a holistic lexiconbased approach to opinion mining

using information content to evaluate semantic similarity

This correlation coefficient is an upper bound of performance for automatic SR measures applied on the same dataset . Resnik ( 1995 ) reported a correlation of r = .9026.10 The results are not directly comparable , because he only used noun-noun pairs , words instead of concepts , a much smaller dataset , and measured semantic similarity instead of semantic relatedness . Finkelstein et al. ( 2002 ) did not report inter-subject correlation for their larger dataset .

@@CITATION reported a correlation of r = .9026.10 The results are not directly comparable , because he only used noun-noun pairs , words instead of concepts , a much smaller dataset , and measured semantic similarity instead of semantic relatedness .


lexical representation of derivational relation

( Taft , 1975 ) with his experiment on English inflected words , argued that lexical decision responses of polymorphemic words depends upon the base word frequency . Similar observation for surface word frequency was also observed by ( Bertram et al. , 2000 ; Bradley , 1980 ; Burani et al. , 1987 ; Burani et al. , 1984 ; Schreuder et al. , 1997 ; Taft 1975 ; Taft , 2004 ) where it has been claimed that words having low surface frequency tends to decompose . Later , Baayen ( 2000 ) proposed the dual processing race model that proposes that a specific morphologically complex form is accessed via its parts if the frequency of that word is above a certain threshold of frequency , then the direct route will win , and the word will be accessed as a whole .

Similar observation for surface word frequency was also observed by ( Bertram et al. , 2000 ; @@CITATION ; Burani et al. , 1987 ; Burani et al. , 1984 ; Schreuder et al. , 1997 ; Taft 1975 ; Taft , 2004 ) where it has been claimed that words having low surface frequency tends to decompose .


inducing multilingual pos taggers and np bracketers via robust projection across aligned corpora

MT system combination ( Matusov , Ueffing , and Ney 2006 ) . But their importance has grown far beyond machine translation : for instance , transferring annotations between languages ( Yarowsky and Ngai 2001 ; Hwa et al. 2005 ; Ganchev , Gillenwater , and Taskar 2009 ) ; discovery of paraphrases ( Bannard and Callison-Burch 2005 ) ; and joint unsupervised POS and parser induction across languages ( Snyder and Barzilay 2008 ) . IBM Models 1 and 2 and the HMM are simple and tractable probabilistic models , which produce the target sentence one target word at a time by choosing a source word and generating its translation .

But their importance has grown far beyond machine translation : for instance , transferring annotations between languages ( @@CITATION ; Hwa et al. 2005 ; Ganchev , Gillenwater , and Taskar 2009 ) ; discovery of paraphrases ( Bannard and Callison-Burch 2005 ) ; and joint unsupervised POS and parser induction across languages ( Snyder and Barzilay 2008 ) .


seeing stars when there aren’t many stars graphbased semisupervised learning for sentiment categorization

Relationships between the unlabeled items Carvalho and Cohen ( 2005 ) consider sequential relations between different types of emails ( e.g. , between requests and satisfactions thereof ) to classify messages , and thus also explicitly exploit the structure of conversations . Previous sentiment-analysis work in different domains has considered inter-document similarity ( Agarwal and Bhattacharyya , 2005 ; Pang and Lee , 2005 ; Goldberg and Zhu , 2006 ) or explicit inter-document references in the form of hyperlinks ( Agrawal et al. , 2003 ) .

Previous sentiment-analysis work in different domains has considered inter-document similarity ( Agarwal and Bhattacharyya , 2005 ; Pang and Lee , 2005 ; @@CITATION ) or explicit


development and preliminary evaluation of the mit atis systemquot

S Seneff
J Glass
D Goddeau
D Goodine
L Hirschman
H Leung
M Phillips
J Polifroni
V Zue

Exactly how to get from the parse tree to an appropriate meaning representation is a current research topic in our group . However , the method we are currently using in the ATIS domain ( Seneff et al. 1991 ) represents our most promising approach to this problem . We have decided to limit semantic frame types to a small set of choices such as CLAUSE ( for a sentence-level concept , such as request ) , PREDICATE ( for a functional operation ) , REFERENCE ( essentially proper noun ) , and QSET ( for a set of objects ) .

However , the method we are currently using in the ATIS domain ( @@CITATION ) represents our most promising approach to this problem .


genre under construction the diary on the internet

From a more pessimistic one , an author may feel to have lost power in this openness . Henceforth the collaborative traits of blogs and wikis ( McNeill , 2005 ) emphasize annotation , comment , and strong editing . They give more power to readers , eventually filling the gap the so-called active readers become authors as well .

Henceforth the collaborative traits of blogs and wikis ( @@CITATION ) emphasize annotation , comment , and strong editing .


independence and commitment assumptions for rapid training and execution of rulebased pos taggers

2.1.2 The ICA Approach The ICA system ( Hepple , 2000 ) aims to reduce the training time by introducing independence assumptions on the training samples that dramatically reduce the training time with the possible downside of sacrificing performance . To achieve the speedup , the ICA system disallows any interaction between the learned rules , by enforcing the following two assumptions :

The ICA system ( @@CITATION ) aims to reduce the training time by introducing independence assumptions on the training samples that dramatically reduce the training time with the possible downside of sacrificing performance .


europa a generic framework for developing spoken dialogue systems

Munehiko Sasajima
Yakehide Yano
Yasuyuld Kono

One of the next research goals is to make these systems task-portable , that is , to simplify the process of porting to another task domain . To this end , several toolkits for building spoken dialogue systems have been developed ( Barnett and Singh , 1997 ; Sasajima et al. , 1999 ) . One is the CSLU Toolkit ( Sutton et al. , 1998 ) , which enables rapid prototyping of a spoken dialogue system that incorporates a finite-state dialogue model .

To this end , several toolkits for building spoken dialogue systems have been developed ( Barnett and Singh , 1997 ; @@CITATION ) .


cascaded grammatical relation assignment

While earlier work in this direction concentrated on manual construction of rules , most of the recent work has been motivated by the observation that shallow syntactic information can be extracted using local information by examining the pattern itself , its nearby context and the local part-of-speech information . Thus , over the past few years , along with advances in the use of learning and statistical methods for acquisition of full parsers ( Collins , 1997 ; Charniak , 1997a ; Charniak , 1997b ; Ratnaparkhi , 1997 ) , significant progress has been made on the use of statistical learning methods to recognize shallow parsing patterns syntactic phrases or words that participate in a syntactic relationship ( Church , 1988 ; Ramshaw and Marcus , 1995 ; Argamon et al. , 1998 ; Cardie and Pierce , 1998 ; Munoz et al. , 1999 ; Punyakanok and Roth , 2001 ; Buchholz et al. , 1999 ; Tjong Kim Sang and Buchholz , 2000 ) . Research on shallow parsing was inspired by psycholinguistics arguments ( Gee and Grosjean , 1983 ) that suggest that in many scenarios ( e.g. , conversational ) full parsing is not a realistic strategy for sentence processing and analysis , and was further motivated by several arguments from a natural language engineering viewpoint .

Thus , over the past few years , along with advances in the use of learning and statistical methods for acquisition of full parsers ( Collins , 1997 ; Charniak , 1997a ; Charniak , 1997b ; Ratnaparkhi , 1997 ) , significant progress has been made on the use of statistical learning methods to recognize shallow parsing patterns syntactic phrases or words that participate in a syntactic relationship ( Church , 1988 ; Ramshaw and Marcus , 1995 ; Argamon et al. , 1998 ; Cardie and Pierce , 1998 ; Munoz et al. , 1999 ; Punyakanok and Roth , 2001 ; @@CITATION ; Tjong Kim Sang and Buchholz , 2000 ) .


directionbased text interpretation as an information access refinement

Note that from an experimental point of view , this is a very convenient problem to work with because we can automatically determine ground truth ( and thus avoid the need for manual annotation ) simply by consulting publicly available voting records . Task properties Determining whether or not a speaker supports a proposal falls within the realm of sentiment analysis , an extremely active research area devoted to the computational treatment of subjective or opinion-oriented language ( early work includes Wiebe and Rapaport ( 1988 ) , Hearst ( 1992 ) , Sack ( 1994 ) , and Wiebe ( 1994 ) ; see Esuli ( 2006 ) for an active bibliography ) . In particular , since we treat each individual speech within a debate as a single `` document '' , we are considering a version of document-level sentiment-polarity classification , namely , automatically distinguishing between positive and negative documents ( Das and Chen , 2001 ; Pang et al. , 2002 ; Turney , 2002 ; Dave et al. , 2003 ) .

Task properties Determining whether or not a speaker supports a proposal falls within the realm of sentiment analysis , an extremely active research area devoted to the computational treatment of subjective or opinion-oriented language ( early work includes Wiebe and Rapaport ( 1988 ) , @@CITATION , Sack ( 1994 ) , and Wiebe ( 1994 ) ; see Esuli ( 2006 ) for an active bibliography ) .


Various approaches for computing semantic relatedness of words or concepts have been proposed , e.g. dictionary-based ( Lesk , 1986 ) , ontology-based ( Wu and Palmer , 1994 ; Leacock and Chodorow , 1998 ) , information-based ( Resnik , 1995 ; Jiang and Conrath , 1997 ) or distributional ( Weeds and Weir , 2005 ) . The knowledge sources used for computing relatedness can be as different as dictionaries , ontologies or large corpora .

Various approaches for computing semantic relatedness of words or concepts have been proposed , e.g. dictionary-based ( Lesk , 1986 ) , ontology-based ( Wu and Palmer , 1994 ; Leacock and Chodorow , 1998 ) , information-based ( @@CITATION ; Jiang and Conrath , 1997 ) or distributional ( Weeds and Weir , 2005 ) .


a mentionsynchronous coreference resolution algorithm based on the bell tree

Xiaoqiang Luo
Abe Ittycheriah
Hongyan Jing
Nanda Kambhatla
Salim Roukos

It is these orthographic variations and complex morphological structure that make Arabic language processing challenging ( Xu et al. , 2001 ; Xu et al. , 2002 ) . Both tasks are performed with a statistical framework : the mention detection system is similar to the one presented in ( Florian et al. , 2004 ) and the coreference resolution system is similar to the one described in ( Luo et al. , 2004 ) . Both systems are built around from the maximum-entropy technique ( Berger et al. , 1996 ) .

Both tasks are performed with a statistical framework : the mention detection system is similar to the one presented in ( Florian et al. , 2004 ) and the coreference resolution system is similar to the one described in ( @@CITATION ) .


cooccurrence retrieval a flexible framework for lexical distributional similarity

Other contexts , such as adjectival and nominal predicates , could also aid the prediction , but have not yet been investigated . The advantage of tuning similarity to the application of interest has been shown previously by Weeds and Weir ( 2005 ) . They optimize a few metaparameters separately for the tasks of thesaurus generation and pseudodisambiguation .

The advantage of tuning similarity to the application of interest has been shown previously by @@CITATION .


the flow of thought and the flow of languagequot

Although there are other discussions of the paragraph as a central element of discourse ( e.g. Chafe 1979 , Halliday and Hasan 1976 , Longacre 1979 , Haberlandt et al. 1980 ) , all of them share a certain limitation in their formal techniques for analyzing paragraph structure . Discourse linguists show little interest in making the structural descriptions precise enough so that a computational grammar of text could adapt them and use them .

Although there are other discussions of the paragraph as a central element of discourse ( e.g. @@CITATION , Halliday and Hasan 1976 , Longacre 1979 , Haberlandt et al. 1980 ) , all of them share a certain limitation in their formal techniques for analyzing paragraph structure .


a linear observed time statistical parser based on maximum entropy models

Thus , over the past few years , along with advances in the use of learning and statistical methods for acquisition of full parsers ( Collins , 1997 ; Charniak , 1997a ; Charniak , 1997b ; @@CITATION ) , significant progress has been made on the use of statistical learning methods to recognize shallow parsing patterns syntactic phrases or words that participate in a syntactic relationship ( Church , 1988 ; Ramshaw and Marcus , 1995 ; Argamon et al. , 1998 ; Cardie and Pierce , 1998 ; Munoz et al. , 1999 ; Punyakanok and Roth , 2001 ; Buchholz et al. , 1999 ; Tjong Kim Sang and Buchholz , 2000 ) .


unsupervised word sense disambiguation rivaling supervised methods

Learning algorithms . We experiment with four learners commonly employed in language learning : Decision List ( DL ) : We use the DL learner as described in Collins and Singer ( 1999 ) , motivated by its success in the related tasks of word sense disambiguation ( Yarowsky , 1995 ) and NE classification ( Collins and Singer , 1999 ) . We apply add-one smoothing to smooth the class posteriors .

We experiment with four learners commonly employed in language learning : Decision List ( DL ) : We use the DL learner as described in Collins and Singer ( 1999 ) , motivated by its success in the related tasks of word sense disambiguation ( @@CITATION ) and NE classification ( Collins and Singer , 1999 ) .


speech recognition by composition of weighted finite automata

We offer a theorem that highlights the broad applicability of these modeling techniques .4 If f ( input , output ) is a weighted regular relation , then the following statements are equivalent : ( 1 ) f is a joint probabilistic relation ; ( 2 ) f can be computed by a Markovian FST that halts with probability 1 ; ( 3 ) f can be expressed as a probabilistic regexp , i.e. , a regexp built up from atomic expressions a : b ( for a E E U -LCB- E -RCB- , b E A U -LCB- E -RCB- ) using concatenation , probabilistic union + p , and probabilistic closure * p. For defining conditional relations , a good regexp language is unknown to us , but they can be defined in several other ways : ( 1 ) via FSTs as in Fig. 1c , ( 2 ) by compilation of weighted rewrite rules ( Mohri and Sproat , 1996 ) , ( 3 ) by compilation of decision trees ( Sproat and Riley , 1996 ) , ( 4 ) as a relation that performs contextual left-to-right replacement of input substrings by a smaller conditional relation ( Gerdemann and van Noord , 1999 ) ,5 ( 5 ) by conditionalization of a joint relation as discussed below . A central technique is to define a joint relation as a noisy-channel model , by composing a joint relation with a cascade of one or more conditional relations as in Fig. 1 ( Pereira and Riley , 1997 ; Knight and Graehl , 1998 ) . The general form is illustrated by 3Conceptually , the parameters represent the probabilities of reading another a ( A ) ; reading another b ( Î½ ) ; transducing b to p rather than q ( Âµ ) ; starting to transduce p to a rather than x ( p ) .

A central technique is to define a joint relation as a noisy-channel model , by composing a joint relation with a cascade of one or more conditional relations as in Fig. 1 ( @@CITATION ; Knight and Graehl , 1998 ) .


a sentimental education sentiment analysis using subjectivity summarization based on minimum cuts

where ~ f ( Â· ) extracts a feature vector from a classified ~ document , Î¸ are the corresponding weights of those features , and ZÎ¸ ( x ) def Ey u ( x , y ) is a normalizer . We use the same set of binary features as in previous work on this dataset ( Pang et al. , 2002 ; Pang and Lee , 2004 ; Zaidan et al. , 2007 ) . Specifically , let V = -LCB- v1 , ... , v177441 be the set of word types with count > 4 in the full 2000-document corpus .

We use the same set of binary features as in previous work on this dataset ( Pang et al. , 2002 ; @@CITATION ; Zaidan et al. , 2007 ) .


learning from labeled and unlabeled data using graph mincuts

As discussed in Section 1 , however , the conversational nature of our data implies the existence of various relationships that can be exploited to improve cumulative classification accuracy for speech segments belonging to the same debate . Our classification framework , directly inspired by Blum and Chawla ( 2001 ) , integrates both perspectives , optimizing its labeling of speech segments based on both individual speech-segment classification scores and preferences for groups of speech segments to receive the same label . In this section , we discuss the specific classification framework that we adopt and the set of mechanisms that we propose for modeling specific types of relationships .

Our classification framework , directly inspired by @@CITATION , integrates both perspectives , optimizing its labeling of speech segments based on both individual speech-segment classification scores and preferences for groups of speech segments to receive the same label .


better arabic parsing baselines evaluations and analysis

Looking at Hebrew , a Semitic language related to Arabic , Tsarfaty and Sima'an ( 2007 ) report that extending POS and phrase structure tags with definiteness information helps unlexicalized PCFG parsing . As for work on Arabic ( MSA ) , results have been reported on the PATB ( Kulick , Gabbard , and Marcus 2006 ; Diab 2007 ; Green and Manning 2010 ) , the Prague Dependency Treebank ( PADT ) ( Buchholz and Marsi 2006 ; Nivre 2008 ) and the CATiB ( Habash and Roth 2009 ) . Recently , Green and Manning ( 2010 ) analyzed the PATB for annotation consistency , and introduced an enhanced split-state constituency grammar , including labels for short idafa constructions and verbal or equational clauses .

As for work on Arabic ( MSA ) , results have been reported on the PATB ( Kulick , Gabbard , and Marcus 2006 ; Diab 2007 ; @@CITATION ) , the Prague Dependency Treebank ( PADT ) ( Buchholz and Marsi 2006 ; Nivre 2008 ) and the CATiB ( Habash and Roth 2009 ) .


adaptive multilingual sentence boundary disambiguation

Although some SBD systems can be trained on relatively small sets of labeled examples , their performance in such cases is somewhat lower than their optimal performance . For instance , Palmer and Hearst ( 1997 ) report that the SATZ system ( decision tree variant ) was trained on a set of about 800 labeled periods , which corresponds to a corpus of about 16,000 words . This is a relatively small training set that can be manually marked in a few hours ' time .

For instance , @@CITATION report that the SATZ system ( decision tree variant ) was trained on a set of about 800 labeled periods , which corresponds to a corpus of about 16,000 words .


a syntaxbased statistical translation model

On one side , we plan to explore alternative ways to build phrase and paraphrase tables . One possible direction is to consider linguistically motivated approaches , such as the extraction of syntactic phrase tables as proposed by ( Yamada and Knight , 2001 ) . Another interesting direction is to investigate the potential of paraphrase patterns ( i.e. patterns including partof-speech slots ) , extracted from bilingual parallel corpora with the method proposed by ( Zhao et al. , 2009 ) .

One possible direction is to consider linguistically motivated approaches , such as the extraction of syntactic phrase tables as proposed by ( @@CITATION ) .


a method of linguistic steganography based on coladdressallyverified synonym

The first lexical substitution method was proposed by Chapman and Davida ( 1997 ) . Later works , such as Atallah et al. ( 2001a ) , Bolshakov ( 2004 ) , Taskiran et al. ( 2006 ) and Topkara et al. ( 2006b ) , further made use of part-ofspeech taggers and electronic dictionaries , such as WordNet and VerbNet , to increase the robustness of the method . Taskiran et al. ( 2006 ) attempt to use context by prioritizing the alternatives using an ngram language model ; that is , rather than randomly choose an option from the synonym set , the system relies on the language model to select the synonym .

Later works , such as Atallah et al. ( 2001a ) , @@CITATION , Taskiran et al. ( 2006 ) and Topkara et al. ( 2006b ) , further made use of part-ofspeech taggers and electronic dictionaries , such as WordNet and VerbNet , to increase the robustness of the method .


organization and operation of a connected speech understanding system at lexical syntactic and semantic levels

A number of speech understanding systems have been developed during the past fifteen years ( Barnett et al. 1980 , Dixon and Martin 1979 , Erman et al. 1980 , Haton and Pierrel 1976 , Lea 1980 , Lowerre and Reddy 1980 , Medress 1980 , Reddy 1976 , Walker 1978 , and Wolf and Woods 1980 ) . Most of these efforts concentrated on the interaction between low level information sources from a speech recognizer and a natural language processor to discover the meaning of an input sentence .

A number of speech understanding systems have been developed during the past fifteen years ( Barnett et al. 1980 , Dixon and Martin 1979 , Erman et al. 1980 , @@CITATION , Lea 1980 , Lowerre and Reddy 1980 , Medress 1980 , Reddy 1976 , Walker 1978 , and Wolf and Woods 1980 ) .


discriminative reranking for natural language parsing

The Tags model also does much better than the only other broad coverage neural network parser ( Costa et al. , 2001 ) . The bottom panel of table 1 lists the results for the chosen lexicalized model ( SSN-Freq > 200 ) and five recent statistical parsers ( Ratnaparkhi , 1999 ; Collins , 1999 ; Charniak , 2000 ; Collins , 2000 ; Bod , 2001 ) . The performance of the lexicalized model falls in the middle of this range , only being beaten by the three best current parsers , which all achieve equivalent performance .

The bottom panel of table 1 lists the results for the chosen lexicalized model ( SSN-Freq > 200 ) and five recent statistical parsers ( Ratnaparkhi , 1999 ; Collins , 1999 ; Charniak , 2000 ; @@CITATION ; Bod , 2001 ) .


investigating gis and smoothing for maximum entropy taggers

Finally , since Python can produce stand-alone executables directly , it will be possible to create distributable code that does not require the entire infrastructure or Python interpreter to be installed . The basic Python reflection has already been implemented and used for large scale experiments with POS tagging , using pyMPI ( a message passing interface library for Python ) to coordinate experiments across a cluster of over 100 machines ( Curran and Clark , 2003 ; Clark et al. , 2003 ) . An example of using the Python tagger interface is shown in Figure 1 .

The basic Python reflection has already been implemented and used for large scale experiments with POS tagging , using pyMPI ( a message passing interface library for Python ) to coordinate experiments across a cluster of over 100 machines ( @@CITATION ; Clark et al. , 2003 ) .


building probabilistic models for natural language

The correct translations of a word that has several correct translations will be assigned a lower probability than the correct translation of a word that has only one correct translation . This imbalance foils thresholding strategies , clever as they might be ( Gale & Church , 1991 ; Wu & Xia , 1994 ; Chen , 1996 ) . The likelihoods in the word-to-word model remain unnormalized , so they do not compete .

This imbalance foils thresholding strategies , clever as they might be ( Gale & Church , 1991 ; Wu & Xia , 1994 ; @@CITATION ) .


building a large annotated corpus of english the penn treebank

Training was done on the Penn Treebank ( Marcus et al. , 1993 ) Wall Street Journal data , sections 02-21 . To train the CSCL shallow parser we had first to convert the WSJ data to a flat format that directly provides the phrase annotations .

Training was done on the Penn Treebank ( @@CITATION ) Wall Street Journal data , sections 02-21 .


jlsi a tool for latent semantic indexing software available at httptccitcitresearchtextectoolsresourcesjlsihtml

Wikipedia ( WIKI ) . We performed Latent Semantic Analysis ( LSA ) over Wikipedia using the jLSI tool ( Giuliano , 2007 ) to measure the relatedness between words in the dataset . Then , we filtered all the pairs with similarity lower than 0.7 as proposed by ( Kouylekov et al. , 2009 ) .

We performed Latent Semantic Analysis ( LSA ) over Wikipedia using the jLSI tool ( @@CITATION ) to measure the relatedness between words in the dataset .


improved statistical machine translation for resourcepoor languages using related resourcerich languages

A third relevant line of research is on reusing bitexts between related languages without or with very little adaptation , which works well for very closely related languages . For example , our previous work ( Nakov and Ng , 2009 ; Nakov and Ng , 2012 ) experimented with various techniques for combining a small bi-text for a resource-poor language ( Indonesian or Spanish , pretending that Spanish is resource-poor ) with a much larger bi-text for a related resource-rich language ( Malay or Portuguese ) ; the target language of all bi-texts was English . However , our previous work did not attempt language adaptation , except for very simple transliteration for Portuguese -- Spanish that ignored context entirely ; since it could not substitute one word for a completely different word , it did not help much for Malay -- Indonesian , which use unified spelling .

For example , our previous work ( @@CITATION ; Nakov and Ng , 2012 ) experimented with various techniques for combining a small bi-text for a resource-poor language ( Indonesian or Spanish , pretending that Spanish is resource-poor ) with a much larger bi-text for a related resource-rich language ( Malay or Portuguese ) ; the target language of all bi-texts was English .


automatic sense disambiguation using machine readable dictionaries how to tell a pine cone from an ice cream cone

Various approaches for computing semantic relatedness of words or concepts have been proposed , e.g. dictionary-based ( Lesk , 1986 ) , ontology-based ( Wu and Palmer , 1994 ; Leacock and Chodorow , 1998 ) , information-based ( Resnik , 1995 ; Jiang and Conrath , 1997 ) or distributional ( Weeds and Weir , 2005 ) . The knowledge sources used for computing relatedness can be as different as dictionaries , ontologies or large corpora .

Various approaches for computing semantic relatedness of words or concepts have been proposed , e.g. dictionary-based ( @@CITATION ) , ontology-based ( Wu and Palmer , 1994 ; Leacock and Chodorow , 1998 ) , information-based ( Resnik , 1995 ; Jiang and Conrath , 1997 ) or distributional ( Weeds and Weir , 2005 ) .


Elia Bruni
Gemma Boleda
Marco Baroni
NamKhanh Tran

Some efforts have tackled tasks such as automatic image caption generation ( Feng and Lapata , 2010a ; Ordonez et al. , 2011 ) , text illustration ( Joshi et al. , 2006 ) , or automatic location identification of Twitter users ( Eisenstein et al. , 2010 ; Wing and Baldridge , 2011 ; Roller et al. , 2012 ) . Another line of research approaches grounded language knowledge by augmenting distributional approaches of word meaning with perceptual information ( Andrews et al. , 2009 ; Steyvers , 2010 ; Feng and Lapata , 2010b ; Bruni et al. , 2011 ; Silberer and Lapata , 2012 ; Johns and Jones , 2012 ; Bruni et al. , 2012a ; Bruni et al. , 2012b ; Silberer et al. , 2013 ) . Although these approaches have differed in model definition , the general goal in this line of research has been to enhance word meaning with perceptual information in order to address one of the most common criticisms of distributional semantics : that the `` meaning of words is entirely given by other words '' ( Bruni et al. , 2012b ) .

Another line of research approaches grounded language knowledge by augmenting distributional approaches of word meaning with perceptual information ( Andrews et al. , 2009 ; Steyvers , 2010 ; Feng and Lapata , 2010b ; Bruni et al. , 2011 ; Silberer and Lapata , 2012 ; Johns and Jones , 2012 ; @@CITATIONa ; Bruni et al. , 2012b ; Silberer et al. , 2013 ) .


using the structure of a conceptual network in computing semantic relatedness

Furthermore , semantic relatedness is an intuitive concept and being forced to assign fine-grained continuous values is felt to overstrain the test subjects . Gurevych ( 2005 ) replicated the experiment of Rubenstein and Goodenough with the original 65 word pairs translated into German . She used an adapted experimental setup where test subjects had to assign discrete values -LCB- 0,1,2,3,4 -RCB- and word pairs were presented in isolation .

@@CITATION replicated the experiment of Rubenstein and Goodenough with the original 65 word pairs translated into German .


generation that exploits corpusbased statistical knowledge

The problem of generating ordered sequences of adjectives is an instance of the more general problem of selecting among a number of possible outputs from a natural language generation system . One approach to this more general problem , taken by the ` Nitrogen ' generator ( Langkilde and Knight , 1998a ; Langkilde and Knight , 1998b ) , takes advantage of standard statistical techniques by generating a lattice of all possible strings given a semantic representation as input and selecting the most likely output using a bigram language model . Langkilde and Knight report that this strategy yields good results for problems like generating verb/object collocations and for selecting the correct morphological form of a word .

One approach to this more general problem , taken by the ` Nitrogen ' generator ( @@CITATIONa ; Langkilde and Knight , 1998b ) , takes advantage of standard statistical techniques by generating a lattice of all possible strings given a semantic representation as input and selecting the most likely output using a bigram language model .


a maximum entropy approach to natural language processing

2Thus , the difference to token n-grams is that the tokens of different type are removed from the streams , before the features are created . where mk is one mention in entity e , and the basic model building block PL ( L = 1 | e , mk , m ) is an exponential or maximum entropy model ( Berger et al. , 1996 ) . For the start model , we use the following approximation :

where mk is one mention in entity e , and the basic model building block PL ( L = 1 | e , mk , m ) is an exponential or maximum entropy model ( @@CITATION ) .


automatic evaluation of summaries using ngram cooccurrence statistics

Table 5 presents the coverage and unique/best coverage of each method ( the percentage of queries covered only by this method or for which this method produces a better reply than other methods ) , and the average and standard deviation of the precision and F-score obtained by each method ( calculated over the requests that are covered ) . 13 We also employed sequence-based measures using the ROUGE tool set ( Lin and Hovy 2003 ) , with similar results to those obtained with the word-by-word measures . Performance of the different methods for each data set : ( a ) coverage , ( b ) F-score , and ( c ) precision .

13 We also employed sequence-based measures using the ROUGE tool set ( @@CITATION ) , with similar results to those obtained with the word-by-word measures .


cuhtk conversational telephone speech transcription system

Gunnar Evermann
H Y Chan
Mark J F Gales
Thomas Hain
Xunying Liu
David Mrva
Lan Wang
Phil Woodland

This is not possible when modeling word sequences , where only the probability of a sentence is actually used in the HMM training . Second , using continuous distributions allows us to leverage a variety of tools ( e.g. , LDA ) that have been shown to be successful in other fields , such as speech recognition ( Evermann et al. , 2004 ) . Table 2 ( b ) represents the closest head-to-head comparison between our generative approach ( HMM with LDA ) and state-of-the-art results reported by M&S using SVMs .

Second , using continuous distributions allows us to leverage a variety of tools ( e.g. , LDA ) that have been shown to be successful in other fields , such as speech recognition ( @@CITATION ) .


an efficient algorithm for easyfirst nondirectional dependency parsing

In this section , we validate the contribution of key tag sets and morphological features -- and combinations thereof -- using a different parser : the Easy-First Parser ( Goldberg and Elhadad 2010 ) . As in Section 4 , all models are evaluated on both gold and non-gold ( machine-predicted ) feature values .

In this section , we validate the contribution of key tag sets and morphological features -- and combinations thereof -- using a different parser : the Easy-First Parser ( @@CITATION ) .


english verb classes and alternations a preliminary investigation

The major drawback of this approach , however , is the tremendous amount of redundancy in the lexicon -- for example , the class of prototypical transitive verbs where the agent appears as the subject and the theme as the direct object must all duplicate this pattern . The typical solution to the redundancy problem is to group verbs according to their argument realization patterns ( Levin , 1993 ) , possibly arranged in an inheritance hierarchy . The argument structure and syntax-tosemantics mapping would then only need to be specified once for each verb class .

The typical solution to the redundancy problem is to group verbs according to their argument realization patterns ( @@CITATION ) , possibly arranged in an inheritance hierarchy .


Adding selectional restrictions ( semantic feature information , Hobbs 1977 ) does not solve the problem , because isolated features offer only part of the background knowledge necessary for reference disambiguation . Later , Hobbs ( 1979 , 1982 ) proposed a knowledge base in which information about language and the world would be encoded , and he emphasized the need for using `` salience '' in choosing facts from this knowledge base . We will investigate the possibility that the structure of this knowledge base can actually resemble the structure of , for example , natural language dictionaries .

Later , @@CITATION , 1982 ) proposed a knowledge base in which information about language and the world would be encoded , and he emphasized the need for using `` salience '' in choosing facts from this knowledge base .


finding terminology translations from nonparallel corporaquot

Transliteration , a technique that guesses the likely translations of a word based on pronunciation , can be readily used in translating proper nouns . Another technique is automatic discovery of translations from parallel or non-parallel corpora ( Fung and Mckeown , 1997 ) . Since traditional lexicons are more or less static repositories of knowledge , techniques that discover translation from newly published materials can supplement them with corpus-specific vocabularies .

Another technique is automatic discovery of translations from parallel or non-parallel corpora ( @@CITATION ) .


learning semantic lexicons from a partofspeech and semantically tagged corpus using inductive logic programming

Vincent Claveau
Pascale Sebillot
Cecile Fabre
Pierrette Bouillon

The method used for the acquisition of N-V pairs relies mainly on ASARES , a pattern inference tool . ASARES is presented in detail in ( Claveau et al. , 2003 ) . We simply give a short account of its basic principles herein .

ASARES is presented in detail in ( @@CITATION ) .


1 . Opposition ( called `` adversative '' or `` contrary-to-expectation '' by Halliday and Hasan 1976 ; cfXXX also Quirk et al. 1972 , p. 672 ) . The ship arrived but the passengers could not get off .

Opposition ( called `` adversative '' or `` contrary-to-expectation '' by @@CITATION ; cfXXX also Quirk et al. 1972 , p. 672 ) .


A number of applications have relied on distributional analysis ( Harris , 1971 ) in order to build classes of semantically related terms . This approach , which uses words that appear in the context of terms to formulate hypotheses on their semantic relatedness ( Habert et al. , 1996 , for example ) , does not specify the relationship itself .

A number of applications have relied on distributional analysis ( @@CITATION ) in order to build classes of semantically related terms .


parsing indian languages with maltparser

We go beyond previous work , however , and explore additional lexical and inflectional features . Previous work with MaltParser in Russian , Turkish , and Hindi showed gains with CASE but not with agreement features ( Eryigit , Nivre , and Oflazer 2008 ; Nivre , Boguslavsky , and Iomdin 2008 ; Nivre 2009 ) . Our work is the first to show gains using agreement in MaltParser and in Arabic dependency parsing , and the first to use functional features for this task .

Previous work with MaltParser in Russian , Turkish , and Hindi showed gains with CASE but not with agreement features ( Eryigit , Nivre , and Oflazer 2008 ; Nivre , Boguslavsky , and Iomdin 2008 ; @@CITATION ) .


of csli lecture notes center for the study of language and information

written as fully specified relations between words , rather , only what is supposed to be changed is specified . Consider , for example , the lexical rule in Figure 2 , which encodes a passive lexical rule like the one presented by Pollard and Sag ( 1987 , 215 ) in terms of the setup of Pollard and Sag ( 1994 , ch . 9 ) .

Consider , for example , the lexical rule in Figure 2 , which encodes a passive lexical rule like the one presented by @@CITATION , 215 ) in terms of the setup of Pollard and Sag ( 1994 , ch .


detection of questionanswer pairs in email conversations

With respect to these systems , the contribution of our work lies in the consideration of different kinds of corpus-based approaches ( namely , retrieval and prediction ) applied at different levels of granularity ( namely , document and sentence ) . Two applications that , like help-desk , deal with question -- answer pairs are : summarization of e-mail threads ( Dalli , Xia , and Wilks 2004 ; Shrestha and McKeown 2004 ) , and answer extraction in FAQs ( Frequently Asked Questions ) ( Berger and Mittal 2000 ; Berger et al. 2000 ; Jijkoun and de Rijke 2005 ; Soricut and Brill 2006 ) .

Two applications that , like help-desk , deal with question -- answer pairs are : summarization of e-mail threads ( Dalli , Xia , and Wilks 2004 ; @@CITATION ) , and answer extraction in FAQs ( Frequently Asked Questions ) ( Berger and Mittal 2000 ;


Ali Farhadi
Ian Endres
Derek Hoiem
David Forsyth

The language grounding problem has received significant attention in recent years , owed in part to the wide availability of data sets ( e.g. Flickr , Von Ahn ( 2006 ) ) , computing power , improved computer vision models ( Oliva and Torralba , 2001 ; Lowe , 2004 ; Farhadi et al. , 2009 ; Parikh and Grauman , 2011 ) and neurological evidence of ties between the language , perceptual and motor systems in the brain ( Pulverm Â¨ uller et al. , 2005 ; Tettamanti et al. , 2005 ; Aziz-Zadeh et al. , 2006 ) . Many approaches to multimodal research have succeeded by abstracting away raw perceptual information and using high-level representations instead .

The language grounding problem has received significant attention in recent years , owed in part to the wide availability of data sets ( e.g. Flickr , Von Ahn ( 2006 ) ) , computing power , improved computer vision models ( Oliva and Torralba , 2001 ; Lowe , 2004 ; @@CITATION ; Parikh and Grauman , 2011 ) and neurological evidence of ties between the language , perceptual and motor systems in the brain ( Pulverm Â¨ uller et al. , 2005 ; Tettamanti et al. , 2005 ; Aziz-Zadeh et al. , 2006 ) .


a gibbs sampler for phrasal synchronous grammar induction

Phil Blunsom
Trevor Cohn
Chris Dyer
Miles Osborne

Thus , using STSG , we can build more specific U-trees for translation . In addition , we find that the Bayesian SCFG grammar can not even significantly outperform the heuristic SCFG grammar ( Blunsom et al. 2009 ) 5 . This would indicate that the SCFG-based derivation tree as by-product is also not such good for tree-based translation models .

In addition , we find that the Bayesian SCFG grammar can not even significantly outperform the heuristic SCFG grammar ( @@CITATION ) 5 .


a lexicalized tree adjoining grammar for english

A derivation tree is a structural description in LTAG and represents the history of combinations of elementary trees . There are several grammars developed in the FB-LTAG formalism , including the XTAG English grammar , a large-scale grammar for English ( The XTAG Research Group , 2001 ) . The XTAG group ( Doran et al. , 2000 ) at the University of Pennsylvania is also developing Korean , Chinese , and Hindi grammars .

There are several grammars developed in the FB-LTAG formalism , including the XTAG English grammar , a large-scale grammar for English ( The XTAG Research @@CITATION ) .


a bag of useful techniques for efficient and robust parsing

In related work , Miyao ( 1999 ) describes an approach to packing in which alternative feature structures are represented as packed , distributed disjunctions of feature structure fragments . Although the approach may have potential , the shifting of complex accounting into the unification algorithm is at variance with the findings of Kiefer et al. ( 1999 ) , who report large speed-ups from the elimination of disjunction processing during unification . Unfortunately , the reported evaluation measures and lack of discussion of parser control issues are insufficient to allow a precise comparison .

Although the approach may have potential , the shifting of complex accounting into the unification algorithm is at variance with the findings of @@CITATION , who report large speed-ups from the elimination of disjunction processing during unification .


annealing structural bias in multilingual weighted grammar induction

This encourages more transitions and hence shorter phrases . For the task of unsupervised dependency parsing , Smith and Eisner ( 2006 ) add a constraint of the form `` the average length of dependencies should be X '' to capture the locality of syntax ( at least half of the dependencies are between adjacent words ) , using a scheme they call structural annealing . They modify the model 's distribution over trees pe ( y ) by a penalty term as : pe ( y ) â pe ( y ) e ( Î´ Ee â y length ( e ) ) , where length ( e ) is the surface length of edge e .

For the task of unsupervised dependency parsing , @@CITATION add a constraint of the form `` the average length of dependencies should be X '' to capture the locality of syntax ( at least half of the dependencies are between adjacent words ) , using a scheme they call structural annealing .


commandtalk a spokenlanguage interface for battlefield simulations

A visual display gives direct feedback on some of these parameters . The speech and language processing architecture is based on that of the SRI CommandTalk system ( Moore et al. , 1997 ; Stent et a. , 1999 ) . The system comprises a suite of about 20 agents , connected together using the SRI Open Agent Architecture ( OAA ; ( Martin et al. , 1998 ) ) .

The speech and language processing architecture is based on that of the SRI CommandTalk system ( @@CITATION ; Stent et a. , 1999 ) .


syntacticsemantic structures for textual entailment recognition

Yashar Mehdad
Alessandro Moschitti
Fabio Massimo Zanzotto

This suggests that the noise introduced by incorrect translations can be tackled by increasing the coverage of the paraphrase table . Second , in line with the findings of ( Mehdad et al. , 2010 ) , the results obtained over the MT-derived corpus are equal to those we achieve over the original RTE3 dataset ( i.e. 63.50 % ) . Third , the accuracy obtained over the CLTE corpus using combined phrase and paraphrase tables ( 62.88 % , as reported in Table 1 ) is comparable to the best result gained over the automatically translated dataset ( 63.50 % ) .

Second , in line with the findings of ( @@CITATION ) , the results obtained over the MT-derived corpus are equal to those we achieve over the original RTE3 dataset ( i.e. 63.50 % ) .


computing semantic relatedness across parts of speech

Due to the corpusbased approach , many domain-specific concept pairs are introduced into the test set . Therefore , inter-subject correlation is lower than the results obtained by Gurevych ( 2006 ) . In our experiment , intra-subject correlation was r = .670 for the first and r = .623 for the second individual who repeated the experiment , yielding a summarized intra-subject correlation of r = .647 .

Therefore , inter-subject correlation is lower than the results obtained by @@CITATION .


Fixed roles are too coarsegrained to account for certain semantic distinctions -- the only recourse , to expand the inventory of roles , comes with the price of increased complexity , e.g. , in the syntaxto-semantics mapping . There is a general consensus among theoretical linguists that the proper representation of verbal argument structure is event structure -- representations grounded in a theory of events that decompose semantic roles in terms of primitive predicates representing concepts such as causality and inchoativity ( Dowty , 1979 ; Jackendoff , 1983 ; Pustejovsky , 1991b ; Rappaport Hovav and Levin , 1998 ) . Consider the following example :

There is a general consensus among theoretical linguists that the proper representation of verbal argument structure is event structure -- representations grounded in a theory of events that decompose semantic roles in terms of primitive predicates representing concepts such as causality and inchoativity ( Dowty , 1979 ; Jackendoff , 1983 ; Pustejovsky , 1991b ; Rappaport @@CITATION ) .


robust text processing in automated information retrieval

The appropriate analysis-level style markers have to be defined according to the methodology used by the tool in order to analyze the text . For example , some similar measures have been used in stylistic experiments in information retrieval on the basis of a robust parser built for information retrieval purposes ( Strzalkowski 1994 ) . This parser produces trees to represent the structure of the sentences that compose the text .

For example , some similar measures have been used in stylistic experiments in information retrieval on the basis of a robust parser built for information retrieval purposes ( @@CITATION ) .


The function Î´ ( Â· , Â· ) denotes the Kronecker delta . The resulting training procedure is analogous to the one presented in ( Brown et al. , 1993 ) and ( Tillmann and Ney , 1997 ) . The next section presents variants of the basic unconstrained model by putting restrictions on the valid regions of triggers ( in-phrase vs. out-ofphrase ) and using alignments obtained from either GIZA + + training or forced alignments in order to reduce the model size and to incorporate knowledge already obtained in previous training steps .

The resulting training procedure is analogous to the one presented in ( Brown et al. , 1993 ) and ( @@CITATION ) .


integration of speech recognition and natural language processing in the mit voyager systemquot

V Zue
J Glass
D Goodine
H Leung
M Phillips
J Polifroni
S Seneff

The recognizer can continue to propose hypotheses until one successfully parses , or until a quitting criterion is reached , such as an upper bound on N. Whereas in the loosely coupled system the parser acts as a filter only on completed candidate solutions ( Zue et al. 1991 ) , the tightly coupled system allows the parser to discard partial theories that have no way of continuing . Following the Viterbi search , each partial theory is first extended by the parser to specify possible next words , which are then scored by the recognizer .

successfully parses , or until a quitting criterion is reached , such as an upper bound on N. Whereas in the loosely coupled system the parser acts as a filter only on completed candidate solutions ( @@CITATION ) , the tightly coupled system allows the parser to discard partial theories that have no way of continuing .


syntax augmented machine translation via chart parsing

Compared to their work , we do not rely on any Tree-bank resources and focus on generating effective unsupervised tree structures for tree-based translation models . Zollmann and Venugopal ( 2006 ) substituted the non-terminal X in hierarchical phrase-based model by extended syntactic categories . Zollmann and Vogel ( 2011 ) further labeled the SCFG rules with POS tags and unsupervised word classes .

@@CITATION substituted the non-terminal X in hierarchical phrase-based model by extended syntactic categories .


toward a computational theory of definite anaphora comprehension in english

Last , but not least , application-driven research in areas such as automatic abstracting and information extraction independently highlighted the importance of anaphora and coreference resolution , boosting research in this area . Much of the earlier work in anaphora resolution heavily exploited domain and linguistic knowledge ( Sidner 1979 ; Carter 1987 ; Rich and LuperFoy 1988 ; Carbonell and Brown 1988 ) , which was difficult both to represent and to process , and which required considerable human input . However , the pressing need for the development of robust and inexpensive solutions to meet the demands of practical NLP systems encouraged many researchers to move away from extensive domain and linguistic knowledge and to embark instead upon knowledge-poor anaphora resolution strategies .

Much of the earlier work in anaphora resolution heavily exploited domain and linguistic knowledge ( @@CITATION ; Carter 1987 ; Rich and LuperFoy 1988 ; Carbonell and Brown 1988 ) , which was difficult both to represent and to process , and which required considerable human input .


the wiki way  quick collaboration on the web

Generally , people avoid commenting , preferring to edit each document . The paradigm is `` write many , read many '' ( Cunningham and Leuf , 2001 ) . We believe that ownership has an important role and we do not want to force our users to take a

The paradigm is `` write many , read many '' ( @@CITATION ) .


praat doing phonetics by computer retrieved

Phonetic and prosodic segmentation and annotation were performed independently and in parallel by two annotators and then an agreed upon version was produced with the supervision of an expert annotator , for more information see Gr cents nnum ( 2006 ) . The Praat tool was used ( Boersma and Weenink , 2009 ) . The feedback expressions we analyse here are Yes and No expressions , i.e. in Danish words like ja ( yes ) , jo ( yes in a negative context ) , jamen ( yes but , well ) , nej ( no ) , nceh ( no ) .

The Praat tool was used ( @@CITATION ) .


This will allow us to make the following simplification : In a definite description that expresses only properties that are needed for singling out a referent , we take the base form of 2 The reader is asked to focus on any reasonable size measurement , for example , the maximal horizontal or vertical distance , or some combination of dimensions ( Kamp 1975 ; also Section 8.1 of the present article ) . the adjective to be semantically equivalent to the superlative form ( and , analogously , the comparative ) : The n large mice = The largest n mice The large mice = The largest mice The large mouse = The largest mouse .

2 The reader is asked to focus on any reasonable size measurement , for example , the maximal horizontal or vertical distance , or some combination of dimensions ( @@CITATION ; also Section 8.1 of the present article ) .


investigating gis and smoothing for maximum entropy taggers

We can also load a lexicon into memory that is shared between all of the components , reducing the memory use . The implementation has been inspired by experience in extracting information from very large corpora ( Curran and Moens , 2002 ) and performing experiments on maximum entropy sequence tagging ( Curran and Clark , 2003 ; Clark et al. , 2003 ) . We have already implemented a POS tagger , chunker , CCG supertagger and named entity recogniser using the infrastructure .

The implementation has been inspired by experience in extracting information from very large corpora ( Curran and Moens , 2002 ) and performing experiments on maximum entropy sequence tagging ( @@CITATION ; Clark et al. , 2003 ) .


optimizing to arbitrary nlp metrics using ensemble selection

The ind value 5SVMlight is available at svmlight.joachims.org . Default parameters were used , although experimentation with different parameter settings is an important direction for future work ( Daelemans and Hoste , 2002 ; Munson et al. , 2005 ) . for each speech segment s was based on the signed distance d ( s ) from the vector representing s to the trained SVM decision plane :

Default parameters were used , although experimentation with different parameter settings is an important direction for future work ( Daelemans and Hoste , 2002 ; @@CITATION ) .


a constrained latent variable model for coreference resolution

This section describes our joint coreference resolution and mention head detection framework . Our work is inspired by the latent left-linking model in Chang et al. ( 2013 ) and the ILP formulation from Chang et al. ( 2011 ) . The joint learning and inference model takes as input mention head candidates

Our work is inspired by the latent left-linking model in @@CITATION and the ILP formulation from Chang et al. ( 2011 ) .


the interaction of domain knowledge and linguistic structure in natural language processing interpreting hypernymic propositions in biomedical text

( NLM ) , which also serves as a readily available corpus of abstracts for our experiments . Furthermore , the availability of rich ontological resources , in the form of the Unified Medical Language System ( UMLS ) ( Lindberg et al. , 1993 ) , and the availability of software that leverages this knowledge -- MetaMap ( Aronson , 2001 ) for concept identification and SemRep ( Rindflesch and Fiszman , 2003 ) for relation extraction -- provide a foundation for studying the role of semantics in various tasks . McKnight and Srinivasan ( 2003 ) have previously examined the task of categorizing sentences in medical abstracts using supervised discriminative machine learning techniques .

Furthermore , the availability of rich ontological resources , in the form of the Unified Medical Language System ( UMLS ) ( Lindberg et al. , 1993 ) , and the availability of software that leverages this knowledge -- MetaMap ( Aronson , 2001 ) for concept identification and SemRep ( @@CITATION ) for relation extraction -- provide a foundation for studying the role of semantics in various tasks .


generating natural language linder pragmatic constraints lawrence erlbaum

The text planning component selects and organizes the information to be expressed in some internal representation and then sends it to the linguistic component , which converts the information from the internal form into grammatical sentences of some natural language . The names given to the components vary ; they have been called `` strategic '' and `` tactical '' components ( e.g. , McKeown 1985 ; Thompson 1977 ; Danlos 1987 ) 1 , `` planning '' and `` realization '' ( e.g. , McDonald 1983 ; Hovy 1988a ) , or simply `` what to say '' versus `` how to say it '' ( e.g. , Danlos 1987 ; Reithinger 1990 ) . The precise division of work between the components can also vary , as can the extent to which the text planner is responsible for selecting ( as opposed to merely organizing ) the information to be expressed .

The names given to the components vary ; they have been called `` strategic '' and `` tactical '' components ( e.g. , McKeown 1985 ; Thompson 1977 ; Danlos 1987 ) 1 , `` planning '' and `` realization '' ( e.g. , McDonald 1983 ; @@CITATIONa ) , or simply `` what to say '' versus `` how to say it '' ( e.g. , Danlos 1987 ; Reithinger 1990 ) .


towards modelling and using common ground in tutorial dialogue

Over the last decade there has been a lot of interest in developing tutorial dialogue systems that understand student explanations ( Jordan et al. , 2006 ; Graesser et al. , 1999 ; Aleven et al. , 2001 ; Buckley and Wolska , 2007 ; Nielsen et al. , 2008 ; VanLehn et al. , 2007 ) , because high percentages of selfexplanation and student contentful talk are known to be correlated with better learning in humanhuman tutoring ( Chi et al. , 1994 ; Litman et al. , 2009 ; Purandare and Litman , 2008 ; Steinhauser et al. , 2007 ) . However , most existing systems use pre-authored tutor responses for addressing student errors .

Over the last decade there has been a lot of interest in developing tutorial dialogue systems that understand student explanations ( Jordan et al. , 2006 ; Graesser et al. , 1999 ; Aleven et al. , 2001 ; @@CITATION ; Nielsen et al. , 2008 ; VanLehn et al. , 2007 ) , because high percentages of selfexplanation and student contentful talk are known to be correlated with better learning in humanhuman tutoring ( Chi et al. , 1994 ; Litman et al. , 2009 ; Purandare and Litman , 2008 ; Steinhauser et al. , 2007 ) .


deep linguistic processing for spoken dialogue systems

James Allen
Myroslava Dzikovska
Mehdi Manshadi
Mary Swift

We use the TRIPS dialogue parser ( Allen et al. , 2007 ) to parse the utterances . The parser provides a domain-independent semantic representation including high-level word senses and semantic role labels .

We use the TRIPS dialogue parser ( @@CITATION ) to parse the utterances .


evaluation of a largescale email response system

Further , user-based evaluations of the output produced by our system require the subjects to read relatively long request -- response e-mails , which quickly becomes tedious . In order to address these limitations in a practical way , we conducted a small user study where we asked four judges ( graduate students from the Faculty of Information Technology at Monash University ) to assess the responses generated by our system ( Marom and Zukerman 2007a ) . Our judges were instructed to position themselves as help-desk customers who know that they are receiving an automated response , and that such a response is likely to arrive quicker than a response composed by an operator .

In order to address these limitations in a practical way , we conducted a small user study where we asked four judges ( graduate students from the Faculty of Information Technology at Monash University ) to assess the responses generated by our system ( @@CITATIONa ) .


understanding unsegmented user utterances in realtime spoken dialogue systems

Mikio Nakano
Noboru Miyazalci
Jun-ichi Hirasawa
Kohji Dohsaka
Takeshi Kawabata

The language understanding module receives word hypotheses from the speech recognition module and incrementally understands the sequence of the word hypotheses to update the dialogue state , in which the result of understanding and discourse information are represented by a frame ( i.e. , attribute-value pairs ) . The understanding module utilizes ISSS ( Incremental Significant-utterance Sequence Search ) ( Nakano et al. , 1999b ) , which is an integrated parsing and discourse processing method . ISSS enables the incremental understanding of user utterances that are not segmented into sentences prior to parsing by incrementally finding the most plausible sequence of sentences ( or signcant utterances in the ISSS terms ) out of the possible sentence sequences for the input word sequence .

The understanding module utilizes ISSS ( Incremental Significant-utterance Sequence Search ) ( @@CITATIONb ) , which is an integrated parsing and discourse processing method .


a lexicalized tree adjoining grammar for english

LiLFeS is one of the fastest inference engines for processing feature structure logic , and efficient HPSG parsers have already been built on this system ( Nishida et al. , 1999 ; Torisawa et al. , 2000 ) . We applied our system to the XTAG English grammar ( The XTAG Research Group , 2001 ) 3 , which is a large-scale FB-LTAG grammar for English . 2The RenTAL system is available at : http://www-tsujii.is.s.u-tokyo.ac.jp/rental/ 3We used the grammar attached to the latest distribution of an LTAG parser which we used for the parsing experiment .

We applied our system to the XTAG English grammar ( The XTAG Research @@CITATION ) 3 , which is a large-scale FB-LTAG grammar for English .


fluency adequacy or hter exploring different human judgments with a tunable mt metric

Matthew Snover
Nitin Madnani
Bonnie Dorr
Richard Schwartz

With this method , all the different phrases in one language that are aligned with the same phrase in the other language are extracted as paraphrases . After the extraction , pruning techniques ( Snover et al. , 2009 ) can be applied to increase the precision of the extracted paraphrases . In our work we used available2 paraphrase databases for English and Spanish which have been extracted using the method previously outlined .

After the extraction , pruning techniques ( @@CITATION ) can be applied to increase the precision of the extracted paraphrases .


language model adaptation with map estimation and the perceptron algorithm

In this paper , we extend two classes of model adaptation methods ( i.e. , model interpolation and error-driven learning ) , which have been well studied in statistical language modeling for speech and natural language applications ( e.g. , Bacchiani et al. , 2004 ; Bellegarda , 2004 ; Gao et al. , 2006 ) , to ranking models for Web search applications . We have evaluated our methods on two adaptation experiments over a wide variety of datasets where the in-domain datasets bear different levels of similarities to their background datasets .

In this paper , we extend two classes of model adaptation methods ( i.e. , model interpolation and error-driven learning ) , which have been well studied in statistical language modeling for speech and natural language applications ( e.g. , @@CITATION ; Bellegarda , 2004 ; Gao et al. , 2006 ) , to ranking models for Web search applications .


software architecture for language engineering

For instance , GATE currently provides a POS tagger , named entity recogniser and gazetteer and ontology editors ( Cunningham et al. , 2002 ) . GATE goes beyond earlier systems by using a component-based infrastructure ( Cunningham , 2000 ) which the GUI is built on top of . This allows components to be highly configurable and simplifies the addition of new components to the system .

GATE goes beyond earlier systems by using a component-based infrastructure ( @@CITATION ) which the GUI is built on top of .


languages with self reference i foundationsquot

The reader may consult recent papers on this subject ( e.g. Moens and Steedman 1987 ; Webber 1987 ) to see what a formal interpretation of events in time might look like . Since sentences can refer to events described by other sentences , we may need also a quotation operator ; Perlis ( 1985 ) describes how first order logic can be augmented with such an operator . Extending and revising Jackendoff 's ( 1983 ) formalism seems to us a correct method to achieve the correspondence between syntax and semantics expressed in the grammatical constraint ( `` that one should prefer a semantic theory that explains otherwise arbitrary generalizations about the syntax and the lexicon '' -- ibid . )

Since sentences can refer to events described by other sentences , we may need also a quotation operator ; @@CITATION describes how first order logic can be augmented with such an operator .


interpretation and generation in a knowledgebased tutorial system

Myroslava O Dzikovska
Charles B Callaway
Elaine Farrow

The system uses a knowledge base implemented in the KM representation language ( Clark and Porter , 1999 ; Dzikovska et al. , 2006 ) to represent the state of the world . At present , the knowledge base represents 14 object types and supports the curriculum containing over 200 questions and 40 different circuits .

The system uses a knowledge base implemented in the KM representation language ( Clark and Porter , 1999 ; @@CITATION ) to represent the state of the world .


boosting precision and recall of dictionarybased protein name recognition

It may be that our notion of distance to lexical resource entries is too naive . A possible future direction would be to compare the query string to retrieved results using a method similar to that of Tsuruoka and Tsujii ( 2003 ) . This would enable us to retain the advantage of fast approximate string matching , thus being able to utilise larger lexical resources than if we were to calculate sophisticated alignments for each lexical entry .

A possible future direction would be to compare the query string to retrieved results using a method similar to that of @@CITATION .


towards a semantics for lexical rules as used in hpsg

Two formalizations of lexical rules as used by HPSG linguists have been proposed , the meta-level lexical rules ( MLRs ; Calcagno 1995 ; Calcagno and Pollard 1995 ) and the . description-level lexical rules ( DLRs ; Meurers 1995 ) .5 2.2.1 Meta-Level Lexical Rules . The MLR approach sees lexical rules in the more traditional sense as relations between lexical entries , i.e. , descriptions of word objects .

description-level lexical rules ( DLRs ; @@CITATION ) .5 2.2.1 Meta-Level Lexical Rules .


a framework of a mechanical translation between japanese and english by analogy principle

Deriving Translation Resources from Web-Based MT Systems All EBMT systems , from the initial proposal by Nagao ( 1984 ) to the recent collection of Carl and Way ( 2003 ) , are premised on the availability of subsentential alignments derived from the input bitext . There is a wealth of literature on trying to establish subsentential translations from a bilingual corpus .3 Kay and R Â¨ oscheisen ( 1993 ) attempt to extract a bilingual dictionary using a hybrid method of sentence and word alignment on the assumption that the ( source , target ) words have a similar distribution .

All EBMT systems , from the initial proposal by @@CITATION to the recent collection of Carl and Way ( 2003 ) , are premised on the availability of subsentential alignments derived from the input bitext .


This equality i = i ' can not be proven , but it may be reasonably assumed -- we know that in this case the infection i ' caused the illness , which , in turn , caused the death . The necessity of this kind of merging of arguments has been recognized before : Charniak and McDermott ( 1985 ) call it abductive unification/matching , Hobbs ( 1978 , 1979 ) refers to such operations using the terms knitting or petty conversational implicature . Neither Hobbs nor Charniak and McDermott tried then to make this notion precise , but the paper by Hobbs et al. ( 1988 ) moves in that direction .

The necessity of this kind of merging of arguments has been recognized before : Charniak and McDermott ( 1985 ) call it abductive unification/matching , @@CITATION , 1979 ) refers to such operations using the terms knitting or petty conversational implicature .


featurebased inheritance networks for computational lexicons

Lexical rules have not gone unchallenged as a mechanism for expressing generalizations over lexical information . In a number of proposals , lexical generalizations are captured using lexical underspecification ( Kathol 1994 ; Krieger and Nerbonne 1992 ; Riehemann 1993 ; Oliva 1994 ; Frank 1994 ; Opalka 1995 ; Sanfilippo 1995 ) .

In a number of proposals , lexical generalizations are captured using lexical underspecification ( Kathol 1994 ; @@CITATION ;


automatic acquisition of hyponyms from large text corpora

( 5 ) WN CLASS : For each keyword w shown in the right column of Table 1 , we determine whether the head noun of NPZ is a hyponym of w in WordNet , using only the first WordNet sense of NPZ .1 If so , we create a WN CLASS feature with w as its value . These keywords are potentially useful features because some of them are subclasses of the ACE SCs shown in the left column of Table 1 , while others appear to be correlated with these ACE SCs .2 ( 6 ) INDUCED CLASS : Since the first-sense heuristic used in the previous feature may not be accurate in capturing the SC of an NP , we employ a corpusbased method for inducing SCs that is motivated by research in lexical semantics ( e.g. , Hearst ( 1992 ) ) . Given a large , unannotated corpus3 , we use IdentiFinder to label each NE with its NE type and MINIPAR to extract all the appositive relations .

These keywords are potentially useful features because some of them are subclasses of the ACE SCs shown in the left column of Table 1 , while others appear to be correlated with these ACE SCs .2 ( 6 ) INDUCED CLASS : Since the first-sense heuristic used in the previous feature may not be accurate in capturing the SC of an NP , we employ a corpusbased method for inducing SCs that is motivated by research in lexical semantics ( e.g. , @@CITATION ) .


episodes as chunks in narrative memoryquot

Bond and Hayes found three major formal devices that are used , by readers , to identify a paragraph : ( 1 ) the repetition of content words ( nouns , verbs , adjectives , adverbs ) ; ( 2 ) pronoun reference ; and ( 3 ) paragraph length , as determined by spatial and/or sentence-count information . Other psycholing-uistic studies that confirm the validity of paragraph units can be found in Black and Bower ( 1979 ) and Haberlandt et al. ( 1980 ) . The textualist approach to paragraph analysis is exemplified by E. J. Crothers .

Other psycholing-uistic studies that confirm the validity of paragraph units can be found in @@CITATION and Haberlandt et al. ( 1980 ) .


what is the minimal set of fragments that achieves maximal parse accuracy

The Tags model also does much better than the only other broad coverage neural network parser ( Costa et al. , 2001 ) . The bottom panel of table 1 lists the results for the chosen lexicalized model ( SSN-Freq > 200 ) and five recent statistical parsers ( Ratnaparkhi , 1999 ; Collins , 1999 ; Charniak , 2000 ; Collins , 2000 ; Bod , 2001 ) . The performance of the lexicalized model falls in the middle of this range , only being beaten by the three best current parsers , which all achieve equivalent performance .

The bottom panel of table 1 lists the results for the chosen lexicalized model ( SSN-Freq > 200 ) and five recent statistical parsers ( Ratnaparkhi , 1999 ; Collins , 1999 ; Charniak , 2000 ; Collins , 2000 ; @@CITATION ) .


irstbp web people search using name entities

Withindocument coreference resolution has been applied to produce summaries of text surrounding occurrences of the name ( Bagga and Baldwin , 1998 ; Gooi and Allan , 2004 ) . Nevertheless , the full document text is present in most systems , sometimes as the only feature ( Sugiyama and Okumura , 2007 ) and sometimes in combination with others see for instance ( Chen and Martin , 2007 ; Popescu and Magnini , 2007 ) - . Other representations use the link structure ( Malin , 2005 ) or generate graph representations of the extracted features ( Kalashnikov et al. , 2007 ) .

Nevertheless , the full document text is present in most systems , sometimes as the only feature ( Sugiyama and Okumura , 2007 ) and sometimes in combination with others see for instance ( Chen and Martin , 2007 ; @@CITATION ) - .


a maximumentropy partial parser for unrestricted text

An additional possibility is to use word-types , such as a special tag for be-verbs , or for prepositions like ` of ' which attaches mainly to nouns ( Sekine and Grishman , 1995 ) . In a similar vain to Skut and Brants ( 1998 ) and Buchholz et al. ( 1999 ) , the method extends an existing flat shallow-parsing method to handle composite structures . It yields a significant improvement over the flat method , especially for long and more complex structures .

In a similar vain to @@CITATION and Buchholz et al. ( 1999 ) , the method extends an existing flat shallow-parsing method to handle composite structures .


using semantic relations to refine coreference decisions

In fact , semantics plays a crucially important role in the resolution of common NPs , allowing us to identify the coreference relation between two lexically dissimilar common nouns ( e.g. , talks and negotiations ) and to eliminate George W. Bush from the list of candidate antecedents of the city , for instance . As a result , researchers have re-adopted the once-popular knowledge-rich approach , investigating a variety of semantic knowledge sources for common noun resolution , such as the semantic relations between two NPs ( e.g. , Ji et al. ( 2005 ) ) , their semantic similarity as computed using WordNet ( e.g. , Poesio et al. ( 2004 ) ) or Wikipedia ( Ponzetto and Strube , 2006 ) , and the contextual role played by an NP ( see Bean and Riloff ( 2004 ) ) . Another type of semantic knowledge that has been employed by coreference resolvers is the semantic class ( SC ) of an NP , which can be used to disallow coreference between semantically incompatible NPs .

As a result , researchers have re-adopted the once-popular knowledge-rich approach , investigating a variety of semantic knowledge sources for common noun resolution , such as the semantic relations between two NPs ( e.g. , @@CITATION ) , their semantic similarity as computed using WordNet ( e.g. , Poesio et al. ( 2004 ) ) or Wikipedia ( Ponzetto and Strube , 2006 ) , and the contextual role played by an NP ( see Bean and Riloff ( 2004 ) ) .


chinese segmentation with a wordbased perceptron algorithm

We built a two-stage baseline system , using the perceptron segmentation model from our previous work ( Zhang and Clark , 2007 ) and the perceptron POS tagging model from Collins ( 2002 ) . We use baseline system to refer to the system which performs segmentation first , followed by POS tagging ( using the single-best segmentation ) ; baseline segmentor to refer to the segmentor from ( Zhang and Clark , 2007 ) which performs segmentation only ; and baseline POStagger to refer to the Collins tagger which performs POS tagging only ( given segmentation ) .

We built a two-stage baseline system , using the perceptron segmentation model from our previous work ( @@CITATION ) and the perceptron POS tagging model from Collins ( 2002 ) .


the nlm indexing initiative’s medical text indexer

Alan R Aronson
James G Mork
Clifford W Gay
Susanne M Humphrey
Willie J Rogers

The function Î± ( t ) maps a MeSH term to a positive score if the term is a positive indicator for that particular task type , or a negative score if the term is a negative indicator for the clinical task . Note that although our current system uses MeSH headings assigned by human indexers , manually assigned terms can be replaced with automatic processing if needed ( Aronson et al. 2004 ) . Below , we enumerate the relevant indicator terms by clinical task .

Note that although our current system uses MeSH headings assigned by human indexers , manually assigned terms can be replaced with automatic processing if needed ( @@CITATION ) .


the semantic structure of neoclassical compounds

Hence , enumerating morphological variants in a semi-automatically generated lexicon , such as proposed for French ( Zweigenbaum et al. , 2001 ) , turns out to be infeasible , at least for German and related languages . Furthermore , medical terminology is characterized by a typical mix of Latin and Greek roots with the corresponding host language ( e.g. , German ) , often referred to as neo-classical compounding ( McCray et al. , 1988 ) . While this is simply irrelevant for general-purpose morphological analyzers , dealing with such phenomena is crucial for any attempt to cope adequately with medical free-texts in an IR setting ( Wolff , 1984 ) .

Furthermore , medical terminology is characterized by a typical mix of Latin and Greek roots with the corresponding host language ( e.g. , German ) , often referred to as neo-classical compounding ( @@CITATION ) .


beyond nombank a study of implicit arguments for nominal predicates

Previously ( Gerber and Chai 2010 ) , we assessed the importance of various implicit argument feature groups by conducting feature ablation tests . In each test , the discriminative model was retrained and reevaluated without a particular group of features .

Previously ( @@CITATION ) , we assessed the importance of various implicit argument feature groups by conducting feature ablation tests .


topological ordering of function words in hierarchical phrasebased translation

Hendra Setiawan
Min Yen Kan
Haizhou Li
Philip Resnik

jections of the function word and the neighboring phrase are adjacent or separated by an intervening phrase . To model d ( FWi â 1 , S â T ) , d ( FWi +1 , S â T ) , i.e. whether Li , S â T and Ri , S â T extend beyond the neighboring function word phrase pairs , we utilize the pairwise dominance model of Setiawan et al. ( 2009 ) . Taking d ( FWi â 1 , S â T ) as a case in point , this model takes the form Pdom ( d ( FWi â 1 , S â T ) | Yi â 1 , S â T , Yi , S â T ) , where d takes one of the following four dominance values : leftFirst , rightFirst , dontCare , or neither .

To model d ( FWi â 1 , S â T ) , d ( FWi +1 , S â T ) , i.e. whether Li , S â T and Ri , S â T extend beyond the neighboring function word phrase pairs , we utilize the pairwise dominance model of @@CITATION .


lectures on contemporary syntactic theories csli lecture notes

A paragraph can be thought of as a grammatical unit in the following sense : it is the discourse unit in which a functional ( or a predicate-argument ) structure can be definitely assigned to sentences/strings . For instance , Sells ( 1985 , p. 8 ) says that the sentence `` Reagan thinks bananas , '' which is otherwise strange , is in fact acceptable if it occurs as an answer to the question `` What is Kissinger 's favorite fruit ? '' The pairing of these two sentences may be said to create a small paragraph .

For instance , @@CITATION , p. 8 ) says that the sentence `` Reagan thinks bananas , '' which is otherwise strange , is in fact acceptable if it occurs as an answer to the question `` What is Kissinger 's favorite fruit ? ''


Semantic Role labeling ( SRL ) was first defined in Gildea and Jurafsky ( 2002 ) . The purpose of SRL task is to identify and classify the semantic roles of each predicate in a sentence .

Semantic Role labeling ( SRL ) was first defined in @@CITATION .


ajax a new approach to web applications url httpwwwadaptivepathcompublicationsessays archives000385php retrieved the 22nd of december

We used the Asyncronous Javascript And XML ( or AJAX ) paradigm to create the graphical user interface . AJAX function lets the communication works asyncronously between a client and a server through a set of messages based on HTTP protocol and XML ( Garrett , 2005 ) .

AJAX function lets the communication works asyncronously between a client and a server through a set of messages based on HTTP protocol and XML ( @@CITATION ) .


recognizing referential links an information extraction perspective

While the shift toward knowledge-poor strategies and the use of corpora represented the main trends of anaphora resolution in the 1990s , there are other significant highlights in recent anaphora resolution research . The inclusion of the coreference task in the Sixth and Seventh Message Understanding Conferences ( MUC-6 and MUC-7 ) gave a considerable impetus to the development of coreference resolution algorithms and systems , such as those described in Baldwin et al. ( 1995 ) , Gaizauskas and Humphreys ( 1996 ) , and Kameyama ( 1997 ) . The last decade of the 20th century saw a number of anaphora resolution projects for languages other than English such as French , German , Japanese , Spanish , Portuguese , and Turkish .

The inclusion of the coreference task in the Sixth and Seventh Message Understanding Conferences ( MUC-6 and MUC-7 ) gave a considerable impetus to the development of coreference resolution algorithms and systems , such as those described in Baldwin et al. ( 1995 ) , Gaizauskas and Humphreys ( 1996 ) , and @@CITATION .


line em up advances in alignment technology and their impact on translation support toolsquot

The most detailed evaluation of link tokens to date was performed by ( Macklovitch & Hannan , 1996 ) , who trained Brown et al. 's Model 2 on 74 million words of the Canadian Hansards . These authors kindly provided us with the links generated by that model in 51 aligned sentences from a heldout test set .

The most detailed evaluation of link tokens to date was performed by ( @@CITATION ) , who trained Brown et al. 's Model 2 on 74 million words of the Canadian Hansards .


The outputs of this network are probability estimates computed with a log-linear model ( also known as a maximum entropy model ) , as is done in ( Ratnaparkhi , 1999 ) . Log-linear models have proved successful in a wide variety of applications , and are the inspiration behind one of the best current statistical parsers ( Charniak , 2000 ) . The difference from previous approaches is in the nature of the input to the log-linear model .

Log-linear models have proved successful in a wide variety of applications , and are the inspiration behind one of the best current statistical parsers ( @@CITATION ) .


word association norms mutual information and lexicography

For the higherfrequency words , Fisher 's exact test leads to a slightly better recall with the same precision scores ( 0.31 for both tests ) . While we have observed reasonable results with both G2 and Fisher 's exact test , we have not yet discussed how these results compare to the results that can be obtained with a technique commonly used in corpus linguistics based on the mutual information ( MI ) measure ( Church and Hanks 1990 ) : In ( 4 ) , y is the seed term and x a potential target word .

While we have observed reasonable results with both G2 and Fisher 's exact test , we have not yet discussed how these results compare to the results that can be obtained with a technique commonly used in corpus linguistics based on the mutual information ( MI ) measure ( @@CITATION ) :


responsa an operational fulltext retrieval system with linguistic components for large corpora

Morphological alterations of a search term have a negative impact on the recall performance of an information retrieval ( IR ) system ( Choueka , 1990 ; J Â¨ appinen and Niemist Â¨ o , 1988 ; Kraaij and Pohlmann , 1996 ) , since they preclude a direct match between the search term proper and its morphological variants in the documents to be retrieved . In order to cope with such variation , morphological analysis is concerned with the reverse processing of inflection ( e.g. , ` search ed ' , ` search ing ' ) 1 , derivation ( e.g. , ` search er ' or ` search able ' ) and composition ( e.g. , German ` Blut hoch druck ' [ ` high blood pressure ' ] ) .

Morphological alterations of a search term have a negative impact on the recall performance of an information retrieval ( IR ) system ( @@CITATION ; J Â¨ appinen and Niemist Â¨ o , 1988 ; Kraaij and Pohlmann , 1996 ) , since they preclude a direct match between the search term proper and its morphological variants in the documents to be retrieved .


alternations and verb semantic classes for french analysis and class formation chapter 5

However as for other types of synonymy , distributional analysis and clustering techniques can be used to develop such resources . For shuffling paraphrases , french alternations are partially described in ( Saint-Dizier , 1999 ) and a resource is available which describes alternation and the mapping verbs/alternations for roughly 1 700 verbs . For complementing this database and for converse constructions , the LADL tables ( Gross , 1975 ) can furthermore be resorted to , which list detailed syntactico-semantic descriptions for 5 000 verbs and 25 000 verbal expressions .

For shuffling paraphrases , french alternations are partially described in ( @@CITATION ) and a resource is available which describes alternation and the mapping verbs/alternations for roughly 1 700 verbs .


[ [ DO ( he , sweeps ( the floor ) ) ] CAUSE [ BECOME [ clean ( the floor ) ] ] ] Dowty breaks the event described by ( 2 ) into two subevents , the activity of sweeping the floor and its result , the state of the floor being clean . A more recent approach , advocated by Rappaport Hovav and Levin ( 1998 ) , describes a basic set of event templates corresponding to Vendler 's event classes ( Vendler , 1957 ) : ( 3 ) a. [ x ACT <MANNER> ] ( activity ) b. [ x <STATE> ] ( state ) c. [ BECOME [ x <STATE> ] ] ( achievement ) d. [ x CAUSE [ BECOME [ x <STATE> ] ] ] ( accomplishment ) A process called Template Augmentation allows basic event templates to be freely `` augmented '' to any other event template .

A more recent approach , advocated by Rappaport Hovav and Levin ( 1998 ) , describes a basic set of event templates corresponding to Vendler 's event classes ( @@CITATION ) : ( 3 ) a. [ x ACT <MANNER> ] ( activity ) b. [ x <STATE> ] ( state ) c. [ BECOME [ x <STATE> ] ] ( achievement ) d. [ x CAUSE [ BECOME [ x <STATE> ] ] ] ( accomplishment )


a method for extracting translation patterns from translation examples

Kaji , Kida , and Morimoto ( 1992 ) identify translationally equivalent phrasal segments and replace such equivalents with variables to generate a set of translation patterns . Watanabe ( 1993 ) combines lexical and dependency mappings to form his generalizations . Other similar approaches include those of Cicekli and G Â¨ uvenir ( 1996 ) , McTait and Trujillo ( 1999 ) , Carl ( 1999 ) , and Brown ( 2000 ) , inter alia .

@@CITATION combines lexical and dependency mappings to form his generalizations .


an algebra for semantic construction in constraintbased grammars

`` Semantic grammars '' already exist which describe not only the syntax but also the semantics of natural language . Thus for instance , ( Copestake and Flickinger , 2000 ; Copestake et al. , 2001 ) describes a Head Driven Phrase Structure Grammar ( HPSG ) which supports the parallel construction of a phrase structure ( or derived ) tree and of a semantic representation and ( Dalrymple , 1999 ) show how to equip Lexical Functional grammar ( LFG ) with a glue semantics . These grammars are both efficient and large scale in that they cover an important fragment of the natural language they describe and can be processed by parsers and generators in almost real time .

Thus for instance , ( Copestake and Flickinger , 2000 ; @@CITATION ) describes a Head Driven Phrase Structure Grammar ( HPSG ) which supports the parallel construction of a phrase structure ( or derived ) tree and of a semantic representation and ( Dalrymple , 1999 ) show how to equip Lexical Functional grammar ( LFG ) with a glue semantics .


The reordering models we describe follow our previous work using function word models for translation ( Setiawan et al. , 2007 ; Setiawan et al. , 2009 ) . The core hypothesis in this work is that function words provide robust clues to the reordering patterns of the phrases surrounding them .

The reordering models we describe follow our previous work using function word models for translation ( Setiawan et al. , 2007 ; @@CITATION ) .


new ranking algorithms for parsing and tagging kernels over discrete structures and the voted perceptron

The importance of including nonheadwords has become uncontroversial ( e.g. Collins 1999 ; Charniak 2000 ; Goodman 1998 ) . And Collins ( 2000 ) argues for `` keeping track of counts of arbitrary fragments within parse trees '' , which has indeed been carried out in Collins and Duffy ( 2002 ) who use exactly the same set of ( all ) tree fragments as proposed in Bod ( 1992 ) . Thus the major innovations of DOP are :

And Collins ( 2000 ) argues for `` keeping track of counts of arbitrary fragments within parse trees '' , which has indeed been carried out in @@CITATION who use exactly the same set of ( all ) tree fragments as proposed in Bod ( 1992 ) .


sentence fusion for multidocument news summarization

Unlike a document reuse approach , sentence-level approaches need to consider issues of discourse coherence in order to ensure that the extracted combination of sentences is coherent or at least understandable . In our work , we gather sets of sentences , and assume ( but do not employ ) existing approaches for their organization ( Goldstein et al. 2000 ; Barzilay , Elhadad , and McKeown 2001 ; Barzilay and McKeown 2005 ) . The appeal of a sentence-level approach is that it supports the generation of a `` combination response '' in situations where there is insufficient evidence for a single document containing a full response , but there is enough evidence for parts of responses .

In our work , we gather sets of sentences , and assume ( but do not employ ) existing approaches for their organization ( Goldstein et al. 2000 ; Barzilay , Elhadad , and McKeown 2001 ; @@CITATION ) .


a lightweight evaluation framework for machine translation reordering

D Talbot
H Kazawa
H Ichikawa
J Katz-Brown
M Seno
F Och

1Our rules are similar to those from Xu et al. ( 2009 ) . criteria and data used in our experiments are based on the work of Talbot et al. ( 2011 ) . Table 1 shows the results of using the reordering cost as an augmented-loss to the standard treebank objective function .

criteria and data used in our experiments are based on the work of @@CITATION .


E Hovy
M Marcus
M Palmer
L Ramshaw
R Weischedel

We present experiments on the two standard coreference resolution datasets , ACE-2004 ( NIST , 2004 ) and OntoNotes-5 .0 ( Hovy et al. , 2006 ) . Our approach results in a substantial reduction in the coreference performance gap between gold and predicted mentions , and significantly outperforms existing stat-of-the-art results on coreference resolution ; in addition , it achieves significant performance improvement on MD for both datasets .

We present experiments on the two standard coreference resolution datasets , ACE-2004 ( NIST , 2004 ) and OntoNotes-5 .0 ( @@CITATION ) .


automatic generation of domain models for callcenters from noisy transcriptions

These systems addressed the evaluation issue as follows . â¢ Only qualitative observations of the responses were reported ( no formal evaluation was performed ) ( Lapalme and Kosseim 2003 ; Roy and Subramaniam 2006 ) . â¢ Only an automatic evaluation was performed , which relied on having model responses ( Berger and Mittal 2000 ; Berger et al. 2000 ) .

â¢ Only qualitative observations of the responses were reported ( no formal evaluation was performed ) ( Lapalme and Kosseim 2003 ; @@CITATION ) .


efficient algorithms for parsing the dop model

Goodman then shows by simple induction that subderivations headed by A with external nonterminals at the roots and leaves , internal nonterminals elsewhere have probability 1/a . And subderivations headed by A1 with external nonterminals only at the leaves , internal nonterminals elsewhere , have probability 1/a1 ( Goodman 1996 ) . Goodman 's main theorem is that this construction produces PCFG derivations isomorphic to DOP derivations with equal probability .

And subderivations headed by A1 with external nonterminals only at the leaves , internal nonterminals elsewhere , have probability 1/a1 ( @@CITATION ) .


japanese dependency analysis using cascaded chunking

â¢ History-based feature models for predicting the next parser action ( Black et al. , 1992 ) . â¢ Support vector machines for mapping histories to parser actions ( Kudo and Matsumoto , 2002 ) . â¢ Graph transformations for recovering nonprojective structures ( Nivre and Nilsson , 2005 ) .

â¢ Support vector machines for mapping histories to parser actions ( @@CITATION ) .


Sima'an ( 1995 ) gave an efficient algorithm for computing the parse tree generated by the most probable derivation , which in some cases is a reasonable approximation of the most probable parse . Goodman ( 1996 , 1998 ) developed a polynomial time PCFG-reduction of DOP1 whose size is linear in the size of the training set , thus converting the exponential number of subtrees to a compact grammar . While Goodman 's method does still not allow for an efficient computation of the most probable parse in DOP1 , it does efficiently compute the `` maximum constituents parse '' , i.e. the parse tree which is most likely to have the largest number of correct constituents .

@@CITATION , 1998 ) developed a polynomial time PCFG-reduction of DOP1 whose size is linear in the size of the training set , thus converting the exponential number of subtrees to a compact grammar .


Adjectives like good allow either verb-subject or verb-object interpretations : a good cook is a cook who cooks well whereas good soup is soup that tastes good or soup that is good to eat . Pustejovsky ( 1995 ) avoids enumerating the various senses for adjectives like fast by exploiting the semantics of the nouns they modify . Pustejovsky treats nouns as having a qualia structure as part of their lexical entries , which among other things , specifies possible events associated with the entity .

@@CITATION avoids enumerating the various senses for adjectives like fast by exploiting the semantics of the nouns they modify .


getting more from morphology in multilingual dependency parsing

Furthermore , we demonstrate that our results carry over successfully to another parser , the Easy-First Parser ( Goldberg and Elhadad 2010 ) ( Section 6 ) . Hohensee and Bender ( 2012 ) have conducted a study on dependency parsing for 21 languages using features that encode whether the values for certain attributes are equal or not for a node and its governor . These features are potentially powerful , because they generalize to the very notion of agreement , away from the specific values of the attributes on which agreement occurs .9 We expect this kind of feature to yield lower gains for Arabic , unless :

@@CITATION have conducted a study on dependency parsing for 21 languages using features that encode whether the values for certain attributes are equal or not for a node and its governor .


expectation semirings flexible em for finitestate transducers

The resulting machine must be normalized , either per-state or globally , to obtain a joint or a conditional distribution as desired . Such approaches have been tried recently in restricted cases ( McCallum et al. , 2000 ; Eisner , 2001b ; Lafferty et al. , 2001 ) . Normalization may be postponed and applied instead to the result of combining the FST with other FSTs by composition , union , concatenation , etc. .

Such approaches have been tried recently in restricted cases ( McCallum et al. , 2000 ; @@CITATIONb ; Lafferty et al. , 2001 ) .


f. Two years II have passed since then . The relation between discourse and prosodic phrasing has been examined in some detail by Bing ( 1985 ) , who argues that each noun phrase in an utterance constitutes a separate prosodic phrase unless it is destressed because of reference to previous discourse . Bing also observes that constituents that refer to items newly introduced into a discourse tend to be longer .

The relation between discourse and prosodic phrasing has been examined in some detail by @@CITATION , who argues that each noun phrase in an utterance constitutes a separate prosodic phrase unless it is destressed because of reference to previous discourse .


the annotation process in the turkish treebank

as well as a rapid degradation of attachment score with arc length ( from about 93 % for length 1 to 67 % for length 2 ) . By contrast , Turkish ( Oflazer et al. , 2003 ; Atalay et al. , 2003 ) exhibits high root accuracy but consistently low attachment scores ( about 88 % for length 1 and 68 % for length 2 ) . It is noteworthy that Arabic and Turkish , being `` typological outliers '' , show patterns that are different both from each other and from most of the other languages .

By contrast , Turkish ( Oflazer et al. , 2003 ; @@CITATION ) exhibits high root accuracy but consistently low attachment scores ( about 88 % for length 1 and 68 % for length 2 ) .


selective sampling using the query by committee algorithm

Yoav Freund
H Sebastian Seung
Eli Shamir
Naftali Tishby

A committee-based selection algorithm works with multiple learners , each maintaining a different hypothesis ( perhaps pertaining to different aspects of the problem ) . The candidate examples that lead to the most disagreements among the different learners are considered to have the highest TUV ( Cohn , Atlas , and Ladner 1994 ; Freund et al. 1997 ) . For computationally intensive problems , such as parsing , keeping multiple learners may be impractical .

The candidate examples that lead to the most disagreements among the different learners are considered to have the highest TUV ( Cohn , Atlas , and Ladner 1994 ; @@CITATION ) .


moses open source toolkit for statistical machine translation

Philipp Koehn
Hieu Hoang
Alexandra Birch
Chris Callison-Burch
Marcello Federico
Nicola Bertoldi
Brooke Cowan
Wade Shen

We run TreeTagger ( Schmid , 1994 ) for tokenization , and used the Giza + + ( Och and Ney , 2003 ) to align the tokenized corpora at the word level . Subsequently , we extracted the bilingual phrase table from the aligned corpora using the Moses toolkit ( Koehn et al. , 2007 ) . Since the resulting phrase table was very large , we eliminated all the entries with identical content in the two languages , and the ones containing phrases longer than 5 words in one of the two sides .

Subsequently , we extracted the bilingual phrase table from the aligned corpora using the Moses toolkit ( @@CITATION ) .