a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining

three generative lexicalised models for statistical parsing

While earlier work in this direction concentrated on manual construction of rules , most of the recent work has been motivated by the observation that shallow syntactic information can be extracted using local information by examining the pattern itself , its nearby context and the local part-of-speech information . Thus , over the past few years , along with advances in the use of learning and statistical methods for acquisition of full parsers ( Collins , 1997 ; Charniak , 1997a ; Charniak , 1997b ; Ratnaparkhi , 1997 ) , significant progress has been made on the use of statistical learning methods to recognize shallow parsing patterns syntactic phrases or words that participate in a syntactic relationship ( Church , 1988 ; Ramshaw and Marcus , 1995 ; Argamon et al. , 1998 ; Cardie and Pierce , 1998 ; Munoz et al. , 1999 ; Punyakanok and Roth , 2001 ; Buchholz et al. , 1999 ; Tjong Kim Sang and Buchholz , 2000 ) . Research on shallow parsing was inspired by psycholinguistics arguments ( Gee and Grosjean , 1983 ) that suggest that in many scenarios ( e.g. , conversational ) full parsing is not a realistic strategy for sentence processing and analysis , and was further motivated by several arguments from a natural language engineering viewpoint .

Thus , over the past few years , along with advances in the use of learning and statistical methods for acquisition of full parsers ( @@CITATION ; Charniak , 1997a ; Charniak , 1997b ; Ratnaparkhi , 1997 ) , significant progress has been made on the use of statistical learning methods to recognize shallow parsing patterns syntactic phrases or words that participate in a syntactic relationship ( Church , 1988 ; Ramshaw and Marcus , 1995 ; Argamon et al. , 1998 ; Cardie and Pierce , 1998 ; Munoz et al. , 1999 ; Punyakanok and Roth , 2001 ; Buchholz et al. , 1999 ; Tjong Kim Sang and Buchholz , 2000 ) .


minimum error rate training in statistical machine translation

PE-dev was used to obtain w * to define the utility model . This was done by MERT optimization ( Och , 2003 ) towards post-edits under the TER target metric . Note that the goal of our experi -

This was done by MERT optimization ( @@CITATION ) towards post-edits under the TER target metric .


duden—das stilworterbuch duden—the style dictionary

The largest lexical evaluation we know of is that of Schulte im Walde ( 2002b ) for German . She evaluates 3,000 German verbs with a token frequency between 10 and 2,000 against the Duden ( Dudenredaktion 2001 ) . We will refer to this work and the methods and results presented by Schulte im Walde again in Sections 6.2 and 6.3 .

She evaluates 3,000 German verbs with a token frequency between 10 and 2,000 against the Duden ( @@CITATION ) .


the wellbuilt clinical question a key to evidencebased decisions

W Scott Richardson
Mark C Wilson
James Nishikawa
Robert S Hayward

The second facet is independent of the clinical task and pertains to the structure of a well-built clinical question . The following four components have been identified as the key elements of a question related to patient care ( Richardson et al. 1995 ) : â¢ What is the primary problem or disease ?

The following four components have been identified as the key elements of a question related to patient care ( @@CITATION ) :


automatic extraction of subcategorization from corpora

As a generalization , Briscoe ( 2001 ) notes that lexicons such as COMLEX tend to demonstrate high precision but low recall . Briscoe and Carroll ( 1997 ) report on manually analyzing an open-class vocabulary of 35,000 head words for predicate subcategorization information and comparing the results against the subcategorization details in COMLEX . Precision was quite high ( 95 % ) , but recall was low ( 84 % ) .

@@CITATION report on manually analyzing an open-class vocabulary of 35,000 head words for predicate subcategorization information and comparing the results against the subcategorization details in COMLEX .


The highest accuracy is obtained by SL-DOP at 12 n 14 : an LP of 90.8 % and an LR of 90.7 % . This is roughly an 11 % relative reduction in error rate over Charniak ( 2000 ) and Bods PCFG-reduction reported in Table 1 . Compared to the reranking technique in Collins ( 2000 ) , who obtained an LP of 89.9 % and an LR of 89.6 % , our results show a 9 % relative error rate reduction .

This is roughly an 11 % relative reduction in error rate over @@CITATION and Bods PCFG-reduction reported in Table 1 .


Louis-Philippe Morency
Candace Sidner
Christopher Lee
Trevor Darrell

Louwerse et al. ( 2006 ) and Louwerse et al. ( 2007 ) study the relation between eye gaze , facial expression , pauses and dialogue structure in annotated English map-task dialogues ( Anderson et al. , 1991 ) and find correlations between the various modalities both within and across speakers . Finally , feedback expressions ( head nods and shakes ) are successfully predicted from speech , prosody and eye gaze in interaction with Embodied Communication Agents as well as human communication ( Fujie et al. , 2004 ; Morency et al. , 2005 ; Morency et al. , 2007 ; Morency et al. , 2009 ) . Our work is in line with these studies , all of which focus on the relation between linguistic expressions , prosody , dialogue content and gestures .

Finally , feedback expressions ( head nods and shakes ) are successfully predicted from speech , prosody and eye gaze in interaction with Embodied Communication Agents as well as human communication ( Fujie et al. , 2004 ; @@CITATION ; Morency et al. , 2007 ; Morency et al. , 2009 ) .


a corpus for modeling morphosyntactic agreement in arabic gender number and rationality

We now turn to our second type of error analysis , the evaluation of the grammaticality of the parse trees in terms of gender and number agreement patterns . We use the agreement checker code developed by Alkuhlani and Habash ( 2011 ) and evaluate our baseline ( MaltParser using only CORE12 ) , best performing model ( Easy-First Parser using CORE12 + DET+LMM+PERSON+FN * NGR g + p ) , and the gold reference . The agreement checker verifies , for all verb -- nominal subject relations and noun -- adjective relations found in the tree , whether the agreement conditions are met or not .

We use the agreement checker code developed by @@CITATION and evaluate our baseline ( MaltParser using only CORE12 ) , best performing model ( Easy-First Parser using CORE12 + DET+LMM+PERSON+FN * NGR g + p ) , and the gold reference .


linking semantic and knowledge representations in a multidomain dialogue system

Myroslava O Dzikovska
James F Allen
Mary D Swift

The knowledge base is used to check the factual correctness of the answers first , and then a diagnoser checks the explanation correctness . The diagnoser , based on Dzikovska et al. ( 2008b ) , outputs a diagnosis which consists of lists of correct , contradictory and non-mentioned objects and relations from the student 's answer . At present , the system uses a heuristic matching algorithm to classify relations into the appropriate category , though in the future we may consider a classifier similar to Nielsen et al. ( 2008 ) .

The diagnoser , based on @@CITATIONb ) , outputs a diagnosis which consists of lists of correct , contradictory and non-mentioned objects and relations from the student 's answer .


towards a semantics for lexical rules as used in hpsg

One thus needs to distinguish the lexical rule specification provided by the linguist from the fully explicit lexical rule relations integrated into the theory . The formalization of DLRs provided by Meurers ( 1995 ) defines a formal lexical rule specification language and provides a semantics for that language in two steps : A rewrite system enriches the lexical rule specification into a fully explicit description of the kind shown in Figure 1 . This description can then be given the standard set-theoretical interpretation of King ( 1989 , 1994 ) . '

The formalization of DLRs provided by @@CITATION defines a formal lexical rule specification language and provides a semantics for that language in two steps : A rewrite system enriches the lexical rule specification into a fully explicit description of the kind shown in Figure 1 .


an empirical evaluation of knowledge sources and learning algorithms for word sense disambiguation

Similar to our previous work ( Chan and Ng , 2005b ) , we used the supervised WSD approach described in ( Lee and Ng , 2002 ) for our experiments , using the naive Bayes algorithm as our classifier . Knowledge sources used include partsof-speech , surrounding words , and local collocations .

Similar to our previous work ( Chan and Ng , 2005b ) , we used the supervised WSD approach described in ( @@CITATION ) for our experiments , using the naive Bayes algorithm as our classifier .


document summarization via guided sentence compression

Similar to ( Li et al. , 2013a ) , our summarization system is , which consists of three key components : an initial sentence pre-selection module to select some important sentence candidates ; the above compression model to generate n-best compressions for each sentence ; and then an ILP summarization method to select the best summary sentences from the multiple compressed sentences . The sentence pre-selection model is a simple supervised support vector regression ( SVR ) model that predicts a salience score for each sentence and selects the top ranked sentences for further processing ( compression and summarization ) .

Similar to ( @@CITATIONa ) , our summarization system is , which consists of three key components : an initial sentence pre-selection module to select some important sentence candidates ; the above compression model to generate n-best compressions for each sentence ; and then an ILP summarization method to select the best summary sentences from the multiple compressed sentences .


natural language parsing as statistical pattern recognition

Xia ( 1999 ) also presents a similar method for the extraction of a TAG from the Penn Treebank . The extraction procedure consists of three steps : First , the bracketing of the trees in the Penn Treebank is corrected and extended based on the approaches of Magerman ( 1994 ) and Collins ( 1997 ) . Then the elementary trees are read off in a quite straightforward manner .

The extraction procedure consists of three steps : First , the bracketing of the trees in the Penn Treebank is corrected and extended based on the approaches of @@CITATION and Collins ( 1997 ) .


algorithms for deterministic incremental dependency parsing

â¢ Transition-based : An implementation of the transition-based dependency parsing framework ( Nivre , 2008 ) using an arc-eager transition strategy and are trained using the perceptron algorithm as in Zhang and Clark ( 2008 ) with a beam size of 8 . Beams with varying sizes can be used to produce k-best lists .

transition-based dependency parsing framework ( @@CITATION ) using an arc-eager transition strategy and are trained using the perceptron algorithm as in Zhang and Clark ( 2008 ) with a beam size of 8 .


paraphrasing with bilingual parallel corpora

MT system combination ( Matusov , Ueffing , and Ney 2006 ) . But their importance has grown far beyond machine translation : for instance , transferring annotations between languages ( Yarowsky and Ngai 2001 ; Hwa et al. 2005 ; Ganchev , Gillenwater , and Taskar 2009 ) ; discovery of paraphrases ( Bannard and Callison-Burch 2005 ) ; and joint unsupervised POS and parser induction across languages ( Snyder and Barzilay 2008 ) . IBM Models 1 and 2 and the HMM are simple and tractable probabilistic models , which produce the target sentence one target word at a time by choosing a source word and generating its translation .

But their importance has grown far beyond machine translation : for instance , transferring annotations between languages ( Yarowsky and Ngai 2001 ; Hwa et al. 2005 ; Ganchev , Gillenwater , and Taskar 2009 ) ; discovery of paraphrases ( @@CITATION ) ; and joint unsupervised POS and parser induction across languages ( Snyder and Barzilay 2008 ) .


Ricardo Baeza-Yates
Berthier Ribeiro-Neto

â¢ Mean Average Precision ( MAP ) is the average of precision values after each relevant document is retrieved ( Baeza-Yates and Ribeiro-Neto 1999 ) . It is the most widely accepted single-value metric in information retrieval , and is seen to balance the need for both precision and recall .

each relevant document is retrieved ( @@CITATION ) .


categorization of sentence types in medical abstracts

Furthermore , the availability of rich ontological resources , in the form of the Unified Medical Language System ( UMLS ) ( Lindberg et al. , 1993 ) , and the availability of software that leverages this knowledge -- MetaMap ( Aronson , 2001 ) for concept identification and SemRep ( Rindflesch and Fiszman , 2003 ) for relation extraction -- provide a foundation for studying the role of semantics in various tasks . McKnight and Srinivasan ( 2003 ) have previously examined the task of categorizing sentences in medical abstracts using supervised discriminative machine learning techniques . Building on the work of Ruch et al. ( 2003 ) in the same domain , we present a generative approach that attempts to directly model the discourse structure of MEDLINE abstracts using Hidden Markov Models ( HMMs ) ; cfXXX ( Barzilay and Lee , 2004 ) .

@@CITATION have previously examined the task of categorizing sentences in medical abstracts using supervised discriminative machine learning techniques .


implementation of coordinative nodding behavior on spoken dialogue systems

Jun-ichi Hirasawa
Noboru Miyazaki
Mikio Nakano
Takeshi Kawabata

Acoustic models for HTK is trained with the continuous speech database of the Acoustical Society of Japan ( Kobayashi et al. , 1992 ) . This recognizer incrementally outputs word hypotheses as soon as they are found in the best-scored path in the forward search ( Hirasawa et al. , 1998 ) using the ISTAR ( Incremental Structure Transmitter And Receiver ) protocol , which conveys word graph information as well as word hypotheses . This incremental output allows the language understanding module to process recognition results before the speech interval ends , and thus real-time responses are possible .

This recognizer incrementally outputs word hypotheses as soon as they are found in the best-scored path in the forward search ( @@CITATION ) using the ISTAR ( Incremental Structure Transmitter And Receiver ) protocol , which conveys word graph information as well as word hypotheses .


the philips automatic train timetable information system

Harald Aust
Martin Oerder
Frank Seide
Volker Steinbiss

The recent great advances in speech and language technologies have made it possible to build fully implemented spoken dialogue systems ( Aust et al. , 1995 ; Allen et al. , 1996 ; Zue et al. , 2000 ; Walker et al. , 2000 ) . One of the next research goals is to make these systems task-portable , that is , to simplify the process of porting to another task domain .

The recent great advances in speech and language technologies have made it possible to build fully implemented spoken dialogue systems ( @@CITATION ; Allen et al. , 1996 ; Zue et al. , 2000 ; Walker et al. , 2000 ) .


decision graphs—an extension of decision trees

16 In principle , we could have used a classification method to predict clusters from the values of the confidence measures for unseen cases . We posit that this would not have a significant effect on the results , in particular for MML-based classification techniques , such as Decision Graphs ( Oliver 1993 ) . comparative evaluation in Section 4 .

We posit that this would not have a significant effect on the results , in particular for MML-based classification techniques , such as Decision Graphs ( @@CITATION ) .


new ranking algorithms for parsing and tagging kernels over discrete structures and the voted perceptron

Although Bod 's method obtains very competitive results on the Wall Street Journal ( WSJ ) task , the parsing time was reported to be over 200 seconds per sentence ( Bod 2003 ) . Collins & Duffy ( 2002 ) showed how the perceptron algorithm can be used to efficiently compute the best parse with DOP1 's subtrees , reporting a 5.1 % relative reduction in error rate over the model in Collins ( 1999 ) on the WSJ . Goodman ( 2002 ) furthermore showed how Bonnema et al. 's ( 1999 ) and Bod 's ( 2001 ) estimators can be incorporated in his PCFGreduction , but did not report any experiments with these reductions .

@@CITATION showed how the perceptron algorithm can be used to efficiently compute the best parse with DOP1 's subtrees , reporting a 5.1 % relative reduction in error rate over the model in Collins ( 1999 ) on the WSJ .


translating the xtag english grammar to hpsg

Yuka Tateisi
Kentaro Torisawa
Yusuke Miyao
Jun’ichi Tsujii

All modules other than the last one are related to the conversion process from LTAG into HPSG , and the last one enables to obtain LTAG analysis from the obtained HPSG analysis . Tateisi et al. also translated LTAG into HPSG ( Tateisi et al. , 1998 ) . However , their method depended on translator 's intuitive analysis of the original grammar .

Tateisi et al. also translated LTAG into HPSG ( @@CITATION ) .


dr introducing refseq and locuslink curated human genome resources at the ncbi trends genet

The system utilizes several large size biological databases including three NCBI databases ( GenPept [ 11 ] , RefSeq [ 12 ] , and Entrez GENE [ 13 ] ) , PSD database from Protein Information Resources ( PIR ) [ 14 ] , and Proceedings of the ACL Interactive Poster and Demonstration Sessions ,

The system utilizes several large size biological databases including three NCBI databases ( GenPept [ 11 ] , RefSeq @@CITATION , and Entrez GENE [ 13 ] ) , PSD database from Protein Information Resources ( PIR ) [ 14 ] , and


srilm  an extensible language modeling toolkit

Our Moses systems use default settings . The LM uses the monolingual data and is trained as a five-gram9 using the SRILM-Toolkit ( Stolcke , 2002 ) . We run MERT separately for each system .

The LM uses the monolingual data and is trained as a five-gram9 using the SRILM-Toolkit ( @@CITATION ) .


extracting policy positions from political texts using words as data american political science review

Politically-oriented text Sentiment analysis has specifically been proposed as a key enabling technology in eRulemaking , allowing the automatic analysis of the opinions that people submit ( Shulman et al. , 2005 ; Cardie et al. , 2006 ; Kwon et al. , 2006 ) . There has also been work focused upon determining the political leaning ( e.g. , `` liberal '' vs. `` conservative '' ) of a document or author , where most previously-proposed methods make no direct use of relationships between the documents to be classified ( the `` unlabeled '' texts ) ( Laver et al. , 2003 ; Efron , 2004 ; Mullen and Malouf , 2006 ) . An exception is Grefenstette et al. ( 2004 ) , who experimented with determining the political orientation of websites essentially by classifying the concatenation of all the documents found on that site .

There has also been work focused upon determining the political leaning ( e.g. , `` liberal '' vs. `` conservative '' ) of a document or author , where most previously-proposed methods make no direct use of relationships between the documents to be classified ( the `` unlabeled '' texts ) ( @@CITATION ; Efron , 2004 ; Mullen and Malouf , 2006 ) .


the harpy speech understanding system in lea

A number of speech understanding systems have been developed during the past fifteen years ( Barnett et al. 1980 , Dixon and Martin 1979 , Erman et al. 1980 , Haton and Pierrel 1976 , Lea 1980 , Lowerre and Reddy 1980 , Medress 1980 , Reddy 1976 , Walker 1978 , and Wolf and Woods 1980 ) . Most of these efforts concentrated on the interaction between low level information sources from a speech recognizer and a natural language processor to discover the meaning of an input sentence .

A number of speech understanding systems have been developed during the past fifteen years ( Barnett et al. 1980 , Dixon and Martin 1979 , Erman et al. 1980 , Haton and Pierrel 1976 , Lea 1980 , @@CITATION , Medress 1980 , Reddy 1976 , Walker 1978 , and Wolf and Woods 1980 ) .


First of all , iteration would increase the complexity of building a model of a paragraph ; infinite iteration would almost certainly make impossible such a construction in real time . Secondly , the cooperative principle of Grice ( 1975 , 1978 ) , under the assumption that referential levels of a writer and a reader are quite similar , implies that the writer should structure the text in a way that makes the construction of his intended model easy for the reader ; and this seems to imply that he should appeal only to the most direct knowledge of the reader . Finally , it has been shown by Groesser ( 1981 ) that the ratio of derived to explicit information necessary for understanding a piece of text is about 8:1 ; furthermore , our reading of the analysis of five paragraphs by Crothers ( 1979 ) strongly suggests that only the most direct or obvious inferences are being made in the process of building a model or constructing a theory of a paragraph .

Secondly , the cooperative principle of @@CITATION , 1978 ) , under the assumption that referential levels of a writer and a reader are quite similar , implies that the writer should structure the text in a way that makes the construction of his intended model easy for the reader ; and this seems to imply that he should appeal only to the most direct knowledge of the reader .


In modern syntactic theories ( e.g. , lexical-functional grammar [ LFG ] [ Kaplan and Bresnan 1982 ; Bresnan 2001 ; Dalrymple 2001 ] , head-driven phrase structure grammar [ HPSG ] [ Pollard and Sag 1994 ] , tree-adjoining grammar [ TAG ] [ Joshi 1988 ] , and combinatory categorial grammar [ CCG ] [ Ades and Steedman 1982 ] ) , the lexicon is the central repository for much morphological , syntactic , and semantic information . * National Centre for Language Technology , School of Computing , Dublin City University , Glasnevin , Dublin 9 , Ireland .

In modern syntactic theories ( e.g. , lexical-functional grammar [ LFG ] [ Kaplan and Bresnan 1982 ; Bresnan 2001 ; Dalrymple 2001 ] , head-driven phrase structure grammar [ HPSG ] [ Pollard and Sag 1994 ] , tree-adjoining grammar [ TAG ] [ @@CITATION ] , and combinatory categorial grammar [ CCG ] [ Ades and Steedman 1982 ] ) , the lexicon is the central repository for much morphological , syntactic , and semantic information .


svmknn discriminative nearest neighbor classification for visual category recognition

Hao Zhang
Alexander C Berg
Michael Maire
Jitendra Malik

However , we can achieve this with two weights : ( 1 , 1 ) for f1 and ( â 1 , 1 ) for f2 . In this paper , inspired by KNN-SVM ( Zhang et al. , 2006 ) , we propose a local training method , which trains sentence-wise weights instead of a single weight , to address the above two problems . Compared with global training methods , such as MERT , in which training and testing are separated , our method works in an online fashion , in which training is performed during testing .

In this paper , inspired by KNN-SVM ( @@CITATION ) , we propose a local training method , which trains sentence-wise weights instead of a single weight , to address the above two problems .


wordsketch extraction and display of significant collocations for lexicography

Most of these endeavours have focused on purely statistical acquisition techniques ( Church and Hanks , ` However , our interpretation of LFs in this work is much looser , since we admitted verbs that would not be considered to be members of true collocations as Mel ` cuk et al. ( 1984 1999 ) define them , i.e. groups of lexical units that share a restricted cooccurrence relationship . 1990 ) , on linguisitic acquisition ( by the use of Part-of-Speech filters hand-crafted by a linguist ) ( Oueslati , 1999 ) or , more frequently , on a combination of the two ( Smadja , 1993 ; Kilgarriff and Tugwell , 2001 , for example ) . It is worth noting that although these techniques are able to identify N-V pairs , they do not specify the relationship between N and V , nor are they capable of focusing on a subset of N-V pairs .

1990 ) , on linguisitic acquisition ( by the use of Part-of-Speech filters hand-crafted by a linguist ) ( Oueslati , 1999 ) or , more frequently , on a combination of the two ( Smadja , 1993 ; @@CITATION , for example ) .


comparing a linguistic and a stochastic tagger

In some cases rankings may work well enough . Samuelsson and Voutilainen ( 1997 ) report excellent part-of-speech tagging results using a handcrafted approach that is close to OT .3 More speculatively , imagine an OT grammar for stylistic revision of parsed sentences . The tension between preserving the original author 's text ( faithfulness to the underlying form ) and making it readable in various ways ( well-formedness ) is right up OT 's alley .

@@CITATION report excellent part-of-speech tagging results using a handcrafted approach that is close to OT .3 More speculatively , imagine an OT grammar for stylistic revision of parsed sentences .


an open source grammar development environment and broadcoverage english grammar using hpsg

`` Semantic grammars '' already exist which describe not only the syntax but also the semantics of natural language . Thus for instance , ( Copestake and Flickinger , 2000 ; Copestake et al. , 2001 ) describes a Head Driven Phrase Structure Grammar ( HPSG ) which supports the parallel construction of a phrase structure ( or derived ) tree and of a semantic representation and ( Dalrymple , 1999 ) show how to equip Lexical Functional grammar ( LFG ) with a glue semantics . These grammars are both efficient and large scale in that they cover an important fragment of the natural language they describe and can be processed by parsers and generators in almost real time .

Thus for instance , ( @@CITATION ; Copestake et al. , 2001 ) describes a Head Driven Phrase Structure Grammar ( HPSG ) which supports the parallel construction of a phrase structure ( or derived ) tree and of a semantic representation and ( Dalrymple , 1999 ) show how to equip Lexical Functional grammar ( LFG ) with a glue semantics .


lexical functional grammar volume 34 of syntax and semantics

The subject is instead specified externally in the matrix phrase : The judge wants [ XCOMP to open an inquiry ] . While many linguistic theories state subcategorization requirements in terms of phrase structure ( CFG categories ) , Dalrymple ( 2001 ) questions the viability and universality of such an approach because of the variety of ways in which grammatical functions may be realized at the language-specific constituent structure level . LFG argues that subcategorization requirements are best stated at the f-structure level , in functional rather than phrasal terms .

While many linguistic theories state subcategorization requirements in terms of phrase structure ( CFG categories ) , @@CITATION questions the viability and universality of such an approach because of the variety of ways in which grammatical functions may be realized at the language-specific constituent structure level .


At this point it may be proper to comment on the relationship between our theory of coherence and theories advocated by others . We are going to make such a comparison with the theories proposed by J. Hobbs ( 1979 , 1982 ) that represent a more computationally oriented approach to coherence , and those of T.A. van Dijk and W. Kintch ( 1983 ) , who are more interested in addressing psychological and cognitive aspects of discourse coherence . The quoted works seem to be good representatives for each of the directions ; they also point to related literature .

We are going to make such a comparison with the theories proposed by J. @@CITATION , 1982 ) that represent a more computationally oriented approach to coherence , and those of T.A. van Dijk and W. Kintch ( 1983 ) , who are more interested in addressing psychological and cognitive aspects of discourse coherence .


a wordclass approach to labeling pscfg rules for machine translation

We only use one sample to extract the translation grammar because multiple samples would result in a grammar that would be too large . 11 From ( Zollmann and Vogel , 2011 ) , we find that the performance of SAMT system is similar with the method of labeling SCFG rules with POS tags . Thus , to be convenient , we only conduct experiments with the SAMT system .

11 From ( @@CITATION ) , we find that the performance of SAMT system is similar with the method of labeling SCFG rules with POS tags .


processing dictionary definitions with phrasal pattern hierarchies in this issue

( Michiels ( 1982 ) contains further description and discussion of LDOCE . ) In this paper we focus on the exploitation of the LDOCE grammar coding system ; Alshawi et al. ( 1985 ) and Alshawi ( 1987 ) describe further research in Cambridge utilising different types of information available in LDOCE . The information available in the dictionary is both very rich and diverse , but also typically only semiformalised , as it is intended for human , rather than machine , interpetation .

In this paper we focus on the exploitation of the LDOCE grammar coding system ; Alshawi et al. ( 1985 ) and @@CITATION describe further research in Cambridge utilising different types of information available in LDOCE .


computing semantic relatedness across parts of speech

Thus , they were not supervised during the experiment . Gurevych ( 2006 ) observed that some annotators were not familiar with the exact definition of semantic relatedness . Their results differed particularly in cases of antonymy or distributionally related pairs .

@@CITATION observed that some annotators were not familiar with the exact definition of semantic relatedness .


tree edit distance for textual entailment

2 Lexical resources for TE and CLTE All current approaches to monolingual TE , either syntactically oriented ( Rus et al. , 2005 ) , or applying logical inference ( Tatu and Moldovan , 2005 ) , or adopting transformation-based techniques ( Kouleykov and Magnini , 2005 ; Bar-Haim et al. , 2008 ) , incorporate different types of lexical knowledge to support textual inference . Such information ranges from i ) lexical paraphrases ( textual equivalences between terms ) to ii ) lexical relations preserving entailment between words , and iii ) wordlevel similarity/relatedness scores .

All current approaches to monolingual TE , either syntactically oriented ( Rus et al. , 2005 ) , or applying logical inference ( Tatu and Moldovan , 2005 ) , or adopting transformation-based techniques ( @@CITATION ; Bar-Haim et al. , 2008 ) , incorporate different types of lexical knowledge to support textual inference .


Cimino and Mendonc Â¸ a reported good performance for etiology , diagnosis , and in particular therapy , but not prognosis . Although originally developed as a tool to assist in query formulation , Booth ( 2000 ) pointed out that PICO frames can be employed to structure IR results for improving precision . PICO-based querying in information retrieval is merely an instance of faceted querying , which has been widely used by librarians since the introduction of automated retrieval systems ( e.g. , Meadow et al. 1989 ) .

Although originally developed as a tool to assist in query formulation , @@CITATION pointed out that PICO frames can be employed to structure IR results for improving precision .


There has been some controversy , at least for simple stemmers ( Lovins , 1968 ; Porter , 1980 ) , about the effectiveness of morphological analysis for document retrieval ( Harman , 1991 ; Krovetz , 1993 ; Hull , 1996 ) . The key for quality improvement seems to be rooted mainly in the presence or absence of some form of dictionary .

There has been some controversy , at least for simple stemmers ( Lovins , 1968 ; Porter , 1980 ) , about the effectiveness of morphological analysis for document retrieval ( @@CITATION ; Krovetz , 1993 ; Hull , 1996 ) .


towards historybased grammars using richer models for probabilistic parsing

E Black
F Jelinek
J Lafferty
D Magerman
R Mercer
S Roukos

The probability of the input sentence is a constant across all the candidate derivations , so we only need to find the most probable derivation . in history-based models ( Black et al. , 1993 ) , the probability estimate for each derivation decision di is conditioned on the previous derivation decisions d1 , ... , d , _ 1 , which is called the derivation history at step i . This allows us to use the chain rule for conditional probabilities to derive the probability of the entire derivation as the multiplication of the probabilities for each of its decisions .

in history-based models ( @@CITATION ) , the probability estimate for each derivation decision di is conditioned on the previous derivation decisions d1 , ... , d , _ 1 , which is called the derivation history at step i .


offline constraint propagation for efficient hpsg processing

This technique closely resembles the off-line constraint propagation technique described by Marriott , Naish , and Lassez ( 1988 ) . The reader is referred to Meurers and Minnen ( 1996 ) for a more detailed discussion of our use of constraint propagation .32 We illustrate the result of constraint propagation with our example grammar . Since the running example of this paper was kept small , for expository reasons , by only including features that do get changed by one of the lexical rules ( which violates the empirical observation mentioned above ) , the full set of lexical rules would not provide a good example .

The reader is referred to @@CITATION for a more detailed discussion of our use of constraint propagation .32 We illustrate the result of constraint propagation with our example grammar .


The availability of toolkits for this weighted case ( Mohri et al. , 1998 ; van Noord and Gerdemann , 2001 ) promises to unify much of statistical NLP . Such tools make it easy to run most current approaches to statistical markup , chunking , normalization , segmentation , alignment , and noisy-channel decoding , ' including classic models for speech recognition ( Pereira and Riley , 1997 ) and machine translation ( Knight and Al-Onaizan , 1998 ) . Moreover , once the models are expressed in the finitestate framework , it is easy to use operators to tweak them , to apply them to speech lattices or other sets , and to combine them with linguistic resources .

Such tools make it easy to run most current approaches to statistical markup , chunking , normalization , segmentation , alignment , and noisy-channel decoding , ' including classic models for speech recognition ( Pereira and Riley , 1997 ) and machine translation ( @@CITATION ) .


knowledge harvesting articulation and delivery the hewlettpackard journal

The automation of help-desk responses has been previously tackled using mainly knowledge-intensive paradigms , such as expert systems ( Barr and Tessler 1995 ) and case-based reasoning ( Watson 1997 ) . Such technologies require significant human input , and are difficult to create and maintain ( Delic and Lahaix 1998 ) . In contrast , the techniques examined in this article are corpus-based and data-driven .

Such technologies require significant human input , and are difficult to create and maintain ( @@CITATION ) .


weaklysupervised bayesian learning of a ccg supertagger

Dan Garrette
Chris Dyer
Jason Baldridge
Noah A Smith

To formalize the notion of what it means for a category to be more `` plausible '' , we extend the category generator of our previous work , which we will call PCAT . We can define PCAT using a probabilistic grammar ( Garrette et al. , 2014 ) . The grammar may first generate a start or end category ( ( S ) , ( E ) ) with probability pse or a special tokendeletion category ( ( D ) ; explained in Â§ 5 ) with probability pdel , or a standard CCG category C :

We can define PCAT using a probabilistic grammar ( @@CITATION ) .


derivational and inflectional process , most prepositions , conjunctions , pronouns , and possessive forms are attached to the Arabic surface word . It is these orthographic variations and complex morphological structure that make Arabic language processing challenging ( Xu et al. , 2001 ; Xu et al. , 2002 ) . Both tasks are performed with a statistical framework : the mention detection system is similar to the one presented in ( Florian et al. , 2004 ) and the coreference resolution system is similar to the one described in ( Luo et al. , 2004 ) .

It is these orthographic variations and complex morphological structure that make Arabic language processing challenging ( @@CITATION ; Xu et al. , 2002 ) .


introduction to the conll2000 shared task chunking

Both can be formally defined and they reflect different levels of shallow parsing patterns . The first is the one used in the chunking competition in CoNLL-2000 ( Tjong Kim Sang and Buchholz , 2000 ) . In this case , a full parse tree is represented in a flat form , producing a representation as in the example above .

The first is the one used in the chunking competition in CoNLL-2000 ( Tjong Kim @@CITATION ) .


hybrid japanese parser with handcrafted grammar and statistics

Hiroshi Kanayama
Kentaro Torisawa
Yutaka Mitsuisi
Jun’ichi Tsujii

Strongly equivalent grammars enable the sharing of ideas developed in each formalism . There have been many studies on parsing techniques ( Poller and Becker , 1998 ; Flickinger et al. , 2000 ) , ones on disambiguation models ( Chiang , 2000 ; Kanayama et al. , 2000 ) , and ones on programming/grammar-development environ - 1In this paper , we use the term LTAG to refer to FBLTAG , if not confusing .

There have been many studies on parsing techniques ( Poller and Becker , 1998 ; Flickinger et al. , 2000 ) , ones on disambiguation models ( Chiang , 2000 ; @@CITATION ) , and ones on programming/grammar-development environ -


semiautomatic indexing of full text biomedical articles

Clifford W Gay
Mehmet Kayaalp
Alan R Aronson

Although there is a trend towards analysis of full article texts , we believe that abstracts still provide a tremendous amount of information , and much value can still be extracted from them . For example , Gay et al. ( 2005 ) experimented with abstracts and full article texts in the task of automatically generating index term recommendations and discovered that using full article texts yields at most a 7.4 % improvement in F-score . Demner-Fushman et al. ( 2005 ) found a correlation between the quality and strength of clinical conclusions in the full article texts and abstracts .

For example , @@CITATION experimented with abstracts and full article texts in the task of automatically generating index term recommendations and discovered that using full article texts yields at most a 7.4 % improvement in F-score .


two methods for extracting quotspecificquot singleword terms from specialized corpora

Chantal Lemay
Marie-Claude L'Homme
Patrick Drouin

The terms have been identified as the most specific to our corpus by a program developed by Drouin ( 2003 ) and called TER1vloSTAT . The ten most specific nouns have been produced by comparing our corpus of computing to the French corpus Le Monde , composed of newspaper articles ( Lemay et al. , 2004 ) . Note that to prevent any bias in the results , none of these terms were used as positive examples during the pattern inference step .

The ten most specific nouns have been produced by comparing our corpus of computing to the French corpus Le Monde , composed of newspaper articles ( @@CITATION ) .


facilitating the compilation and dissemination of adhoc web corpora

From a computational linguistic view , the framework will also need to take into account the granularity of the unit ( for example , POS tagging requires sentence-units , but anaphoric annotation needs paragraphs or larger ) . Secondly , we need to investigate techniques for identifying identical documents , virtually identical documents and highly repetitive documents , such as those pioneered by Fletcher ( 2004b ) and shingling techniques described by Chakrabarti ( 2002 ) . The second stage of our work will involve implementing the framework within a P2P environment .

Secondly , we need to investigate techniques for identifying identical documents , virtually identical documents and highly repetitive documents , such as those pioneered by @@CITATIONb ) and shingling techniques described by Chakrabarti ( 2002 ) .


productive generation of compound words in statistical machine translation

merge and ii ) how to merge . Following the work of Stymne and Cancedda ( 2011 ) , we implement a linear-chain CRF merging system using the following features : stemmed ( separated ) surface form , part-of-speech14 and frequencies from the training corpus for bigrams/merging of word and word +1 , word as true prefix , word +1 as true suffix , plus frequency comparisons of these . The CRF is trained on the split monolingual data .

Following the work of @@CITATION , we implement a linear-chain CRF merging system using the following features : stemmed ( separated ) surface form , part-of-speech14 and frequencies from the training corpus for bigrams/merging of word and word +1 , word as true prefix , word +1 as true suffix , plus frequency comparisons of these .


automatic acquisition of a large subcategorisation dictionary from corpora

Ushioda et al. ( 1993 ) employ an additional statistical method based on log-linear models and Bayes ' theorem to filter the extra noise introduced by the parser and were the first to induce relative frequencies for the extracted frames . Manning ( 1993 ) attempts to improve on the approach of Brent ( 1993 ) by passing raw text through a stochastic tagger and a finite-state parser ( which includes a set of simple rules for subcategorization frame recognition ) in order to extract verbs and the constituents with which they co-occur . He assumes 19 different subcategorization

@@CITATION attempts to improve on the approach of Brent ( 1993 ) by passing raw text through a stochastic tagger and a finite-state parser ( which includes a set of simple rules for subcategorization frame recognition ) in order to extract verbs and the constituents with which they co-occur .


morphosemantic parsing of medical expressions

R Baud
C Lovis
A-M Rassinoux
J-R Scherrer

This is particularly true for the medical domain . From an IR view , a lot of specialized research has already been carried out for medical applications , with emphasis on the lexico-semantic aspects of dederivation and decomposition ( Pacak et al. , 1980 ; Norton and Pacak , 1983 ; Wolff , 1984 ; Wingert , 1985 ; Dujols et al. , 1991 ; Baud et al. , 1998 ) . While one may argue that single-word compounds are quite rare in English ( which is not the case in the medical domain either ) , this is certainly not true for German and other basically agglutinative languages known for excessive single-word nominal compounding .

From an IR view , a lot of specialized research has already been carried out for medical applications , with emphasis on the lexico-semantic aspects of dederivation and decomposition ( Pacak et al. , 1980 ; Norton and Pacak , 1983 ; Wolff , 1984 ; Wingert , 1985 ; Dujols et al. , 1991 ; @@CITATION ) .


cooccurrence and transformation in linguistic structure

Shallow parsing is studied as an alternative to full-sentence parsing . Rather than producing a complete analysis of sentences , the alternative is to perform only partial analysis of the syntactic structures in a text ( Harris , 1957 ; Abney , 1991 ; Greffenstette , 1993 ) . A lot of recent work on shallow parsing has been influenced by Abney 's work ( Abney , 1991 ) , who has suggested to `` chunk '' sentences to base level phrases .

Rather than producing a complete analysis of sentences , the alternative is to perform only partial analysis of the syntactic structures in a text ( @@CITATION ; Abney , 1991 ; Greffenstette , 1993 ) .


statistical parsing with a contextfree grammar and word statistics

While earlier work in this direction concentrated on manual construction of rules , most of the recent work has been motivated by the observation that shallow syntactic information can be extracted using local information by examining the pattern itself , its nearby context and the local part-of-speech information . Thus , over the past few years , along with advances in the use of learning and statistical methods for acquisition of full parsers ( Collins , 1997 ; Charniak , 1997a ; Charniak , 1997b ; Ratnaparkhi , 1997 ) , significant progress has been made on the use of statistical learning methods to recognize shallow parsing patterns syntactic phrases or words that participate in a syntactic relationship ( Church , 1988 ; Ramshaw and Marcus , 1995 ; Argamon et al. , 1998 ; Cardie and Pierce , 1998 ; Munoz et al. , 1999 ; Punyakanok and Roth , 2001 ; Buchholz et al. , 1999 ; Tjong Kim Sang and Buchholz , 2000 ) . Research on shallow parsing was inspired by psycholinguistics arguments ( Gee and Grosjean , 1983 ) that suggest that in many scenarios ( e.g. , conversational ) full parsing is not a realistic strategy for sentence processing and analysis , and was further motivated by several arguments from a natural language engineering viewpoint .

Thus , over the past few years , along with advances in the use of learning and statistical methods for acquisition of full parsers ( Collins , 1997 ; @@CITATIONa ; Charniak , 1997b ; Ratnaparkhi , 1997 ) , significant progress has been made on the use of statistical learning methods to recognize shallow parsing patterns syntactic phrases or words that participate in a syntactic relationship ( Church , 1988 ; Ramshaw and Marcus , 1995 ; Argamon et al. , 1998 ; Cardie and Pierce , 1998 ; Munoz et al. , 1999 ; Punyakanok and Roth , 2001 ; Buchholz et al. , 1999 ; Tjong Kim Sang and Buchholz , 2000 ) .


speed and accuracy in shallow and deep stochastic parsing

Ron Kaplan
Stefan Riezler
Tracy Holloway King
John T Maxwell
Alexander Vasserman
Richard Crouch

Because a tree-based gold standard for parser evaluation must adopt a particular style of linguistic analysis ( reflected in the geometry and nomenclature of the nodes in the trees ) , evaluation of statistical parsers and grammars that are derived from particular treebank resources ( as well as hand-crafted grammars/parsers ) can suffer unduly if the gold standard deviates systematically from the ( possibly ) equally valid style of linguistic analysis provided by the parser . Problems such as these have motivated research on more abstract , dependencybased parser evaluation ( e.g. , Lin 1995 ; Carroll , Briscoe , and Sanfilippo 1998 ; Carroll et al. 2002 ; Clark and Hockenmaier 2002 ; King et al. 2003 ; Preiss 2003 ; Kaplan et al. 2004 ; Miyao and Tsujii 2004 ) . Dependency-based linguistic representations are approximations of abstract predicate-argument-adjunct ( or more basic head-dependent )

Problems such as these have motivated research on more abstract , dependencybased parser evaluation ( e.g. , Lin 1995 ; Carroll , Briscoe , and Sanfilippo 1998 ; Carroll et al. 2002 ; Clark and Hockenmaier 2002 ; King et al. 2003 ; Preiss 2003 ; @@CITATION ; Miyao and Tsujii 2004 ) .


Philipp Koehn
Franz Josef Och
Daniel Marcu

Phrase tables ( PHT ) contain pairs of corresponding phrases in two languages , together with association probabilities . They are widely used in MT as a way to figure out how to translate input in one language into output in another language ( Koehn et al. , 2003 ) . There are several methods to build phrase tables .

They are widely used in MT as a way to figure out how to translate input in one language into output in another language ( @@CITATION ) .


where V is a random variable that can take any possible outcome in set V , and p ( v ) = Pr ( V = v ) is the density function . Further details about the properties of entropy can be found in textbooks on information theory ( e.g. , Cover and Thomas 1991 ) . Determining the parse tree for a sentence from a set of possible parses can be viewed as assigning a value to a random variable .

Further details about the properties of entropy can be found in textbooks on information theory ( e.g. , @@CITATION ) .


computational interpretations of the gricean maximes in the generation of referring expressions

We are not aware of any empirical validation of this idea , but the fact that vague descriptions are frequent is fairly well documented . Dale and Reiter ( 1995 ) , for example , discussed the transcripts of a dialogue between people who assemble a piece of garden furniture ( originally recorded by Candy Sidner ) . They found that , while instructional texts tended to use numerical descriptions like the 31 4 '' bolt , human assemblers `` unless they were reading or discussing the written instructions , in all cases used relative modifiers , such as the long bolt '' ( Dale and Reiter 1995 ) .6 Our own experiments ( van Deemter 2004 ) point in the same direction .

@@CITATION , for example , discussed the transcripts of a dialogue between people who assemble a piece of garden furniture ( originally recorded by Candy Sidner ) .


nonlinear programming 2nd edition athena scientific

Here 11 is an optimization precision , oc is a step size chosen with the strong Wolfe 's rule ( Nocedal and Wright 1999 ) . Here , PV ( A ) represents an ascent direction chosen as follows : For inequality constraints , it is the projected gradient ( Bertsekas 1999 ) ; for equality constraints with slack , we use conjugate gradient ( Nocedal and Wright 1999 ) , noting that when A = 0 , the objective is not differentiable . In practice this only happens at the start of optimization and we use a sub-gradient for the first direction .

Here , PV ( A ) represents an ascent direction chosen as follows : For inequality constraints , it is the projected gradient ( @@CITATION ) ; for equality constraints with slack , we use conjugate gradient ( Nocedal and Wright 1999 ) , noting that when A = 0 , the objective is not differentiable .


minimum error rate training in statistical machine translation

h is a feature vector which is scaled by a weight W. Parameter estimation is one of the most important components in SMT , and various training methods have been proposed to tune W . Some methods are based on likelihood ( Och and Ney , 2002 ; Blunsom et al. , 2008 ) , error rate ( Och , 2003 ; Zhao and Chen , 2009 ; Pauls et al. , 2009 ; Galley and Quirk , 2011 ) , margin ( Watanabe et al. , 2007 ; Chiang et al. , 2008 ) and ranking ( Hopkins and May , 2011 ) , and among which minimum error rate training ( MERT ) ( Och , 2003 ) is the most popular one . All these training methods follow the same pipeline : they train only a single weight on a given development set , and then use it to translate all the sentences in a test set .

Some methods are based on likelihood ( Och and Ney , 2002 ; Blunsom et al. , 2008 ) , error rate ( @@CITATION ; Zhao and Chen , 2009 ; Pauls et al. , 2009 ; Galley and Quirk , 2011 ) , margin ( Watanabe et al. , 2007 ; Chiang et al. , 2008 ) and ranking ( Hopkins and May , 2011 ) , and among which minimum error rate training ( MERT ) ( Och , 2003 ) is the most popular one .


pattern matching for case analysis a computational definition of closeness

Sylvain Delisle
Terry Copeck
Stan Szpakowicz
Ken Barker

To process a pair P not encountered previously , the system builds a graph centered on the main element ( often the head ) of P . This idea was inspired by Delisle et al. ( 1993 ) , who used a list of arguments surrounding the main verb together with the verb 's subcategorization information and previously processed examples to analyse semantic roles ( case relations ) . In recent approaches , syntactic information is translated into features which , together with information from FrameNet , WordNet or VerbNet , will be used with ML tools to make predictions for each example in the test set ( Carreras and Marquez , 2004 ; Carreras and Marquez , 2005 ) .

This idea was inspired by @@CITATION , who used a list of arguments surrounding the main verb together with the verb 's subcategorization information and previously processed examples to analyse semantic roles ( case relations ) .


domain circumscription a reevaluationquot

Since techniques developed elsewhere may prove useful , at least for comparison , it is worth mentioning at this point that the proposed metarules are distant cousins of `` unique-name assumption '' ( Genesereth and Nilsson 1987 ) , `` domain closure assumption '' ( ibid . ) , `` domain circumscription '' ( cfXXX Etherington and Mercer 1987 ) , and their kin . Similarly , the notion of R + M-abduction is spiritually related to the `` abductive inference '' of Reggia ( 1985 ) , the `` diagnosis from first principles '' of Reiter ( 1987 ) , `` explainability '' of Poole ( 1988 ) , and the subset principle of Berwick ( 1986 ) .

, `` domain circumscription '' ( cfXXX @@CITATION ) , and their kin .


the nonutility of predicateargument frequencies for pronoun interpretation

In knowledge-lean approaches , coreference resolvers employ only morpho-syntactic cues as knowledge sources in the resolution process ( e.g. , Mitkov ( 1998 ) , Tetreault ( 2001 ) ) . While these approaches have been reasonably successful ( see Mitkov ( 2002 ) ) , Kehler et al. ( 2004 ) speculate that deeper linguistic knowledge needs to be made available to resolvers in order to reach the next level of performance . In fact , semantics plays a crucially important role in the resolution of common NPs , allowing us to identify the coreference relation between two lexically dissimilar common nouns ( e.g. , talks and negotiations ) and to eliminate George W. Bush from the list of candidate antecedents of the city , for instance .

While these approaches have been reasonably successful ( see Mitkov ( 2002 ) ) , @@CITATION speculate that deeper linguistic knowledge needs to be made available to resolvers in order to reach the next level of performance .


efficient ltag parsing using hpsg parsers

Naoki Yoshinaga
Yusuke Miyao
Kentaro Torisawa
Jun’ichi Tsujii

We apply our system to the latest version of the XTAG English grammar ( The XTAG Research Group , 2001 ) , which is a large-scale FB-LTAG grammar . A parsing experiment shows that an efficient HPSG parser with the obtained grammar achieved a significant speed-up against an existing LTAG parser ( Yoshinaga et al. , 2001 ) . This result implies that parsing techniques for HPSG are also beneficial for LTAG parsing .

A parsing experiment shows that an efficient HPSG parser with the obtained grammar achieved a significant speed-up against an existing LTAG parser ( @@CITATION ) .


discriminative reranking for natural language parsing

In total , we used 3,291 features in training the SPR . Features were discovered from the actual sentence plan trees that the SPG generated through the feature derivation process described below , in a manner similar to that used by Collins ( 2000 ) . The motivation for the features was to capture declaratively decisions made by the randomized SPG .

Features were discovered from the actual sentence plan trees that the SPG generated through the feature derivation process described below , in a manner similar to that used by @@CITATION .


morphology and meaning in the english mental lexicon

W D Marslen-Wilson
L K Tyler
R Waksler
L Older

For example , whether a word such as `` unimaginable '' is stored in the mental lexicon as a whole word or do we break it up `` un - '' , `` imagine '' and `` able '' , understand the meaning of each of these constituent and then recombine the units to comprehend the whole word . Such questions are typically answered by designing appropriate priming experiments ( Marslen-Wilson et al. , 1994 ) or other lexical decision tasks . The reaction time of the subjects for recognizing various lexical items under appropriate conditions reveals important facts about their organization in the brain .

Such questions are typically answered by designing appropriate priming experiments ( @@CITATION ) or other lexical decision tasks .


My theory of verbal argument structure can be implemented in a unified morpho-syntactic parsing model that interleaves syntactic and semantic parsing . The system is in the form of an agenda-driven chart-based parser whose foundation is similar to previous formalizations of Chomsky 's Minimalist Program ( Stabler , 1997 ; Harkema , 2000 ; Niyogi , 2001 ) . Lexical entries in the system are minimally specified , each consisting of a phonetic form , a list of relevant features , and semantics in the form of a A expression .

The system is in the form of an agenda-driven chart-based parser whose foundation is similar to previous formalizations of Chomsky 's Minimalist Program ( @@CITATION ; Harkema , 2000 ; Niyogi , 2001 ) .


On the other hand , both believe and promise are assigned V3 which means they take a NP object and infinitival complement , yet there is a similar semantic distinction to be made between the two verbs ; so the criteria for the assignment of the V code seem to be purely syntactic . Michiels ( 1982 ) and Akkerman et al. ( 1985 ) provide a more detailed analysis of the information encoded by the LDOCE grammar codes and discuss their efficacy as a system of linguistic description . Ingria ( 1984 ) comprehensively compares different approaches to complementation within grammatical theory providing a touchstone against which the LDOCE scheme can be evaluated .

@@CITATION and Akkerman et al. ( 1985 ) provide a more detailed analysis of the information encoded by the LDOCE grammar codes and discuss their efficacy as a system of linguistic description .


a parser for generalised phrase structure grammars

Real-time parsing imposes stringent requirements on a dictionary support environment ; at the very least it must allow frequent and rapid access to the information in the dictionary via the dictionary head words . The research described below is taking place in the context of three collaborative projects ( Boguraev , 1987 ; Russell et al. , 1986 ; Phillips and Thompson , 1986 ) to develop a general-purpose , wide coverage morphological and syntactic analyser for English . One motivation for our interest in machine readable dictionaries is to attempt to provide a substantial lexicon with lexical entries containing grammatical information compatible with the grammatical framework employed by the analyser .

The research described below is taking place in the context of three collaborative projects ( Boguraev , 1987 ; Russell et al. , 1986 ; @@CITATION ) to develop a general-purpose , wide coverage morphological and syntactic analyser for English .


improving machine learning approaches to coreference resolution

In this paper we focus on the Entity Detection and Recognition task ( EDR ) for Arabic as described in ACE 2004 framework ( ACE , 2004 ) . The EDR has close ties to the named entity recognition ( NER ) and coreference resolution tasks , which have been the focus of several recent investigations ( Bikel et al. , 1997 ; Miller et al. , 1998 ; Borthwick , 1999 ; Mikheev et al. , 1999 ; Soon et al. , 2001 ; Ng and Cardie , 2002 ; Florian et al. , 2004 ) , and have been at the center of evaluations such as : MUC-6 , MUC-7 , and the CoNLL '02 and CoNLL '03 shared tasks . Usually , in computational linguistics literature , a named entity is an instance of a location , a person , or an organization , and the NER task consists of identifying each of these occurrences .

The EDR has close ties to the named entity recognition ( NER ) and coreference resolution tasks , which have been the focus of several recent investigations ( Bikel et al. , 1997 ; Miller et al. , 1998 ; Borthwick , 1999 ; Mikheev et al. , 1999 ; Soon et al. , 2001 ; @@CITATION ; Florian et al. , 2004 ) , and have been at the center of evaluations such as : MUC-6 , MUC-7 , and the CoNLL '02 and CoNLL '03 shared tasks .


the adjective to be semantically equivalent to the superlative form ( and , analogously , the comparative ) : The n large mice = The largest n mice The large mice = The largest mice The large mouse = The largest mouse . Viewed in this way , gradable adjectives are an extreme example of the `` efficiency of language '' ( Barwise and Perry 1983 ) : Far from meaning something concrete like `` larger than 8 cm '' -- a concept that would have very limited applicability -- or even something more general like `` larger than the average N , '' a word like large is applicable across a wide range of different situations .

Viewed in this way , gradable adjectives are an extreme example of the `` efficiency of language '' ( @@CITATION ) : Far from meaning something concrete like `` larger than 8 cm '' -- a concept that would have very limited applicability -- or even something more general like `` larger than the average N , '' a word like large is applicable across a wide range of different situations .


three generative lexicalised models for statistical parsing

Overall , the driving force behind the work on learning shallow parsers was the desire to get better performance and higher reliability . However , since work in this direction has started , a significant progress has also been made in the research on statistical learning of full parsers , both in terms of accuracy and processing time ( Charniak , 1997b ; Charniak , 1997a ; Collins , 1997 ; Ratnaparkhi , 1997 ) . This paper investigates the question of whether work on shallow parsing is worthwhile .

However , since work in this direction has started , a significant progress has also been made in the research on statistical learning of full parsers , both in terms of accuracy and processing time ( Charniak , 1997b ; Charniak , 1997a ; @@CITATION ; Ratnaparkhi , 1997 ) .


Linguistic distance plays an important role in many applications like information retrieval , word sense disambiguation , text summarization or spelling correction . It is defined on different kinds of textual units , e.g. documents , parts of a document ( e.g. words and their surrounding context ) , words or concepts ( Lebart and Rajman , 2000 ) .2 Linguistic distance between words is inverse to their semantic similarity or relatedness . Semantic similarity is typically defined via the lexical relations of synonymy ( automobile -- car ) and hypernymy ( vehicle -- car ) , while semantic relatedness ( SR ) is defined to cover any kind of lexical or functional association that may exist be -

It is defined on different kinds of textual units , e.g. documents , parts of a document ( e.g. words and their surrounding context ) , words or concepts ( @@CITATION ) .2 Linguistic distance between words is inverse to their semantic similarity or relatedness .


english gigaword corpus catalogue number ldc2003t05

This will require more efficient learning algorithms and implementations . However , the greatest increase is in the amount of raw text available to be processed , e.g. the English Gigaword Corpus ( Linguistic Data Consortium , 2003 ) . Recent work ( Banko and Brill , 2001 ; Curran and Moens , 2002 ) has suggested that some tasks will benefit from using significantly more data .

However , the greatest increase is in the amount of raw text available to be processed , e.g. the English Gigaword Corpus ( Linguistic Data @@CITATION ) .


finding structural correspondences from bilingual parsed corpus for corpusbased translation

Due to these limitations , instead of investigating into the synchronization of two grammars , we propose a flexible annotation schema ( i.e. Synchronous Structured String-Tree Correspondence ( S-SSTC ) ) to realize additional power and flexibility in expressing structural correspondences at the level of language sentence pairs . For example , such schema can serve as a mean to represent translation examples , or find structural correspondences for the purpose of transfer grammar learning ( Menezes & Richardson , 2001 ) , ( Aramaki et al. , 2001 ) , ( Watanabe et al. , 2000 ) , ( Meyers et al. , 2000 ) , ( Matsumoto et al. , 1993 ) , ( kaji et al. , 1992 ) , and example-base machine translation EBMT3 ( Sato & Nagao , 1990 ) , ( Sato , 1991 ) , ( Richardson et al. , 2001 ) , ( Al-Adhaileh & Tang , 1999 ) .

For example , such schema can serve as a mean to represent translation examples , or find structural correspondences for the purpose of transfer grammar learning ( Menezes & Richardson , 2001 ) , ( Aramaki et al. , 2001 ) , ( @@CITATION ) , ( Meyers et al. , 2000 ) , ( Matsumoto et al. , 1993 ) , ( kaji et al. , 1992 ) , and example-base machine translation EBMT3 ( Sato & Nagao , 1990 ) , ( Sato , 1991 ) , ( Richardson et al. , 2001 ) , ( Al-Adhaileh & Tang , 1999 ) .


discriminative training and maximum entropy models for statistical machine translation

Och and Ney ( 2002 ) introduced the log-linear model for statistical machine translation ( SMT ) , in which translation is considered as the following optimization problem : where f and e ( e ' ) are source and target sentences , respectively .

@@CITATION introduced the log-linear model for statistical machine translation ( SMT ) , in which translation is considered as the following optimization problem :


the interaction of word recognition and linguistic processing in speech understandingquot

Current advances in research and development of spoken language systems2 can be found , for example , in the proceedings of the DARPA speech and natural language workshops , as well as in publications from participants of the ESPRIT SUNDIAL project . Representative systems are described in Boisen et al. ( 1989 ) , De Mattia and Giachin ( 1989 ) , Niedermair ( 1989 ) , Niemann ( 1990 ) , and Young ( 1989 ) . * Spoken Language Systems Group , Laboratoiy for Computer Science , MIT , Cambridge MA 02139 f This research was supported by DARPA under Contract N00014-89 +1332 , monitored through the Office of Naval Research .

Representative systems are described in Boisen et al. ( 1989 ) , De Mattia and Giachin ( 1989 ) , Niedermair ( 1989 ) , @@CITATION , and Young ( 1989 ) .


how to avoid burning ducks combining linguistic analysis and corpus statistics for german compound processing

Using additional source side information beyond the markup did not produce a gain in performance . For compound splitting , we follow Fritzinger and Fraser ( 2010 ) , using linguistic knowledge encoded in a rule-based morphological analyser and then selecting the best analysis based on the geometric mean of word part frequencies . Other approaches use less deep linguistic resources ( e.g. , POS-tags Stymne ( 2008 ) ) or are ( almost ) knowledge-free ( e.g. , Koehn and Knight ( 2003 ) ) .

For compound splitting , we follow @@CITATION , using linguistic knowledge encoded in a rule-based morphological analyser and then selecting the best analysis based on the geometric mean of word part frequencies .


2We use an additional target factor to obtain the coarse POS for each stem , applying a 7-gram POS model . Koehn and Hoang ( 2007 ) showed that the use of a POS factor only results in negligible BLEU improvements , but we need access to the POS in our inflection prediction models . step through subject-verb agreement .

@@CITATION showed that the use of a POS factor only results in negligible BLEU improvements , but we need access to the POS in our inflection prediction models .


developing pedagogically effective tutorial dialogue tactics experiments and a testbed

Over the last decade there has been a lot of interest in developing tutorial dialogue systems that understand student explanations ( Jordan et al. , 2006 ; Graesser et al. , 1999 ; Aleven et al. , 2001 ; Buckley and Wolska , 2007 ; Nielsen et al. , 2008 ; VanLehn et al. , 2007 ) , because high percentages of selfexplanation and student contentful talk are known to be correlated with better learning in humanhuman tutoring ( Chi et al. , 1994 ; Litman et al. , 2009 ; Purandare and Litman , 2008 ; Steinhauser et al. , 2007 ) . However , most existing systems use pre-authored tutor responses for addressing student errors .

Over the last decade there has been a lot of interest in developing tutorial dialogue systems that understand student explanations ( Jordan et al. , 2006 ; Graesser et al. , 1999 ; Aleven et al. , 2001 ; Buckley and Wolska , 2007 ; Nielsen et al. , 2008 ; @@CITATION ) , because high percentages of selfexplanation and student contentful talk are known to be correlated with better learning in humanhuman tutoring ( Chi et al. , 1994 ; Litman et al. , 2009 ; Purandare and Litman , 2008 ; Steinhauser et al. , 2007 ) .


a comparative study on feature selection in text categorization

The n-gram based classifier is also a naive Bayes classifier , but it operates on a different set of features . We first identified the most informative unigrams and bigrams using the information gain measure ( Yang and Pedersen 1997 ) , and then selected only the positive outcome predictors using odds ratio ( Mladenic and Grobelnik 1999 ) . Diseasespecific terms , such as rheumatoid arthritis , were then manually removed .

We first identified the most informative unigrams and bigrams using the information gain measure ( @@CITATION ) , and then selected only the positive outcome predictors using odds ratio ( Mladenic and Grobelnik 1999 ) .


Zhu ( 2005 ) maintains a survey of this area . Recently , several alternative , often quite sophisticated approaches to collective classification have been proposed ( Neville and Jensen , 2000 ; Lafferty et al. , 2001 ; Getoor et al. , 2002 ; Taskar et al. , 2002 ; Taskar et al. , 2003 ; Taskar et al. , 2004 ; McCallum and Wellner , 2004 ) . It would be interesting to investigate the application of such methods to our problem .

Recently , several alternative , often quite sophisticated approaches to collective classification have been proposed ( Neville and Jensen , 2000 ; Lafferty et al. , 2001 ; Getoor et al. , 2002 ; Taskar et al. , 2002 ; @@CITATION ; Taskar et al. , 2004 ; McCallum and Wellner , 2004 ) .


In this work , we use the Arabic root extraction technique in ( El Kourdi , 2004 ) . It compares favorably to other stemming or root extraction algorithms ( Yates and Neto , 1999 ; Al-Shalabi and Evens , 1998 ; and Houmame , 1999 ) , with a performance of over 97 % for extracting the correct root in web documents , and it addresses the challenge of the Arabic broken plural and hollow verbs . In the remainder of this paper , we will use the term `` root '' and `` term '' interchangeably to refer to canonical forms obtained through this root extraction process .

It compares favorably to other stemming or root extraction algorithms ( @@CITATION ; Al-Shalabi and Evens , 1998 ; and Houmame , 1999 ) , with a performance of over 97 % for extracting the correct root in web documents , and it addresses the challenge of the Arabic broken plural and hollow verbs .


a linear observed time statistical parser based on maximum entropy models

Our results hold for bilexical context-free grammars and directly transfer to several language models that can be seen as stochastic versions of this formalism ( see Section 1 ) . We perceive that these results can be extended to other language models that properly embed bilexical context-free grammars , as for instance the more general history-based models used in ( Ratnaparkhi , 1997 ) and ( Chelba and Jelinek , 1998 ) . We leave this for future work .

We perceive that these results can be extended to other language models that properly embed bilexical context-free grammars , as for instance the more general history-based models used in ( @@CITATION ) and ( Chelba and Jelinek , 1998 ) .


projecting the adjective the syntax and semantics of gradability and comparison

( 3 ) The large mouse ( = the one whose size is 10 cm ) ( 4 ) The two large mice ( = the two whose sizes are 8 and 10 cm ) Clearly , what it takes for the adjective to be applicable has not been cast in stone , but is open to fiat : the speaker may decide that 8 cm is enough , or the speaker may set the standards higher ( cfXXX , Kennedy 1999 ) . The numeral ( whether it is implicit , as in ( 3 ) , or explicit ) can be construed as allowing the reader to draw inferences about the standards employed ( Kyburg and Morreau 2000 ; DeVault and Stone 2004 ) : ( 3 ) , for example , implies a standard that counts 10 cm as large and 8 cm as not large .

Clearly , what it takes for the adjective to be applicable has not been cast in stone , but is open to fiat : the speaker may decide that 8 cm is enough , or the speaker may set the standards higher ( cfXXX , @@CITATION ) .


synthesis of speech from unrestricted text

Existing text-to-speech systems perform well on word pronunciation and short sentences ,12 but when it comes to long sentences and paragraphs , synthetic speech tends to be difficult to listen to and understand . Many investigators ( e.g. Allen 1976 ; Elowitz et al. 1976 ; Luce et al. 1983 ; Cahn 1988 ) have suggested that the poor prosody of synthetic speech , in comparison with natural speech , is the primary factor leading to difficulties in the comprehension of fluent synthetic speech . And while researchers in text-tospeech synthesis have adopted a variety of approaches to prosodic phrase generation -- from the simple punctuationbased rules and function word listings of existing commercial systems to the sophisticated prosodic heuristics described in Emorine and Martin ( 1988 ) and O'Shaughnessy ( 1989 ) -- the generation of appropriate prosodic phrasing in unrestricted text has remained a problem .

Many investigators ( e.g. @@CITATION ; Elowitz et al. 1976 ; Luce et al. 1983 ; Cahn 1988 ) have suggested that the poor prosody of synthetic speech , in comparison with natural speech , is the primary factor leading to difficulties in the comprehension of fluent synthetic speech .


customization in a unified framework for summarizing medical literature

Noemie Elhadad
Min-Yen Kan
Judith Klavans
Kathleen McKeown

In addition to question answering , multi-document summarization provides a complementary approach to addressing clinical information needs . The PERSIVAL project , the most comprehensive study of such techniques applied on medical texts to date , leverages patient records to generate personalized summaries in response to physicians ' queries ( McKeown , Elhadad , and Hatzivassiloglou 2003 ; Elhadad et al. 2005 ) . Although the system incorporates both a user and a task model , it does not explicitly capture the principles of evidence-based medicine .

The PERSIVAL project , the most comprehensive study of such techniques applied on medical texts to date , leverages patient records to generate personalized summaries in response to physicians ' queries ( McKeown , Elhadad , and Hatzivassiloglou 2003 ; @@CITATION ) .


wordbased alignment phrasebased translation whats the link

Potentially this leads to a poor estimate of the phrase probabilities . See Lopez and Resnik ( 2006 ) for further discussion .


automatic retrieval and clustering of similar words

We also test an MI model inspired by Erk ( 2007 ) : We gather similar words using Lin ( 1998a ) , mining similar verbs from a comparable-sized parsed corpus , and collecting similar nouns from a broader 10 GB corpus of English text .4 We also use Keller and Lapata ( 2003 ) 's approach to obtaining web-counts . Rather than mining parse trees , this technique retrieves counts for the pattern `` V Det N '' in raw online text , where V is any inflection of the verb , Det is the , a , or the empty string , and N is the singular or plural form of the noun .

We gather similar words using @@CITATIONa ) , mining similar verbs from a comparable-sized parsed corpus , and collecting similar nouns from a broader 10 GB corpus of English text .4 We also use Keller and Lapata ( 2003 ) 's approach to obtaining web-counts .


scripts plans goals and understanding lawrence erlbaum associates

The only requirement on the problem or situation is that it can be entered into the expectation system in the form of examples . Thus , for example , it can acquire a `` script '' such as the one for going to a restaurant as defined in Schank and Abelson ( 1977 ) . The expectation module takes two inputs and produces two outputs .

Thus , for example , it can acquire a `` script '' such as the one for going to a restaurant as defined in @@CITATION .


dirt  discovery of inference rules from text

These include , just to mention the most popular ones , DIRT ( Lin and Pantel , 2001 ) , VerbOcean ( Chklovski and Pantel , 2004 ) , FrameNet ( Baker et al. , 1998 ) , and Wikipedia ( Mehdad et al. , 2010 ; Kouylekov et al. , 2009 ) . DIRT is a collection of statistically learned inference rules , that is often integrated as a source of lexical paraphrases and entailment rules .

ones , DIRT ( @@CITATION ) , VerbOcean ( Chklovski and Pantel , 2004 ) , FrameNet ( Baker et al. , 1998 ) , and Wikipedia ( Mehdad et al. , 2010 ; Kouylekov et al. , 2009 ) .


That is , the current system learns procedures rather than data structures . There is some literature on procedure acquisition such as the LISP synthesis work described in Biermann et al. ( 1984 ) and the PROLOG synthesis method of Shapiro ( 1982 ) . However , the latter methodologies have not been applied to dialogue acquisition .

There is some literature on procedure acquisition such as the LISP synthesis work described in Biermann et al. ( 1984 ) and the PROLOG synthesis method of @@CITATION .


controlling content realization with functional unification grammars in

The strategy decision made by the tutorial planner , together with relevant semantic content from the student 's answer ( e.g. , part of the answer to confirm ) , is passed to content planning and generation . The system uses a domain-specific content planner to produce input to the surface realizer based on the strategy decision , and a FUF/SURGE ( Elhadad and Robin , 1992 ) generation system to produce the appropriate text . Templates are used to generate some stock phrases such as `` When you are ready , go on to the next slide . ''

The system uses a domain-specific content planner to produce input to the surface realizer based on the strategy decision , and a FUF/SURGE ( @@CITATION ) generation system to produce the appropriate text .


machinereadable dictionaries lexical data bases and the lexical system

The lispified LDOCE file retains the broad structure of the typesetting tape and divides each entry into a number of fields -- head word , pronunciation , grammar codes , definitions , examples , and so forth . However , each of these fields requires further decoding and restructuring to provide client programs with easy access to the information they require ( see Calzolari ( 1984 ) for further discussion ) . For this purpose the formatting codes on the typesetting tape are crucial since they provide clues to the correct structure of this information .

However , each of these fields requires further decoding and restructuring to provide client programs with easy access to the information they require ( see @@CITATION for further discussion ) .


biographies bollywood boomboxes and blenders domain adaptation for sentiment classification

John Blitzer
Mark Dredze
Fernando Pereira

However , the results of the cars + cameras training data combination indicate that the cameras data does not contribute any additional information during the learning , since the results on both the movies and the web-services datasets are lower than when training only on the cameras data . Our results also confirm the insights gained by Blitzer et al. ( 2007 ) , who observed that in crossdomain polarity analysis adding more training data is not always beneficial . Apparently even the smallest training dataset ( cameras ) contain enough feature instances to learn a model which performs well on the testing data .

Our results also confirm the insights gained by @@CITATION , who observed that in crossdomain polarity analysis adding more training data is not always beneficial .


free culture how big media uses technology and the law to lock down culture and control creativity

non-attributive copyright licence to their work . We consider the Creative Commons model as the most suitable one to let each author choose the rights to reserve ( Lessig , 2004 ) . Narrative writings or essays are creative works and they generally treat ownership as authorship , even for the most enthusiastic fellows of free culture ( Stallman , 2001 ) .

We consider the Creative Commons model as the most suitable one to let each author choose the rights to reserve ( @@CITATION ) .


towards an arabic information retrieval system

It compares favorably to other stemming or root extraction algorithms ( Yates and Neto , 1999 ; Al-Shalabi and Evens , 1998 ; and @@CITATION ) , with a performance of over 97 % for extracting the correct root in web documents , and it addresses the challenge of the Arabic broken plural and hollow verbs .


combining feature norms and text data with topic models

Andrews et al. ( 2009 ) furthered this work by showing that a bimodal topic model , consisting of both text and feature norms , outperformed models using only one modality on the prediction of association norms , word substitution errors , and semantic interference tasks . In a similar vein , Steyvers ( 2010 ) showed that a different feature-topic model improved predictions on a fill-in-the-blank task . Johns and Jones ( 2012 ) take an entirely different approach by showing that one can successfully infer held out feature norms from weighted mixtures based on textual similarity .

In a similar vein , @@CITATION showed that a different feature-topic model improved predictions on a fill-in-the-blank task .


Walter Daelemans
Sabine Buchholz
Jorn Veenstra

It is not aimed at handling dependencies , which require heavy use of lexical information ( Hindle and Rooth , 1993 , for PP attachment ) . As ( Daelemans et al. , 1999 ) show , lexical information improves on NP and VP chunking as well . Since our method uses raw data , representing lexical entries will require a lot of memory .

As ( @@CITATION ) show , lexical information improves on NP and VP chunking as well .


a new statistical parser based on bigram lexical dependencies

We show that these PCFG-reductions result in a 60 times speedup in processing time w.r.t. Bod ( 2001 , 2003 ) . But while Bod 's estimator obtains state-of-the-art results on the WSJ , comparable to Charniak ( 2000 ) and Collins ( 2000 ) , Bonnema et al. 's estimator performs worse and is comparable to Collins ( 1996 ) . In the second part of this paper , we extend our experiments with a new notion of the best parse tree .

But while Bod 's estimator obtains state-of-the-art results on the WSJ , comparable to Charniak ( 2000 ) and Collins ( 2000 ) , Bonnema et al. 's estimator performs worse and is comparable to @@CITATION .


you talking to me a corpus and algorithm for conversation disentanglement

Another possibly critical feature is the ` mention of names ' . In multi-party discussion people usually mention each other 's name for the purpose of disentanglement ( Elsner and Charniak , 2008 ) . In our corpus we found 175 instances where a participant mentions other participant 's name .

In multi-party discussion people usually mention each other 's name for the purpose of disentanglement ( @@CITATION ) .


a geometric approach to mapping bitext correspondencequot

Models of translational equivalence that are ignorant of indirect associations have `` a tendency ... to be confused by collocates '' ( Dagan et al. , 1993 ) . Fortunately , indirect associations are usually not difficult to identify , because they tend to be weaker than the direct associations on which they are based ( Melamed , 1996c ) . The majority of indirect associations can be filtered out by a simple competition heuristic : Whenever several word tokens ui in one half of the bitext co-occur with a particular word token v in the other half of the bitext , the word that is most likely to be v 's translation is the one for which the likelihood L ( u , v ) of translational equivalence is highest .

Fortunately , indirect associations are usually not difficult to identify , because they tend to be weaker than the direct associations on which they are based ( @@CITATIONc ) .


applying cotraining methods to statistical parsing

Another technique for making better use of unlabeled data is cotraining ( Blum and Mitchell 1998 ) , in which two sufficiently different learners help each other learn by labeling training data for one another . The work of Sarkar ( 2001 ) and Steedman , Osborne , et al. ( 2003 ) suggests that co-training can be helpful for statistical parsing . Pierce and Cardie ( 2001 ) have shown , in the context of base noun identification , that combining sample selection and cotraining can be an effective learning framework for large-scale training .

The work of @@CITATION and Steedman , Osborne , et al. ( 2003 ) suggests that co-training can be helpful for statistical parsing .


Kentaro Torisawa
Kenji Nishida
Yusuke Miyao
Jun’ichi Tsujii

In Table 2 , lem refers to the LTAG parser ( Sarkar et al. , 2000 ) , ANSI C implementation of the two-phase parsing algorithm that performs the head corner parsing ( van Noord , 1994 ) without features ( phase 1 ) , and then executes feature unification ( phase 2 ) . TNT refers to the HPSG parser ( Torisawa et al. , 2000 ) , C++ implementation of the two-phase parsing algorithm that performs filtering with a compiled CFG ( phase 1 ) and then executes feature unification ( phase 2 ) . Table 2 clearly shows that the HPSG parser is significantly faster than the LTAG parser .

TNT refers to the HPSG parser ( @@CITATION ) , C++ implementation of the two-phase parsing algorithm that performs filtering with a compiled CFG ( phase 1 ) and then executes feature unification ( phase 2 ) .


Each matching plan 's preconditions are checked ; if they are currently ( believed to be ) true , the planner then attempts to find all instantiations of the plan 's body . 1 Â° The body of a plan can be an action or sequence of actions , a goal or sequence 9 Moore and Paris also note that `` a generation system must maintain the kinds of information outlined by Grosz and Sidner '' ( Moore and Paris 1989 , 203 ) . Their planner uses plan structures similar to IGEN 's , except that the plan operators they use are generally instantiations of rhetorical relations drawn from Rhetorical Structure Theory ( Mann and Thompson 1987 ) .

1 Â° The body of a plan can be an action or sequence of actions , a goal or sequence 9 Moore and Paris also note that `` a generation system must maintain the kinds of information outlined by Grosz and Sidner '' ( @@CITATION , 203 ) .


( Cut-free ) proof nets exhibit no spurious ambiguity and play the role in categorial grammar that parse trees play in phrase structure grammar . Surveys and articles on the topic include Lamarche and Retord ( 1996 ) , de Groote and Retord ( 1996 ) , and Morrill ( 1999 ) . Still , at the risk of proceeding at a slightly slower pace , we aim nonetheless to include here enough details to make the present paper self-contained .

Surveys and articles on the topic include Lamarche and Retord ( 1996 ) , de Groote and Retord ( 1996 ) , and @@CITATION .


identifying agreement and disagreement in conversational speech use of bayesian networks to model pragmatic dependencies

Michel Galley
Kathleen McKeown
Julia Hirschberg
Elizabeth Shriberg

The corpus and guidelines will also be shared with the research community . Another line of research that is correlated with ours is recognition of agreement/disagreement ( Misra and Walker , 2013 ; Yin et al. , 2012 ; Abbott et al. , 2011 ; Andreas et al. , 2012 ; Galley et al. , 2004 ; Hillard et al. , 2003 ) and classification of stances ( Walker et al. , 2012 ; Somasundaran and Wiebe , 2010 ) in online forums . For future work , we can utilize textual features ( contextual , dependency , discourse markers ) , relevant multiword expressions and topic modeling ( Mukherjee and Liu , 2013 ) , and thread structure ( Murakami and Raymond , 2010 ; Agrawal et al. , 2003 ) to improve the Agree/Disagree classification accuracy .

Another line of research that is correlated with ours is recognition of agreement/disagreement ( Misra and Walker , 2013 ; Yin et al. , 2012 ; Abbott et al. , 2011 ; Andreas et al. , 2012 ; @@CITATION ; Hillard et al. , 2003 ) and classification of stances ( Walker et al. , 2012 ; Somasundaran and Wiebe , 2010 ) in online forums .


Most probability estimation methods require that there be a finite set of features on which the probability is conditioned . The standard way to handle this problem is to handcraft a finite set of features which provides a sufficient summary of the unbounded history ( Ratnaparkhi , 1999 ; Collins , 1999 ; Charniak , 2000 ) . The probabilities are then assumed to be independent of all the infoimation about the history which is not captured by the chosen features .

The standard way to handle this problem is to handcraft a finite set of features which provides a sufficient summary of the unbounded history ( Ratnaparkhi , 1999 ; Collins , 1999 ; @@CITATION ) .


using predicateargument structures for information extraction

Mihai Surdeanu
Sanda Harabagiu
John Williams
Paul Aarseth

Typical tags include Agent , Patient , Source , etc. and some adjuncts such as Temporal , Manner , Extent , etc. . Since the arguments can provide useful semantic information , the SRL is crucial to many natural language processing tasks , such as Question and Answering ( Narayanan and Harabagiu 2004 ) , Information Extraction ( Surdeanu et al. 2003 ) , and Machine Translation ( Boas 2002 ) . With the efforts of many researchers ( Carreras and MÃ rquez 2004 , 2005 , Moschitti 2004 , Pradhan et al 2005 , Zhang et al 2007 ) , different machine learning methods and linguistics resources are applied in this task , which has made SRL task progress fast .

Since the arguments can provide useful semantic information , the SRL is crucial to many natural language processing tasks , such as Question and Answering ( Narayanan and Harabagiu 2004 ) , Information Extraction ( @@CITATION ) , and Machine Translation ( Boas 2002 ) .


classbased construction of a verb lexicon in

Karin Kipper
Hoa Trang Dang
Martha Palmer

In current work on semantic relation analysis , the focus is on semantic roles -- relations between verbs and their arguments . Most approaches rely on VerbNet ( Kipper et al. , 2000 ) and FrameNet ( Baker et al. , 1998 ) to provide associations between verbs and semantic roles , that are then mapped onto the current instance , as shown by the systems competing in semantic role labelling competitions ( Carreras and Marquez , 2004 ; Carreras and Marquez , 2005 ) and also ( Gildea and Jurafsky , 2002 ; Pradhan et al. , 2005 ; Shi and Mihalcea , 2005 ) . These systems share two ideas which make them different from the approach presented here : they all analyse verb-argument relations , and they all use machine learning or probabilistic approaches ( Pradhan et al. , 2005 ) to assign a label to a new instance .

Most approaches rely on VerbNet ( @@CITATION ) and FrameNet ( Baker et al. , 1998 ) to provide associations between verbs and semantic roles , that are then mapped onto the current instance , as shown by the systems competing in semantic role labelling competitions ( Carreras and Marquez , 2004 ; Carreras and Marquez , 2005 ) and also ( Gildea and Jurafsky , 2002 ; Pradhan et al. , 2005 ; Shi and Mihalcea , 2005 ) .


In previous work ( Bachenko et al. 1986 ) , we described an experimental text-to-speech system that determined prosodic phrasing for the Olive -- Liberman synthesizer ( Olive and Liberman 1985 ) . The system generated phrase boundaries using information derived from the syntactic structure of a sentence .

In previous work ( Bachenko et al. 1986 ) , we described an experimental text-to-speech system that determined prosodic phrasing for the Olive -- Liberman synthesizer ( @@CITATION ) .


inducing translation templates for examplebased machine translation

In order to calculate a ranking for each TL sentence produced , we multiply the weights of each chunk used in its construction . Note that this ensures that greater importance is attributed to longer chunks , as is usual in most EBMT systems ( cfXXX Sato and Nagao 1990 ; Veale and Way 1997 ; Carl 1999 ) .7 As an example , consider the translation into French of the house collapsed . Assume the conditional probabilities in ( 33 ) :

Note that this ensures that greater importance is attributed to longer chunks , as is usual in most EBMT systems ( cfXXX Sato and Nagao 1990 ; Veale and Way 1997 ; @@CITATION ) .7 As an example , consider the translation into French of the house collapsed .


Another common approach to lexical rules is to encode them as unary phrase structure rules . This approach is taken , for example , in LKB ( Copestake 1992 ) where lexical rules are introduced on a par with phrase structure rules and the parser makes no distinction between lexical and nonlexical rules ( Copestake 1993 , 31 ) . A similar method is included in PATR-II ( Shieber et al. 1983 ) and can be used to encode lexical rules as binary relations in the CUF system ( Dorre and Eisele 1991 ; Done and Dorna 1993b ) or the TFS system ( Emele and Zajac 1990 ; Emele 1994 ) .

This approach is taken , for example , in LKB ( Copestake 1992 ) where lexical rules are introduced on a par with phrase structure rules and the parser makes no distinction between lexical and nonlexical rules ( @@CITATION , 31 ) .


controlling the application of lexical rules

The way these predicates interconnect is represented in Figure 19 . 27 Briscoe and Copestake ( 1996 ) argue that semi-productivity of lexical rules , which can be understood as a generalization of exceptions to lexical rules , can be integrated with our approach by assigning probabilities to the automaton associated with a particular lexical entry . 28 In order to distinguish the different interaction predicates for the different classes of lexical entries , the compiler indexes the names of the interaction predicates .

27 @@CITATION argue that semi-productivity of lexical rules , which can be understood as a generalization of exceptions to lexical rules , can be integrated with our approach by assigning probabilities to the automaton associated with a particular lexical entry .


cohesion and learning in a tutorial spoken dialog system

The analysis of the data we have collected indicates that student satisfaction may be affected if the system rephrases student answers using different words ( for example , using better terminology ) but does n't explicitly explain the reason why different terminology is needed ( Dzikovska et al. , 2010 ) . Results from other systems show that measures of semantic coherence between a student and a system were positively associated with higher learning gain ( Ward and Litman , 2006 ) . Using a deep generator to automatically generate system feedback gives us a level of control over the output and will allow us to devise experiments to study those issues in more detail .

Results from other systems show that measures of semantic coherence between a student and a system were positively associated with higher learning gain ( @@CITATION ) .


automatic procedures in tectogrammatical tagging

During the tectogrammatical parsing of Czech , the analytical tree structure is converted into the tectogrammatical one . These automatic transformations are based on linguistic rules ( Bohmova , 2001 ) . Subsequently , tectogrammatical functors are assigned by the C4 .5 classifier ( 2abokrtsk9 et al. , 2002 ) .

These automatic transformations are based on linguistic rules ( @@CITATION ) .


bridging the lexical chasm statistical approaches to answerfinding

A Berger
R Caruana
D Cohn
D Freitag
V Mittal

â¢ Only qualitative observations of the responses were reported ( no formal evaluation was performed ) ( Lapalme and Kosseim 2003 ; Roy and Subramaniam 2006 ) . â¢ Only an automatic evaluation was performed , which relied on having model responses ( Berger and Mittal 2000 ; Berger et al. 2000 ) . â¢ A user study was performed , but it was either very small compared to the corpus ( Carmel , Shtalhaim , and Soffer 2000 ; Jijkoun and de Rijke 2005 ) , or the corpus itself was significantly smaller than ours ( Feng et al. 2006 ; Leuski et al. 2006 ) .

â¢ Only an automatic evaluation was performed , which relied on having model responses ( Berger and Mittal 2000 ; @@CITATION ) .


buckwalter arabic morphological analyzer version 20 linguistic data consortium

Traditional Arabic grammars often describe a very general three-way distinction into verbs , nominals , and particles . In comparison , the tag set of the Buckwalter Morphological Analyzer ( Buckwalter 2004 ) used in the PATB has a core POS set of 44 tags ( CORE44 ) before morphological extension .8 Cross-linguistically , a core set containing around 12 tags is often 7 We ignore the rare `` false idafa '' construction ( Habash 2010 , p. 102 ) .

In comparison , the tag set of the Buckwalter Morphological Analyzer ( @@CITATION ) used in the PATB has a core POS set of 44 tags ( CORE44 ) before morphological extension .8 Cross-linguistically , a core set containing around 12 tags is often


computer control via limited natural language

These include the following : â¢ use of low level knowledge from the speech recognition phase , â¢ use of high level knowledge about the domain in particular and the dialogue task in general , â¢ a `` continue '' facility and an `` auto-loop '' facility as described by Biermann and Krishnaswamy ( 1976 ) , â¢ a `` conditioning '' facility as described by Fink et al. ( 1985 ) , â¢ implementation of new types of paraphrasing , â¢ checking a larger environment in the expectation acquisition algorithm when deciding if an incoming sentence is the same or similar to one already seen , and â¢ examining inter-speaker dialogue patterns . All but two of these areas for expansion are aimed at moving the expectation system from one that finds patterns in a user 's dialogues and acquires historical knowledge about them to one that can acquire true procedures .

â¢ use of low level knowledge from the speech recognition phase , â¢ use of high level knowledge about the domain in particular and the dialogue task in general , â¢ a `` continue '' facility and an `` auto-loop '' facility as described by Biermann and Krishnaswamy ( 1976 ) , â¢ a `` conditioning '' facility as described by @@CITATION , â¢ implementation of new types of paraphrasing , â¢ checking a larger environment in the expectation acquisition algorithm when deciding if an incoming sentence is the same or similar to one already seen , and â¢ examining inter-speaker dialogue patterns .