Further , these linguistically important and interesting questions are also highly significant for computational linguistics ( CL ) and natural language processing ( NLP ) applications . Their computational significance arises from the issue of their storage in lexical resources like WordNet ( Fellbaum , 1998 ) and raises the questions like , how to store morphologically complex words , in a lexical resource like WordNet keeping in mind the storage and access efficiency . There is a rich literature on organization and lexical access of morphologically complex words where experiments have been conducted mainly for derivational suffixed words of English , Hebrew , Italian , French , Dutch , and few other languages ( Marslen-Wilson et al. , 2008 ; Frost et al. , 1997 ; Grainger , et al. , 1991 ; Drews and Zwitserlood , 1995 ) .

Their computational significance arises from the issue of their storage in lexical resources like WordNet ( @@CITATION ) and raises the questions like , how to store morphologically complex words , in a lexical resource like WordNet keeping in mind the storage and access efficiency .


a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining

efficient algorithms for parsing the dop model

A disadvantage of this model is that an extremely large number of subtrees ( and derivations ) must be taken into account . Fortunately , there exists a compact PCFG-reduction of DOP1 that generates the same trees with the same probabilities , as shown by Goodman ( 1996 , 2002 ) . Here we will only sketch this PCFG-reduction , which is heavily based on Goodman ( 2002 ) .

Fortunately , there exists a compact PCFG-reduction of DOP1 that generates the same trees with the same probabilities , as shown by @@CITATION , 2002 ) .


prosodic systems and intonation in english

Both predicateargument relations and discourse factors have been examined for their possible input to prosodic phrasing . Crystal ( 1969 ) claims that prosodic phrase boundaries will co-occur with grammatical functions such as subject , predicate , modifier , and adjunct . Selkirk ( 1984 ) and Nespor and Vogel ( 1986 ) take a similar approach , but within a different theoretical framework .

@@CITATION claims that prosodic phrase boundaries will co-occur with grammatical functions such as subject , predicate , modifier , and adjunct .


approximating contextfree grammars with a finitestate calculus

We rephrase the method of Grimley-Evans ( 1997 ) as follows : First , we construct the approximating finite automaton according to the unparameterized RTN method above . Then an additional mechanism is introduced that ensures for each rule A -- Xi .

We rephrase the method of @@CITATION as follows : First , we construct the approximating finite automaton according to the unparameterized RTN method above .


headdriven statistical models for natural language parsing

In Turkish , very essential syntactic information is contained in the rich morphological structure , where 6The analysis is reminiscent of the treatment of coordination in the Collins parser ( Collins , 1999 ) . concatenated suffixes carry information that in other languages may be expressed by separate words .

6The analysis is reminiscent of the treatment of coordination in the Collins parser ( @@CITATION ) .


selection de termes dans un dictionnaire dinformatique  comparaison de corpus et criteres lexicosemantiques

In this paper , the method is applied to a French corpus on computing to find noun-verb combinations in which verbs convey a meaning of realization . The work is carried out in order to assist terminographers in the enrichment of a dictionary on computing that includes collocational information ( L'Homme , 2004 ) . Even though this work is carried out for terminographical and lexicographical purposes , it can certainly be of use in other applications , namely information retrieval .

The work is carried out in order to assist terminographers in the enrichment of a dictionary on computing that includes collocational information ( @@CITATION ) .


commandtalk a spokenlanguage interface for battlefield simulations

A number of other systems have addressed part of the task . CornmandTalk ( Moore et al. , 1997 ) , Circuit Fix-It Shop ( Smith , 1997 ) and TRAINS-96 ( Traum and Allen , 1994 ; Traum and Andersen , 1999 ) are spoken language systems but they interface to simulation or help facilities rather than semi-autonomous agents . Jack 's MOOse Lodge ( Badler et al. , 1999 ) takes text rather than speech as natural language input and the avatars being controlled are not semi-autonomous .

CornmandTalk ( @@CITATION ) , Circuit Fix-It Shop ( Smith , 1997 ) and TRAINS-96 ( Traum and Allen , 1994 ; Traum and Andersen , 1999 ) are spoken language systems but they interface to simulation or help facilities rather than semi-autonomous agents .


natural language parsing as statistical pattern recognition

The algorithm uses categorial , configurational , local head , and Penn-II functional and trace information . The annotation procedure is dependent on locating the head daughter , for which an amended version of Magerman ( 1994 ) is used . The head is annotated with the LFG equation r = J. .

The annotation procedure is dependent on locating the head daughter , for which an amended version of @@CITATION is used .


word formation in lexical type hierarchies a case study of baradjectives in german masters thesis

In a number of proposals , lexical generalizations are captured using lexical underspecification ( Kathol 1994 ; Krieger and Nerbonne 1992 ; Riehemann 1993 ; Oliva 1994 ; Frank 1994 ; Opalka 1995 ; Sanfilippo 1995 ) . The lexical entries are only partially specified , and various specializations are encoded via the type hierarchy , definite clause attachments , or a macro hierarchy .

@@CITATION ; Oliva 1994 ; Frank 1994 ; Opalka 1995 ; Sanfilippo 1995 ) .


algorithms for graphemephoneme translation for english and french applications for database searches and speech synthesis

However , this possibility is not usually given much credence . For instance , Divay and Vitale ( 1997 ) recently wrote : `` To our knowledge , learning algorithms , although promising , have not ( yet ) reached the level of rule sets developed by humans '' ( p. 520 ) . Dutoit ( 1997 ) takes this further , stating `` such training-based strategies are often assumed to exhibit much more intelligence than they do in practice , as revealed by their poor transcription scores '' ( p. 115 , note 14 ) .

For instance , @@CITATION recently wrote : `` To our knowledge , learning algorithms , although promising , have not ( yet ) reached the level of rule sets developed by humans '' ( p. 520 ) .


syntaxtomorphology mapping in factored phrasebased statistical machine translation from english to turkish

So it is questionable as to whether morpheme segmentation techniques are sufficient to solve the inflectional problem we are addressing . Much previous work looks at the impact of using source side information ( i.e. , feature functions on the aligned English ) , such as those of Avramidis and Koehn ( 2008 ) , Yeniterzi and Oflazer ( 2010 ) and others . Toutanova et .

Much previous work looks at the impact of using source side information ( i.e. , feature functions on the aligned English ) , such as those of Avramidis and Koehn ( 2008 ) , @@CITATION and others .


a stochastic parts program and noun phrase parser for unrestricted text

The first feature represents the part of speech of the word . We use an in-house statistical tagger ( based on ( Church , 1988 ) ) to tag the text in which the unknown word occurs . The tag set used is a simplified version of the tags used in the machinereadable version of the Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary ( OALD ) .

We use an in-house statistical tagger ( based on ( @@CITATION ) ) to tag the text in which the unknown word occurs .


un outil multilingue de generation de ltag  application au francais et a l’italien

We chose to investigate an alternative research direction by aiming to develop a `` paraphrastic grammar '' that is , a grammar which captures the paraphrastic relations between linguistic structuress . Based on a computational grammar that associates natural language expressions with both a syntactic and a semantic representation , a paraphrastic gram ` As we shall briefly discuss in section 4 , the grammar is developed with the help of a meta-grammar ( Candito , 1999 ) thus ensuring an additional level of abstraction . The metagrammar is an abstract specification of the linguistic properties ( phrase structure , valency , realisation of grammatical functions etc. ) encoded in the grammar basic units .

Based on a computational grammar that associates natural language expressions with both a syntactic and a semantic representation , a paraphrastic gram ` As we shall briefly discuss in section 4 , the grammar is developed with the help of a meta-grammar ( @@CITATION ) thus ensuring an additional level of abstraction .


mercure towards an automatic email followup system

The process of composing a planned response for a new request is informed by probabilistic and lexical properties of the requests and responses in the corpus . There are very few reported attempts at corpus-based automation of help-desk responses ( Carmel , Shtalhaim , and Soffer 2000 ; Lapalme and Kosseim 2003 ; Bickel and Scheffer 2004 ; Malik , Subramaniam , and Kaushik 2007 ) . eResponder , the system developed by Carmel , Shtalhaim , and Soffer ( 2000 ) , retrieves a list of request -- response pairs and presents a ranked list of responses to the user .

There are very few reported attempts at corpus-based automation of help-desk responses ( Carmel , Shtalhaim , and Soffer 2000 ; @@CITATION ; Bickel and Scheffer 2004 ; Malik , Subramaniam , and Kaushik 2007 ) .


a statistical model for multilingual entity detection and tracking

R Florian
H Hassan
A Ittycheriah
H Jing
N Kambhatla
X Luo
N Nicolov
S Roukos

It is these orthographic variations and complex morphological structure that make Arabic language processing challenging ( Xu et al. , 2001 ; Xu et al. , 2002 ) . Both tasks are performed with a statistical framework : the mention detection system is similar to the one presented in ( Florian et al. , 2004 ) and the coreference resolution system is similar to the one described in ( Luo et al. , 2004 ) . Both systems are built around from the maximum-entropy technique ( Berger et al. , 1996 ) .

Both tasks are performed with a statistical framework : the mention detection system is similar to the one presented in ( @@CITATION ) and the coreference resolution system is similar to the one described in ( Luo et al. , 2004 ) .


entitybased crossdocument coreferencing using the vector space model

In this section we will discuss ( i ) the state of the art in Web People Search in general , focusing on which features are used to solve the problem ; and ( ii ) lessons learnt from the WePS evaluation campaign where most approaches to the problem have been tested and compared . The disambiguation of person names in Web results is usually compared to two other Natural Language Processing tasks : Word Sense Disambiguation ( WSD ) ( Agirre and Edmonds , 2006 ) and Cross-document Coreference ( CDC ) ( Bagga and Baldwin , 1998 ) . Most of early research work on person name ambiguity focuses on the CDC problem or uses methods found in the WSD literature .

The disambiguation of person names in Web results is usually compared to two other Natural Language Processing tasks : Word Sense Disambiguation ( WSD ) ( Agirre and Edmonds , 2006 ) and Cross-document Coreference ( CDC ) ( @@CITATION ) .


paraphrase fragment extraction from monolingual comparable corpora

Quirk et al. ( 2007 ) extract fragments using a generative model of noisy translations . Our own work ( Wang and Callison-Burch , 2011 ) extends the first idea to paraphrase fragment extraction on monolingual parallel and comparable corpora . Our current approach also uses word-word alignment , however , we use syntactic dependency trees to compute grammatical fragments .

Our own work ( @@CITATION ) extends the first idea to paraphrase fragment extraction on monolingual parallel and comparable corpora .


lexical selection and paraphrase in a meaning text generation model

Lidija Iordanskaja
Richard Kittredge
Alain Polg re

Paraphrase tables ( PPHT ) contain pairs of corresponding phrases in the same language , possibly associated with probabilities . They proved to be useful in a number of NLP applications such as natural language generation ( Iordanskaja et al. , 1991 ) , multidocument summarization ( McKeown et al. , 2002 ) , automatic evaluation of MT ( Denkowski and Lavie , 2010 ) , and TE ( Dinu and Wang , 2009 ) . One of the proposed methods to extract paraphrases relies on a pivot-based approach using phrase alignments in a bilingual parallel corpus ( Bannard and Callison-Burch , 2005 ) .

They proved to be useful in a number of NLP applications such as natural language generation ( @@CITATION ) , multidocument summarization ( McKeown et al. , 2002 ) , automatic evaluation of MT ( Denkowski and Lavie , 2010 ) , and TE ( Dinu and Wang , 2009 ) .


For example , while it is difficult to induce a grammar with raw text alone , the task is tractable when the syntactic analysis for each sentence is provided as a part of the training data ( Pereira and Schabes 1992 ) . Current state-of-the-art statistical parsers ( Collins 1999 ; Charniak 2000 ) are all trained on large annotated corpora such as the Penn Treebank ( Marcus , Santorini , and Marcinkiewicz 1993 ) . However , supervised training data are difficult to obtain ; existing corpora might not contain the relevant type of annotation , and the data might not be in the domain of interest .

Current state-of-the-art statistical parsers ( @@CITATION ; Charniak 2000 ) are all trained on large annotated corpora such as the Penn Treebank ( Marcus , Santorini , and Marcinkiewicz 1993 ) .


â¢ LEFT-ARC ( r ) : Add an arc labeled r from next to top ; pop the stack . Although the parser only derives projective graphs , the fact that graphs are labeled allows non-projective dependencies to be captured using the pseudoprojective approach of Nivre and Nilsson ( 2005 ) . Another limitation of the parsing algorithm is that it does not assign dependency labels to roots , i.e. , to tokens having HEAD = 0 .

Although the parser only derives projective graphs , the fact that graphs are labeled allows non-projective dependencies to be captured using the pseudoprojective approach of @@CITATION .


Riehemann 1993 ; Oliva 1994 ; @@CITATION ; Opalka 1995 ; Sanfilippo 1995 ) .


He was a grammarian who analysed Sanskrit ( Misra , 1966 ) . The idea resurfaced forcefully at several points in the more recent history of linguistic research ( Tesni`ere , 1959 ; Gruber , 1965 ; Fillmore , 1968 ) . Now it has the attention of many researchers in natural language processing , as shown by recent research in semantic parsing and semantic

The idea resurfaced forcefully at several points in the more recent history of linguistic research ( Tesni`ere , 1959 ; Gruber , 1965 ; @@CITATION ) .


adaptive multilingual sentence boundary disambiguation

Furthermore , an abbreviation itself can be the last token in a sentence in which case its period acts at the same time as part of this abbreviation and as the end-of-sentence indicator ( fullstop ) . A detailed introduction to the SBD problem can be found in Palmer and Hearst ( 1997 ) . The disambiguation of capitalized words and sentence boundaries presents a chicken-and-egg problem .

A detailed introduction to the SBD problem can be found in @@CITATION .


Note that from an experimental point of view , this is a very convenient problem to work with because we can automatically determine ground truth ( and thus avoid the need for manual annotation ) simply by consulting publicly available voting records . Task properties Determining whether or not a speaker supports a proposal falls within the realm of sentiment analysis , an extremely active research area devoted to the computational treatment of subjective or opinion-oriented language ( early work includes Wiebe and Rapaport ( 1988 ) , Hearst ( 1992 ) , Sack ( 1994 ) , and Wiebe ( 1994 ) ; see Esuli ( 2006 ) for an active bibliography ) . In particular , since we treat each individual speech within a debate as a single `` document '' , we are considering a version of document-level sentiment-polarity classification , namely , automatically distinguishing between positive and negative documents ( Das and Chen , 2001 ; Pang et al. , 2002 ; Turney , 2002 ; Dave et al. , 2003 ) .

Task properties Determining whether or not a speaker supports a proposal falls within the realm of sentiment analysis , an extremely active research area devoted to the computational treatment of subjective or opinion-oriented language ( early work includes Wiebe and Rapaport ( 1988 ) , Hearst ( 1992 ) , Sack ( 1994 ) , and @@CITATION ; see Esuli ( 2006 ) for an active bibliography ) .


Charles B Callaway
Myroslava Dzikovska
Elaine Farrow
Manuel Marques-Pita
Colin Matheson
Johanna D Moore

It also becomes more difficult to experiment with different tutorial policies within the system due to the inherent completixites in applying tutoring strategies consistently across a large number of individual hand-authored remediations . The BEETLE II system architecture is designed to overcome these limitations ( Callaway et al. , 2007 ) . It uses a deep parser and generator , together with a domain reasoner and a diagnoser , to produce detailed analyses of student utterances and generate feedback automatically .

The BEETLE II system architecture is designed to overcome these limitations ( @@CITATION ) .


bleu a method for automatic evaluation of machine translation

Kishore Papineni
Salim Roukos
Todd Ward
WeiJing Zhu

tion 7 . For the evaluation of the results we use the BLEU score ( Papineni et al. , 2001 ) . Section 8 compares translations generated from automatically built and manually annotated tectogrammatical representations .

For the evaluation of the results we use the BLEU score ( @@CITATION ) .


learning from message pairs for automatic email answering

There are very few reported attempts at corpus-based automation of help-desk responses ( Carmel , Shtalhaim , and Soffer 2000 ; Lapalme and Kosseim 2003 ; @@CITATION ; Malik , Subramaniam , and Kaushik 2007 ) .


a maximum entropy approach to natural language processing

A L Berger
S A Della Pietra
V J Della Pietra

This enables us to translate the verb alone even if it occurs in the training corpus only as a spliced entry . For an introduction to maximum entropy modeling and training procedures , the reader is referred to the corresponding literature , for instance ( Berger et al. , 1996 ) or ( Ratnaparkhi , 1997 ) .

For an introduction to maximum entropy modeling and training procedures , the reader is referred to the corresponding literature , for instance ( @@CITATION ) or ( Ratnaparkhi , 1997 ) .


systematic construction of a versatile case system

Ken Barker
Terry Copeck
Sylvain Delisle
Stan Szpakowicz

Our system begins operation with a minimum of manually encoded knowledge , and accumulates information as it processes the text . This design idea was adopted from TANKA ( Barker et al. , 1997b ) . The only manually encoded knowledge is a dictionary of markers ( subordinators , coordinators , prepositions ) .

This design idea was adopted from TANKA ( @@CITATIONb ) .


recovery strategies for parsing extragrammatical language

A detailed description of the kinds of expectation mechanisms appearing in these systems appears in Fink ( 1983 ) . The problem of handling ill-formed input has been studied by Carbonell and Hayes ( 1983 ) , Granger ( 1983 ) , Jensen et al. ( 1983 ) , Kwasny and Sondheimer ( 1981 ) , Riesbeck and Schank ( 1976 ) , Thompson ( 1980 ) , Weischedel and Black ( 1980 ) , and Weischedel and Sondheimer ( 1983 ) . A wide variety of techniques have been developed for addressing problems at the word , phrase , sentence , and in some cases , dialogue level .

The problem of handling ill-formed input has been studied by @@CITATION , Granger ( 1983 ) , Jensen et al. ( 1983 ) , Kwasny and Sondheimer ( 1981 ) , Riesbeck and Schank ( 1976 ) , Thompson ( 1980 ) , Weischedel and Black ( 1980 ) , and Weischedel and Sondheimer ( 1983 ) .


acquisition of qualia elements from corpora — evaluation of a symbolic learning method

Pierrette Bouillon
Vincent Claveau
Cecile Fabre
Pascale Sebillot

highlighting of the corpus-specific structures conveying the target element . In addition to its explanatory capacity , this symbolic acquisition technique has obtained good results for other acquisition tasks when compared to existing statistical techniques ( Bouillon et al. , 2002 ) .

In addition to its explanatory capacity , this symbolic acquisition technique has obtained good results for other acquisition tasks when compared to existing statistical techniques ( @@CITATION ) .


We use features such as the shallow parsing information associated with the tokens in a window of 3 tokens , POS , etc. . The context of a current token ti is clearly one of the most important features in predicting whether ti is a mention or not ( Florian et al. , 2004 ) . We denote these features as backward token tri-grams and forward token tri-grams for the previous and next context of ti respectively .

The context of a current token ti is clearly one of the most important features in predicting whether ti is a mention or not ( @@CITATION ) .


a mentionsynchronous coreference resolution algorithm based on the bell tree

Xiaoqiang Luo
Abe Ittycheriah
Hongyan Jing
Nanda Kambhatla
Salim Roukos

Features using the word context ( left and right tokens ) have been shown to be very helpful in coreference resolution ( Luo et al. , 2004 ) . For Arabic , since words are morphologically derived from a list of roots ( stems ) , we expected that a feature based on the right and left stems would lead to improvement in system accuracy .

Features using the word context ( left and right tokens ) have been shown to be very helpful in coreference resolution ( @@CITATION ) .


convolution kernels on constituent dependency and sequential structures for relation extraction

Truc-Vien T Nguyen
Alessandro Moschitti
Giuseppe Riccardi

As in the undersampled system , when the data is balanced , SqGRW ( sequence kernel on dependency tree in which grammatical relations are inserted as intermediate nodes ) achieves the best recall . Here , the PET and GR kernel perform similar : this is different from the results of ( Nguyen et al. , 2009 ) where GR performed much worse than PET for ACE data . This exemplifies the difference in the nature of our event annotations from that of ACE relations .

Here , the PET and GR kernel perform similar : this is different from the results of ( @@CITATION ) where GR performed much worse than PET for ACE data .


lexical functional grammar volume 34 of syntax and semantics

In modern syntactic theories ( e.g. , lexical-functional grammar [ LFG ] [ Kaplan and Bresnan 1982 ; Bresnan 2001 ; Dalrymple 2001 ] , head-driven phrase structure grammar [ HPSG ] [ Pollard and Sag 1994 ] , tree-adjoining grammar [ TAG ] [ Joshi 1988 ] , and combinatory categorial grammar [ CCG ] [ Ades and Steedman 1982 ] ) , the lexicon is the central repository for much morphological , syntactic , and semantic information . * National Centre for Language Technology , School of Computing , Dublin City University , Glasnevin , Dublin 9 , Ireland .

In modern syntactic theories ( e.g. , lexical-functional grammar [ LFG ] [ Kaplan and Bresnan 1982 ; Bresnan 2001 ; @@CITATION ] , head-driven phrase structure grammar [ HPSG ] [ Pollard and Sag 1994 ] , tree-adjoining grammar [ TAG ] [ Joshi 1988 ] , and combinatory categorial grammar [ CCG ] [ Ades and Steedman 1982 ] ) , the lexicon is the central repository for much morphological , syntactic , and semantic information .


learning to parse natural language commands to a robot control system

Cynthia Matuszek
Evan Herbst
Luke Zettlemoyer
Dieter Fox

Many approaches to multimodal research have succeeded by abstracting away raw perceptual information and using high-level representations instead . Some works abstract perception via the usage of symbolic logic representations ( Chen et al. , 2010 ; Chen and Mooney , 2011 ; Matuszek et al. , 2012 ; Artzi and Zettlemoyer , 2013 ) , while others choose to employ concepts elicited from psycholinguistic and cognition studies . Within the latter category , the two most common representations have been association norms , where subjects are given a

Some works abstract perception via the usage of symbolic logic representations ( Chen et al. , 2010 ; Chen and Mooney , 2011 ; @@CITATION ; Artzi and Zettlemoyer , 2013 ) , while others choose to employ concepts elicited from psycholinguistic and cognition studies .


We noted in Section 8 that very short documents of one to three sentences also present a difficulty for our approach . This is where robust syntactic systems like SATZ ( Palmer and Hearst 1997 ) or the POS tagger reported in Mikheev ( 2000 ) , which do not heavily rely on word capitalization and are not sensitive to document length , have an advantage . Our DCA uses information derived from the entire document and thus can be used as a complement to approaches based on the local context .

This is where robust syntactic systems like SATZ ( Palmer and Hearst 1997 ) or the POS tagger reported in @@CITATION , which do not heavily rely on word capitalization and are not sensitive to document length , have an advantage .


a constrained latent variable model for coreference resolution

This section describes our joint coreference resolution and mention head detection framework . Our work is inspired by the latent left-linking model in Chang et al. ( 2013 ) and the ILP formulation from Chang et al. ( 2011 ) . The joint learning and inference model takes as input mention head candidates

Our work is inspired by the latent left-linking model in @@CITATION and the ILP formulation from Chang et al. ( 2011 ) .


chinese numbernames tree adjoining languages and mild contextsensitivity

Average , since it can happen that the grammar does admit hard-toparse sentences that are not used ( or at least not frequently used ) in the real corpus . For example , Radzinsky ( 1991 ) proves that Chinese numerals such as wu zhao zhao zhao zhao zhao wu zhao zhao zhao zhao wu zhao zhao zhao wu zhao zhao wu zhao , for the number 5000000000000000005000000000000005000000000005000000005000 , are not context-free , which implies that Chinese is not a context-free language and thus might parse in exponential worst-case time . Do such arguments -- no doubt important for mathematical linguistics -- have any direct consequences for an engineering linguistics ?

For example , @@CITATION proves that Chinese numerals such as wu zhao zhao zhao zhao zhao wu zhao zhao zhao zhao wu zhao zhao zhao wu zhao zhao wu zhao , for the number 5000000000000000005000000000000005000000000005000000005000 , are not context-free , which implies that Chinese is not a context-free language and thus might parse in exponential worst-case time .


extracting paraphrases from a parallel corpus

For example , year end is an unsuitable paraphrase for the end of this year in the sentence The chart compares the gold price at the end of last year with the end of this year . Barzilay and McKeown ( 2001 ) also note that the applicability of paraphrases is strongly influenced by context . Section 4 describes our method for determining if a paraphrase is suitable in a given context .

@@CITATION also note that the applicability of paraphrases is strongly influenced by context .


Even better accuracy can be achieved with a more fine-grained link class structure . Promising features for classification include part of speech , frequency of co-occurrence , relative word position , and translational entropy ( Melamed , 1997 ) . Another interesting extension is to broaden the definition of a `` word '' to include multi-word lexical units ( Smadja , 1992 ) .

Promising features for classification include part of speech , frequency of co-occurrence , relative word position , and translational entropy ( @@CITATION ) .


fast decoding and optimal decoding for machine translation

U Germann
M Jahr
K Knight
D Marcu
K Yamada

In the work presented here , we restrict ourselves to transforming only one language of the two : the source , which has the less inflected morphology . For descriptions of SMT systems see for example ( Germann et al. , 2001 ; Och et al. , 1999 ; Tillmann and Ney , 2002 ; Vogel et al. , 2000 ; Wang and Waibel , 1997 ) .

For descriptions of SMT systems see for example ( @@CITATION ; Och et al. , 1999 ; Tillmann and Ney , 2002 ; Vogel et al. , 2000 ; Wang and Waibel , 1997 ) .


unsupervised methods for determining object and relation synonyms on the web

Furthermore , if we use a labeled-ALS as the metric for augmented-loss training , we also see a considerable increase in LAS . like information extraction ( Yates and Etzioni , 2009 ) and textual entailment ( Berant et al. , 2010 ) . In Table 3 we show results for parsing with the ALS augmented-loss objective .

like information extraction ( @@CITATION ) and textual entailment ( Berant et al. , 2010 ) .


examplebased incremental synchronous interpretation

We ignore here the trivially true lexical chunk `` <QUANT> 14 : 14 . '' In a final processing stage , we generalize over the marker lexicon following a process found in Block ( 2000 ) . In Block 's approach , word alignments are assigned probabilities by means of a statistical word alignment tool .

In a final processing stage , we generalize over the marker lexicon following a process found in @@CITATION .


For example , composition as above has the following alternative derivation : One approach to this problem consists in defining , within the Cut-free atomic-id space , normal form derivations in which the succession of rule application is regulated ( Konig 1989 , Hepple 1990 , Hendriks 1993 ) . Each sequent has a distinguished category formula ( underlined ) on which rule applications are keyed :

One approach to this problem consists in defining , within the Cut-free atomic-id space , normal form derivations in which the succession of rule application is regulated ( @@CITATION , Hepple 1990 , Hendriks 1993 ) .


discriminative reranking for natural language parsing

Our primary contribution is a method for training the SPR . The SPR uses rules automatically learned from training data , using techniques similar to ( Collins , 2000 ; Freund et al. , 1998 ) . Our method for training a sentence planner is unique in neither depending on hand-crafted rules , nor on the existence of a text or speech corpus in the domain of the sentence planner obtained from the interaction of a human with a system or another human .

The SPR uses rules automatically learned from training data , using techniques similar to ( @@CITATION ; Freund et al. , 1998 ) .


categorization of sentence types in medical abstracts

Furthermore , the availability of rich ontological resources , in the form of the Unified Medical Language System ( UMLS ) ( Lindberg et al. , 1993 ) , and the availability of software that leverages this knowledge -- MetaMap ( Aronson , 2001 ) for concept identification and SemRep ( Rindflesch and Fiszman , 2003 ) for relation extraction -- provide a foundation for studying the role of semantics in various tasks . McKnight and Srinivasan ( 2003 ) have previously examined the task of categorizing sentences in medical abstracts using supervised discriminative machine learning techniques . Building on the work of Ruch et al. ( 2003 ) in the same domain , we present a generative approach that attempts to directly model the discourse structure of MEDLINE abstracts using Hidden Markov Models ( HMMs ) ; cfXXX ( Barzilay and Lee , 2004 ) .

@@CITATION have previously examined the task of categorizing sentences in medical abstracts using supervised discriminative machine learning techniques .


For shuffling paraphrases , french alternations are partially described in ( Saint-Dizier , 1999 ) and a resource is available which describes alternation and the mapping verbs/alternations for roughly 1 700 verbs . For complementing this database and for converse constructions , the LADL tables ( Gross , 1975 ) can furthermore be resorted to , which list detailed syntactico-semantic descriptions for 5 000 verbs and 25 000 verbal expressions . In particular , ( Gross , 1989 ) lists the converses of some 3 500 predicative nouns .

For complementing this database and for converse constructions , the LADL tables ( @@CITATION ) can furthermore be resorted to , which list detailed syntactico-semantic descriptions for 5 000 verbs and 25 000 verbal expressions .


clause aggregation using linguistic knowledge

Joins two complete clauses with a period . These operations are not domain-specific and are similar to those of previous aggregation components ( Rambow and Korelsky ,1992 ; Shaw , 1998 ; Danlos , 2000 ) , although the various MERGE operations are , to our knowledge , novel in this form . The result of applying the operations is a sentence plan tree ( or sp-tree for short ) , which is a binary tree with leaves labeled by all the elementary speech acts

These operations are not domain-specific and are similar to those of previous aggregation components ( Rambow and Korelsky ,1992 ; @@CITATION ; Danlos , 2000 ) , although the various MERGE operations are , to our knowledge , novel in this form .


Work using the marker hypothesis for MT adapts this monolingual mapping for pairs of languages : It is reasonably straightforward to map an English determiner-noun sequence onto a Japanese noun -- case marker segment , once one has identified the sets of marker tags in the languages to be translated . Following construction of the marker lexicon , the ( source , target ) chunks are generalized further using a methodology based on Block ( 2000 ) to permit a limited form of insertion in the translation process . As a byproduct of the chosen methodology , we also derive a standard '' word-level '' translation lexicon .

Following construction of the marker lexicon , the ( source , target ) chunks are generalized further using a methodology based on @@CITATION to permit a limited form of insertion in the translation process .


Christy Doran
Beth Ann Hockey
Anoop Sarkar
B Srinivas
Fei Xia

1In this paper , we use the term LTAG to refer to FBLTAG , if not confusing . ment ( Sarkar and Wintner , 1999 ; Doran et al. , 2000 ; Makino et al. , 1998 ) . These works are restricted to each closed community , and the relation between them is not well discussed .

ment ( Sarkar and Wintner , 1999 ; @@CITATION ; Makino et al. , 1998 ) .


zone analysis in biology articles as a basis for information extraction

Yoko Mizuta
Anna Korhonen
Tony Mullen
Nigel Collier

fields generally follow the pattern of `` introduction '' , `` methods '' , `` results '' , and `` conclusions '' ( SalangerMeyer , 1990 ; Swales , 1990 ; OrËasan , 2001 ) . The ability to explicitly identify these sections in unstructured text could play an important role in applications such as document summarization ( Teufel and Moens , 2000 ) , information retrieval ( Tbahriti et al. , 2005 ) , information extraction ( Mizuta et al. , 2005 ) , and question answering . Although there is a trend towards analysis of full article texts , we believe that abstracts still provide a tremendous amount of information , and much value can still be extracted from them .

The ability to explicitly identify these sections in unstructured text could play an important role in applications such as document summarization ( Teufel and Moens , 2000 ) , information retrieval ( Tbahriti et al. , 2005 ) , information extraction ( @@CITATION ) , and question answering .


the design of a computer language for linguistic information

This paper describes the extraction of this , and other , information from LDOCE and discusses the utility of the coding system for automated natural language processing . Recent developments in linguistics , and especially on grammatical theory -- for example , Generalised Phrase Structure Grammar ( GPSG ) ( Gazdar et al. , 1985 ) , Lexical Functional Grammar ( LFG ) ( Kaplan and Bresnan , 1982 ) -- and on natural language parsing frameworks -- for example , Functional Unification Grammar ( FUG ) ( Kay , 1984a ) , PATR-II ( Shieber , 1984 ) -- make it feasible to consider the implementation of efficient systems for the syntactic analysis of substantial fragments of natural language . These developments also emphasise that if natural language processing systems are to be able to handle the grammatical and semantic idiosyncracies of individual lexical items elegantly and efficiently , then the lexicon must be a central component of the parsing system .

Recent developments in linguistics , and especially on grammatical theory -- for example , Generalised Phrase Structure Grammar ( GPSG ) ( Gazdar et al. , 1985 ) , Lexical Functional Grammar ( LFG ) ( Kaplan and Bresnan , 1982 ) -- and on natural language parsing frameworks -- for example , Functional Unification Grammar ( FUG ) ( Kay , 1984a ) , PATR-II ( @@CITATION ) -- make it feasible to consider the implementation of efficient systems for the syntactic analysis of substantial fragments of natural language .


using measures of semantic relatedness for word sense disambiguation

Siddharth Patwardhan
Satanjeev Banerjee
Ted Pedersen

Mathematical analysis can assess a measure with respect to some formal properties , e.g. whether a measure is a metric ( Lin , 1998 ) .4 However , mathematical analysis can not tell us whether a measure closely resembles human judgments or whether it performs best when used in a certain application . The latter question is tackled by applicationspecific evaluation , where a measure is tested within the framework of a certain application , e.g. word sense disambiguation ( Patwardhan et al. , 2003 ) or malapropism detection ( Budanitsky and Hirst , 2006 ) . Lebart and Rajman ( 2000 ) argue for application-specific evaluation of similarity measures , because measures are always used for some task .

The latter question is tackled by applicationspecific evaluation , where a measure is tested within the framework of a certain application , e.g. word sense disambiguation ( @@CITATION ) or malapropism detection ( Budanitsky and Hirst , 2006 ) .


The latter question is tackled by applicationspecific evaluation , where a measure is tested within the framework of a certain application , e.g. word sense disambiguation ( Patwardhan et al. , 2003 ) or malapropism detection ( Budanitsky and Hirst , 2006 ) . Lebart and Rajman ( 2000 ) argue for application-specific evaluation of similarity measures , because measures are always used for some task . But they also note that evaluating a measure as part of a usually complex application only indirectly assesses its quality .

@@CITATION argue for application-specific evaluation of similarity measures , because measures are always used for some task .


The forest concept is also used in machine translation decoding , for example to characterize the search space of decoding with integrated language models ( Huang and Chiang , 2007 ) . The first direct application of parse forest in translation is our previous work ( Mi et al. , 2008 ) which translates a packed forest from a parser ; it is also the base system in our experiments ( see below ) . This work , on the other hand , is in the orthogonal direction , where we utilize forests in rule extraction instead of decoding .

The first direct application of parse forest in translation is our previous work ( @@CITATION ) which translates a packed forest from a parser ; it is also the base system in our experiments ( see below ) .


an expanded logical formalism for headdriven phrase structure grammar

To avoid confusion , we will only use the terminology introduced in the text . 4 This interpretation of the signature is sometimes referred to as closed world ( Gerdemann and King 1994 ; Gerdemann 1995 ) . 5 An in-depth discussion including a comparison of both approaches is provided in Calcagno , Meurers , and Pollard ( in preparation ) .

4 This interpretation of the signature is sometimes referred to as closed world ( Gerdemann and @@CITATION ; Gerdemann 1995 ) .


gaijin a bootstrapping templatedriven approach to examplebased machine translation

On novel test sentences , he gives results of 72 % correct translation . In their Gaijin system , Veale and Way ( 1997 ) give a result of 63 % accurate translations obtained for English â > German on a test set of 791 sentences from CorelDRAW manuals . As in METLA and Gaijin , we exploit lists of known marker words for each language to indicate the start and end of segments .

In their Gaijin system , @@CITATION give a result of 63 % accurate translations obtained for English â > German on a test set of 791 sentences from CorelDRAW manuals .


precise ngram probabilities from stochastic contextfree grammars

That is , each X E EA is a terminal , or a nonterminal not in the same set Ni as A , but immediately reachable from set N â through B E N . This method can be generalized , inspired by Stolcke and Segal ( 1994 ) , who derive N-gram probabilities from stochastic context-free grammars . By ignoring the probabilities , each N = 1 , 2 , 3 , ... gives rise to a superset approximation that can be described as follows : The set of strings derivable from a nonterminal A is approximated by the set of strings al ... an such that

This method can be generalized , inspired by @@CITATION , who derive N-gram probabilities from stochastic context-free grammars .


three generative lexicalised models for statistical parsing

The system was trained on the Penn Treebank ( Marcus et al. , 1993 ) WSJ Sections 221 and tested on Section 23 ( Table 1 ) , same as used by Magerman ( 1995 ) , Collins ( 1997 ) , and Ratnaparkhi ( 1997 ) , and became a common testbed . The tasks were selected so as to demonstrate the benefit of using internal structure

The system was trained on the Penn Treebank ( Marcus et al. , 1993 ) WSJ Sections 221 and tested on Section 23 ( Table 1 ) , same as used by Magerman ( 1995 ) , @@CITATION , and Ratnaparkhi ( 1997 ) , and became a common testbed .


understanding complex visually referring utterances

Many alternative strategies are possible . The Nash arbitration plan , for example , would allow a doubly graded description whenever the product of the Values for the referent r exceeds that of all distractors ( Nash 1950 ; cfXXX Gorniak and Roy 2003 ; Thorisson 1994 , for other plans ) . 9.3.2 Multidimensional Adjectives ( and Color ) .

The Nash arbitration plan , for example , would allow a doubly graded description whenever the product of the Values for the referent r exceeds that of all distractors ( Nash 1950 ; cfXXX @@CITATION ; Thorisson 1994 , for other plans ) .


syntactic constraints on paraphrases extracted from parallel corpora

Hence we require possible paraphrases for phrases that occur in Section 00 . The paraphrase dictionary that we use was generated for us by Chris Callison-Burch , using the technique described in Callison-Burch ( 2008 ) , which exploits a parallel corpus and methods developed for statistical machine translation . Table 1 gives summary statistics of the paraphrase dictionary and its coverage on Section 00 of the Penn Treebank .

The paraphrase dictionary that we use was generated for us by Chris Callison-Burch , using the technique described in @@CITATION , which exploits a parallel corpus and methods developed for statistical machine translation .


what helps where–and why semantic relatedness for knowledge transfer

Marcus Rohrbach
Michael Stark
Gy¨orgy Szarvas
Iryna Gurevych
Bernt Schiele

The Computer Vision community has also benefited greatly from efforts to unify the two modalities . To name a few examples , Rohrbach et al. ( 2010 ) and Socher et al. ( 2013 ) show how semantic information from text can be used to improve zero-shot classification ( i.e. , classifying never-before-seen objects ) , and Motwani and Mooney ( 2012 ) show that verb clusters can be used to improve activity recognition in videos .

To name a few examples , @@CITATION and Socher et al. ( 2013 ) show how semantic information from text can be used to improve zero-shot classification ( i.e. , classifying never-before-seen objects ) , and Motwani and Mooney ( 2012 ) show that verb clusters can be used to improve activity recognition in videos .


a new statistical parser based on bigram lexical dependencies

The DOP model , on the other hand , was the first model ( to the best of our knowledge ) that proposed not to train a predefined grammar on a corpus , but to directly use corpus fragments as a grammar . This approach has now gained wide usage , as exemplified by the work of Collins ( 1996 , 1999 ) , Charniak ( 1996 , 1997 ) , Johnson ( 1998 ) , Chiang ( 2000 ) , and many others . The other innovation of DOP was to take ( in principle ) all corpus fragments , of any size , rather than a small subset .

This approach has now gained wide usage , as exemplified by the work of @@CITATION , 1999 ) , Charniak ( 1996 , 1997 ) , Johnson ( 1998 ) , Chiang ( 2000 ) , and many others .


achieving commercialquality translation with examplebased methods

S Richardson
W Dolan
A Menezes
J Pinkham

Due to these limitations , instead of investigating into the synchronization of two grammars , we propose a flexible annotation schema ( i.e. Synchronous Structured String-Tree Correspondence ( S-SSTC ) ) to realize additional power and flexibility in expressing structural correspondences at the level of language sentence pairs . For example , such schema can serve as a mean to represent translation examples , or find structural correspondences for the purpose of transfer grammar learning ( Menezes & Richardson , 2001 ) , ( Aramaki et al. , 2001 ) , ( Watanabe et al. , 2000 ) , ( Meyers et al. , 2000 ) , ( Matsumoto et al. , 1993 ) , ( kaji et al. , 1992 ) , and example-base machine translation EBMT3 ( Sato & Nagao , 1990 ) , ( Sato , 1991 ) , ( Richardson et al. , 2001 ) , ( Al-Adhaileh & Tang , 1999 ) .

For example , such schema can serve as a mean to represent translation examples , or find structural correspondences for the purpose of transfer grammar learning ( Menezes & Richardson , 2001 ) , ( Aramaki et al. , 2001 ) , ( Watanabe et al. , 2000 ) , ( Meyers et al. , 2000 ) , ( Matsumoto et al. , 1993 ) , ( kaji et al. , 1992 ) , and example-base machine translation EBMT3 ( Sato & Nagao , 1990 ) , ( Sato , 1991 ) , ( @@CITATION ) , ( Al-Adhaileh & Tang , 1999 ) .


using the web to overcome data sparseness

In corpus linguistics building such megacorpora is beyond the scope of individual researchers , and they are not easily accessible ( Kennedy , 1998 : 56 ) unless the web is used as a corpus ( Kilgarriff and Grefenstette , 2003 ) . Increasingly , corpus researchers are tapping the Web to overcome the sparse data problem ( Keller et al. , 2002 ) . This topic generated intense interest at workshops held at the University of Heidelberg ( October 2004 ) , University of Bologna ( January 2005 ) , University of Birmingham ( July 2005 ) and now in Trento in April 2006 .

Increasingly , corpus researchers are tapping the Web to overcome the sparse data problem ( @@CITATION ) .


ale — the attribute logic engine users guide version 202

In contrast to Johnson and D6rre 's deduction system , though , the selective magic parsing approach combines top-down and bottom-up control strategies . As such it resembles the parser of the grammar development system Attribute Language Engine ( ALE ) of ( Carpenter and Penn , 1994 ) . Unlike the ALE parser , though , the selective magic parser does not presuppose a phrase structure backbone and is more flexible as to which sub-computations are tabled/filtered .

As such it resembles the parser of the grammar development system Attribute Language Engine ( ALE ) of ( @@CITATION ) .


french clitic climbing without clitics or climbing

nphil.uni-tuebingen . de URL : http://www.sfs.nphil.uni-tuebingen.de/sfb / b4home.html 1 This is , for example , the case for all proposals working with verbal lexical entries that raise the arguments of a verbal complement ( Hinrichs and Nakazawa 1989 ) that also use lexical rules such as the Complement Extraction Lexical Rule ( Pollard and Sag 1994 ) or the Complement Cliticization Lexical Rule ( Miller and Sag 1993 ) to operate on those raised elements . Also an analysis treating adjunct extraction via lexical rules ( van Noord and Bouma 1994 ) results in an infinite lexicon .

de URL : http://www.sfs.nphil.uni-tuebingen.de/sfb / b4home.html 1 This is , for example , the case for all proposals working with verbal lexical entries that raise the arguments of a verbal complement ( Hinrichs and Nakazawa 1989 ) that also use lexical rules such as the Complement Extraction Lexical Rule ( Pollard and Sag 1994 ) or the Complement Cliticization Lexical Rule ( @@CITATION ) to operate on those raised elements .


detecting and correcting morphosyntactic errors in real texts

However , as is evident from the discussion above , previous spelling research does provide an important role in suggesting productive features to include in the decision tree . Research that is more similar in goal to that outlined in this paper is Vosse ( Vosse , 1992 ) . Vosse uses a simple algorithm to identify three classes of unknown words : misspellings , neologisms , and names .

Research that is more similar in goal to that outlined in this paper is Vosse ( @@CITATION ) .


identifying unknown proper names in newswire text”

For handling very long documents with our method , however , the information decay strategy seems to be the right way to proceed . Mani and MacMillan ( 1995 ) pointed out that little attention had been paid in the named-entity recognition field to the discourse properties of proper names . They proposed that proper names be viewed as linguistic expressions whose interpretation often depends on the discourse context , advocating text-driven processing rather than reliance on pre-existing lists .

@@CITATION pointed out that little attention had been paid in the named-entity recognition field to the discourse properties of proper names .


strength of recommendation taxonomy sort a patientcentered approach to grading evidence in the medical literature

Mark H Ebell
Jay Siwek
Barry D Weiss
Steven H Woolf
Jeffrey Susman
Bernard Ewigman
Marjorie Bowman

The potential highest level of the strength of evidence for a given citation can be identified using the Publication Type ( a metadata field ) and MeSH terms pertaining to the type of the clinical study . Table 5 shows our mapping from publication type and MeSH headings to evidence grades based on principles defined in the Strength of Recommendations Taxonomy ( Ebell et al. 2004 ) . 5.10 Sample Output

Table 5 shows our mapping from publication type and MeSH headings to evidence grades based on principles defined in the Strength of Recommendations Taxonomy ( @@CITATION ) .


word association norms mutual information and lexicography

For the higherfrequency words , Fisher 's exact test leads to a slightly better recall with the same precision scores ( 0.31 for both tests ) . While we have observed reasonable results with both G2 and Fisher 's exact test , we have not yet discussed how these results compare to the results that can be obtained with a technique commonly used in corpus linguistics based on the mutual information ( MI ) measure ( Church and Hanks 1990 ) : In ( 4 ) , y is the seed term and x a potential target word .

While we have observed reasonable results with both G2 and Fisher 's exact test , we have not yet discussed how these results compare to the results that can be obtained with a technique commonly used in corpus linguistics based on the mutual information ( MI ) measure ( @@CITATION ) :


exploiting semantic role labeling wordnet and wikipedia for coreference resolution

We report performance in terms of two metrics : ( 1 ) the Fmeasure score as computed by the commonly-used MUC scorer ( Vilain et al. , 1995 ) , and ( 2 ) the accuracy on the anaphoric references , computed as the fraction of anaphoric references correctly resolved . Following Ponzetto and Strube ( 2006 ) , we consider an anaphoric reference , NPi , correctly resolved if NPi and its closest antecedent are in the same coreference chain in the resulting partition . In all of our experiments , we use NPs automatically extracted by an in-house NP chunker and IdentiFinder .

Following @@CITATION , we consider an anaphoric reference , NPi , correctly resolved if NPi and its closest antecedent are in the same coreference chain in the resulting partition .


morphosemantic analysis of itis forms in medical language

This is particularly true for the medical domain . From an IR view , a lot of specialized research has already been carried out for medical applications , with emphasis on the lexico-semantic aspects of dederivation and decomposition ( Pacak et al. , 1980 ; Norton and Pacak , 1983 ; Wolff , 1984 ; Wingert , 1985 ; Dujols et al. , 1991 ; Baud et al. , 1998 ) . While one may argue that single-word compounds are quite rare in English ( which is not the case in the medical domain either ) , this is certainly not true for German and other basically agglutinative languages known for excessive single-word nominal compounding .

From an IR view , a lot of specialized research has already been carried out for medical applications , with emphasis on the lexico-semantic aspects of dederivation and decomposition ( @@CITATION ; Norton and Pacak , 1983 ; Wolff , 1984 ; Wingert , 1985 ; Dujols et al. , 1991 ; Baud et al. , 1998 ) .


finding syntactic structure in unparsed corpora the gsearch corpus query system computers and the humanities

S Corley
M Corley
F Keller
M Crocker
S Trewin

A new collection does not become available for analysis until the LSE completes the annotation process , which may entail significant delay with multiple users of the LSE server . The Gsearch system ( Corley et al. , 2001 ) also selects sentences by syntactic criteria from large on-line text collections . Gsearch annotates corpora with a fast chart parser to obviate the need for corpora with pre-existing syntactic mark-up .

The Gsearch system ( @@CITATION ) also selects sentences by syntactic criteria from large on-line text collections .


errordriven pruning of treebanks grammars for base noun phrase identification

While earlier work in this direction concentrated on manual construction of rules , most of the recent work has been motivated by the observation that shallow syntactic information can be extracted using local information by examining the pattern itself , its nearby context and the local part-of-speech information . Thus , over the past few years , along with advances in the use of learning and statistical methods for acquisition of full parsers ( Collins , 1997 ; Charniak , 1997a ; Charniak , 1997b ; Ratnaparkhi , 1997 ) , significant progress has been made on the use of statistical learning methods to recognize shallow parsing patterns syntactic phrases or words that participate in a syntactic relationship ( Church , 1988 ; Ramshaw and Marcus , 1995 ; Argamon et al. , 1998 ; Cardie and Pierce , 1998 ; Munoz et al. , 1999 ; Punyakanok and Roth , 2001 ; Buchholz et al. , 1999 ; Tjong Kim Sang and Buchholz , 2000 ) . Research on shallow parsing was inspired by psycholinguistics arguments ( Gee and Grosjean , 1983 ) that suggest that in many scenarios ( e.g. , conversational ) full parsing is not a realistic strategy for sentence processing and analysis , and was further motivated by several arguments from a natural language engineering viewpoint .

Thus , over the past few years , along with advances in the use of learning and statistical methods for acquisition of full parsers ( Collins , 1997 ; Charniak , 1997a ; Charniak , 1997b ; Ratnaparkhi , 1997 ) , significant progress has been made on the use of statistical learning methods to recognize shallow parsing patterns syntactic phrases or words that participate in a syntactic relationship ( Church , 1988 ; Ramshaw and Marcus , 1995 ; Argamon et al. , 1998 ; @@CITATION ; Munoz et al. , 1999 ; Punyakanok and Roth , 2001 ; Buchholz et al. , 1999 ; Tjong Kim Sang and Buchholz , 2000 ) .


using an online dictionary to find rhyming words and pronunciations for unknown words

It was first proposed for ITS applications over a decade ago by Dedina and Nusbaum ( 1986 , 1991 ) . See also the work of Byrd and Chodorow ( 1985 ) , which considers computer-based pronunciation by analogy but does not mention the possible application to text-to-speech synthesis . As detailed by Damper ( 1995 ) and Damper and Eastmond ( 1997 ) , PbA shares many similarities with the artificial intelligence paradigms variously called case-based , memory-based , or instance-based reasoning as applied to letter-to-phoneme conversion ( Stanfill and Waltz 1986 ; Lehnert 1987 ; Stanfill 1987 , 1988 ; Golding 1991 ; Golding and Rosenbloom 1991 ; van den Bosch and Daelemans 1993 ) .

See also the work of @@CITATION , which considers computer-based pronunciation by analogy but does not mention the possible application to text-to-speech synthesis .


automatic text processing the transformation analysis and retrieval of information by computer

The three preprocessing steps ( tokenization , POS-tagging , lemmatization ) are performed using TreeTagger ( Schmid , 1995 ) . The resulting list of POS-tagged lemmas is weighted using the SMART ` ltc ' 8 tf.idf-weighting scheme ( Salton , 1989 ) . We implemented a set of filters for word pairs .

The resulting list of POS-tagged lemmas is weighted using the SMART ` ltc ' 8 tf.idf-weighting scheme ( @@CITATION ) .


speech rhythm its relation to performance universals and articulatory timing

The psycholinguistic studies of Martin ( 1970 ) , Allen ( 1975 ) , Hillinger et al. ( 1976 ) , Grosjean et al. ( 1979 ) , Dommergues and Grosjean ( 1983 ) , and Gee and Grosjean ( 1983 ) , responding to the idea of readjusted syntax as the source of prosodic phrasing , show that grammatical structure , even if readjusted , is not in itself a reliable predictor of prosodic phrasing : mismatches between syntax and prosody occur often and systematically , and can be related to specific nonsyntactic factors such as length and word frequency . For example , although prosodic boundaries between subject and verb do occur , there also exist prosodic patterns in which the boundary comes between the verb and object , i.e. , the data reveal both X ( VY ) and ( XV ) Y groupings .

The psycholinguistic studies of Martin ( 1970 ) , @@CITATION , Hillinger et al. ( 1976 ) , Grosjean et al. ( 1979 ) , Dommergues and Grosjean ( 1983 ) , and Gee and Grosjean ( 1983 ) , responding to the idea of readjusted syntax as the source of prosodic phrasing , show that grammatical structure , even if readjusted , is not in itself a reliable predictor of prosodic phrasing : mismatches between syntax and prosody occur often and systematically , and can be related to specific nonsyntactic factors such as length and word frequency .


minimum error rate training in statistical machine translation

h is a feature vector which is scaled by a weight W. Parameter estimation is one of the most important components in SMT , and various training methods have been proposed to tune W . Some methods are based on likelihood ( Och and Ney , 2002 ; Blunsom et al. , 2008 ) , error rate ( Och , 2003 ; Zhao and Chen , 2009 ; Pauls et al. , 2009 ; Galley and Quirk , 2011 ) , margin ( Watanabe et al. , 2007 ; Chiang et al. , 2008 ) and ranking ( Hopkins and May , 2011 ) , and among which minimum error rate training ( MERT ) ( Och , 2003 ) is the most popular one . All these training methods follow the same pipeline : they train only a single weight on a given development set , and then use it to translate all the sentences in a test set .

Some methods are based on likelihood ( Och and Ney , 2002 ; Blunsom et al. , 2008 ) , error rate ( @@CITATION ; Zhao and Chen , 2009 ; Pauls et al. , 2009 ; Galley and Quirk , 2011 ) , margin ( Watanabe et al. , 2007 ; Chiang et al. , 2008 ) and ranking ( Hopkins and May , 2011 ) , and among which minimum error rate training ( MERT ) ( Och , 2003 ) is the most popular one .


using the web to obtain frequencies for unseen bigrams

We set the MI-threshold , T , to be 0 , and the negative-to-positive ratio , K , to be 2 . Numerous previous pseudodisambiguation evaluations only include arguments that occur between 30 and 3000 times ( Erk , 2007 ; Keller and Lapata , 2003 ; Rooth et al. , 1999 ) . Presumably the lower bound is to help ensure the negative argument is unobserved because it is unsuitable , not because of data sparseness .

Numerous previous pseudodisambiguation evaluations only include arguments that occur between 30 and 3000 times ( Erk , 2007 ; @@CITATION ; Rooth et al. , 1999 ) .


John Nerbonne
Lauri Karttunen
Elena Paskaleva
Gabor Proszeky
Tiit Roosmaa

Applications where word order is not essential include â¢ cross-language information retrieval ( e.g. , McCarley 1999 ) , â¢ multilingual document filtering ( e.g. , Oard 1997 ) , â¢ computer-assisted language learning ( e.g. , Nerbonne et al. 1997 ) , â¢ certain machine-assisted translation tools ( e.g. , Macklovitch 1994 ; Melamed 1996a ) , â¢ concordancing for bilingual lexicography ( e.g. , Catizone , Russell , and Warwick 1989 ; Gale and Church 1991 ) , â¢ corpus linguistics ( e.g. , Svartvik 1992 ) , â¢ `` crummy '' machine translation ( e.g. , Church and Hovy 1992 ; Resnik 1997 ) .

â¢ cross-language information retrieval ( e.g. , McCarley 1999 ) , â¢ multilingual document filtering ( e.g. , Oard 1997 ) , â¢ computer-assisted language learning ( e.g. , @@CITATION ) , â¢ certain machine-assisted translation tools ( e.g. , Macklovitch 1994 ; Melamed 1996a ) , â¢ concordancing for bilingual lexicography ( e.g. , Catizone , Russell , and Warwick 1989 ; Gale and Church 1991 ) ,


With respect to frame specification this means that there can be lexical entries , such as the one in Figure 7 , for which we need to make sure that tj as the value of c gets transferred . ' One would think that the type information ti , which is more specific than that 16 A linguistic example based on the signature given by Pollard and Sag ( 1994 ) would be a lexical rule deriving predicative signs from nonpredicative ones , i.e. , changing the PRD value of substantive signs from -- to - F , much like the lexical rule for NPs given by Pollard and Sag ( 1994 , p. 360 , fn . 20 ) .

One would think that the type information ti , which is more specific than that 16 A linguistic example based on the signature given by @@CITATION would be a lexical rule deriving predicative signs from nonpredicative ones , i.e. , changing the PRD value of substantive signs from -- to - F , much like the lexical rule for NPs given by Pollard and Sag ( 1994 , p. 360 , fn .


the role of syntax markers and semantic referents in learning an artificial language

The marker hypothesis has been used for a number of different language-related tasks , including â¢ language learning ( Green 1979 ; Mori and Moeser 1983 ; Morgan , Meier , and Newport 1989 ) â¢ monolingual grammar induction ( Juola 1998 ) â¢ grammar optimization ( Juola 1994 ) â¢ insights into universal grammar ( Juola 1998 ) â¢ machine translation ( Juola 1994 , 1997 ; Veale and Way 1997 ; Gough , Way , and Hearne 2002 ) With respect to translation , a potential problem in using the marker hypothesis is that some languages do not have marker words such as articles , for instance .

â¢ language learning ( Green 1979 ; @@CITATION ; Morgan , Meier , and Newport 1989 ) â¢ monolingual grammar induction ( Juola 1998 ) â¢ grammar optimization ( Juola 1994 ) â¢ insights into universal grammar ( Juola 1998 ) â¢ machine translation ( Juola 1994 , 1997 ; Veale and Way 1997 ; Gough , Way , and Hearne 2002 )


learning from labeled and unlabeled data using graph mincuts

inter-document references in the form of hyperlinks ( Agrawal et al. , 2003 ) . Notable early papers on graph-based semisupervised learning include Blum and Chawla ( 2001 ) , Bansal et al. ( 2002 ) , Kondor and Lafferty ( 2002 ) , and Joachims ( 2003 ) . Zhu ( 2005 ) maintains a survey of this area .

Notable early papers on graph-based semisupervised learning include @@CITATION , Bansal et al. ( 2002 ) , Kondor and Lafferty ( 2002 ) , and Joachims ( 2003 ) .


unsupervised learning of contextual role knowledge for coreference resolution

In fact , semantics plays a crucially important role in the resolution of common NPs , allowing us to identify the coreference relation between two lexically dissimilar common nouns ( e.g. , talks and negotiations ) and to eliminate George W. Bush from the list of candidate antecedents of the city , for instance . As a result , researchers have re-adopted the once-popular knowledge-rich approach , investigating a variety of semantic knowledge sources for common noun resolution , such as the semantic relations between two NPs ( e.g. , Ji et al. ( 2005 ) ) , their semantic similarity as computed using WordNet ( e.g. , Poesio et al. ( 2004 ) ) or Wikipedia ( Ponzetto and Strube , 2006 ) , and the contextual role played by an NP ( see Bean and Riloff ( 2004 ) ) . Another type of semantic knowledge that has been employed by coreference resolvers is the semantic class ( SC ) of an NP , which can be used to disallow coreference between semantically incompatible NPs .

As a result , researchers have re-adopted the once-popular knowledge-rich approach , investigating a variety of semantic knowledge sources for common noun resolution , such as the semantic relations between two NPs ( e.g. , Ji et al. ( 2005 ) ) , their semantic similarity as computed using WordNet ( e.g. , Poesio et al. ( 2004 ) ) or Wikipedia ( Ponzetto and Strube , 2006 ) , and the contextual role played by an NP ( see @@CITATION ) .


Although these dictates are fairly clear , the underlying notion of topic is not . An example of psycholinguistically oriented research work can be found in Bond and Hayes ( 1983 ) . These authors take the position that a paragraph is a psychologically real unit of discourse , and , in fact , a formal grammatical unit .

An example of psycholinguistically oriented research work can be found in @@CITATION .


towards new measures of information retrieval evaluation

W Hersh
D Elliot
D Hickam
S Wolf
A Molnar
C Leichtenstien

This will become even more interesting when mappings of our synonym identifiers to a large medical thesaurus ( MeSH , ( NLM , 2001 ) ) are incorporated into our system . Alternatively , we may think of user-centered comparative studies ( Hersh et al. , 1995 ) .

Alternatively , we may think of user-centered comparative studies ( @@CITATION ) .


It is the lack of exactly this notion of referential level that has stood in the way of other linguists who have been interested in the paragraph as a unit . Crothers ( 1979 , p. 112 ) , for example , bemoans the fact that his `` theory lacks a world knowledge component , a mental ` encyclopedia , ' which could be invoked to generate inferences ... '' . With respect to that independent source of knowledge , our main contributions are two .

@@CITATION , p. 112 ) , for example , bemoans the fact that his `` theory lacks a world knowledge component , a mental ` encyclopedia , ' which could be invoked to generate inferences ... '' .


the penn treebank annotating predicate argument structure

Mitchell Marcus
Grace Kim
Mary Ann Marcinkiewicz
Robert MacIntyre
Mark Ferguson
Karen Katz
Britta Schasberger

Most of the early work on automatic f-structure annotation ( e.g. , van Genabith , Way , and Sadler 1999 ; Frank 2000 ; Sadler , van Genabith , and Way 2000 ) was applied only to small data sets ( fewer than 200 sentences ) and was largely proof of concept . However , more recent work ( Cahill et al. 2002 ; Cahill , McCarthy , et al. 2004 ) has presented efforts in evolving and scaling up annotation techniques to the Penn-II Treebank ( Marcus et al. 1994 ) , containing more than 1,000,000 words and 49,000 sentences . We utilize the automatic annotation algorithm of Cahill et al. ( 2002 ) and Cahill , McCarthy , et al. ( 2004 ) to derive a version of Penn-II in which each node in each tree is annotated with LFG functional annotations in the form of attribute-value structure equations .

However , more recent work ( Cahill et al. 2002 ; Cahill , McCarthy , et al. 2004 ) has presented efforts in evolving and scaling up annotation techniques to the Penn-II Treebank ( @@CITATION ) , containing more than 1,000,000 words and 49,000 sentences .


The VNLCE processor may be considered to be a learning system of the tradition described , for example , in Michalski et al. ( 1984 ) . The current system learns finite state flowcharts whereas typical learning systems usually acquire coefficient values as in Minsky and Papert ( 1969 ) , assertional statements as in Michalski ( 1980 ) , or semantic nets as in Winston ( 1975 ) . That is , the current system learns procedures rather than data structures .

The current system learns finite state flowcharts whereas typical learning systems usually acquire coefficient values as in @@CITATION , assertional statements as in Michalski ( 1980 ) , or semantic nets as in Winston ( 1975 ) .


a polynomialtime algorithm for statistical machine translation

In section 2.4 this property is used to convert a bilingual corpus into a set of translation patterns which are formulated in terms of words and category labels . It also shows the structural identity to bilingual grammars as used in ( Wu , 1996 ) .

It also shows the structural identity to bilingual grammars as used in ( @@CITATION ) .


on the collective classification of email “speech acts”

We currently do not have an efficient means to encode disagreement information as hard constraints ; we plan to investigate incorporating such information in future work . Relationships between the unlabeled items Carvalho and Cohen ( 2005 ) consider sequential relations between different types of emails ( e.g. , between requests and satisfactions thereof ) to classify messages , and thus also explicitly exploit the structure of conversations . Previous sentiment-analysis work in different domains has considered inter-document similarity ( Agarwal and Bhattacharyya , 2005 ; Pang and Lee , 2005 ; Goldberg and Zhu , 2006 ) or explicit

Relationships between the unlabeled items @@CITATION consider sequential relations between different types of emails ( e.g. , between requests and satisfactions thereof ) to classify messages , and thus also explicitly exploit the structure of conversations .


an information extraction core system for real world german text processing

Giinter Neumann
Rolf Backofen
Judith Baur
Markus Becker
Christian Braun

We are using a lexicon of approx . 100000 word stems of German ( Neumann et al. , 1997 ) . STP-Heuristics : Shallow parsing techniques are used to heuristically identify sentences containing relevant information .

100000 word stems of German ( @@CITATION ) .


towards a semantics for lexical rules as used in hpsg

The resulting encoding allows the execution of lexical rules on-the-fly , i.e. , coroutined with other constraints at some time after lexical lookup . The computational treatment of lexical rules proposed can be seen as an extension to the principled method discussed by Gotz and Meurers ( 1995 , 1996 , 1997b ) for encoding the main building block of HPSG grammars -- the implicative constraints -- as a logic program . The structure of the paper is as follows : We start with a brief introduction of the formal background on which our approach is based in Section 2 .

The computational treatment of lexical rules proposed can be seen as an extension to the principled method discussed by Gotz and @@CITATION , 1996 , 1997b ) for encoding the main building block of HPSG grammars -- the implicative constraints -- as a logic program .


discriminative training methods for hidden markov models theory and experiments with perceptron algorithms

Proof . Identical to the standard perceptron proof , e.g. , Collins ( 2002 ) , by inserting in loss-separability for normal separability . Like the original perceptron theorem , this implies that the algorithm will converge .

Identical to the standard perceptron proof , e.g. , @@CITATION , by inserting in loss-separability for normal separability .


natural language access to software applications

Paul Schmidt
Sibylle Rieder
Axel Theofilidis
Marius Groenendijk
Peter Phelan
Henrik Schulz
Thierry Declerck
Andrew Brenenkamp

Previous systems to assist in the development of spoken-language systems ( SLSs ) have focused on building stand-alone , customized applications , such as ( Sutton et al. , 1996 ) and ( Pargellis et al. , 1999 ) . The goal of the JAVOX toolkit is to speech-enable traditional desktop applications -- this is similar to the goals of the MELISSA project ( Schmidt et al. , 1998 ) . It is intended to both speed the development of SLSs and to localize the speech-specific code within the application .

The goal of the JAVOX toolkit is to speech-enable traditional desktop applications -- this is similar to the goals of the MELISSA project ( @@CITATION ) .


The simplest strategy for ordering adjectives is what Shaw and Hatzivassiloglou ( 1999 ) call the direct evidence method . To order the pair -LCB- a , b -RCB- , count how many times the ordered sequences ( a , b ) and ( b , a ) appear in the training data and output the pair in the order which occurred more often .

The simplest strategy for ordering adjectives is what @@CITATION call the direct evidence method .


interpreting vague utterances in context

Clearly , what it takes for the adjective to be applicable has not been cast in stone , but is open to fiat : the speaker may decide that 8 cm is enough , or the speaker may set the standards higher ( cfXXX , Kennedy 1999 ) . The numeral ( whether it is implicit , as in ( 3 ) , or explicit ) can be construed as allowing the reader to draw inferences about the standards employed ( Kyburg and Morreau 2000 ; DeVault and Stone 2004 ) : ( 3 ) , for example , implies a standard that counts 10 cm as large and 8 cm as not large . Our own proposal will abstract away from the effects of linguistic context .

The numeral ( whether it is implicit , as in ( 3 ) , or explicit ) can be construed as allowing the reader to draw inferences about the standards employed ( Kyburg and Morreau 2000 ; @@CITATION ) : ( 3 ) , for example , implies a standard that counts 10 cm as large and 8 cm as not large .


In other methods , lexical resources are specifically tailored to meet the requirements of the domain ( Rosario and Hearst , 2001 ) or the system ( Gomez , 1998 ) . Such systems extract information from some types of syntactic units ( clauses in ( Fillmore and Atkins , 1998 ; Gildea and Jurafsky , 2002 ; Hull and Gomez , 1996 ) ; noun phrases in ( Hull and Gomez , 1996 ; Rosario et al. , 2002 ) ) . Lists of semantic relations are designed to capture salient domain information .

Such systems extract information from some types of syntactic units ( clauses in ( @@CITATION ; Gildea and Jurafsky , 2002 ; Hull and Gomez , 1996 ) ; noun phrases in ( Hull and Gomez , 1996 ; Rosario et al. , 2002 ) ) .


Can one deal effectively with the problem of reference without axiomatized Gricean maxims , for instance by using only `` petty conversational implicature '' ( Hobbs 1979 ) , or the metarules of Section 5.2 ? It seems to us that the answer is no .

`` petty conversational implicature '' ( @@CITATION ) , or the metarules of Section 5.2 ?


To test our hypothesis that DCA can be used as a complement to a local-context approach , we combined our main configuration ( evaluated in row D of Table 4 ) with a POS tagger . Unlike other POS taggers , this POS tagger ( Mikheev 2000 ) was also trained to disambiguate sentence boundaries . 10.1 Training a POS Tagger

Unlike other POS taggers , this POS tagger ( @@CITATION ) was also trained to disambiguate sentence boundaries .


morphological decomposition and the reverse base frequency effect

Moreover , Indian languages show some distinct phenomena like , compound and composite verbs for which no such investigations have been conducted yet . On the other hand , experiments indicate that mental representation and processing of morphologically complex words are not quite language independent ( Taft , 2004 ) . Therefore , the findings from experiments in one language can not be generalized to all languages making it important to conduct similar experimentations in other languages .

On the other hand , experiments indicate that mental representation and processing of morphologically complex words are not quite language independent ( @@CITATION ) .


extraction of N-V pairs from the corpus with the inferred patterns . ASARES has been previously applied to the acquisition of word pairs sharing semantic relations defined in the Generative Lexicon framework ( Pustejovsky , 1995 ) and called qualia relations ( Bouillon et al. , 2001 ) . Here , we propose to use ASARES in a quite similar way to retrieve our valid N-V pairs .

ASARES has been previously applied to the acquisition of word pairs sharing semantic relations defined in the Generative Lexicon framework ( @@CITATION ) and called qualia relations ( Bouillon et al. , 2001 ) .


Evaluative and persuasive documents , such as a politician 's speech regarding a bill or a blogger 's commentary on a legislative proposal , form a particularly interesting type of politically oriented text . People are much more likely to consult such evaluative statements than the actual text of a bill or law under discussion , given the dense nature of legislative language and the fact that ( U.S. ) bills often reach several hundred pages in length ( Smith et al. , 2005 ) . Moreover , political opinions are exsional bills and related data was launched in January 1995 , when Mosaic was not quite two years old and Altavista did not yet exist .

People are much more likely to consult such evaluative statements than the actual text of a bill or law under discussion , given the dense nature of legislative language and the fact that ( U.S. ) bills often reach several hundred pages in length ( @@CITATION ) .


towards systematic grammar profiling test suite technology 10 years after computer speech and language

Another known method consists in developing and using a test suite that is , a set of negative and positive items against which the grammar can be systematically tested . For english , there is for instance the 15 year old HewlettPackard test suite , a simple text file listing test sentences and grouping them according to linguistics phenomena ( Flickinger et al. , 1987 ) ; and more recently , the much more sophisticated TSNLP ( Test Suite for Natural Language Processing ) which includes some 9500 test items for English , French and German , each of them being annotated with syntactic and application related information ( Oepen and Flickinger , 1998 ) . Yet because they do not take into account the semantic dimension , none of these tools are adequate for evaluating the paraphrastic power of a grammar .

For english , there is for instance the 15 year old HewlettPackard test suite , a simple text file listing test sentences and grouping them according to linguistics phenomena ( Flickinger et al. , 1987 ) ; and more recently , the much more sophisticated TSNLP ( Test Suite for Natural Language Processing ) which includes some 9500 test items for English , French and German , each of them being annotated with syntactic and application related information ( @@CITATION ) .


introduction to the special issue on evaluating word sense disambiguation systems

Linguistic annotation of corpora contributes crucially to the study of language at several levels : morphology , syntax , semantics , and discourse . Its significance is reflected both in the growing interest in annotation software for word sense tagging ( Edmonds and Kilgarriff , 2002 ) and in the long-standing use of part-of-speech taggers , parsers and morphological analysers for data from English and many other languages . Linguists , lexicographers , social scientists and other researchers are using ever larger amounts of corpus data in their studies .

Its significance is reflected both in the growing interest in annotation software for word sense tagging ( @@CITATION ) and in the long-standing use of part-of-speech taggers , parsers and morphological analysers for data from English and many other languages .


computational interpretations of the gricean maximes in the generation of referring expressions

More importantly , it will now become normal for an object to have many Values for the same Attribute ; c4 , for example , has the Values > 6 cm , > 10 cm , and > 12 cm . Each of these Values has equal status , so the notion of a basic-level Value can not play a role ( cfXXX , Dale and Reiter 1995 ) . If we abstract away from the role of basic-level Values , then Dale and Reiter 's FindBestValue chooses the most general Value that removes the maximal

Each of these Values has equal status , so the notion of a basic-level Value can not play a role ( cfXXX , @@CITATION ) .


labeling chinese predicates with semantic roles

Compared to the research on English , the research on Chinese SRL is still in its infancy stage . Previous work on Chinese SRL mainly focused on how to transplant the machine learning methods which has been successful with English , such as Sun and Jurafsky ( 2004 ) , Xue and Palmer ( 2005 ) and Xue ( 2008 ) . Sun and Jurafsky ( 2004 ) did the preliminary work on Chinese SRL without any large semantically annotated corpus of Chinese .

Previous work on Chinese SRL mainly focused on how to transplant the machine learning methods which has been successful with English , such as Sun and Jurafsky ( 2004 ) , Xue and Palmer ( 2005 ) and @@CITATION .


a critique and improvement of an evaluation metric for text segmentation

Accuracy is not the best measure to assess segmentation quality , therefore we also conducted experiments using the WindowDiff measure as proposed by Pevzner and Hearst ( 2002 ) . WindowDiff returns 0 in case of a perfect segmentation ; 1 is the worst possible score .

Accuracy is not the best measure to assess segmentation quality , therefore we also conducted experiments using the WindowDiff measure as proposed by @@CITATION .


a minimalist implementation of verb subcategorization

My theory of verbal argument structure can be implemented in a unified morpho-syntactic parsing model that interleaves syntactic and semantic parsing . The system is in the form of an agenda-driven chart-based parser whose foundation is similar to previous formalizations of Chomsky 's Minimalist Program ( Stabler , 1997 ; Harkema , 2000 ; Niyogi , 2001 ) . Lexical entries in the system are minimally specified , each consisting of a phonetic form , a list of relevant features , and semantics in the form of a A expression .

The system is in the form of an agenda-driven chart-based parser whose foundation is similar to previous formalizations of Chomsky 's Minimalist Program ( Stabler , 1997 ; Harkema , 2000 ; @@CITATION ) .


characterizing the errors of datadriven dependency parsing models

The labeled version of this score requires that the labels of the arc are also correct . Optimizing for dependency arc length is particularly important as parsers tend to do worse on longer dependencies ( McDonald and Nivre , 2007 ) and these dependencies are typically the most meaningful for downstream tasks , e.g. , main verb dependencies for tasks 2For the graph-based parser one can also find the higest scoring tree with correct root by setting the score of all competing arcs to â â .

Optimizing for dependency arc length is particularly important as parsers tend to do worse on longer dependencies ( @@CITATION ) and these dependencies are typically the most meaningful for downstream tasks , e.g. , main verb dependencies for tasks


utilizing citations of foreign words in corpusbased dictionary generation

The basic idea underlying our work is to look at foreign words , to compute their co-occurrence-based associations , and to consider these as translations of the respective words . Whereas Rapp & Zock ( 2010 ) dealt only with an English corpus , the current work shows that this methodology is applicable to a wide range of languages and corpora . We were able to shed some light on criteria influencing performance , such as the selection of text type and the direction of a language pair .

Whereas @@CITATION dealt only with an English corpus , the current work shows that this methodology is applicable to a wide range of languages and corpora .


widecoverage efficient statistical parsing with ccg and loglinear models

This precision-recall tradeoff reflects the inherent tradeoff between imperceptibility and payload in a Linguistic Steganography system . We also experiment with a CCG parser ( Clark and Curran , 2007 ) , requiring that the contexts surrounding the original phrase and paraphrase are assigned the same CCG lexical categories by the parser .

We also experiment with a CCG parser ( @@CITATION ) , requiring that the contexts surrounding the original phrase and paraphrase are assigned


In contrast , our dependency-based word subsequence kernel , which also computes similarity between two dependency trees , is very transparent with the implicit features being simply the dependency paths . Their kernel is also very time consuming and in their more general sparse setting it requires O ( mn3 ) time and O ( mn2 ) space , where m and n are the number of nodes of the two trees ( m > = n ) ( Zelenko et al. , 2003 ) . Bunescu and Mooney ( 2005a ) give a shortest path dependency kernel for relation extraction .

Their kernel is also very time consuming and in their more general sparse setting it requires O ( mn3 ) time and O ( mn2 ) space , where m and n are the number of nodes of the two trees ( m > = n ) ( @@CITATION ) .


enzyme nomenclature functional or structural rna

The Semantic Network contains information about the types or categories ( e.g. , `` Disease or Syndrome '' , `` Virus '' ) to which all META concepts have been assigned . Other molecular biology databases We also included several model organism databases or nomenclature databases in the construction of the dictionary , i.e. , mouse Mouse Genome Database ( MGD ) [ 18 ] , fly FlyBase [ 19 ] , yeast Saccharomyces Genome Database ( SGD ) [ 20 ] , rat -- Rat Genome Database ( RGD ) [ 21 ] , worm -- WormBase [ 22 ] , Human Nomenclature Database ( HUGO ) [ 23 ] , Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man ( OMIM ) [ 24 ] , and Enzyme Nomenclature Database ( ECNUM ) [ 25 , 26 ] .

Other molecular biology databases We also included several model organism databases or nomenclature databases in the construction of the dictionary , i.e. , mouse Mouse Genome Database ( MGD ) [ 18 ] , fly FlyBase [ 19 ] , yeast Saccharomyces Genome Database ( SGD ) [ 20 ] , rat -- Rat Genome Database ( RGD ) [ 21 ] , worm -- WormBase [ 22 ] , Human Nomenclature Database ( HUGO ) [ 23 ] , Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man ( OMIM ) [ 24 ] , and Enzyme Nomenclature Database ( ECNUM ) @@CITATION .


verbocean mining the web for finegrained semantic verb relations

These include , just to mention the most popular ones , DIRT ( Lin and Pantel , 2001 ) , VerbOcean ( Chklovski and Pantel , 2004 ) , FrameNet ( Baker et al. , 1998 ) , and Wikipedia ( Mehdad et al. , 2010 ; Kouylekov et al. , 2009 ) . DIRT is a collection of statistically learned inference rules , that is often integrated as a source of lexical paraphrases and entailment rules .

ones , DIRT ( Lin and Pantel , 2001 ) , VerbOcean ( @@CITATION ) , FrameNet ( Baker et al. , 1998 ) , and Wikipedia ( Mehdad et al. , 2010 ; Kouylekov et al. , 2009 ) .


comparison of two learning algorithms for text categorizationquot

1 Most modern Arabic writing ( web , novels , articles ) are written without vowels . include decision tree learning and Bayesian learning , nearest neighbor learning , and artificial neural networks , early such works may be found in ( Lewis and Ringnette , 1994 ) , ( Creecy and Masand , 1992 ) and ( Wiene and Pedersen , 1995 ) , respectively . The bulk of the text categorization work has been devoted to cope with automatic categorization of English and Latin character documents .

include decision tree learning and Bayesian learning , nearest neighbor learning , and artificial neural networks , early such works may be found in ( @@CITATION ) , ( Creecy and Masand , 1992 ) and ( Wiene and Pedersen , 1995 ) , respectively .


wikipedia from wikipedia the free encyclopedia

AJAX is not a technology in itself but a term that refers to the use of a group of technologies together , in particular Javascript and XML . In other words AJAX is a web development technique for creating interactive web applications using a combination of XHTML and CSS , Document Object Model ( or DOM ) , the XMLHTTPRequest object ( Wikipedia , 2005 ) . AJAX paradigm has been recently defined , when someone has rediscovered a simple function originally developed by Microsoft as ActiveX control .

In other words AJAX is a web development technique for creating interactive web applications using a combination of XHTML and CSS , Document Object Model ( or DOM ) , the XMLHTTPRequest object ( @@CITATION ) .


distributional clustering of english words

Multi word expressions however remain a problem as they are often not or only partially included in such dictionnaries . For these or for a specific domain , basic synonymic dictionaries can be complemented using learning methods based on distributional similarity ( Pereira et al. , 1993 ; Lin , 1998 ) . techniques .

For these or for a specific domain , basic synonymic dictionaries can be complemented using learning methods based on distributional similarity ( @@CITATION ; Lin , 1998 ) .


statistical dependency analysis with support vector machines

3We also ran preliminary experiments with memory-based learning but found that this gave consistently lower accuracy . converted to numerical features using the standard technique of binarization , and we split values of the FEATS field into its atomic components .4 For some languages , we divide the training data into smaller sets , based on some feature s ( normally the CPOS or POS of the next input token ) , which may reduce training times without a significant loss in accuracy ( Yamada and Matsumoto , 2003 ) . To avoid too small training sets , we pool together categories that have a frequency below a certain threshold t.

converted to numerical features using the standard technique of binarization , and we split values of the FEATS field into its atomic components .4 For some languages , we divide the training data into smaller sets , based on some feature s ( normally the CPOS or POS of the next input token ) , which may reduce training times without a significant loss in accuracy ( @@CITATION ) .


The marker hypothesis has been used for a number of different language-related tasks , including â¢ language learning ( Green 1979 ; Mori and Moeser 1983 ; Morgan , Meier , and Newport 1989 ) â¢ monolingual grammar induction ( Juola 1998 ) â¢ grammar optimization ( Juola 1994 ) â¢ insights into universal grammar ( Juola 1998 ) â¢ machine translation ( Juola 1994 , 1997 ; Veale and Way 1997 ; Gough , Way , and Hearne 2002 ) With respect to translation , a potential problem in using the marker hypothesis is that some languages do not have marker words such as articles , for instance .

â¢ language learning ( Green 1979 ; Mori and Moeser 1983 ; Morgan , Meier , and Newport 1989 ) â¢ monolingual grammar induction ( @@CITATION ) â¢ grammar optimization ( Juola 1994 ) â¢ insights into universal grammar ( Juola 1998 ) â¢ machine translation ( Juola 1994 , 1997 ; Veale and Way 1997 ; Gough , Way , and Hearne 2002 )


an information extraction core system for real world german text processing

Linguistic preprocessing of text documents is carried out by re-using smes , an information extraction core system for real-world German text processing ( Neumann et al. , 1997 ) . The fundamental design criterion of smes is to provide a set of basic , powerful , robust , and efficient STP components and

Linguistic preprocessing of text documents is carried out by re-using smes , an information extraction core system for real-world German text processing ( @@CITATION ) .


Alessandro Moschitti
Daniele Pighin
Roberto Basili

Our novel composite kernels , which account for the two syntactic structures , are experimented with the appropriate convolution kernels and show significant improvement with respect to the state-ofthe-art in RE . Regarding future work , there are many research line that may be followed : i ) Capturing more features by employing external knowledge such as ontological , lexical resource or WordNet-based features ( Basili et al. , 2005a ; Basili et al. , 2005b ; Bloehdorn et al. , 2006 ; Bloehdorn and Moschitti , 2007 ) or shallow semantic trees , ( Giuglea and Moschitti , 2004 ; Giuglea and Moschitti , 2006 ; Moschitti and Bejan , 2004 ; Moschitti et al. , 2007 ; Moschitti , 2008 ; Moschitti et al. , 2008 ) . ii ) Design a new tree-based structures , which combines the information of both constituent and dependency parses .

Regarding future work , there are many research line that may be followed : i ) Capturing more features by employing external knowledge such as ontological , lexical resource or WordNet-based features ( Basili et al. , 2005a ; Basili et al. , 2005b ; Bloehdorn et al. , 2006 ; Bloehdorn and Moschitti , 2007 ) or shallow semantic trees , ( Giuglea and Moschitti , 2004 ; Giuglea and Moschitti , 2006 ; Moschitti and Bejan , 2004 ; Moschitti et al. , 2007 ; Moschitti , 2008 ; @@CITATION ) .


corpusbased acquisition of transfer functions using psycholinguistic principles

For the English â > French language pair , Juola gives results of 61 % correct translation when the system is tested on the training corpus , and 36 % accuracy when it is evaluated with test data . For English â > Urdu , Juola ( 1997 , page 213 ) notes that `` the system learned the original training corpus ... perfectly and could reproduce it without errors '' ; that is , it scored 100 % accuracy when tested against the training corpus . On novel test sentences , he gives results of 72 % correct translation .

For English â > Urdu , @@CITATION , page 213 ) notes that `` the system learned the original training corpus ... perfectly and could reproduce it without errors '' ; that is , it scored 100 % accuracy when tested against the training corpus .


enriching morphologically poor languages for statistical machine translation

So it is questionable as to whether morpheme segmentation techniques are sufficient to solve the inflectional problem we are addressing . Much previous work looks at the impact of using source side information ( i.e. , feature functions on the aligned English ) , such as those of Avramidis and Koehn ( 2008 ) , Yeniterzi and Oflazer ( 2010 ) and others . Toutanova et .

Much previous work looks at the impact of using source side information ( i.e. , feature functions on the aligned English ) , such as those of @@CITATION , Yeniterzi and Oflazer ( 2010 ) and others .


scaling to very very large corpora for natural language disambiguation

However , the greatest increase is in the amount of raw text available to be processed , e.g. the English Gigaword Corpus ( Linguistic Data Consortium , 2003 ) . Recent work ( Banko and Brill , 2001 ; Curran and Moens , 2002 ) has suggested that some tasks will benefit from using significantly more data . Also , many potential applications of NLP will involve processing very large text databases .

Recent work ( @@CITATION ; Curran and Moens , 2002 ) has suggested that some tasks will benefit from using significantly more data .


contextfree parsing through regular approximation

However , our implementation applies the construction separately for each nonterminal in a set N , such that recursive ( N ) = self , which leads to a separate subautomaton of the compact representation ( Section 3 ) . See Nederhof ( 1998 ) for a variant of this approximation that constructs finite transducers rather than finite automata . We have further implemented a parameterized version of the RTN approximation .

See @@CITATION for a variant of this approximation that constructs finite transducers rather than finite automata .


dependency treelet translation syntactically informed phrasal smt

In recent years , tree-based translation models1 are drawing more and more attention in the community of statistical machine translation ( SMT ) . Due to their remarkable ability to incorporate context structure information and long distance reordering into the translation process , tree-based translation models have shown promising progress in improving translation quality ( Liu et al. , 2006 , 2009 ; Quirk et al. , 2005 ; Galley et al. , 2004 , 2006 ; Marcu et al. , 2006 ; Shen et al. , 2008 ; Zhang et al. , 2011b ) . However , tree-based translation models always suffer from two major challenges : 1 ) They are usually built directly from parse trees , which are generated by supervised linguistic parsers .

Due to their remarkable ability to incorporate context structure information and long distance reordering into the translation process , tree-based translation models have shown promising progress in improving translation quality ( Liu et al. , 2006 , 2009 ; @@CITATION ; Galley et al. , 2004 , 2006 ; Marcu et al. , 2006 ; Shen et al. , 2008 ; Zhang et al. , 2011b ) .


generating natural language linder pragmatic constraints lawrence erlbaum

There have in fact been attempts to develop modified modular designs that allow generators to handle interactions between the components . These include devices such as interleaving the components ( McDonald 1983 ; Appelt 1983 ) , backtracking on failure ( Appelt 1985 ; Nogier 1989 ) , allowing the linguistic component to interrogate the planner ( Mann 1983 ; Sondheimer and Nebel 1986 ) , and Hovy 's notion of restrictive ( i.e. , bottom-up ) planning ( Hovy 1988a , 1988c ) . All of these approaches , though , require that potential interactions be determined either by the tactical component or by the system designer in advance .

These include devices such as interleaving the components ( McDonald 1983 ; Appelt 1983 ) , backtracking on failure ( Appelt 1985 ; Nogier 1989 ) , allowing the linguistic component to interrogate the planner ( Mann 1983 ; Sondheimer and Nebel 1986 ) , and Hovy 's notion of restrictive ( i.e. , bottom-up ) planning ( @@CITATIONa , 1988c ) .