) have pointed out shortcomings of the original nugget scoring model , although a number of these issues have been recently addressed ( Lin and Demner-Fushman 2005a , 2006b ) . However , adaptation of the nugget evaluation methodology to a domain as specific as clinical medicine is an endeavor that has yet to be undertaken .

A number of studies ( e.g. , Hildebrandt , Katz , and Lin 2004 ) have pointed out shortcomings of the original nugget scoring model , although a number of these issues have been recently addressed ( @@CITATIONa , 2006b ) .


semiautomatic acquisition of domainspecific translation lexiconsquot

The model was also used to induce a translation lexicon from a 6200-word corpus of French/English weather reports . Nasr ( 1997 ) reported that the translation lexicon that our model induced from this tiny bitext accounted for 30 % of the word types with precision between 84 % and 90 % . Recall drops when there is less training data , because the model refuses to make predictions that it can not make with confidence .

@@CITATION reported that the translation lexicon that our model induced from this tiny bitext accounted for 30 % of the word types with precision between 84 % and 90 % .


identifying verb arguments and their syntactic function in the penn treebank

Approaches using treebank-based data as a source for subcategorization information , such as ours , do not predefine the frames to be extracted but rather learn them from the data . Kinyon and Prolo ( 2002 ) describe a simple tool which uses fine-grained rules to identify the arguments of verb occurrences in the Penn-II Treebank . This is made possible by manual examination of more than 150 different sequences of syntactic and functional tags in the treebank .

@@CITATION describe a simple tool which uses fine-grained rules to identify the arguments of verb occurrences in the Penn-II Treebank .


resolving pronominal reference to abstract entities

The parser provides a domain-independent semantic representation including high-level word senses and semantic role labels . The contextual interpreter then uses a reference resolution approach similar to Byron ( 2002 ) , and an ontology mapping mechanism ( Dzikovska et al. , 2008a ) to produce a domain-specific semantic representation of the student 's output . Utterance content is represented as a set of extracted objects and relations between them .

The contextual interpreter then uses a reference resolution approach similar to @@CITATION , and an ontology mapping mechanism ( Dzikovska et al. , 2008a ) to produce a domain-specific semantic representation of the student 's output .


semisupervised learning literature survey computer sciences

Notable early papers on graph-based semisupervised learning include Blum and Chawla ( 2001 ) , Bansal et al. ( 2002 ) , Kondor and Lafferty ( 2002 ) , and Joachims ( 2003 ) . Zhu ( 2005 ) maintains a survey of this area . Recently , several alternative , often quite sophisticated approaches to collective classification have been proposed ( Neville and Jensen , 2000 ; Lafferty et al. , 2001 ; Getoor et al. , 2002 ; Taskar et al. , 2002 ; Taskar et al. , 2003 ; Taskar et al. , 2004 ; McCallum and Wellner , 2004 ) .

@@CITATION maintains a survey of this area .


a maximum entropy approach to natural language processing

We use a maximum entropy Markov model ( MEMM ) classifier . The principle of maximum entropy states that when one searches among probability distributions that model the observed data ( evidence ) , the preferred one is the one that maximizes the entropy ( a measure of the uncertainty of the model ) ( Berger et al. , 1996 ) . One big advantage of this approach is that it can combine arbitrary and diverse types of information in making a classification decision .

The principle of maximum entropy states that when one searches among probability distributions that model the observed data ( evidence ) , the preferred one is the one that maximizes the entropy ( a measure of the uncertainty of the model ) ( @@CITATION ) .


hmm word and phrase alignment for statistical machine translation

The idea of introducing constraints over a model to better guide the learning process has appeared before . In the context of word alignment , Deng and Byrne ( 2005 ) use a state-duration HMM in order to model word-to-phrase translations . The fertility of each source word is implicitly encoded in the durations of the HMM states .

In the context of word alignment , @@CITATION use a state-duration HMM in order to model word-to-phrase translations .


improved word alignment with statistics and linguistic heuristics

These related models treat their lexical items as latent variables to be estimated from training data , while our model uses a fixed set of lexical items that correspond to the class of function words . With respect to the focus on function words , our reordering model is closely related to the UALIGN system ( Hermjakob , 2009 ) . However , UALIGN uses deep syntactic analysis and hand-crafted heuristics in its model .

With respect to the focus on function words , our reordering model is closely related to the UALIGN system ( @@CITATION ) .


probabilistic cfg with latent annotations

For projective parsing , it is significantly faster than exact dynamic programming , at the cost of small amounts of search error , We are interested in extending these ideas to phrase-structure and lattice parsing , and in trying other higher-order features , such as those used in parse reranking ( Charniak and Johnson , 2005 ; Huang , 2008 ) and history-based parsing ( Nivre and McDonald , 2008 ) . We could also introduce new variables , e.g. , nonterminal refinements ( Matsuzaki et al. , 2005 ) , or secondary links Mid ( not constrained by TREE/PTREE ) that augment the parse with representations of control , binding , etc. ( Sleator and Temperley , 1993 ; Buch-Kromann , 2006 ) . Other parsing-like problems that could be attacked with BP appear in syntax-based machine translation .

We could also introduce new variables , e.g. , nonterminal refinements ( @@CITATION ) , or secondary links Mid ( not constrained by TREE/PTREE ) that augment the parse with representations of control , binding , etc. ( Sleator and Temperley , 1993 ; Buch-Kromann , 2006 ) .


isp learning inferential selectional preferences

Patrick Pantel
Rahul Bhagat
Bonaventura Coppola
Timothy Chklovski
Eduard Hovy

Similarity-smoothed models are simple to compute , potentially adaptable to new domains , and require no manually-compiled resources such as WordNet . Selectional Preferences have also been a recent focus of researchers investigating the learning of paraphrases and inference rules ( Pantel et al. , 2007 ; Roberto et al. , 2007 ) . Inferences such as `` [ X wins Y ] â [ X plays Y ] '' are only valid for certain arguments X and Y .

Selectional Preferences have also been a recent focus of researchers investigating the learning of paraphrases and inference rules ( @@CITATION ; Roberto et al. , 2007 ) .


grounded models of semantic representation

Our experiments are based on the multimodal extension of Latent Dirichlet Allocation developed by Andrews et al. ( 2009 ) . Previously LDA has been successfully used to infer unsupervised joint topic distributions over words and feature norms together ( Andrews et al. , 2009 ; Silberer and Lapata , 2012 ) . It has also been shown to be useful in joint inference of text with visual attributes obtained using visual classifiers ( Silberer et al. , 2013 ) .

Previously LDA has been successfully used to infer unsupervised joint topic distributions over words and feature norms together ( Andrews et al. , 2009 ; @@CITATION ) .


generating natural language linder pragmatic constraints lawrence erlbaum

The planner could supply whatever information is needed to drive the network . ' Something like this approach is in fact used in some systems ( e.g. , Elhadad and Robin 1992 ; PenMan 1989 ; Hovy 1988a ) . The problem with the discrimination network approach is that it ca n't handle the range of examples shown here without violating the modularity of the generator .

Something like this approach is in fact used in some systems ( e.g. , Elhadad and Robin 1992 ; PenMan 1989 ; @@CITATIONa ) .


genre under construction the diary on the internet

We believe that this name is clearly understable to every people educated in a European-based culture , and this is why we have chosen it . The emphasis on narrativity takes into account the use of blogs as public diaries on the web , that is still the main current interpretation of this literary genre , or metagenre ( McNeill , 2005 ) . Furthermore we noticed that blogs and wikis are currently subjected to osmosis , because they have in common the underlying core technology .

The emphasis on narrativity takes into account the use of blogs as public diaries on the web , that is still the main current interpretation of this literary genre , or metagenre ( @@CITATION ) .


aligning a parallel englishchinese corpus statistically with lexical criteria

Beside HTML markups , other criteria may also be incorporated . For example , it would be helpful to consider strong correspondence between certain English and Chinese words , as in ( Wu , 1994 ) . We hope to implement such correspondences in our future research .

For example , it would be helpful to consider strong correspondence between certain English and Chinese words , as in ( @@CITATION ) .


suzek be et al the protein information resource nucleic acids res

Wu CH
Yeh LS
H Huang
L Arminski
J Castro-Alvear
Y Chen
Z Hu
P Kourtesis
Ledley RS

The system utilizes several large size biological databases including three NCBI databases ( GenPept [ 11 ] , RefSeq [ 12 ] , and Entrez GENE [ 13 ] ) , PSD database from Protein Information Resources ( PIR ) [ 14 ] , and Proceedings of the ACL Interactive Poster and Demonstration Sessions ,

The system utilizes several large size biological databases including three NCBI databases ( GenPept [ 11 ] , RefSeq [ 12 ] , and Entrez GENE [ 13 ] ) , PSD database from Protein Information Resources ( PIR ) @@CITATION , and


learning script knowledge with web experiments

Michaela Regneri
Alexander Koller
Manfred Pinkal

However , they use MSA at the sentence level rather than at the discourse level . We take some core ideas from our previous work on mining script information ( Regneri et al. , 2010 ) . In this earlier work , we focused on event structures and their possible realizations in natural language .

We take some core ideas from our previous work on mining script information ( @@CITATION ) .


incremental speech production and referential overspecification

While IA is generally thought to be consistent with findings on human language production ( Hermann and Deutsch 1976 ; Levelt 1989 ; Pechmann 1989 ; Sonnenschein 1982 ) , the hypothesis that incrementality is a good model of human GRE seems unfalsifiable until a preference order is specified for the properties on which it operates . ( Wildly redundant descriptions can result if the ` wrong ' preference order are chosen . )

While IA is generally thought to be consistent with findings on human language production ( Hermann and Deutsch 1976 ; Levelt 1989 ; @@CITATION ; Sonnenschein 1982 ) , the hypothesis that incrementality is a good model of human GRE seems unfalsifiable until a preference order is specified for the properties on which it operates .


design and implementation of the bulgarian hpsgbased treebank

If we start by considering languages with a labeled attachment score of 85 % or higher , they are characterized by high precision and recall for root nodes , typically 95/90 , and by a graceful degradation of attachment score as arcs grow longer , typically 95 -- 90 -- 85 , for arcs of length 1 , 2 and 3 -- 6 . Typical examples are Bulgarian ( Simov et al. , 2005 ; Simov and Osenova , 2003 ) , Chinese ( Chen et al. , 2003 ) , Danish ( Kromann , 2003 ) , and Swedish ( Nilsson et al. , 2005 ) . Japanese ( Kawata and Bartels , 2000 ) , despite a very high accuracy , is different in that attachment score drops from 98 % to 85 % , as we go from length 1 to 2 , which may have something to do with the data consisting of transcribed speech with very short utterances .

Typical examples are Bulgarian ( @@CITATION ; Simov and Osenova , 2003 ) , Chinese ( Chen et al. , 2003 ) , Danish ( Kromann , 2003 ) , and Swedish ( Nilsson et al. , 2005 ) .


an intelligent discussionbot for answering student queries in threaded discussions

â¢ Only an automatic evaluation was performed , which relied on having model responses ( Berger and Mittal 2000 ; Berger et al. 2000 ) . â¢ A user study was performed , but it was either very small compared to the corpus ( Carmel , Shtalhaim , and Soffer 2000 ; Jijkoun and de Rijke 2005 ) , or the corpus itself was significantly smaller than ours ( Feng et al. 2006 ; Leuski et al. 2006 ) . The representativeness of the sample size was not discussed in any of these studies .

â¢ A user study was performed , but it was either very small compared to the corpus ( Carmel , Shtalhaim , and Soffer 2000 ; Jijkoun and de Rijke 2005 ) , or the corpus itself was significantly smaller than ours ( @@CITATION ; Leuski et al. 2006 ) .


In other words , when prosodic features that reflect facts of the discourse are removed , is there a residual , neutral phrasing ? Our work on the prosodic phrase status of clause final prepositional phrases , which we discuss below , suggests the existence of a discourse-neutral phrasing that depends on syntactic constituency mediated by string adjacency and length of a potential prosodic phrase .3 Such phrasing provides us with a typical phrasing pattern analogous to the typical phrasal stress patterns examined in Liberman and Prince ( 1977 ) , which `` are often overwhelmed by the chiaroscuro of highlight and background in discourse , but retain the status of null-hypothesis patterns that emerge when Computational Linguistics Volume 16 , Number 3 , September 1990 157 J. Bachenko and E. Fitzpatrick Discourse-Neutral Prosodic Phrasing in English there is no good reason to take some other option '' ( p. 251 ) . This approach to prosodic phrase boundary determination brings us closer to a framework in which phonological , syntactic , and discourse features all contribute to prosodic phrasing .

Our work on the prosodic phrase status of clause final prepositional phrases , which we discuss below , suggests the existence of a discourse-neutral phrasing that depends on syntactic constituency mediated by string adjacency and length of a potential prosodic phrase .3 Such phrasing provides us with a typical phrasing pattern analogous to the typical phrasal stress patterns examined in @@CITATION , which `` are often overwhelmed by the chiaroscuro of highlight and background in discourse , but retain the status of null-hypothesis patterns that emerge when Computational Linguistics Volume 16 , Number 3 , September 1990 157 J. Bachenko and E. Fitzpatrick Discourse-Neutral Prosodic Phrasing in English there is no good reason to take some other option '' ( p. 251 ) .


combining feature norms and text data with topic models

Some efforts have tackled tasks such as automatic image caption generation ( Feng and Lapata , 2010a ; Ordonez et al. , 2011 ) , text illustration ( Joshi et al. , 2006 ) , or automatic location identification of Twitter users ( Eisenstein et al. , 2010 ; Wing and Baldridge , 2011 ; Roller et al. , 2012 ) . Another line of research approaches grounded language knowledge by augmenting distributional approaches of word meaning with perceptual information ( Andrews et al. , 2009 ; Steyvers , 2010 ; Feng and Lapata , 2010b ; Bruni et al. , 2011 ; Silberer and Lapata , 2012 ; Johns and Jones , 2012 ; Bruni et al. , 2012a ; Bruni et al. , 2012b ; Silberer et al. , 2013 ) . Although these approaches have differed in model definition , the general goal in this line of research has been to enhance word meaning with perceptual information in order to address one of the most common criticisms of distributional semantics : that the `` meaning of words is entirely given by other words '' ( Bruni et al. , 2012b ) .

Another line of research approaches grounded language knowledge by augmenting distributional approaches of word meaning with perceptual information ( Andrews et al. , 2009 ; @@CITATION ; Feng and Lapata , 2010b ; Bruni et al. , 2011 ; Silberer and Lapata , 2012 ; Johns and Jones , 2012 ; Bruni et al. , 2012a ; Bruni et al. , 2012b ; Silberer et al. , 2013 ) .


games and information an introduction to game theory

9.3.1 Combinations of Adjectives . When objects are compared in terms of several dimensions , these dimensions can be weighed in different ways ( e.g. , Rasmusen 1989 ) . Let us focus on references to an individual referent r , starting with a description that contains more than one gradable adjective .

When objects are compared in terms of several dimensions , these dimensions can be weighed in different ways ( e.g. , @@CITATION ) .


treegram parsing lexical dependencies and structural relations

Most DOP models , such as in Bod ( 1993 ) , Goodman ( 1996 ) , Bonnema et al. ( 1997 ) , Sima'an ( 2000 ) and Collins & Duffy ( 2002 ) , use a likelihood criterion in defining the best parse tree : they take ( some notion of ) the most likely ( i.e. most probable ) tree as a candidate for the best tree of a sentence . We will refer to these models as Likelihood-DOP models , but in this paper we will specifically mean by `` Likelihood-DOP '' the PCFG-reduction of Bod ( 2001 ) given in Section 2.2 .

Most DOP models , such as in Bod ( 1993 ) , Goodman ( 1996 ) , Bonnema et al. ( 1997 ) , @@CITATION and Collins & Duffy ( 2002 ) , use a likelihood criterion in defining the best parse tree : they take ( some notion of ) the most likely ( i.e. most probable ) tree as a candidate for the best tree of a sentence .


While IA is generally thought to be consistent with findings on human language production ( Hermann and Deutsch 1976 ; @@CITATION ; Pechmann 1989 ; Sonnenschein 1982 ) , the hypothesis that incrementality is a good model of human GRE seems unfalsifiable until a preference order is specified for the properties on which it operates .


the flybase database of the drosophila genome projects and community literature nucleic acids res

The Semantic Network contains information about the types or categories ( e.g. , `` Disease or Syndrome '' , `` Virus '' ) to which all META concepts have been assigned . Other molecular biology databases We also included several model organism databases or nomenclature databases in the construction of the dictionary , i.e. , mouse Mouse Genome Database ( MGD ) [ 18 ] , fly FlyBase [ 19 ] , yeast Saccharomyces Genome Database ( SGD ) [ 20 ] , rat -- Rat Genome Database ( RGD ) [ 21 ] , worm -- WormBase [ 22 ] , Human Nomenclature Database ( HUGO ) [ 23 ] , Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man ( OMIM ) [ 24 ] , and Enzyme Nomenclature Database ( ECNUM ) [ 25 , 26 ] .

Other molecular biology databases We also included several model organism databases or nomenclature databases in the construction of the dictionary , i.e. , mouse Mouse Genome Database ( MGD ) [ 18 ] , fly FlyBase @@CITATION , yeast Saccharomyces Genome Database ( SGD ) [ 20 ] , rat -- Rat Genome Database ( RGD ) [ 21 ] , worm -- WormBase [ 22 ] , Human Nomenclature Database ( HUGO ) [ 23 ] , Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man ( OMIM ) [ 24 ] , and Enzyme Nomenclature Database ( ECNUM ) [ 25 , 26 ] .


This paper describes an approach for sharing resources in various grammar formalisms such as Feature-Based Lexicalized Tree Adjoining Grammar ( FB-LTAG1 ) ( Vijay-Shanker , 1987 ; Vijay-Shanker and Joshi , 1988 ) and Head-Driven Phrase Structure Grammar ( HPSG ) ( Pollard and Sag , 1994 ) by a method of grammar conversion . The RenTAL system automatically converts an FB-LTAG grammar into a strongly equivalent HPSG-style grammar ( Yoshinaga and Miyao , 2001 ) . Strong equivalence means that both grammars generate exactly equivalent parse results , and that we can share the LTAG grammars and lexicons in HPSG applications .

The RenTAL system automatically converts an FB-LTAG grammar into a strongly equivalent HPSG-style grammar ( @@CITATION ) .


treetostring alignment template for statistical machine translation

Note that for lexicalized tree , features do not include the information of sub-trees since there is no nonterminals . The features can be easily obtained by modifying the TAT extraction algorithm described in ( Liu et al. , 2006 ) . When a TAT is extracted from a word-aligned , source-parsed parallel sentence , we just record the contextual features and the features of the sub-trees .

The features can be easily obtained by modifying the TAT extraction algorithm described in ( @@CITATION ) .


automatic extraction of subcategorization frames from the bulgarian tree bank

The system learns 137 subcategorization frames from 19,126 sentences for 914 verbs ( those which occurred five times or more ) . Marinov and Hemming ( 2004 ) present preliminary work on the automatic extraction of subcategorization frames for Bulgarian from the BulTreeBank ( Simov , Popova , and Osenova 2002 ) . In a similar way to that of Sarkar and Zeman ( 2000 ) , Marinov and Hemming 's system collects both arguments and adjuncts .

@@CITATION present preliminary work on the automatic extraction of subcategorization frames for Bulgarian from the BulTreeBank ( Simov , Popova , and Osenova 2002 ) .


introduction to the special issue on the web as corpus

This corpus annotation bottleneck becomes even more problematic for voluminous data sets drawn from the web . The use of the web as a corpus for teaching and research on language has been proposed a number of times ( Kilgarriff , 2001 ; Robb , 2003 ; Rundell , 2000 ; Fletcher , 2001 , 2004b ) and received a special issue of the journal Computational Linguistics ( Kilgarriff and Grefenstette , 2003 ) . Studies have used several different methods to mine web data .

The use of the web as a corpus for teaching and research on language has been proposed a number of times ( Kilgarriff , 2001 ; Robb , 2003 ; Rundell , 2000 ; Fletcher , 2001 , 2004b ) and received a special issue of the journal Computational Linguistics ( @@CITATION ) .


inductive logic programming theory and methods

We simply give a short account of its basic principles herein . ASARES is based on a Machine Learning technique , Inductive Logic Programming ( ILP ) ( Muggleton and De-Raedt , 1994 ) , which infers general morpho-syntactic patterns from a set of examples ( this set is noted E + hereafter ) and counter-examples ( E â ) of the elements one 2CORDIAL is a commercial product of SynapseDeveloppement .

ASARES is based on a Machine Learning technique , Inductive Logic Programming ( ILP ) ( @@CITATION ) , which infers general morpho-syntactic patterns from a set of examples ( this set is noted E + hereafter ) and counter-examples ( E â ) of the elements one


bootcat bootstrapping corpora and terms from the web in

Turney ( 2001 ) extracts word co-occurrence probabilities from unlabelled text collected from a web crawler . Baroni and Bernardini ( 2004 ) built a corpus by iteratively searching Google for a small set of seed terms . Prototypes of Internet search engines for linguists , corpus linguists and lexicographers have been proposed : WebCorp ( Kehoe and Renouf , 2002 ) , KWiCFinder ( Fletcher , 2004a ) and the Linguist 's Search Engine ( Kilgarriff , 2003 ; Resnik and Elkiss , 2003 ) .

@@CITATION built a corpus by iteratively searching Google for a small set of seed terms .


In these situations the parser can use the semantic type of the verb to compute this relationship . Expanding on a suggestion of Michiels ( 1982 ) , we classify verbs as Subject Equi , Object Equi , Subject Raising or Object Raising for each sense which has a predicate complement code associated with it . These terms , which derive from Transformational Grammar , are used as convenient labels for what we regard as a semantic distinction ; the actual output of the program is a specification of the mapping from superficial syntactic form to an underlying logical representation .

Expanding on a suggestion of @@CITATION , we classify verbs as Subject Equi , Object Equi , Subject Raising or Object Raising for each sense which has a predicate complement code associated with it .


The issues of control are not so important for us at this point ; we restrict ourselves to describing the logic . This Principle of Finitism is also assumed by Johnson-Laird ( 1983 ) , Jackendoff ( 1983 ) , Kamp ( 1981 ) , and implicitly or explicitly by almost all researchers in computational linguistics . As a logical postulate it is not very radical ; it is possible within a finitary framework to develop that part of mathematics that is used or has potential applications in natural science , such as mathematical analysis ( cfXXX Mycielski 1981 ) .

This Principle of Finitism is also assumed by Johnson-Laird ( 1983 ) , @@CITATION , Kamp ( 1981 ) , and implicitly or explicitly by almost all researchers in computational linguistics .


For the corpus statistics , see Table 1 . For more information on CATiB , see Habash and Roth ( 2009 ) and Habash , Faraj , and Roth ( 2009 ) .

For more information on CATiB , see @@CITATION and Habash , Faraj , and Roth ( 2009 ) .


a program for aligning sentences in bilingual corporaquot

2 Co-occurrence With the exception of ( Fung , 1995b ) , previous methods for automatically constructing statistical translation models begin by looking at word cooccurrence frequencies in bitexts ( Gale & Church , 1991 ; Kumano & Hirakawa , 1994 ; Fung , 1995a ; Melamed , 1995 ) . A bitext comprises a pair of texts in two languages , where each text is a translation of the other .

With the exception of ( Fung , 1995b ) , previous methods for automatically constructing statistical translation models begin by looking at word cooccurrence frequencies in bitexts ( @@CITATION ; Kumano & Hirakawa , 1994 ; Fung , 1995a ; Melamed , 1995 ) .


We instead propose a novel approach that extracts rules from packed forests ( Section 3 ) , which compactly encodes many more alternatives than kbest lists . Experiments ( Section 5 ) show that forestbased extraction improves BLEU score by over 1 point on a state-of-the-art tree-to-string system ( Liu et al. , 2006 ; Mi et al. , 2008 ) , which is also 0.5 points better than ( and twice as fast as ) extracting on 30-best parses . When combined with our previous orthogonal work on forest-based decoding ( Mi et al. , 2008 ) , the forest-forest approach achieves a 2.5 BLEU points improvement over the baseline , and even outperforms the hierarchical system of Hiero , one of the best-performing systems to date .

Experiments ( Section 5 ) show that forestbased extraction improves BLEU score by over 1 point on a state-of-the-art tree-to-string system ( Liu et al. , 2006 ; @@CITATION ) , which is also 0.5 points better than ( and twice as fast as ) extracting on 30-best parses .


automatic detection and classification of social events

Take your own . '' Our approach to extract and classify social events builds on our previous work ( Agarwal and Rambow , 2010 ) , which in turn builds on work from the relation extraction community ( Nguyen et al. , 2009 ) . Therefore , the task of relation extraction is most closely related to the tasks addressed in this paper .

Our approach to extract and classify social events builds on our previous work ( @@CITATION ) , which in turn builds on work from the relation extraction community ( Nguyen et al. , 2009 ) .


seeing stars exploiting class relationships for sentiment categorization with respect to rating scales

Relationships between the unlabeled items Carvalho and Cohen ( 2005 ) consider sequential relations between different types of emails ( e.g. , between requests and satisfactions thereof ) to classify messages , and thus also explicitly exploit the structure of conversations . Previous sentiment-analysis work in different domains has considered inter-document similarity ( Agarwal and Bhattacharyya , 2005 ; Pang and Lee , 2005 ; Goldberg and Zhu , 2006 ) or explicit inter-document references in the form of hyperlinks ( Agrawal et al. , 2003 ) .

Previous sentiment-analysis work in different domains has considered inter-document similarity ( Agarwal and Bhattacharyya , 2005 ; @@CITATION ; Goldberg and Zhu , 2006 ) or explicit


a grammar and a parser for spontaneous speech

Mikio Nakano
Akira Shimazu
Kiyoshi Kogure

Since the language understanding module utilizes unification , a wide variety of linguistic phenomena can be covered . For example , speech repairs , particle omission , and fillers can be dealt with in the framework of unification grammar ( Nakano et al. , 1994 ; Nakano and Shimazu , 1999 ) . The language generation module features Common Lisp functions , so there is no limitation on the description .

For example , speech repairs , particle omission , and fillers can be dealt with in the framework of unification grammar ( @@CITATION ; Nakano and Shimazu , 1999 ) .


a bayesian model for learning scfgs with discontiguous rules

The obtained SCFG is further used in a phrase-based and hierarchical phrase-based system ( Chiang , 2007 ) . Levenberg et al. ( 2012 ) employed a Bayesian method to learn discontinuous SCFG rules . This study differs from their work because we concentrate on constructing tree structures for tree-based translation models .

@@CITATION employed a Bayesian method to learn discontinuous SCFG rules .


strength of recommendation taxonomy sort a patientcentered approach to grading evidence in the medical literature

Mark H Ebell
Jay Siwek
Barry D Weiss
Steven H Woolf
Jeffrey Susman
Bernard Ewigman
Marjorie Bowman

The potential highest level of the strength of evidence for a given citation can be identified using the Publication Type ( a metadata field ) and MeSH terms pertaining to the type of the clinical study . Table 5 shows our mapping from publication type and MeSH headings to evidence grades based on principles defined in the Strength of Recommendations Taxonomy ( Ebell et al. 2004 ) . 5.10 Sample Output

Table 5 shows our mapping from publication type and MeSH headings to evidence grades based on principles defined in the Strength of Recommendations Taxonomy ( @@CITATION ) .


weaklysupervised bayesian learning of a ccg supertagger

Dan Garrette
Chris Dyer
Jason Baldridge
Noah A Smith

Each corpus was divided into four distinct data sets : a set from which we extract the tag dictionaries , a set of raw ( unannotated ) sentences , a development set , and a test set . We use the same splits as Garrette et al. ( 2014 ) . Since these treebanks use special representations for conjunctions , we chose to rewrite the trees to use conjunction categories of the form ( X \ X ) / X rather than introducing special conjunction rules .


distinguishing the communicative functions of gestures

Kristiina Jokinen
Costanza Navarretta
Patrizia Paggio

feature Cohen 's k corrected k face segment 69.89 91.37 face annotate 71.53 94.25 head mov segment 71.21 91.75 head mov annotate 71.65 95.14 These results are slightly worse than those obtained in previous studies using the same annotation scheme ( Jokinen et al. , 2008 ) , but are still sat - isfactory given the high number of categories provided by the scheme .

These results are slightly worse than those obtained in previous studies using the same annotation scheme ( @@CITATION ) , but are still sat -


The result is a flattened structure that more accurately reflects the prosodic phrasing . In Chomsky and Halle ( 1968 ) , this flattening process is not part of the grammar . Rather , it is viewed as '' .

In @@CITATION , this flattening process is not part of the grammar .


firstyear medical students’ information needs and resource selection responses to a clinical scenario

Furthermore , the need to answer questions related to patient care at the point of service has been well studied and documented ( Covell , Uman , and Manning 1985 ; Gorman , Ash , and Wykoff 1994 ; Ely et al. 1999 , 2005 ) . MEDLINE , the authoritative repository of abstracts from the medical and biomedical primary literature maintained by the National Library of Medicine , provides the clinically relevant sources for answering physicians ' questions , and is commonly used in that capacity ( Cogdill and Moore 1997 ; De Groote and Dorsch 2003 ) . However , studies have shown that existing systems for searching MEDLINE ( such as PubMed , the search service provided by the National Library of Medicine ) are often inadequate and unable to supply clinically relevant answers in a timely manner ( Gorman , Ash , and Wykoff 1994 ; Chambliss and Conley 1996 ) .

MEDLINE , the authoritative repository of abstracts from the medical and biomedical primary literature maintained by the National Library of Medicine , provides the clinically relevant sources for answering physicians ' questions , and is commonly used in that capacity ( @@CITATION ; De Groote and Dorsch 2003 ) .


what can we learn from the morphology of hebrew a maskedpriming investigation of morphological representation

Their computational significance arises from the issue of their storage in lexical resources like WordNet ( Fellbaum , 1998 ) and raises the questions like , how to store morphologically complex words , in a lexical resource like WordNet keeping in mind the storage and access efficiency . There is a rich literature on organization and lexical access of morphologically complex words where experiments have been conducted mainly for derivational suffixed words of English , Hebrew , Italian , French , Dutch , and few other languages ( Marslen-Wilson et al. , 2008 ; Frost et al. , 1997 ; Grainger , et al. , 1991 ; Drews and Zwitserlood , 1995 ) . However , we do not know of any such investigations for Indian languages , which

There is a rich literature on organization and lexical access of morphologically complex words where experiments have been conducted mainly for derivational suffixed words of English , Hebrew , Italian , French , Dutch , and few other languages ( Marslen-Wilson et al. , 2008 ; @@CITATION ; Grainger , et al. , 1991 ; Drews and Zwitserlood , 1995 ) .


His work is taxonomic , in that he performs detailed descriptive analyses of paragraphs . He lists , classifies , and discusses various types of inference , by which he means , generally , `` the linguistic-logical notions of consequent and presupposition '' Crothers ( 1979:112 ) have collected convincing evidence of the existence of language chunks -- real structures , not just orthographic conventions -- that are smaller than a discourse , larger than a sentence , generally composed of sentences , and recursive in nature ( like sentences ) . These chunks are sometimes called `` episodes , '' and sometimes `` paragraphs . ''

He lists , classifies , and discusses various types of inference , by which he means , generally , `` the linguistic-logical notions of consequent and presupposition '' @@CITATION:112 ) have collected convincing evidence of the existence of language chunks -- real structures , not just orthographic conventions -- that are smaller than a discourse , larger than a sentence , generally composed of sentences , and recursive in nature ( like sentences ) .


knowledgelean coreference resolution and its relation to textual cohesion and coherence

For example , CogNIAC ( Baldwin , 1997 ) , a system based on seven ordered heuristics , generates high-precision resolution ( over 90 % ) for some cases of pronominal reference . For this research , we used a coreference resolution system ( ( Harabagiu and Maiorano , 1999 ) ) that implements different sets of heuristics corresponding to various forms of coreference . This system , called COCKTAIL , resolves coreference by exploiting several textual cohesion constraints ( e.g. term repetition ) combined with lexical and textual coherence cues ( e.g. subjects of communication verbs are more likely to refer to the last person mentioned in the text ) .

For this research , we used a coreference resolution system ( ( @@CITATION ) ) that implements different sets of heuristics corresponding to various forms of coreference .


guiding semisupervision with constraintdriven learning

Their goal is considerably different ; they want to incorporate additional features into their model and define an objective function which allows them to do so ; whereas , we are interested in allowing for multiple objective functions in order to adapt the parser model parameters to downstream tasks or alternative intrinsic ( parsing ) objectives . The work that is most similar to ours is that of Chang et al. ( 2007 ) , who introduced the Constraint Driven Learning algorithm ( CODL ) . Their algorithm specifically optimizes a loss function with

The work that is most similar to ours is that of @@CITATION , who introduced the Constraint Driven Learning algorithm ( CODL ) .


hidden markov models with finite state supervision in

Samples need not be fully observed ( partly supervised training ) : thus xi C E * , yi C A * may be given as regular sets in which input and output were observed to fall . For example , in ordinary HMM training , xi = E * and represents a completely hidden state sequence ( cfXXX Ristad ( 1998 ) , who allows any regular set ) , while yi is a single string representing a completely observed emission sequence .11 What to optimize ? Maximum-likelihood estimation guesses 0Ë to be the 0 maximizing Hi fÎ¸ ( xi , yi ) .

For example , in ordinary HMM training , xi = E * and represents a completely hidden state sequence ( cfXXX @@CITATION , who allows any regular set ) , while yi is a single string representing a completely observed emission sequence .11 What to optimize ?


experiments in morphosyntactic processing for translating to and from german

We use more complex context features . Fraser ( 2009 ) tried to solve the inflection prediction problem by simply building an SMT system for translating from stems to inflected forms . Bojar and Kos ( 2010 ) improved on this by marking prepositions with the case they mark ( one of the most important markups in our system ) .

@@CITATION tried to solve the inflection prediction problem by simply building an SMT system for translating from stems to inflected forms .


a discriminative language model with pseudonegative samples

This code was extensively optimized to take advantage of the very sparse sentence representation described above . As shown in ( Okanohara and Tsujii , 2007 ) , using this representation , a linear classifier can not distinguish sentences sampled from a trigram and real sentences . Therefore , we used a 3rd order polynomial kernel , which was found to give good results .

As shown in ( @@CITATION ) , using this representation , a linear classifier can not distinguish sentences sampled from a trigram and real sentences .


wordnet an electronic lexical database chapter combining local context and wordnet similarity for word sense identification

Various approaches for computing semantic relatedness of words or concepts have been proposed , e.g. dictionary-based ( Lesk , 1986 ) , ontology-based ( Wu and Palmer , 1994 ; Leacock and Chodorow , 1998 ) , information-based ( Resnik , 1995 ; Jiang and Conrath , 1997 ) or distributional ( Weeds and Weir , 2005 ) . The knowledge sources used for computing relatedness can be as different as dictionaries , ontologies or large corpora .

Various approaches for computing semantic relatedness of words or concepts have been proposed , e.g. dictionary-based ( Lesk , 1986 ) , ontology-based ( Wu and Palmer , 1994 ; @@CITATION ) , information-based ( Resnik , 1995 ; Jiang and Conrath , 1997 ) or distributional ( Weeds and Weir , 2005 ) .


In this case , the complete event structure of a word can be compositionally derived from its component morphemes . This framework , where the `` semantic load '' is spread more evenly throughout the lexicon to lexical categories not typically thought to bear semantic content , is essentially the model advocated by Pustejovsky ( 1991a ) , among many others . Note that such an approach is no longer lexicalist : each lexical item does not fully encode its associated syntactic and semantic structures .

This framework , where the `` semantic load '' is spread more evenly throughout the lexicon to lexical categories not typically thought to bear semantic content , is essentially the model advocated by @@CITATIONa ) , among many others .


extracting tree adjoining grammars from bracketed corpora

The number of frame types extracted ( i.e. , an elementary tree without a specific lexical anchor ) ranged from 2,366 to 8,996 . Xia ( 1999 ) also presents a similar method for the extraction of a TAG from the Penn Treebank . The extraction procedure consists of three steps : First , the bracketing of the trees in the Penn Treebank is corrected and extended based on the approaches of Magerman ( 1994 ) and Collins ( 1997 ) .

@@CITATION also presents a similar method for the extraction of a TAG from the Penn Treebank .


on whmovementquot in formal syntax edited by

That is to say , the CURRENT-FOCUS is a feature , like verb-mode , that is blocked when an [ end ] node is encountered . To a first approximation , a CURRENT-FOCUS reaches only nodes that are c-commanded ( Chomsky 1977 ) by its generator . Finally , certain blocker nodes block the transfer of the FLOAT-OBJECT to their children .

To a first approximation , a CURRENT-FOCUS reaches only nodes that are c-commanded ( @@CITATION ) by its generator .


a stochastic finitestate wordsegmentation algorithm for chinese

Richard Sproat
Chilin Shih
William Gale
Nancy Chang

We propose a unified approach that solves both problems simultaneously . A previous work along this line is Sproat et al. ( 1996 ) , which is based on weighted finite-state transducers ( FSTs ) . Our approach is similarly motivated but is based on a different mechanism : linear mixture models .

A previous work along this line is @@CITATION , which is based on weighted finite-state transducers ( FSTs ) .


semantic role labelling using different syntactic views

Sameer Pradhan
Wayne Ward
Kadri Hacioglu
James H Martin
Daniel Jurafsky

In current work on semantic relation analysis , the focus is on semantic roles -- relations between verbs and their arguments . Most approaches rely on VerbNet ( Kipper et al. , 2000 ) and FrameNet ( Baker et al. , 1998 ) to provide associations between verbs and semantic roles , that are then mapped onto the current instance , as shown by the systems competing in semantic role labelling competitions ( Carreras and Marquez , 2004 ; Carreras and Marquez , 2005 ) and also ( Gildea and Jurafsky , 2002 ; Pradhan et al. , 2005 ; Shi and Mihalcea , 2005 ) . These systems share two ideas which make them different from the approach presented here : they all analyse verb-argument relations , and they all use machine learning or probabilistic approaches ( Pradhan et al. , 2005 ) to assign a label to a new instance .

Most approaches rely on VerbNet ( Kipper et al. , 2000 ) and FrameNet ( Baker et al. , 1998 ) to provide associations between verbs and semantic roles , that are then mapped onto the current instance , as shown by the systems competing in semantic role labelling competitions ( Carreras and Marquez , 2004 ; Carreras and Marquez , 2005 ) and also ( Gildea and Jurafsky , 2002 ; @@CITATION ; Shi and Mihalcea , 2005 ) .


a maximum entropy approach to natural language processing

Adam L Berger
Stephen A Della Pietra
Vincent J Della Pietra

A powerful strategy for using gains is to build a model iteratively by adding at each step the feature which gives the highest gain with respect to those already added . Berger et al ( 1996 ) describe an efficient algorithm for accomplishing this in which approximations to Pst ( TIS ) are computed in parallel for all ( new ) features ft by holding all weights in the existing model fixed and optimizing only over a8t . However , this method requires many expensive passes over the corpus to optimize the weights for the set of features under consideration at each step , and it adds only one feature per step , so it is not practical for constructing models containing thousands of features or more .

@@CITATION describe an efficient algorithm for accomplishing this in which approximations to Pst ( TIS ) are computed in parallel for all ( new ) features ft by holding all weights in the existing model fixed and optimizing only over a8t .


utilizing citations of foreign words in corpusbased dictionary generation

However , if we assume , for example , that we already have word equations for four languages , and all we want is to compute the translations into a fifth language , then we can simply extend our approach to what we call the product-of-ranks algorithm . As suggested in Rapp & Zock ( 2010 ) this can be done by looking up the ranks of each of the four given words ( i.e. the words occurring in a particular word equation ) within the association vector of a translation candidate , and by multiplying these ranks . So for each candidate we obtain a product of ranks .

As suggested in @@CITATION this can be done by looking up the ranks of each of the four given words ( i.e. the words occurring in a particular word equation ) within the association vector of a translation candidate , and by multiplying these ranks .


an overview of disjunctive constraint satisfaction

The information common to all solutions to the interaction call is lifted up into the lexical entry and becomes available upon lexical lookup . 32 In certain cases an extension of the constraint language with named disjunctions or contexted constraints ( Maxwell and Kaplan 1989 ; Eisele and Dorre 1990 ; Griffith 1996 ) can be used to circumvent constraint propagation . Encoding the disjunctive possibilities for lexical rule application in this way , instead of with definite clause attachments , makes all relevant lexical information available at lexical lookup .

32 In certain cases an extension of the constraint language with named disjunctions or contexted constraints ( @@CITATION ; Eisele and Dorre 1990 ; Griffith 1996 ) can be used to circumvent constraint propagation .


unsupervised event coreference resolution with rich linguistic features

This article represents an extension of our previous work on unsupervised event coreference resolution ( Bejan et al. 2009 ; Bejan and Harabagiu 2010 ) . In this work , we present more details on the problem of solving both withinand cross-document event coreference as well as describe a generic framework for solving this type of problem in an unsupervised way .

This article represents an extension of our previous work on unsupervised event coreference resolution ( Bejan et al. 2009 ; @@CITATION ) .


an overview of the nigel text generation grammar

There have in fact been attempts to develop modified modular designs that allow generators to handle interactions between the components . These include devices such as interleaving the components ( McDonald 1983 ; Appelt 1983 ) , backtracking on failure ( Appelt 1985 ; Nogier 1989 ) , allowing the linguistic component to interrogate the planner ( Mann 1983 ; Sondheimer and Nebel 1986 ) , and Hovy 's notion of restrictive ( i.e. , bottom-up ) planning ( Hovy 1988a , 1988c ) . All of these approaches , though , require that potential interactions be determined either by the tactical component or by the system designer in advance .

These include devices such as interleaving the components ( McDonald 1983 ; Appelt 1983 ) , backtracking on failure ( Appelt 1985 ; Nogier 1989 ) , allowing the linguistic component to interrogate the planner ( @@CITATION ; Sondheimer and Nebel 1986 ) , and Hovy 's notion of restrictive ( i.e. , bottom-up ) planning ( Hovy 1988a , 1988c ) .


efficient bottomup evaluation of logic programs

Raghu Ramakrishnan
Divesh Srivastava
S Sudarshan

Magic is a compilation technique originally developed for goal-directed bottom-up processing of logic programs . See , among others , ( Ramakrishnan et al. 1992 ) . As shown in ( Minnen , 1996 ) â¢ The presented research was carried out at the University of Tubingen , Germany , as part of the Sonderforschungsbereich 340 .


some experiments on indicators of parsing complexity for lexicalized grammars

Table 2 shows the average parsing time with the LTAG and HPSG parsers . In Table 2 , lem refers to the LTAG parser ( Sarkar et al. , 2000 ) , ANSI C implementation of the two-phase parsing algorithm that performs the head corner parsing ( van Noord , 1994 ) without features ( phase 1 ) , and then executes feature unification ( phase 2 ) . TNT refers to the HPSG parser ( Torisawa et al. , 2000 ) , C++ implementation of the two-phase parsing algorithm that performs filtering with a compiled CFG ( phase 1 ) and then executes feature unification ( phase 2 ) .

In Table 2 , lem refers to the LTAG parser ( @@CITATION ) , ANSI C implementation of the two-phase parsing algorithm that performs the head corner parsing ( van Noord , 1994 ) without features ( phase 1 ) , and then executes feature unification ( phase 2 ) .


two languages are better than one for syntactic parsing

Our U-trees are learned based on STSG , which is more appropriate for tree-based translation models than SCFG . Burkett and Klein ( 2008 ) and Burkett et al. ( 2010 ) focused on joint parsing and alignment . They utilized the bilingual Tree-bank to train a joint model for both parsing and word alignment .

@@CITATION and Burkett et al. ( 2010 ) focused on joint parsing and alignment .


lexical functional grammar a formal system for grammatical representation

In modern syntactic theories ( e.g. , lexical-functional grammar [ LFG ] [ Kaplan and Bresnan 1982 ; Bresnan 2001 ; Dalrymple 2001 ] , head-driven phrase structure grammar [ HPSG ] [ Pollard and Sag 1994 ] , tree-adjoining grammar [ TAG ] [ Joshi 1988 ] , and combinatory categorial grammar [ CCG ] [ Ades and Steedman 1982 ] ) , the lexicon is the central repository for much morphological , syntactic , and semantic information . * National Centre for Language Technology , School of Computing , Dublin City University , Glasnevin , Dublin 9 , Ireland .

In modern syntactic theories ( e.g. , lexical-functional grammar [ LFG ] [ @@CITATION ; Bresnan 2001 ; Dalrymple 2001 ] , head-driven phrase structure grammar [ HPSG ] [ Pollard and Sag 1994 ] , tree-adjoining grammar [ TAG ] [ Joshi 1988 ] , and combinatory categorial grammar [ CCG ] [ Ades and Steedman 1982 ] ) , the lexicon is the central repository for much morphological , syntactic , and semantic information .


the printing revolution in early modern europe

When Gutenberg invented the printing press and Aldo Manuzio invented the book as we know it , new forms of writings arose . For example , when books should n't be copied by hand any longer , authors took the advantage and start writing original books and evaluation -- i.e. literary criticism -- unlike in the previous times ( Eisenstein , 1983 ) . Nowadays the use of computers for writing has drammatically changed , expecially after their interconnection via the internet , since at least the foundation of the web ( Berners-Lee , 1999 ) .

For example , when books should n't be copied by hand any longer , authors took the advantage and start writing original books and evaluation -- i.e. literary criticism -- unlike in the previous times ( @@CITATION ) .


effective mapping of biomedical text to the umls metathesaurus the metamap program

( NLM ) , which also serves as a readily available corpus of abstracts for our experiments . Furthermore , the availability of rich ontological resources , in the form of the Unified Medical Language System ( UMLS ) ( Lindberg et al. , 1993 ) , and the availability of software that leverages this knowledge -- MetaMap ( Aronson , 2001 ) for concept identification and SemRep ( Rindflesch and Fiszman , 2003 ) for relation extraction -- provide a foundation for studying the role of semantics in various tasks . McKnight and Srinivasan ( 2003 ) have previously examined the task of categorizing sentences in medical abstracts using supervised discriminative machine learning techniques .

Furthermore , the availability of rich ontological resources , in the form of the Unified Medical Language System ( UMLS ) ( Lindberg et al. , 1993 ) , and the availability of software that leverages this knowledge -- MetaMap ( @@CITATION ) for concept identification and SemRep ( Rindflesch and Fiszman , 2003 ) for relation extraction -- provide a foundation for studying the role of semantics in various tasks .


understanding unsegmented user utterances in realtime spoken dialogue systems

Mikio Nakano
Noboru Miyazalci
Jun-ichi Hirasawa
Kohji Dohsaka
Takeshi Kawabata

In typical question-answer systems , the user has the initiative when asking questions and the system has it when answering . Since the language generation module works in parallel with the language understanding module , utterance generation is possible even while the system is listening to user utterances and that utterance understanding is possible even while it is speaking ( Nakano et al. , 1999a ) . Thus the system can respond immediately after user pauses when the user has the initiative .

Since the language generation module works in parallel with the language understanding module , utterance generation is possible even while the system is listening to user utterances and that utterance understanding is possible even while it is speaking ( @@CITATIONa ) .


Tesni`ere ( 1959 ) , who proposes a grouping of verb arguments into actants and circumstances , gives a set of rules to connect specific types of actants -- for example , agent or instrument -- to such grammatical elements as subject , direct object , indirect object . This idea was expanded to include nouns and their modifiers through verb nominalizations ( Chomsky , 1970 ; Quirk et al. , 1985 ) . We work with sentences , clauses , phrases and words , using syntactic structures generated by a parser .

This idea was expanded to include nouns and their modifiers through verb nominalizations ( @@CITATION ; Quirk et al. , 1985 ) .


a bestfirst algorithm for automatic extraction of transfer mappings from bilingual corpora

Due to these limitations , instead of investigating into the synchronization of two grammars , we propose a flexible annotation schema ( i.e. Synchronous Structured String-Tree Correspondence ( S-SSTC ) ) to realize additional power and flexibility in expressing structural correspondences at the level of language sentence pairs . For example , such schema can serve as a mean to represent translation examples , or find structural correspondences for the purpose of transfer grammar learning ( Menezes & Richardson , 2001 ) , ( Aramaki et al. , 2001 ) , ( Watanabe et al. , 2000 ) , ( Meyers et al. , 2000 ) , ( Matsumoto et al. , 1993 ) , ( kaji et al. , 1992 ) , and example-base machine translation EBMT3 ( Sato & Nagao , 1990 ) , ( Sato , 1991 ) , ( Richardson et al. , 2001 ) , ( Al-Adhaileh & Tang , 1999 ) .

For example , such schema can serve as a mean to represent translation examples , or find structural correspondences for the purpose of transfer grammar learning ( @@CITATION ) , ( Aramaki et al. , 2001 ) , ( Watanabe et al. , 2000 ) , ( Meyers et al. , 2000 ) , ( Matsumoto et al. , 1993 ) , ( kaji et al. , 1992 ) , and example-base machine translation EBMT3 ( Sato & Nagao , 1990 ) , ( Sato , 1991 ) , ( Richardson et al. , 2001 ) , ( Al-Adhaileh & Tang , 1999 ) .


new ranking algorithms for parsing and tagging kernels over discrete structures and the voted perceptron

feature sets , but then efficiency becomes a problem . Collins and Duffy ( 2002 ) define a kernel over parse trees and apply it to re-ranking the output of a parser , but the resulting feature space is restricted by the need to compute the kernel efficiently , and the results are not as good as Collins ' previous work on re-ranking using a finite set of features ( Collins , 2000 ) . In this work we use a method for automatically inducing a finite set of features for representing the derivation history .

@@CITATION define a kernel over parse trees and apply it to re-ranking the output of a parser , but the resulting feature space is restricted by the need to compute the kernel efficiently , and the results are not as good as Collins ' previous work on re-ranking using a finite set of features ( Collins , 2000 ) .


Michel Galley
Mark Hopkins
Kevin Knight
Daniel Marcu

Our final experiments verify this point and we will conduct a much detailed analysis in future . 9 We only use the minimal GHKM rules ( Galley et al. , 2004 ) here to reduce the complexity of the sampler . Under this initial STSG , the sampler modifies the initial U-trees ( initial sample ) to create a series of new ones ( new samples ) by the Gibbs operators .

9 We only use the minimal GHKM rules ( @@CITATION ) here to reduce the complexity of the sampler .


Adjunction grafts an auxiliary tree with the root node and foot node labeled x onto an internal node of another tree with the same symbol x ( Figure 4 ) . FBLTAG ( Vijay-Shanker , 1987 ; Vijay-Shanker and Joshi , 1988 ) is an extension of the LTAG formalism . In FB-LTAG , each node in the elementary trees has a feature structure , containing grammatical constraints on the node .

FBLTAG ( @@CITATION ; Vijay-Shanker and Joshi , 1988 ) is an extension of the LTAG formalism .


an information theoretic analysis of phonetic dictionary access computer speech and language

From the master LDOCE file , we have computed alternative indexing information , which allows access into the dictionary via different routes . In addition to headwords , dictionary search through the pronunciation field is available ; Carter ( 1987 ) has merged information from the pronunciation and hyphenation fields , creating an enhanced phonological representation which allows access to entries by broad phonetic class and syllable structure ( Huttenlocher and Zue , 1983 ) . In addition , a fully flexible access system allows the retrieval of dictionary entries on the basis of constraints specifying any combination of phonetic , lexical , syntactic , and semantic information ( Boguraev et al. , 1987 ) .

In addition to headwords , dictionary search through the pronunciation field is available ; @@CITATION has merged information from the pronunciation and hyphenation fields , creating an enhanced phonological representation which allows access to entries by broad phonetic class and syllable structure ( Huttenlocher and Zue , 1983 ) .


performance structuresa psycholinguistic and linguistic appraisal cognitive psychology

Thus , over the past few years , along with advances in the use of learning and statistical methods for acquisition of full parsers ( Collins , 1997 ; Charniak , 1997a ; Charniak , 1997b ; Ratnaparkhi , 1997 ) , significant progress has been made on the use of statistical learning methods to recognize shallow parsing patterns syntactic phrases or words that participate in a syntactic relationship ( Church , 1988 ; Ramshaw and Marcus , 1995 ; Argamon et al. , 1998 ; Cardie and Pierce , 1998 ; Munoz et al. , 1999 ; Punyakanok and Roth , 2001 ; Buchholz et al. , 1999 ; Tjong Kim Sang and Buchholz , 2000 ) . Research on shallow parsing was inspired by psycholinguistics arguments ( Gee and Grosjean , 1983 ) that suggest that in many scenarios ( e.g. , conversational ) full parsing is not a realistic strategy for sentence processing and analysis , and was further motivated by several arguments from a natural language engineering viewpoint . First , it has been noted that in many natural language applications it is sufficient to use shallow parsing information ; information such as noun phrases ( NPs ) and other syntactic sequences have been found useful in many large-scale language processing applications including information extraction and text summarization ( Grishman , 1995 ; Appelt et al. , 1993 ) .

Research on shallow parsing was inspired by psycholinguistics arguments ( @@CITATION ) that suggest that in many scenarios ( e.g. , conversational ) full parsing is not a realistic strategy for sentence processing and analysis , and was further motivated by several arguments from a natural language engineering viewpoint .


learning from message pairs for automatic email answering

This indicates that help-desk customers may have also become more tolerant of inaccurate or incomplete automatically generated replies , provided these replies are still relevant to their problem , and so long as the customers can follow up with a request for human-generated responses if necessary . Despite this , to date , there has been little work on corpus-based approaches to help-desk response automation ( notable exceptions are Carmel , Shtalhaim , and Soffer 2000 ; Lapalme and Kosseim 2003 ; Bickel and Scheffer 2004 ; Malik , Subramaniam , and Kaushik 2007 ) . A major factor limiting this work is the dearth of corpora -- help-desk e-mails tend to be proprietary and are subject to privacy issues .

Despite this , to date , there has been little work on corpus-based approaches to help-desk response automation ( notable exceptions are Carmel , Shtalhaim , and Soffer 2000 ; Lapalme and Kosseim 2003 ; @@CITATION ; Malik , Subramaniam , and Kaushik 2007 ) .


europarl a parallel corpus for statistical machine translation

Horizontal axis : average number of transferred edges per sentence . results are based on a corpus of movie subtitles ( Tiedemann 2007 ) , and are consequently shorter sentences , whereas the En â Es results are based on a corpus of parliamentary proceedings ( Koehn 2005 ) . We see in Figure 10 that for both domains , the models trained using posterior regularization perform better than the baseline model trained using EM .

results are based on a corpus of movie subtitles ( Tiedemann 2007 ) , and are consequently shorter sentences , whereas the En â Es results are based on a corpus of parliamentary proceedings ( @@CITATION ) .


a maximum entropy approach to natural language processing

Much recent research in SMT , eg ( Garcia-Varea et al. , 1998 ; Niessen et al. , 1998 ; Och et al. , 1999 ; Wang and Waibel , 1998 ) deals with the decoding problem , either directly or indirectly because of constraints imposed on the form of the translation model . A statistical technique which has recently become popular for NLP is Maximum Entropy/Minimum Divergence ( MEMD ) modeling ( Berger et al. , 1996 ) . One of the main strengths of MEMD is that it allows information from different sources to be combined in a principled and effective way , so it is a natural choice for modeling p ( wlh , s ) In this paper , I describe a MEMD model for p ( wlh , s ) and compare its performance to that of an equivalent linear model .

A statistical technique which has recently become popular for NLP is Maximum Entropy/Minimum Divergence ( MEMD ) modeling ( @@CITATION ) .


Our baseline coreference system uses the C4 .5 decision tree learner ( Quinlan , 1993 ) to acquire a classifier on the training texts for determining whether two NPs are coreferent . Following previous work ( e.g. , Soon et al. ( 2001 ) and Ponzetto and Strube ( 2006 ) ) , we generate training instances as follows : a positive instance is created for each anaphoric NP , NPj , and its closest antecedent , NPi ; and a negative instance is created for NPj paired with each of the intervening NPs , NPi +1 , NPi +2 , ... , NPj_1 .

Our baseline coreference system uses the C4 .5 decision tree learner ( @@CITATION ) to acquire a classifier on the training texts for determining whether two NPs are coreferent .


what do we know about conversation participants experiments on conversation entailment

Note that in this figure the alignment between x5 = suggests from the hypothesis and u4 = opinion from the conversation segment is a pseudo alignment , which directly maps a verb term in the hypothesis to an utterance term represented by its dialogue act . This alignment is obtained by following the same set of rules learned from the development dataset as in ( Zhang and Chai , 2009 ) .

This alignment is obtained by following the same set of rules learned from the development dataset as in ( @@CITATION ) .


a constrained latent variable model for coreference resolution

Baseline Systems We choose three publicly available state-of-the-art end-to-end coreference systems as our baselines : Stanford system ( Lee et al. , 2011 ) , Berkeley system ( Durrett and Klein , 2014 ) and HOTCoref system ( Bj Â¨ orkelund and Kuhn , 2014 ) . Developed Systems Our developed system is built on the work by Chang et al. ( 2013 ) , using Constrained Latent Left-Linking Model ( CL3M ) as our mention-pair coreference model in the joint framework10 . When the CL3M coreference system uses gold mentions or heads , we call the system Gold ; when it uses predicted mentions or heads , we call the system Predicted .

Developed Systems Our developed system is built on the work by @@CITATION , using Constrained Latent Left-Linking Model ( CL3M ) as our mention-pair coreference model in the joint framework10 .


some applications of treebased modeling to speech and language indexing”

The best performance on the WSJ corpus was achieved by a combination of the SATZ system ( Palmer and Hearst 1997 ) with the Alembic system ( Aberdeen et al. 1995 ) : a 0.5 % error rate . The best performance on the Brown corpus , a 0.2 % error rate , was reported by Riley ( 1989 ) , who trained a decision tree classifier on a 25-million-word corpus . In the disambiguation of capitalized words , the most widespread method is POS tagging , which achieves about a 3 % error rate on the Brown corpus and a 5 % error rate on the WSJ corpus , as reported in Mikheev ( 2000 ) .

The best performance on the Brown corpus , a 0.2 % error rate , was reported by @@CITATION , who trained a decision tree classifier on a 25-million-word corpus .


putting pieces together combining framenet verbnet and wordnet for robust semantic parsing

In current work on semantic relation analysis , the focus is on semantic roles -- relations between verbs and their arguments . Most approaches rely on VerbNet ( Kipper et al. , 2000 ) and FrameNet ( Baker et al. , 1998 ) to provide associations between verbs and semantic roles , that are then mapped onto the current instance , as shown by the systems competing in semantic role labelling competitions ( Carreras and Marquez , 2004 ; Carreras and Marquez , 2005 ) and also ( Gildea and Jurafsky , 2002 ; Pradhan et al. , 2005 ; Shi and Mihalcea , 2005 ) . These systems share two ideas which make them different from the approach presented here : they all analyse verb-argument relations , and they all use machine learning or probabilistic approaches ( Pradhan et al. , 2005 ) to assign a label to a new instance .

Most approaches rely on VerbNet ( Kipper et al. , 2000 ) and FrameNet ( Baker et al. , 1998 ) to provide associations between verbs and semantic roles , that are then mapped onto the current instance , as shown by the systems competing in semantic role labelling competitions ( Carreras and Marquez , 2004 ; Carreras and Marquez , 2005 ) and also ( Gildea and Jurafsky , 2002 ; Pradhan et al. , 2005 ; @@CITATION ) .


telegram a grammar formalism for language planning

There have in fact been attempts to develop modified modular designs that allow generators to handle interactions between the components . These include devices such as interleaving the components ( McDonald 1983 ; Appelt 1983 ) , backtracking on failure ( Appelt 1985 ; Nogier 1989 ) , allowing the linguistic component to interrogate the planner ( Mann 1983 ; Sondheimer and Nebel 1986 ) , and Hovy 's notion of restrictive ( i.e. , bottom-up ) planning ( Hovy 1988a , 1988c ) . All of these approaches , though , require that potential interactions be determined either by the tactical component or by the system designer in advance .

These include devices such as interleaving the components ( McDonald 1983 ; @@CITATION ) , backtracking on failure ( Appelt 1985 ; Nogier 1989 ) , allowing the linguistic component to interrogate the planner ( Mann 1983 ; Sondheimer and Nebel 1986 ) , and Hovy 's notion of restrictive ( i.e. , bottom-up ) planning ( Hovy 1988a , 1988c ) .


a linear observed time statistical parser based on maximum entropy models

The system was trained on the Penn Treebank ( Marcus et al. , 1993 ) WSJ Sections 221 and tested on Section 23 ( Table 1 ) , same as used by Magerman ( 1995 ) , Collins ( 1997 ) , and Ratnaparkhi ( 1997 ) , and became a common testbed . The tasks were selected so as to demonstrate the benefit of using internal structure

The system was trained on the Penn Treebank ( Marcus et al. , 1993 ) WSJ Sections 221 and tested on Section 23 ( Table 1 ) , same as used by Magerman ( 1995 ) , Collins ( 1997 ) , and @@CITATION , and became a common testbed .


writing space the computer hypertext and the history of writing erlbaum associates

Bolter ( 1991 ) was the first scholar who stressed the impact of the digital revolution to the medium of writing . Terms as ` chapter ' , ` page ' or ` footnote ' simply become meaningless in the new texts , or they highly change their meaning .

@@CITATION was the first scholar who stressed the impact of the digital revolution to the medium of writing .