Technology and Revolution in Roman Architecture
Kleiner, Diana E. E.
Roman Architecture (HSAR 252) Professor Kleiner discusses the revolution in Roman architecture resulting from the widespread adoption of concrete in the late second and first centuries B.C. She contrasts what she calls innovative Roman architecture with the more traditional buildings already surveyed and documents a shift from the use of concrete for practical purposes to an exploration of its expressive possibilities. The lecture concludes with a discussion of the Sanctuary of Fortuna Primigenia at Palestrina, an impressive terraced complex that uses concrete to transform a mountain into a work of architecture, with ramps and stairs leading from one level to the next and porticoes revealing panoramic views of nature and of man-made architectural forms.
 Good morning. It's inauguration day. Happy inauguration day to everyone. And I thought that actually the inauguration of Barack Obama today, and the particular lecture in this class, are very well suited to one another. Because although you see that the title of today's lecture is Technology and Revolution in Roman Art, I could also call it something like The Change the Romans Believed In. Because The Change the Romans Believed In, The Change the Romans Believed In, was a shift from what we've called traditional Roman architecture to innovative Roman architecture. And that's what we're going to be talking about today, what we call innovative, and what we'll call in the course of this semester, innovative Roman architecture. We've already talked about what we've called traditional Roman architecture. And I just want to look again with you to begin today with the Temple of Portunus that we looked at last time, the Temple of Portunus in Rome, near the Tiber River, a temple that was put up in the late, second, early first century B.C. And we talked about the fact that this was a traditional Roman building of this day, a traditional Roman building, though, that was quite derivative, that looked back at Greek architecture, Greek religious architecture, and Etruscan religious architecture, and drew from both of those, drew elements from both of those, and combined them together into what we termed a new Roman creation, at least in the traditional vein. We talked about the fact that the Etruscan elements of this particular monument were its tall podium, were its deep porch, were the freestanding columns in that porch, were the single staircase, and the emphasis on the façade, that having that single staircase achieved. We also talked about the fact that while there were columns all around the structure, which is actually a Greek way of doing things, that those columns were attached or engaged into the wall, which still gave it a certain sense of flatness, including on the back, that was also characteristic of Etruscan architecture. We also talked about the Greek elements that were incorporated here, and those included the fact that the building was made out of stone, and also the fact that one of the traditional Greek orders, in this case the Ionic order, was used for the structure. So this bringing together of Greek and Etruscan elements in this thoroughly Roman building, but a building that, again, we would call a traditional Roman building. And what do I mean by traditional? All the traditional Roman buildings share income in the following features. They have columns, and they have walls, and those columns and walls serve a structural purpose, and that is to hold up the flak or the sloping ceiling, and the sloping roof, and that is, in fact, exactly what you see here. But at this very same time, in the second century B.C. and into the first century B.C., we begin to see a new kind of experimentation that is going on concurrently with this. An experimentation that grows up in some of the same towns that we see traditional buildings like this. And what made this experimentation different than anything that had come before is the fact that the Romans use for these buildings a completely new material, and that material is concrete. We talked about the fact that already in the Temple of Portunus, concrete was used, but concrete was used only in the podium. You can't see it. It is inside the podium and serves to strengthen. Concrete has a great deal of strength and can sustain great weights, and so it was placed in the podium for utilitarian purposes so that it could help to support the temple that was located on top. But again, none of its expressive possibilities were explored by the designer of the Temple of Portunus or any of the other temples we looked at last time. But what begins to happen also in the course of the second and first centuries B.C. is architects beginning to realize that this new concrete technology has an opportunity to transform Roman architecture, and they begin to experiment with that transformation. In order to understand the concrete buildings that we're going to be looking at this morning, which are absolutely fascinating, and I hope you'll be as enthralled by them as I am, and they again stand at the very beginning of this development of innovative architecture in Rome. It's important to know a bit about concrete, Roman concrete, that is, and I want to make a few points about it. Roman concrete, the Latin term for it, is opus chimenticum, as I've indicated here. Roman concrete is different from what we think of today as concrete. It's a composite of various natural elements that becomes a liquid mass when mixed with water, and eventually hardens into a very, very strong substance, much stronger than any of its ingredients are on their own. Roman concrete was a mixture of stone rubble and liquid mortar and composed of lime, sand, and something called pazzolana, pazzolana being a volcanic substance, which was very plentiful in Italy, especially around the area of Pompeii, Herculaneum, the area of Campania. Concrete was used in Rome from the early second century B.C. on, but it was not until the end of the second century and the beginning of the first century that the expressive possibilities of concrete began to be fully realized. Concrete, I think this is also important to mention when you think about concrete construction in relationship to stone construction that we've already discussed, concrete is not cut or quarried the way stone is. Concrete is cast in molds. Concrete can be cast in any shape, at least any shape, that a carpenter can build with wood. And like modern builders, the Romans erected wooden frames for their walls and ceilings, and they poured concrete into those wooden frames. What's most important for us in the context of this lecture and in this course in general is that the introduction of Roman concrete into Roman architecture freed the Roman architect from the confines of a rectilinear architecture that they had inherited from the Greeks, the kind of rectilinear architecture that made up a temple like the Temple of Portunus. This is a very momentous change, and one that will have a lasting impact on the buildings of the Romans. Let me try to give you a sense of what I mean by this. One could argue that the greatest concrete structure built by the Romans was the pantheon. And I remind you of the pantheon on the right, in fact the dome of the pantheon, which would not have been possible without concrete construction. But it's interesting to compare the pantheon to an attempt that Etruscan architects made to create something similar, but out of stone. I'll show you on the left-hand side of the screen an Etruscan tomb that dates to 600 B.C. So very early in time, 600 B.C. An Etruscan tomb at a place called, it's not on your monument list, but at a place called Quinto Fiorentino, Q-U-I-N-T-O, new word F-I-O-R-E-N-T-I-N-O, Quinto Fiorentino in Etruscan territory. And what the architects have done here is to try to create a round tomb, and they've used stone, as you can see. And they have laid those stones. They've cut and quarried the stones as usual. They've tried to cut them in the shapes that they need in order to make this work. And they've piled them one on top of the other, row after row after row, until they've gotten, it started out okay at the bottom. But as they get further and further onto the top, and it gets rounder and rounder, and converges at the apex, they start to have trouble, as you can see. And although it's a heroic, a valiant attempt on their part, it isn't terribly successful, at least to my mind, aesthetically. And in fact, they were worried about it falling down, so they even had to place a stone pier here to support the dome, to make sure that it didn't drop. And actually, that was pretty successful, because here it is still today, looking pretty good in that regard. But with the introduction of concrete into architecture under the Romans, building a dome like the Pantheon was simplicity itself. All you needed to be able to do was to build one of these wooden models, wooden structures that you then poured concrete into, and voila, you have the dome of the Pantheon. So simplicity itself, transformational, vis-a-vis Roman architecture. The only problem with concrete, and there were two problems with concrete that the architects of this period had to contend with, one of them was that concrete has to be protected from moisture, that's number one, and number two, that concrete is less attractive than stone. The Roman architects of the second and first centuries B.C. solved these two problems in the same way. What they decided to do was when the concrete was still wet, they attached a stone to it. This could either be large ashlar blocks, stone blocks, or it could be small pieces of stone. That uncertain work, or opus and keratum, that we talked about last time, pressed into the concrete when it was wet, and when it all dried, that stone both made the building look more attractive, and also protected the building from moisture. We looked last time at that opus and keratum facing. I remind you of the Temple of Vesta at Tivoli, which you see here, and you will recall that the Temple of Vesta at Tivoli had concrete both in its podium for utilitarian purposes, and to support the great weight of the temple, but also that the architects explored making the cellar wall, the curved cellar wall, also out of concrete. And then when that concrete was wet, they put in the small cut, irregularly shaped stones, called uncertain work, or opus and keratum, to protect that. So we saw that already in the Temple of Vesta, even though it was a traditional temple based on Greek and Etruscan models. And we'll see it again today in several buildings. And I show you just one example, the last structure that we'll talk about today, the sanctuary of Fortuna Primigania at Palestrina, an extraordinary structure built on the hillside that also used opus and keratum as the facing. And you can see it used here for the wall and also for the coffered ceiling above. And so a stone-facing opus and keratum that was particularly favored in the second centuries B.C. and into the first centuries B.C. Over time, the choice of facing changed, although Ashlar Bloch's Tufa, Tufa, Travertine, and opus and keratum were popular in the second and first centuries. As time goes on, things change. We'll see, under the Roman emperor Nerva, there was a revolution, another kind of revolution of sorts in Roman architecture. And we'll talk about the reasons for that, and so on later in the semester. But with that revolution came an interest in a new facing material, namely brick, brick that was originally stuck out over, and in fact the opus and keratum work and the Tufa stone that we've talked about already today tended to be stuck out over as well. But by the second century we begin to see an appreciation for brick in its own right, the attractiveness of brick, and the Romans begin to use exposed brick as the facing for their buildings. And I show you one example. It's a detail of a warehouse in the Roman port city of Ostia that we'll look at later in the term, with this exposed brick facing, very attractive, different colorations, and so on and so forth. But just to alert you to the fact that, again, the kind of facing that we're talking about today will not be the only facing that is used by the Romans over time. I want to show you today a series of these concrete constructions, concrete experiments we might call them, that begin to turn up, not only in Rome itself, but also in some of the cities close to Rome that we saw Rome began to colonize in the Republic and into the age of Augustus, cities that either are the same or very close to the ones that we looked at last time. And I'll show you a map momentarily. I just want to begin with one in Rome itself. This is the so-called Porticus Emilia in Rome. The Porticus Emilia was a warehouse, a very large warehouse, on the banks of the Tiber River. The Porticus Emilia was built, as you can see from the dates on your Monument List, very early on, 193 B.C., and then restored in 174 B.C. Only a small fragment of the Porticus Emilia survives today, but we have a lot of evidence, a lot of clues, that we can piece together through scholarly detective work to determine what this building looked like in antiquity, and we can get a quite accurate sense. We have, for example, the words of the great Roman historian Livy, Livy who is writing in the age of Augustus. He tells us that the Porticus Emilia, he describes it, he mentions the Porticus Emilia, and he tells us it was located on the east bank of the Tiber River, and that it was southwest of one of Rome's seven hills, the Aventine Hill, southwest of the Aventine Hill, which is enormously helpful because it gives archaeologists and so on a clue as to where they might look for remains of this particular structure. So we have that. We also have a fragment of the building, we believe, because it's located just in the right place, and I show it to you here. It's not much. It's a piece, it's essentially a hunk of concrete that includes an arched doorway and some arched windows, but it's very important in terms of allowing us to reconstruct what this structure looked like in antiquity. But most significant of all, we have a fragment from what is known as the Marble Map of Rome. The Marble Map of Rome called the Forma Orbis, and I put that word on the monument list, that title on the monument list for you, the Forma Orbis. The Forma Orbis was a great marble map that was made of Rome in the early third century AD, under the emperorship of Septimius Severus, and put up on a wall in Rome. And we'll talk about its location later on in the semester. But it purported to represent all the buildings that were standing in Rome in the early third century AD. It is fragmentary today, but there are a fair number of fragments, and fortunately a couple of those fragments, or several of those fragments, are fragments that represent the Porticus Emilia. So we can tell from that, from that, from Libby's description, from this fragmentary remain, we can piece together what it looked like. And you can see it here, a very, very long rectangular structure that went all along the bank of the river. Storage, you need a lot of storage. Especially as the Romans began to conquer the world, they were trading more extensively with other parts of the world, and consequently they needed places along the Tiber River to store the goods that were both going out and coming in. So they built this gigantic warehouse along the banks of the Tiber. Now there's a fair amount of disagreement about some of the smaller details of this warehouse and what it looked like in antiquity. So we have to do the best that we can to bring that evidence together to determine what it looked like. But as I said, in some details you'll see there's variation. So several of the things I'm going to show you vary slightly, but the only one that you'll be ultimately responsible for is the one that's on your monument list. But I just want you to be aware of the fact that there are different interpretations of exactly what it looks like. What we are sure of, and what's most important for us today, is that it was made of concrete and that it had barrel vaults. What was a barrel vault? A barrel vault was a vault that was, again, made out of concrete, placed on a wall, and then had the vault was shaped like the side of a barrel, as you can see here, which is why it's called a barrel vault, shaped like the side of a barrel, resting on walls down below, a fairly simple shape that could not have been made a lot. It would be very difficult to make out of stone, but was easily able to be made out of concrete. And we see a series of those barrel vaults placed, one next to another, for the warehouse, for the Porticus Emilia in Rome. It was placed, and actually I neglected to mention, Livy also tells us that the Porticus Emilia had four tears. It was tiered in four levels. And we see those four tears here rising up ever so slightly along the slope of the Tiber River. This is a cross-section of what the inside of the Basilica Emilia might have looked like. You see those great barrel vaults here. You see that the architect has been adventurous in the sense that he has not placed the barrel vaults on solid wall, as we saw in that diagram, but has opened those walls up, created piers, and arches above those piers to create these arcades, which is quite ingenious and very smart, because what it does is enable there to be both axial movement through the building, but also lateral movement. You can walk not only along each barrel vault, but you can walk in between the piers, which is, as I said, creates a sense of much more openness and lateral as well as axial movement. The other thing that you see here are the back walls, where we can see just what we saw in that fragment of the building, the arched doorways, as well as the arched windows in the back walls, which of course allow light into the structure. Lots of activity needed to happen here, as things were moved in and out, and those who worked here needed to be able to see everything that they were doing. The view that you have on your Monument List is this one. It's a restored view of what the Porticus Emilia might have looked like in antiquity, and it's very helpful. It's a cutaway view, which gives you most of the major features all in one place. You can see that it is indeed tiered. There are four tiers for this structure that they move up slightly as they move up the slope of the hill. You can see the use of the barrel vaults. You can see the piers down below. You can see the flat roof that these seem to have. But as they rose up slightly along the slope of the hill, you can see that the designer has placed small curved slit windows on each tier to allow, again, additional light into the structure. And you can also see from this diagram that it was made of concrete and faced with opus in keratum work. These small irregular stones that we saw in the Temple of Vesta also used as the facing material here. Here's one more restored view, which shows you roughly the same, the four tiers, the barrel vaults, the windows on the various tiers, and then most importantly these doorways and windows in the back, as well as the general space that was available inside this extraordinary building. I mentioned that while we'll look at a couple of buildings, several buildings in Rome. I also want to go out to some of the colonies that were founded by the Romans in the vicinity of Rome in the second and first centuries B.C., and where they began to build, as we saw. They began to plant towns. They began to put walls around those towns. They began to put temples in those towns. And they also began to put other structures, including warehouses and sanctuaries and the like. The ones that we're going to look at today, again Rome is at the star, and we're going to look at buildings in Terracina, over here, in Tivoli, and also in Palestrina. And you can see the proximity of those to others we talked about last time, Norba and Coza and Iphilare Novi, and so on and so forth. It's not surprising, again, to see the Romans turning to their environs as they make these earliest towns and as they start to fill these towns to make them into the kind of mini-Romes that they so desired. So we're going to look at a series of these, of different dates, and of considerable interest in terms of what they herald for the future of Roman architecture. The first that we're going to look at is a market hall. A market hall at a place called Ferentino. Ferentino, and it dates to, I may have neglected to show you Ferentino on that map, but it's in with all the other Ferentino around 100 B.C. it dates to. And you can see that it's essentially one giant barrel vault, one giant barrel vault which was used as the market hall. You can see also that that giant barrel vault, which is made of concrete, has opening off it on the sides, a series of arched areas with also barrel vaulted on the inside. These were used as the market stalls inside this marketplace. You can also see, I believe very well, that the facing that is used for this concrete is opus in caratum work for the walls and for the vaults. And then what they've done to emphasize the location and the shape of the arches, they have used stone around those also to give further solidity to this part of the building. They have used stone, and you can see it's a combination of nicely cut Ashlar blocks down here, but also of the Bousoir blocks that we saw in the Flaery Novigate used over the arches. So this combination of both stone and of opus quadratum, stone, and also of opus and caratum used as the facing for this particular structure. What's significant about this building is that it looks forward to things that we're going to see later on develop in Roman architecture. Primarily I showed you in the introductory lecture a glimpse of the markets of Trajan in Rome, and I remind you here of the great market hall of the markets of Trajan, which is even more sophisticated in its use of concrete, because it has rib vaults, as you can see. But this experimentation that we're going to see in the early second century AD in Rome would not have been possible without the experimentation in concrete that took place in this very early stage in the second century and in the first centuries B.C. Even more, much more interesting in fact, is the building that I'd like to turn to now. And this is the so-called Sanctuary of Jupiter Anxor at Terracina. It dates, we believe, to 100 to 70 B.C. And it is like so many Roman buildings spectacularly cited. I had mentioned this on several occasions. We looked at the medieval hill town of Cori, for example, where the Temple of Hercules was located at the very apex of the hill. The Romans had an incredible knack for choosing extraordinary locations on which to site their buildings, locations that made those buildings, that accentuated those buildings from a distance, but also gave those who went to the buildings amazing views out from those buildings. This is one of those examples, the Sanctuary of Jupiter Anxor at Terracina. The best view of this sanctuary is from the sea. If you happen to be fortunate enough to be floating on a boat somewhere near Terracina, and it's a beautiful place to float, you will see from a distance the great podium of the sanctuary of Jupiter Anxor. But you can also see it from the town, which is where we're situated here. We're standing in the town, a couple of decent pizzerias right in front of us, and we're looking up at the hill on which the sanctuary finds itself. Now as you look up to that hill, all you can actually see is all that's actually up there now, which is the podium of the sanctuary. The temple is no longer there, although there's some evidence up there. Some remains give us a decent sense of what that temple looked like in antiquity. But the podium is extremely well preserved, and you see it again magnificently sighted at the top of that hill. This is a restored view of what the podium would have looked like, and you see what we know with the podium, what the podium does look like as we see it here. And as it would have supported the temple on top, and also a back columnar element over here that was roofed, as you can see. If we look at this plan, in this restored view, excuse me, we see several things that are worth noting. One, that the temple itself is very much a traditional building, and one that is very much in the tradition indeed of the buildings, of the temples that we've already discussed, and a combination of Etruscan plan and of Greek elevation that we saw in so many of these. You can see, for example, and again there's enough evidence for us to be pretty sure that this is what it looked like, high podium, single staircase, emphasis on the façade, deep porch, freestanding columns in that porch, but columns that seem to have encircled the monument. So this combination of stone construction, we think. So a combination, once again, of Etruscan and Greek elements for the temple. You'll probably notice that the temple is slightly skewed. The angle of the temple is skewed. It's not straight on, with the podium, which is very unusual for the Romans. We'll see that the Romans were very interested in everything being exactly as it should be. Axial, symmetrical, both sides matching. It's very unusual for them to skew something like this. Why did they do it? It probably has something to do either with something that was already on the site, some other building that forced them to do this, or having something to do with the particular god who was honored here and the way they wanted that to be in relationship to various elements of the rites, or east-west, or whatever. There was something that caused them to put this in the position that they did. And you can also see that it has this back colonnade behind it, covered colonnade behind it, but it isn't attached to it in any way, which is also unusual, as we'll see. The podium you see down here, made up of a series of arcades, and you can see once again both axial and lateral access, because just as in the Porticus Emilia, they have created smaller arcades in the side piers to allow this kind of axiality in the structure, or movement through the structure, in more than one way. The podium is extremely well preserved, as you can see, and extremely impressive. It's an extraordinary place to go. It's a lot of fun to go there to see this. It's off the beaten track to a certain extent, but it is on the road between Rome and Naples, so that one, if one is going from Rome down to Pompeii, this is the sort of thing one can stop and take a look at, and there's some other interesting things along the way as well. We see here the great podium as it looks today. It's made out of concrete. You can see both the large arcades and then these lateral ones that I mentioned before on the interior face of the piers. You can also see that they have used opus in keratum facing here. These are regular stones, all bunched together to create an attractive appearance, although this was probably stuck out in antiquity. And then they have used stone blocks to emphasize the juncture of each of these walls, but also to help give the building increased stability. So this combination of stone, well it's all stone, but this combination of blocks of stone and the smaller opus and keratum stones for the facing of the podium. And here's a wonderful view, I think, that shows you a panorama through a number of these lateral arches, and gives you some sense of how carefully orchestrated this was by the architect who is responsible for this. It's never too early for me to emphasize that the Romans were very concerned with creating vistas and panoramas from one part of a building to another, from one part of a complex to another. And they never lost an opportunity to do that. So as you stand and look through a series of these lateral arches, you can see how carefully arranged that was to pay attention not only to the way in which the arches, you can see them in a series, as you can see here, looking almost as if they're diminishing in size, although they aren't really. But also this idea of creating exciting visual experiences as you walk through something, not just to walk through it, but to see something that really amazes you and that fascinates you. And that creation of vista and panorama, both panorama out onto the countryside from the hilltop, but also a panorama or vista through a building, is something quintessentially Roman, and we'll see it turning up again and again and again as a major objective of Roman architecture. A view once again of the restored view of the sanctuary. The sanctuary had below it a underground passageway called a cryptoporticus, and I'll put that word on the monument list for you, a cryptoporticus that was used essentially for storage, for storage purposes for this sanctuary. And believe it or not, we actually have the cryptoporticus still preserved, and we can look at it. And it's interesting because here, too, we see the architects using concrete construction, creating a barrel vaulted corridor, in this case with windows on the end, and then a few doorways and some slit windows, all of them arched, as you can see here, to allow light into the structure. It was used, as I said, for storage purposes, storage having to do with the cult, and so on and so forth. It's very important, we're going to look at a couple of other sanctuaries as well, to keep in mind that these sanctuaries were meant, they were different than an individual temple in a forum inside an urban complex. They were meant to draw pilgrims from far and wide, which is one of the reasons that they were placed in such prominent positions on tops of mountains, so that you wouldn't have to, if you were driving by, if you were going by in your cart or whatever, and saw this from a distance, or coming by sea in a boat, seeing it from a distance, you would be drawn, it would be like a mecca that you would be drawn to. So these sanctuaries were meant to attract large numbers of people to them, so they needed to provide not just the temple itself, but other things. And they were like malls. They often included shopping areas, souvenir shops, shopping stores for local specialties, and that kind of thing, in order to encourage people to visit. I'd like to turn to another, also very interesting, sanctuary that was put up at around this time. This is the sanctuary of Hercules at Tivoli, and it was erected, we believe, sometime between 75 and 50 B.C., in Tivoli. It is an incredible place. It is not so different from the sanctuary of Jupiter, Anxar, in its general intentions, this whole idea of creating this mecca for religious activity, and also just a place that people would enjoy coming to and gathering together, for social interaction. We see a restored view of what it looked like in antiquity. It is similar to and different from the Jupiter-Anxar sanctuary. Just like the Jupiter-Anxar sanctuary, it rests on a tall and large podium. As you can see, the temple doesn't stand in isolation, but is raised up on this large podium. You can see that it has a temple in the center, this one completely pushed up against the back wall, and completely straight, so axial, and it created an axial relationship to the podium. The temple, we believe, was also one of these traditional types of temples, with the tall podium, with the staircase on one side, with columns going around at three sides, deep porch, free-standing columns, in that porch raised up on its own podium, and then the larger podium down below. One of the features that we see here that we did not see in the Jupiter-Anxar sanctuary is the use of the circular staircase here, which adds drama to the design. It's also on axis with the staircase of the temple itself, but it also serves as a kind of shape, like a theater, a theater cavea, we call it a cavea, the seating, C-A-V-E-A, the cavea of a theater. It's shaped just like that, as you can see here, and we believe its purpose was not so much as a monumental entranceway, or monumental staircase, although it served that purpose to a certain extent, but also as a place where people could gather and could sit and probably watch performances, religious performances, perhaps, or perhaps other kinds of performances, in front of this, in front of the temple of Hercules. And there may have been some kind of a stage building. There was a wall here, so there may have been also some kind of stage building in front of that semi-circular seated area. This is another restored view, showing you the same. You can perhaps see that theatrical area better here, again, serving as a dramatic staircase, and at the same time as a place where performances could take place at this structure. But all the other features are apparent. And I want you to pay special attention, special attention to the fact that we have the temple pushed up against the back wall. Not one of the short back walls, but, well, none of them are short here, but against a long back wall, as you can see, but pushed up against it, dominating the space in front of it. We're going to see, when we turn to Pompeii on Thursday, that this same idea of pushing a temple against a back wall is characteristic of forum design, the design of meeting and marketplaces, as it is for sanctuary design. The sanctuary of Hercules at Tivoli is preserved in part, and I can show you one very interesting detail, which is what you see now on the screen. We are looking at part at, we may have, let me go back for a second just to point this out. If you look at the back, if you look at along the sides and the back, you will see that there are columns above and then columns with arcades, arcades and columns in the first story, and then columns on their own in the upper story. So what I'm going to show you now is a section of the lower story of the sanctuary of Hercules at Tivoli. And we can see that what we have here is a very important combination, and it's the first time we've seen this today, of arches with columns interspersed, columns placed, engaged or attached into the wall in between these arcades, as you can see here. The construction is concrete. The facing is a combination of stone. You can look at the blocks, the Ashlar blocks and the Vuswas above the arches, and opus and keratum work for the walls, as you can see here. But the scheme of columns in between arcades, extremely important. This is setting in place the kind of scheme that we're going to see used for buildings like the Colosseum in Rome. So extremely important. There's one detail here, this is one detail about the columns, though I wonder if anyone notices, but make them different than any other columns that we've seen thus far this term. Does anyone see what that is? They definitely don't, yes, good point. That wasn't the one I had in mind, but you're absolutely right, and it leads to another point I'm going to make in the not too distant future. They don't support anything. They are used here. The building is supported by the concrete construction. The columns don't have any support role whatsoever. They're entirely for decorative purposes, so excellent point. And still one more. Look at the facing of the column. What does that tell you? What is it? What kind of facing? Opus and keratum, opus and keratum, which means what? The columns are made of concrete, too. Columns are not made out of stone, but the columns in this instance, it's unusual, but the columns in this instance made out of concrete and also faced with opus and keratum work. A view again of the complex, just to make the point that as at the sanctuary of Jupiter, Anxar at Terracina, there is an underground passageway, a cryptoporticus. But in this case, and you can see it's underneath the left side of the sanctuary, but in this instance, interestingly enough, this isn't just a storage area. It's actually a street. The ancient name for Tivoli was Tibor, T-I-B-U-R. There was a street called the Via Tiburtina that made its way from Rome to Tivoli. And this underground passageway was actually the street. The street ran underneath the sanctuary. That street or that part of the street that ran under the sanctuary can still be seen today. And you can see, it looks almost like an underground subway or something like that, you can see barrel vaulted area with a series of niches over here, probably for shops, so that along the way you could stop and shop beneath the sanctuary. So a street in this case that is part of the Via Tiburtina, leading from Rome to Tivoli. I'd like to turn now to a couple of buildings in Rome, back to Rome, to look at first a building called the Tabularium that dates to around 78 B.C. That was a very important building in Rome because it was used to house the state archives at that particular juncture. It was put up by a man, we even know who put it up, a man by the name of Quintus Lutaceus Chtullus, and I put his name on the monument list for you. And it was located on the north side of the forum, of the Roman Forum, and the south slope of the Capitoline Hill. And here I show you one of these excellent Google Earth fly overviews of this part of ancient Rome, or what this part of ancient Rome looks like today. And we see the landmarks that we've already pointed out, the Colosseum at the very top, the Roman Forum lying in front of the Colosseum, Mussolini's Via De Fori Imperiali, the Imperial Forum over here, the Palatine Hill up here, the Circus Maximus here, the wedding cake, so-called, of Victor Emanuel, modern building, 19th century building over here, and then the Capitoline Hill, redesigned by Michelangelo with the Oval Piazza. The tabularium is located right here. It is, again, facing the forum, the Roman Forum, but it is the back wall of one of Michelangelo's palaces, the so-called senatorial palace, designed by Michelangelo. What Michelangelo did is what was done so often by later architects incorporated, didn't tear down the earlier Roman tabularium, but incorporated its wall as the back wall of his senatorial palace, and that's exactly what it remains today. Here we see a view of the tabularium. We're standing on the forum side, looking at what remains of the tabularium, and we can see some of the features that we've already been discussing today. First of all, let me point out that it is made out of concrete. It is made out of concrete. The building is concrete. But here in Rome they decided not to use opus and caratum work was not the rage in Rome. Instead, they were much more interested in cut stone, and you can see that they have used cut stone in this structure, cut tufa stone. I think you can recognize the stone as tufa. I remember tufa is indigenous to the city of Rome. Rome has a lot of fairly decent tufa. They've used tufa here, and they have used tufa work also for the arcades above. And for the columns, the capitals are done in travertine, added in travertine, considered the most important part, so they use the more expensive material there. But you can see here, as at the Sanctuary of Hercules at Tivoli, that we have this combination of arcades and columns. And once again, as was already pointed out, columns that have no structural purpose whatsoever, columns that are there for pure decoration. And this scheme of arcades with columns is going to become extremely important in the future. One can go inside the tabularium today and see what remains of this state archives. There are some very interesting corridors and vaulting that one can see. Again, by the way, it's a nice place to go, because there's also a panoramic window on which one can get some spectacular views down over the Roman Forum, and some great pictures as well, photographs as well. We're looking here at one of the corridors of the tabularium. You can see that the arches are made out of stone, supported by columns. But in between them there are a series of bays, as you can see here. And in between them we have domical ceilings that are made out of concrete. So concrete used here, combined, concrete for the domes, combined with stone, that the Romans were very handsome stone, that the Romans, those in Rome, itself favored, used for the arches and used to decorate the walls as well. And what's interesting is that we find in these corridors a series of ramps and a series of steps. And there's actually one staircase that has 66 steps, I've counted them, 66 steps, as well as ramps. And what we see happening here, and these are again covered by barrel vaults, what we see happening here is the Romans paying a lot of attention to varying the experience that you have when you walk through buildings. Sometimes you're going to be walking on a straight path, sometimes you're going to be walking on a ramp, sometimes you're going to be walking on stairs, to vary that experience. So, and you're going to see panoramas and so on along the way, to make it an experience to go into a building and to wander around that building. But we're also going to see, and I'll show you this particularly in the last structure we talk about today, we're also going to see the Romans not hesitating to be the controlling force that they very much were, and to establish certain predetermined paths that you have to take. So you're having a varied experience, but you're kind of having it in the way that the Romans want you to have it. And that's an interesting phenomenon that I hope we'll think about together as we converse in the online forum. I want to show you one last building in Rome today, before I show you the real pièce de résistance of concrete architecture of this early period. I'd like to show you one more building in Rome. It's a later building, and in some respects it belongs in a later lecture. It's the Theater of Marcellus in Rome, a theater that was put up by Rome's first emperor, Augustus, after the death of his nephew and son-in-law, Marcellus. He seems to have put it up, that is, Augustus seems to have put it up. He was in great grief at the loss of this young man, because he had hoped that Marcellus would succeed him. Marcellus was married to Augustus' daughter, Julia. He had hoped that Marcellus would succeed him, but Marcellus unfortunately died very young. Augustus was in incredible grief, and he put up this theater in Rome, the Stone Theater in Rome, in honor of Marcellus. The theater was put up, as I mentioned, either in XIII or in XI B.C. So I could talk about this. We have several lectures on Augustus, and I could talk about this in that lecture. But I decided to put it here, because it really is the culmination, in a sense, of some of the experiments we've been talking about today, and I wanted you to see it in this context for that reason. We are looking at the theater of Marcellus as it looks today. Parts of it are extremely well preserved, as you can see, at least these first two tiers here. The main reason that the building has survived, and you can, well, I'll talk about the details in a moment, the main reason that the building has survived, and I believe I mentioned this in the introductory lecture, is that it was reused over time. It was reused as a fortress in the Middle Ages. It was used as a palace in the Renaissance, and it was used as, most recently, and is still being used as, a very luxurious condominium today. This is where Google Earth really comes in handy. You can go, if you go on to Google Earth, because it's very difficult to get a sense of the way in which this ancient part of this structure relates to the rest of the structure today, without going up above it. And by going up above it, and looking at it both from above and Google Earth now allows you to do 3D at the same time. So you can do 3D and up above at the same time. You can see the relationship of this building to its modern locale. And by the way, it's just in the shadow. It's very close to the Capitoline Hill. It's a hop, skip, and a jump from the Capitoline Hill. This area of Rome, it's actually the so-called Jewish ghetto area of Rome. It served as a ghetto in times past, and is still referred to it that way today. And it has some of the best restaurants in Rome. If you have never had carcofi alla Judea, Jewish artichokes, wow, they are incredible. And there are several lots of restaurants in this area that has them. They're a real Roman treat. It's considered a very characteristic part of the cuisine of ancient Rome. It's definitely something to experience. But we see the theater of Marcellus right here. And you can see both the façade, which is the ancient part of it, but also the rest of the building, and the way in which it is used today as a condominium with apartments opening off these lovely courtyards with trees and plants and flowers and all sorts of things there. And there's another famous temple, the Temple of Apollo, that is located right outside. There are only three columns preserved of that temple, but also its podium, right in front of the theater of Marcellus. This is, again, Google Earth. You can look not only at what the building looks like today, but you can recreate now. All of these last couple of months they've enabled us to recreate ancient Rome as well. And one can do that for all of the buildings that we'll be looking at this semester. And this one is their recreation. It's fairly simple, but their recreation of the theater of Marcellus. And it allows us to look at some of the features of that building. Again, sorry that I have to talk so much about terminology at the beginning, but as I mentioned, once we get through this, the first couple of weeks we won't have to do much of that anymore. But the basic components of a Roman theater were the seating, which is called the cavia, C-A-V-E-A, which is this semicircular seating that we see here. The cavia is usually divided into a series of wedge-shaped sections, which you cannot see here, but I'll show you in another view in a moment, wedge-shaped sections that are called, each are called the cuneas, C-U-N-E-U-S, cuneas, and then there is a stage building. We're seeing the back of that here, but a stage building facing the seating called a scani frans, S-C-A-E-N-A-E, F-R-O-N-S, a scani frans. What's important to us here in the context of this lecture is that while the Greeks built their theaters, and Greek theaters were the main prototype for Roman theaters, while the Greeks built their theaters on hill-sods, the Romans were not content as a civilization that was interested primarily in urban centers, the Romans were not content to build their theaters on hills. They didn't want to be constrained by having to build their theaters where hills happened to be. And so now, with concrete construction, what they were able to do instead was to build a hill out of concrete anywhere they wanted to build a hill out of concrete, right in the center of downtown Rome, and then hollow that concrete out in order to create the entrances and exits from that structure, and that's exactly what they did for the Theater of Marcellus. If we look at this detail of the outside of the Theater of Marcellus, we will see that this building, made out of concrete, is like the others we've talked about today, faced with some kind of stone. In this case, the stone is travertine. The decision of Augustus was to get this more expensive stone, bring it from Tivoli, and use it for this structure. Ashtlar blocks of stone, as you can see here, and interspersing among the arcades columns, columns that, as were well pointed out before, have no structural purpose whatsoever. Columns that serve only as decoration, and the fact that they were decoration is apparent in the fact that they have varied the orders here. We see the Doric order used for the first story, and the Ionic order used for the second story, and we think there may have been a third story today, what you see up there is part of the later construction. But if there was a third story, whether that had columns or pilasters, which you'll remember, flat columns, if it had those, those were probably of the Corinthian order, because that is exactly the scheme that we see on the later Colosseum, Doric, Ionic, and ultimately Corinthian. But we're sure, at least, of the Doric and of the Ionic. So these columns had no structural purpose whatsoever, purely decorative, in a sense, their kind of the icing on the cake. They don't hold up the building, but they decorate it in a very nice way, and it shows you that the Romans are beginning to use what the Greeks used as structural components of their buildings, namely columns to hold up walls, to hold up roofs. They are using them for purely decorative purposes, playing around with their original purpose and using them in a different way. And we see that happening in spades here. If you go into the building, you will see the corridors of the theater of Marcellus. You will see what first looks like a barrel vault done out of concrete construction, resting on stone, on travertine piers. But you see that that barrel vault curves. A curving barrel vault is technically called an annular vault, A-N-N-U-L-A-R. You see an annular vault here, a diagram of an annular vault here. It's essentially, again, a barrel vault that curves. We sometimes refer to it as a ring vault because of its shape. So you see those annular vaults used in the theater of Marcellus. These are the same vaults that will be used ultimately in the Colosseum. A quick view of a typical Roman theater, the theater of Marcellus in Rome, and a typical Greek theater. This is the famous theater at Epidorus of the mid-fourth century BC in Greece. And I show you, just wanted to point out the main differences. They look superficially alike in that both of them have an orchestra, they have an area of seats, they have a stage building. But there are some important differences. One is, and you can't see that over here, but the Greek theater had a round orchestra. The Roman theater always has a semi-circular orchestra. Both of them have seats, the cavia. Here you can see these wedge-shaped sections of seats called the cuneas, that both Greek theaters and also Roman theaters had. Both of them have stage buildings, although the stage building is more prominent in the Roman context. But the most important distinction is the one I've already drawn, and that is, as you can see at Epidorus, the Greeks build their theaters on hilltops. You can see the trees and part of the hill very clearly here. The Romans build theirs on hills made out of concrete. Not always. There are some exceptions to that. We do have some Roman theaters built on hills when the hill happened to be in a good location and particularly beautifully sited. But for the most part, Romans build them on their own concrete construction. I've mentioned the monument of Victor Emmanuel, the Vittoriano. And I just wanted to say a couple more words about it because, and you'll see how it fits into the context here in a moment, because it's a nineteenth-century building. And it's a building that was put up to honor the first king of the Kingdom of Italy. His name was Victor Emmanuel I. Victor Emmanuel I. It was put up in 1885, and you see it here, again, a major landmark in the city. This is a Google Earth image once again. But the reason I show it to you in this context today is that it is, in a sense, terrorist on the slope of the capitaline hill. You see Michelangelo's Oval Piazza up there. It's terrorist on the slope, a series of levels, staircases leading to terraces, leading to other terraces, leading to the top of the building, decorated with statuary. It's a real experience to climb up it. It's an amazing place to go. It has the tomb of the Italian unknown soldier here, with guards and eternal flame and all of those things. And I must add, for any of you who have not been in Rome in the last year and who are hoping to go sometime soon, or whenever in the future, they have just added on top of the victory. It was always a great place to climb up and see great views of Rome, but they have just added an elevator, a modern elevator that they've created that you can now take up, taking you even higher than you were ever able to go before. The views of Rome from there are among the most spectacular that one can see in the city. So I happened, unfortunately, when I was there this June, it was raining. It doesn't rain in Rome that often at that time of year, but it was. So many of the pictures that I took are sort of the gray background and so on and so forth. But nonetheless, some of the most spectacular views you see of the city, so don't miss out on that opportunity. But I show it to you in this context, because of all of this terracing up a hill, the idea for this kind of thing goes way back to the second century B.C., and comes from buildings like this one. This is without any question the masterpiece of Roman concrete architecture, concrete construction, sanctuary design, in the second and first centuries B.C. We're not absolutely sure of its date. For a long time, this is, by the way, the sanctuary of Fortuna, Premaginia, at a town called Palestrina. The date is very controversial. There are many who long associated it with the Roman general Sulla and said that it dated to A.D.B.C. There are others who have contended that it's much earlier than that, it dates to the second century B.C. And if it dates to the second century B.C., it's even more amazing, because that means it comes at the beginning rather than at the end of this second and first century B.C. development. I tend now, I've gone back and forth, I taught it as a sullen building for quite a while. Now I've been teaching it the last few years as a second century building. It probably doesn't matter all that much. It dates to one or the other, and it's an example of what was going on at that particular time. But I'm giving you a date this year as a second century B.C., which I think at this juncture is probably my personal opinion, is that's probably where it belongs. You're looking at it here. It is an incredible, it is part of an incredible hill town, just like Cori, the city of Palestrina. It is a beautiful hill town. You can see it here with all the wonderful red roofs of the town that tie the design of the town together. The culminating monument of that town is still the sanctuary of Fortuna Premigania. Once again, the Romans have found a spectacular locale for this sanctuary, cum theater, cum shopping mall, Mecca for Romans of its day on this hillside. They have, once again, they have in fact taken over the entire hillside. They have terraced the hillside, as we can see, and they've essentially poured concrete on that hillside to create a system of ramps and stairways and with a temple at the very apex. It is pretty well preserved today. You can see there's an awful lot of it still there. You can either, if you're coming by car, you can either park down here or up there, and you can make your way up the ramps, up the staircase to the various levels, and then up to the theatrical entrance way into the uppermost part. The temple of Fortuna herself, which was at the apex and was located probably in what may have been a kind of mountain alcove at that particular time, was transformed in the 17th century by the famous Barbarini family, a Miss Italian family, the popes came from that family, and so on. They were very smart, too, transformed into a nice little palace that they could go and stay in when they felt like it a small palace, but one that takes the exact shape of that uppermost part of the sanctuary. I'll show that to you in a moment. Here's a view from Google Earth. You can see Google Earth doesn't always work. When you go out to some of the smaller places, it's hard to zero in on it well enough to get a decent focus. But you can see it actually here. You can go to Palestine and see it on Google Earth. These are the various tiers with the palace at the uppermost part. Here's a restored view. It's on your monument list that gives you a sense of what the building looked like in antiquity. You can see the entrance way was down here, a small arched entrance way, but you really needed to go up the ramps. You could go up on either side. So we see this composite, just like we saw at the tabularium, this combination of ramps and staircases to make your way up varied experiences, but at the same time a predetermined path. Because while you had some choice when you first arrived, you could go up the ramp on either left and right, and you could see it was a covered ramp in antiquity. But when you got here, you had one choice. You had to go up the stairway to this level, and then there were some shops here you could explore. But then if you wanted to go up to the next level, you had to go back to the central stairway, up to this level, back to the central stairway, and then to the stairway in the shape of a theater at the uppermost part. So again, experiences stressed. Your experience of the building was stressed, but at the same time your path was determined by the Roman designer. This is another view of the same, where we can see the entrance way, the ramps, the staircase leading you from one to the other, the uppermost staircase. Here you can well see the theatrical way in which the theater, the semicircular theater, is used both as an attractive entrance stairway to the structure, but at the same time as a place where performances could actually take place. Then what's called a hemicycle. You see several hemicycles here, H-E-M-I-C-Y-C-L-E. These curved areas, the columns follow that curve. You see that hemicycle at the very top, and then at the apex of the structure, the shrine of Fortuna herself, a small round shrine. In fact, it's almost an anticlimax to see how small the shrine at the uppermost part of the structure is. How did the Romans achieve this? They created, as you can see here, a series, or they converted the hillside into a series of man-made terraces. They built those terraces up in some instances by barrel vaults. You can see the series of concrete barrel vaults here, as they have built some elements up along the way. And the ultimate result was what you see here. The same sort of thing we saw before, the ramps, the staircase, the hemicycles with columns, supporting a curved wall, a series of shops, the spectacular theater-like staircase, the curved hemicycle at the uppermost part, and then peeking up at the top, the temple of Fortuna herself. It's hard to conjure up in a classroom in New Haven the actual experience that one has when one goes to Palestrina and climbs through this structure, and is not as well preserved today as it once was, obviously in antiquity. But in the few minutes that remain, I want to try to capture or try to take you through that experience, and to show you how arduous it actually was. It's a climb up there, and in fact this is one of those examples, and there are many in Italy, that one likes to call Stairmasters made by nature, essentially. Places that you can go and you exert a lot of effort into making your way to the top of this sanctuary. The best natural stairmaster in Italy is, of course, any of you who've been along the Amalfi Coast, you know there's nowhere on the Amalfi Coast that you don't have to climb up and down with multiple times a day. And that's exactly what's happening here, and you can see how steep this path up the ramp was. And we're going up the ramp again. It was covered in antiquity. It's open to the sky today. As we go along the ramp we see the remnants of some of the capitals. These are travertine capitals, as you can see here, fallen down. But if you look at some of these capitals in detail you see something quite extraordinary, and that is the capitol isn't straight. The uppermost part of the capitol slopes. Now why is that? The reason that is, is because if you're going to put columns along the inner wall of the ramp, which is what they did, the column, the capitals, have to conform to the incline of the ramp. And so they have slanted those capitals. The whole idea, though, of changing, the Greeks would never do something like that. I mean, it would be sacrilege to change the shape of a capitol. But this Roman architect has done that with abandon here. He needed to do it because he needed to fit it into the scheme, although he could have not had columns there, but he wanted to have columns there. So he slanted them. This whole sacrilegious approach to traditional Greek and Etruscan architecture, the willingness to make things, to change things, to experiment. I told you this was a change, you believe it. The willingness to change these things, to experiment with them in ways that had never been done before, to go against the tenets of traditional ancient architecture, namely that of the Greeks and the Etruscans, is something quintessentially Roman, and something that we see happening here, and again, heralds a very innovative future. Here we see again the ramp. We see the capitals, the slant of the capitals, and we see that the work here was done, was concrete, faced with opus and keratum, both for the walls and also for the ceilings. As one makes one's way up the ramps, we see these alcoves, all of this done, the various shops, the alcoves, all of it done with concrete, faced with opus and keratum. We see the remains of the hemicycles. You can see the columns made of tufa with travertine capitals supporting this curved attic of the hemicycles. We see the vaulting with its concrete construction. This is an annular vault, once again, where we can see the facing in the coffers is opus and keratum work. Another view of that, both the wall and the annular vault, decorated with opus and keratum work. A detail of that opus and keratum work to show you how very attractive it was. It's a pity that it was stuck out over in ancient Roman times. A view that I took again just to give you a sense of how steep the climb is. You've made it up the ramp. Now you're at that central staircase. You're on your way up. It's very, very steep. The stairways are pretty short, so that it's a very arduous trip up, as I said. And then you can get a sense of the fact that you would have seen the sanctuary of fortune at the top. Now you see the embracing arms of the Barbarini Palace. You can see those arms follow the exact shape of the original hemicycle that was once there. And you can also see the theater staircase, very well preserved, and I show you a detail of that theater staircase leading into the doorway, into the museum today. And just in closing, a return to the restored view of the structure itself, with the temple or the shrine of Fortuna at the very apex, the shrine that, unfortunately, no longer survives. But I think as you look at this last view of this monument, you can see that what the architects have created through this terracing, through pouring concrete on the spectacular hillside, is a kind of a pyramid, a kind of a pyramid with the goddess at the apex, a pyramid that I would contend, was more extraordinary through what the Romans did with concrete than what nature itself had provided in the form of this mountain. And it gives you an incredible sense of what the Romans were capable of doing in the second and first centuries B.C. vis-a-vis concrete architecture, experiments that, again, are going to have a lasting impact on the architecture that we'll be studying in the course of this term. Thank you.
 Good morning.  It's inauguration day.  Happy inauguration day to everyone.  And I thought that actually the inauguration of Barack  Obama today, and the particular lecture in  this class, are very well suited to one  another.  Because although you see that the title of today's lecture  is Technology and Revolution in Roman Art,  I could also call it something like The Change the Romans  Believed In.  Because The Change the Romans Believed In,  The Change the Romans Believed In, was a shift from what we've  called traditional Roman architecture to innovative Roman  architecture.  And that's what we're going to be talking about today,  what we call innovative, and what we'll call in the course  of this semester, innovative Roman architecture.  We've already talked about what we've called traditional  Roman architecture.  And I just want to look again with you to begin today with the  Temple of Portunus that we looked at last time,  the Temple of Portunus in Rome, near the Tiber River,  a temple that was put up in the late,  second, early first century B.C.  And we talked about the fact that this was a traditional  Roman building of this day, a traditional Roman building,  though, that was quite derivative,  that looked back at Greek architecture,  Greek religious architecture, and Etruscan religious  architecture, and drew from both of those,  drew elements from both of those, and combined them together  into what we termed a new Roman creation,  at least in the traditional vein.  We talked about the fact that the Etruscan elements of this  particular monument were its tall podium,  were its deep porch, were the freestanding columns in  that porch, were the single staircase,  and the emphasis on the façade,  that having that single staircase achieved.  We also talked about the fact that while there were columns  all around the structure, which is actually a Greek way of  doing things, that those columns were  attached or engaged into the wall,  which still gave it a certain sense of flatness,  including on the back, that was also characteristic of  Etruscan architecture.  We also talked about the Greek elements that were  incorporated here, and those included the fact  that the building was made out of stone,  and also the fact that one of the traditional Greek orders,  in this case the Ionic order, was used for the structure.  So this bringing together of Greek and Etruscan elements in  this thoroughly Roman building, but a building that,  again, we would call a traditional Roman building.  And what do I mean by traditional?  All the traditional Roman buildings share income in the  following features.  They have columns, and they have walls,  and those columns and walls serve a structural purpose,  and that is to hold up the flak or the sloping ceiling,  and the sloping roof, and that is,  in fact, exactly what you see here.  But at this very same time, in the second century B.C.  and into the first century B.C.,  we begin to see a new kind of experimentation that is going on  concurrently with this.  An experimentation that grows up in some of the same towns that  we see traditional buildings like this.  And what made this experimentation different than  anything that had come before is the fact that the Romans use  for these buildings a completely new material,  and that material is concrete.  We talked about the fact that already in the Temple of  Portunus, concrete was used,  but concrete was used only in the podium.  You can't see it.  It is inside the podium and serves to strengthen.  Concrete has a great deal of strength and can sustain great  weights, and so it was placed in the  podium for utilitarian purposes so that it could help to support  the temple that was located on top.  But again, none of its expressive possibilities were  explored by the designer of the Temple of Portunus or any of  the other temples we looked at last time.  But what begins to happen also in the course of the second and  first centuries B.C.  is architects beginning to realize that this new concrete  technology has an opportunity to transform Roman architecture,  and they begin to experiment with that transformation.  In order to understand the concrete buildings that we're  going to be looking at this morning,  which are absolutely fascinating, and I hope you'll be as  enthralled by them as I am, and they again stand at the very  beginning of this development of innovative architecture in  Rome.  It's important to know a bit about concrete,  Roman concrete, that is, and I want to make a few  points about it.  Roman concrete, the Latin term for it,  is opus chimenticum, as I've indicated here.  Roman concrete is different from what we think of today as  concrete.  It's a composite of various natural elements that becomes a  liquid mass when mixed with water, and eventually hardens  into a very, very strong substance,  much stronger than any of its ingredients are on their own.  Roman concrete was a mixture of stone rubble and liquid mortar  and composed of lime, sand, and something called  pazzolana, pazzolana being a volcanic  substance, which was very plentiful in Italy,  especially around the area of Pompeii,  Herculaneum, the area of Campania.  Concrete was used in Rome from the early second century B.C.  on, but it was not until the end of the second century and the  beginning of the first century that the expressive  possibilities of concrete began to be fully realized.  Concrete, I think this is also important to mention when you  think about concrete construction in relationship to  stone construction that we've already discussed,  concrete is not cut or quarried the way stone is.  Concrete is cast in molds.  Concrete can be cast in any shape, at least any shape,  that a carpenter can build with wood.  And like modern builders, the Romans erected wooden frames  for their walls and ceilings, and they poured concrete into  those wooden frames.  What's most important for us in the context of this lecture  and in this course in general is that the introduction of  Roman concrete into Roman architecture freed the Roman  architect from the confines of a rectilinear architecture that  they had inherited from the Greeks,  the kind of rectilinear architecture that made up a  temple like the Temple of Portunus.  This is a very momentous change, and one that will have a  lasting impact on the buildings of the Romans.  Let me try to give you a sense of what I mean by this.  One could argue that the greatest concrete structure built by  the Romans was the pantheon.  And I remind you of the pantheon on the right,  in fact the dome of the pantheon, which would not have been  possible without concrete construction.  But it's interesting to compare the pantheon to an attempt that  Etruscan architects made to create something similar,  but out of stone.  I'll show you on the left-hand side of the screen an  Etruscan tomb that dates to 600 B.C.  So very early in time, 600 B.C.  An Etruscan tomb at a place called,  it's not on your monument list, but at a place called  Quinto Fiorentino, Q-U-I-N-T-O,  new word F-I-O-R-E-N-T-I-N-O,  Quinto Fiorentino in Etruscan territory.  And what the architects have done here is to try to create a  round tomb, and they've used stone,  as you can see.  And they have laid those stones.  They've cut and quarried the stones as usual.  They've tried to cut them in the shapes that they need in  order to make this work.  And they've piled them one on top of the other,  row after row after row, until they've gotten,  it started out okay at the bottom.  But as they get further and further onto the top,  and it gets rounder and rounder, and converges at the apex,  they start to have trouble, as you can see.  And although it's a heroic, a valiant attempt on their part,  it isn't terribly successful, at least to my mind,  aesthetically.  And in fact, they were worried about it falling down,  so they even had to place a stone pier here to support the  dome, to make sure that it didn't  drop.  And actually, that was pretty successful,  because here it is still today, looking pretty good in that  regard.  But with the introduction of concrete into architecture under  the Romans, building a dome like the  Pantheon was simplicity itself.  All you needed to be able to do was to build one of these  wooden models, wooden structures that you then  poured concrete into, and voila,  you have the dome of the Pantheon.  So simplicity itself, transformational,  vis-a-vis Roman architecture.  The only problem with concrete, and there were two problems  with concrete that the architects of this period had to  contend with, one of them was that concrete  has to be protected from moisture, that's number one,  and number two, that concrete is less  attractive than stone.  The Roman architects of the second and first centuries B.C.  solved these two problems in the same way.  What they decided to do was when the concrete was still wet,  they attached a stone to it.  This could either be large ashlar blocks, stone blocks,  or it could be small pieces of stone.  That uncertain work, or opus and keratum,  that we talked about last time, pressed into the concrete when  it was wet, and when it all dried,  that stone both made the building look more attractive,  and also protected the building from moisture.  We looked last time at that opus and keratum facing.  I remind you of the Temple of Vesta at Tivoli,  which you see here, and you will recall that the  Temple of Vesta at Tivoli had concrete both in its podium for  utilitarian purposes, and to support the great weight  of the temple, but also that the architects  explored making the cellar wall, the curved cellar wall,  also out of concrete.  And then when that concrete was wet, they put in the small cut,  irregularly shaped stones, called uncertain work,  or opus and keratum, to protect that.  So we saw that already in the Temple of Vesta,  even though it was a traditional temple based on Greek and  Etruscan models.  And we'll see it again today in several buildings.  And I show you just one example, the last structure that we'll  talk about today, the sanctuary of Fortuna  Primigania at Palestrina, an extraordinary structure built  on the hillside that also used opus and keratum as the facing.  And you can see it used here for the wall and also for the  coffered ceiling above.  And so a stone-facing opus and keratum that was particularly  favored in the second centuries B.C.  and into the first centuries B.C.  Over time, the choice of facing changed,  although Ashlar Bloch's Tufa, Tufa,  Travertine, and opus and keratum were popular in the  second and first centuries.  As time goes on, things change.  We'll see, under the Roman emperor Nerva,  there was a revolution, another kind of revolution of  sorts in Roman architecture.  And we'll talk about the reasons for that,  and so on later in the semester.  But with that revolution came an interest in a new facing  material, namely brick, brick that was originally  stuck out over, and in fact the opus and  keratum work and the Tufa stone that we've talked about  already today tended to be stuck out over as well.  But by the second century we begin to see an appreciation for  brick in its own right, the attractiveness of brick,  and the Romans begin to use exposed brick as the facing for  their buildings.  And I show you one example.  It's a detail of a warehouse in the Roman port city of  Ostia that we'll look at later in the term,  with this exposed brick facing, very attractive,  different colorations, and so on and so forth.  But just to alert you to the fact that, again,  the kind of facing that we're talking about today will not be  the only facing that is used by the Romans over time.  I want to show you today a series of these concrete  constructions, concrete experiments we might  call them, that begin to turn up,  not only in Rome itself, but also in some of the cities  close to Rome that we saw Rome began to colonize in the  Republic and into the age of Augustus,  cities that either are the same or very close to the ones that  we looked at last time.  And I'll show you a map momentarily.  I just want to begin with one in Rome itself.  This is the so-called Porticus Emilia in Rome.  The Porticus Emilia was a warehouse, a very large warehouse,  on the banks of the Tiber River.  The Porticus Emilia was built, as you can see from the dates  on your Monument List, very early on,  193 B.C., and then restored in 174 B.C.  Only a small fragment of the Porticus Emilia survives today,  but we have a lot of evidence, a lot of clues,  that we can piece together through scholarly detective  work to determine what this building looked like in antiquity,  and we can get a quite accurate sense.  We have, for example, the words of the great Roman  historian Livy, Livy who is writing in the age  of Augustus.  He tells us that the Porticus Emilia,  he describes it, he mentions the Porticus Emilia,  and he tells us it was located on the east bank of the Tiber  River, and that it was southwest of one of Rome's seven  hills, the Aventine Hill,  southwest of the Aventine Hill, which is enormously helpful  because it gives archaeologists and so on a clue as to where they  might look for remains of this particular structure.  So we have that.  We also have a fragment of the building,  we believe, because it's located just in the right  place, and I show it to you here.  It's not much.  It's a piece, it's essentially a hunk of concrete  that includes an arched doorway and some arched windows,  but it's very important in terms of allowing us to reconstruct  what this structure looked like in antiquity.  But most significant of all, we have a fragment from what is  known as the Marble Map of Rome.  The Marble Map of Rome called the Forma Orbis,  and I put that word on the monument list,  that title on the monument list for you,  the Forma Orbis.  The Forma Orbis was a great marble map that was made of  Rome in the early third century AD, under the emperorship of  Septimius Severus, and put up on a wall in Rome.  And we'll talk about its location later on in the  semester.  But it purported to represent all the buildings that were  standing in Rome in the early third century AD.  It is fragmentary today, but there are a fair number of  fragments, and fortunately a couple of those  fragments, or several of those fragments,  are fragments that represent the Porticus Emilia.  So we can tell from that, from that, from Libby's description,  from this fragmentary remain, we can piece together what it  looked like.  And you can see it here, a very, very long rectangular  structure that went all along the bank of the river.  Storage, you need a lot of storage.  Especially as the Romans began to conquer the world,  they were trading more extensively with other parts of  the world, and consequently they needed places along the  Tiber River to store the goods that were both going out and  coming in.  So they built this gigantic warehouse along the banks of  the Tiber.  Now there's a fair amount of disagreement about some of the  smaller details of this warehouse and what it looked like in  antiquity.  So we have to do the best that we can to bring that evidence  together to determine what it looked like.  But as I said, in some details you'll see  there's variation.  So several of the things I'm going to show you vary slightly,  but the only one that you'll be ultimately responsible for is  the one that's on your monument list.  But I just want you to be aware of the fact that there are  different interpretations of exactly what it looks like.  What we are sure of, and what's most important for  us today, is that it was made of concrete and that it had  barrel vaults.  What was a barrel vault?  A barrel vault was a vault that was, again, made out of  concrete, placed on a wall, and then had the vault was  shaped like the side of a barrel, as you can see here,  which is why it's called a barrel vault,  shaped like the side of a barrel, resting on walls down  below, a fairly simple shape that could not have been made a  lot.  It would be very difficult to make out of stone,  but was easily able to be made out of concrete.  And we see a series of those barrel vaults placed,  one next to another, for the warehouse,  for the Porticus Emilia in Rome.  It was placed, and actually I neglected to mention,  Livy also tells us that the Porticus Emilia had four tears.  It was tiered in four levels.  And we see those four tears here rising up ever so slightly  along the slope of the Tiber River.  This is a cross-section of what the inside of the Basilica  Emilia might have looked like.  You see those great barrel vaults here.  You see that the architect has been adventurous in the sense  that he has not placed the barrel vaults on solid wall,  as we saw in that diagram, but has opened those walls up,  created piers, and arches above those piers to  create these arcades, which is quite ingenious and  very smart, because what it does is enable there to be both  axial movement through the building,  but also lateral movement.  You can walk not only along each barrel vault,  but you can walk in between the piers,  which is, as I said, creates a sense of much more  openness and lateral as well as axial movement.  The other thing that you see here are the back walls,  where we can see just what we saw in that fragment of the  building, the arched doorways,  as well as the arched windows in the back walls,  which of course allow light into the structure.  Lots of activity needed to happen here,  as things were moved in and out, and those who worked here  needed to be able to see everything that they were doing.  The view that you have on your Monument List is this one.  It's a restored view of what the Porticus Emilia might have  looked like in antiquity, and it's very helpful.  It's a cutaway view, which gives you most of the  major features all in one place.  You can see that it is indeed tiered.  There are four tiers for this structure that they move up  slightly as they move up the slope of the hill.  You can see the use of the barrel vaults.  You can see the piers down below.  You can see the flat roof that these seem to have.  But as they rose up slightly along the slope of the hill,  you can see that the designer has placed small curved slit  windows on each tier to allow, again,  additional light into the structure.  And you can also see from this diagram that it was made of  concrete and faced with opus in keratum work.  These small irregular stones that we saw in the Temple of Vesta  also used as the facing material here.  Here's one more restored view, which shows you roughly the  same, the four tiers, the barrel vaults,  the windows on the various tiers, and then most importantly  these doorways and windows in the back,  as well as the general space that was available inside this  extraordinary building.  I mentioned that while we'll look at a couple of buildings,  several buildings in Rome.  I also want to go out to some of the colonies that were founded  by the Romans in the vicinity of Rome in the second and first  centuries B.C., and where they began to build,  as we saw.  They began to plant towns.  They began to put walls around those towns.  They began to put temples in those towns.  And they also began to put other structures,  including warehouses and sanctuaries and the like.  The ones that we're going to look at today,  again Rome is at the star, and we're going to look at  buildings in Terracina, over here, in Tivoli,  and also in Palestrina.  And you can see the proximity of those to others we talked about  last time, Norba and Coza and Iphilare Novi,  and so on and so forth.  It's not surprising, again, to see the Romans turning  to their environs as they make these earliest towns and as they  start to fill these towns to make them into the kind of  mini-Romes that they so desired.  So we're going to look at a series of these,  of different dates, and of considerable interest in  terms of what they herald for the future of Roman architecture.  The first that we're going to look at is a market hall.  A market hall at a place called Ferentino.  Ferentino, and it dates to, I may have neglected  to show you Ferentino on that map, but it's in with all the  other Ferentino around 100 B.C.  it dates to.  And you can see that it's essentially one giant barrel  vault, one giant barrel vault which was used as the market  hall.  You can see also that that giant barrel vault,  which is made of concrete, has opening off it on the sides,  a series of arched areas with also barrel vaulted on the  inside.  These were used as the market stalls inside this marketplace.  You can also see, I believe very well,  that the facing that is used for this concrete is opus in  caratum work for the walls and for the vaults.  And then what they've done to emphasize the location and the  shape of the arches, they have used stone around  those also to give further solidity to this part of the  building.  They have used stone, and you can see it's a combination  of nicely cut Ashlar blocks down here, but also of the  Bousoir blocks that we saw in the Flaery Novigate used over  the arches.  So this combination of both stone and of opus quadratum,  stone, and also of opus and caratum used as the facing for  this particular structure.  What's significant about this building is that it looks forward  to things that we're going to see later on develop in Roman  architecture.  Primarily I showed you in the introductory lecture a glimpse  of the markets of Trajan in Rome, and I remind you here of  the great market hall of the markets of Trajan,  which is even more sophisticated in its use of concrete,  because it has rib vaults, as you can see.  But this experimentation that we're going to see in the early  second century AD in Rome would not have been possible  without the experimentation in concrete that took place in this  very early stage in the second century and in the first  centuries B.C.  Even more, much more interesting in fact,  is the building that I'd like to turn to now.  And this is the so-called Sanctuary of Jupiter Anxor at  Terracina.  It dates, we believe, to 100 to 70 B.C.  And it is like so many Roman buildings spectacularly cited.  I had mentioned this on several occasions.  We looked at the medieval hill town of Cori,  for example, where the Temple of Hercules was  located at the very apex of the hill.  The Romans had an incredible knack for choosing extraordinary  locations on which to site their buildings,  locations that made those buildings,  that accentuated those buildings from a distance,  but also gave those who went to the buildings amazing views out  from those buildings.  This is one of those examples, the Sanctuary of Jupiter  Anxor at Terracina.  The best view of this sanctuary is from the sea.  If you happen to be fortunate enough to be floating on a boat  somewhere near Terracina, and it's a beautiful place to  float, you will see from a distance the great podium of the  sanctuary of Jupiter Anxor.  But you can also see it from the town,  which is where we're situated here.  We're standing in the town, a couple of decent pizzerias  right in front of us, and we're looking up at the  hill on which the sanctuary finds itself.  Now as you look up to that hill, all you can actually see is  all that's actually up there now, which is the podium of the  sanctuary.  The temple is no longer there, although there's some evidence  up there.  Some remains give us a decent sense of what that temple looked  like in antiquity.  But the podium is extremely well preserved,  and you see it again magnificently sighted at the  top of that hill.  This is a restored view of what the podium would have looked  like, and you see what we know with the podium,  what the podium does look like as we see it here.  And as it would have supported the temple on top,  and also a back columnar element over here that was roofed,  as you can see.  If we look at this plan, in this restored view,  excuse me, we see several things that are worth  noting.  One, that the temple itself is very much a  traditional building, and one that is very much in  the tradition indeed of the buildings,  of the temples that we've already discussed,  and a combination of Etruscan plan and of Greek elevation that  we saw in so many of these.  You can see, for example, and again there's enough  evidence for us to be pretty sure that this is what it looked  like, high podium, single staircase,  emphasis on the façade, deep porch,  freestanding columns in that porch, but columns that seem to  have encircled the monument.  So this combination of stone construction,  we think.  So a combination, once again, of Etruscan and  Greek elements for the temple.  You'll probably notice that the temple is slightly skewed.  The angle of the temple is skewed.  It's not straight on, with the podium,  which is very unusual for the Romans.  We'll see that the Romans were very interested in everything  being exactly as it should be.  Axial, symmetrical, both sides matching.  It's very unusual for them to skew something like this.  Why did they do it?  It probably has something to do either with something that was  already on the site, some other building that forced  them to do this, or having something to do with  the particular god who was honored here and the way they  wanted that to be in relationship to various elements of the  rites, or east-west, or whatever.  There was something that caused them to put this in the  position that they did.  And you can also see that it has this back colonnade behind it,  covered colonnade behind it, but it isn't attached to it in  any way, which is also unusual, as we'll see.  The podium you see down here, made up of a series of arcades,  and you can see once again both axial and lateral access,  because just as in the Porticus Emilia,  they have created smaller arcades in the side piers to  allow this kind of axiality in the structure,  or movement through the structure, in more than one way.  The podium is extremely well preserved, as you can see,  and extremely impressive.  It's an extraordinary place to go.  It's a lot of fun to go there to see this.  It's off the beaten track to a certain extent,  but it is on the road between Rome and Naples,  so that one, if one is going from Rome down to Pompeii,  this is the sort of thing one can stop and take a look at,  and there's some other interesting things along the way as  well.  We see here the great podium as it looks today.  It's made out of concrete.  You can see both the large arcades and then these lateral  ones that I mentioned before on the interior face of the piers.  You can also see that they have used opus in keratum facing  here.  These are regular stones, all bunched together to create an  attractive appearance, although this was probably  stuck out in antiquity.  And then they have used stone blocks to emphasize the juncture  of each of these walls, but also to help give the  building increased stability.  So this combination of stone, well it's all stone,  but this combination of blocks of stone and the smaller opus  and keratum stones for the facing of the podium.  And here's a wonderful view, I think, that shows you a  panorama through a number of these lateral arches,  and gives you some sense of how carefully orchestrated this was  by the architect who is responsible for this.  It's never too early for me to emphasize that the Romans were  very concerned with creating vistas and panoramas from one  part of a building to another, from one part of a complex to  another.  And they never lost an opportunity to do that.  So as you stand and look through a series of these lateral  arches, you can see how carefully arranged  that was to pay attention not only to the way in which the  arches, you can see them in a series,  as you can see here, looking almost as if they're  diminishing in size, although they aren't really.  But also this idea of creating exciting visual experiences as  you walk through something, not just to walk through it,  but to see something that really amazes you and that  fascinates you.  And that creation of vista and panorama,  both panorama out onto the countryside from the hilltop,  but also a panorama or vista through a building,  is something quintessentially Roman,  and we'll see it turning up again and again and again as a  major objective of Roman architecture.  A view once again of the restored view of the sanctuary.  The sanctuary had below it a underground passageway called  a cryptoporticus, and I'll put that word on the  monument list for you, a cryptoporticus that was used  essentially for storage, for storage purposes for this  sanctuary.  And believe it or not, we actually have the cryptoporticus  still preserved, and we can look at it.  And it's interesting because here, too,  we see the architects using concrete construction,  creating a barrel vaulted corridor, in this case with  windows on the end, and then a few doorways and  some slit windows, all of them arched,  as you can see here, to allow light into the  structure.  It was used, as I said, for storage purposes,  storage having to do with the cult, and so on and so forth.  It's very important, we're going to look at a couple  of other sanctuaries as well, to keep in mind that these  sanctuaries were meant, they were different than an  individual temple in a forum inside an urban complex.  They were meant to draw pilgrims from far and wide,  which is one of the reasons that they were placed in such  prominent positions on tops of mountains,  so that you wouldn't have to, if you were driving by,  if you were going by in your cart or whatever,  and saw this from a distance, or coming by sea in a boat,  seeing it from a distance, you would be drawn,  it would be like a mecca that you would be drawn to.  So these sanctuaries were meant to attract large numbers of  people to them, so they needed to provide not  just the temple itself, but other things.  And they were like malls.  They often included shopping areas, souvenir shops,  shopping stores for local specialties,  and that kind of thing, in order to encourage people to  visit.  I'd like to turn to another, also very interesting,  sanctuary that was put up at around this time.  This is the sanctuary of Hercules at Tivoli,  and it was erected, we believe, sometime between  75 and 50 B.C., in Tivoli.  It is an incredible place.  It is not so different from the sanctuary of Jupiter,  Anxar, in its general intentions,  this whole idea of creating this mecca for religious activity,  and also just a place that people would enjoy coming to and  gathering together, for social interaction.  We see a restored view of what it looked like in antiquity.  It is similar to and different from the Jupiter-Anxar  sanctuary.  Just like the Jupiter-Anxar sanctuary,  it rests on a tall and large podium.  As you can see, the temple doesn't stand in  isolation, but is raised up on this large podium.  You can see that it has a temple in the center,  this one completely pushed up against the back wall,  and completely straight, so axial, and it created an axial  relationship to the podium.  The temple, we believe, was also one of these  traditional types of temples, with the tall podium,  with the staircase on one side, with columns going around at  three sides, deep porch,  free-standing columns, in that porch raised up on  its own podium, and then the larger podium down  below.  One of the features that we see here that we did not see in  the Jupiter-Anxar sanctuary is the use of the circular staircase  here, which adds drama to the design.  It's also on axis with the staircase of the temple itself,  but it also serves as a kind of shape,  like a theater, a theater cavea,  we call it a cavea, the seating,  C-A-V-E-A, the cavea of a theater.  It's shaped just like that, as you can see here,  and we believe its purpose was not so much as a monumental  entranceway, or monumental staircase,  although it served that purpose to a certain extent,  but also as a place where people could gather and could sit  and probably watch performances, religious performances,  perhaps, or perhaps other kinds of performances,  in front of this, in front of the temple of Hercules.  And there may have been some kind of a stage building.  There was a wall here, so there may have been also  some kind of stage building in front of that semi-circular  seated area.  This is another restored view, showing you the same.  You can perhaps see that theatrical area better here,  again, serving as a dramatic staircase,  and at the same time as a place where performances could take  place at this structure.  But all the other features are apparent.  And I want you to pay special attention,  special attention to the fact that we have the temple pushed  up against the back wall.  Not one of the short back walls, but, well,  none of them are short here, but against a long back wall,  as you can see, but pushed up against it,  dominating the space in front of it.  We're going to see, when we turn to Pompeii on  Thursday, that this same idea of pushing a temple against a  back wall is characteristic of forum design,  the design of meeting and marketplaces,  as it is for sanctuary design.  The sanctuary of Hercules at Tivoli is preserved in part,  and I can show you one very interesting detail,  which is what you see now on the screen.  We are looking at part at, we may have,  let me go back for a second just to point this out.  If you look at the back, if you look at along the sides  and the back, you will see that there are columns  above and then columns with arcades,  arcades and columns in the first story,  and then columns on their own in the upper story.  So what I'm going to show you now is a section of the lower  story of the sanctuary of Hercules at Tivoli.  And we can see that what we have here is a very important  combination, and it's the first time we've  seen this today, of arches with columns  interspersed, columns placed,  engaged or attached into the wall in between these arcades,  as you can see here.  The construction is concrete.  The facing is a combination of stone.  You can look at the blocks, the Ashlar blocks and the  Vuswas above the arches, and opus and keratum work for the  walls, as you can see here.  But the scheme of columns in between arcades,  extremely important.  This is setting in place the kind of scheme that we're going  to see used for buildings like the Colosseum in Rome.  So extremely important.  There's one detail here, this is one detail about the  columns, though I wonder if anyone notices,  but make them different than any other columns that we've seen  thus far this term.  Does anyone see what that is?  They definitely don't, yes, good point.  That wasn't the one I had in mind, but you're absolutely right,  and it leads to another point I'm going to make in the not too  distant future.  They don't support anything.  They are used here.  The building is supported by the concrete construction.  The columns don't have any support role whatsoever.  They're entirely for decorative purposes, so excellent point.  And still one more.  Look at the facing of the column.  What does that tell you?  What is it?  What kind of facing?  Opus and keratum, opus and keratum, which means what?  The columns are made of concrete, too.  Columns are not made out of stone, but the columns in this  instance, it's unusual, but the columns in this instance  made out of concrete and also faced with opus and keratum  work.  A view again of the complex, just to make the point that as  at the sanctuary of Jupiter, Anxar at Terracina,  there is an underground passageway, a cryptoporticus.  But in this case, and you can see it's underneath  the left side of the sanctuary, but in this instance,  interestingly enough, this isn't just a storage area.  It's actually a street.  The ancient name for Tivoli was Tibor, T-I-B-U-R.  There was a street called the Via Tiburtina that made its way  from Rome to Tivoli.  And this underground passageway was actually the street.  The street ran underneath the sanctuary.  That street or that part of the street that ran under the  sanctuary can still be seen today.  And you can see, it looks almost like an  underground subway or something like that,  you can see barrel vaulted area with a series of niches over  here, probably for shops,  so that along the way you could stop and shop beneath the  sanctuary.  So a street in this case that is part of the Via Tiburtina,  leading from Rome to Tivoli.  I'd like to turn now to a couple of buildings in Rome,  back to Rome, to look at first a building  called the Tabularium that dates to around 78 B.C.  That was a very important building in Rome because it was  used to house the state archives at that particular  juncture.  It was put up by a man, we even know who put it up,  a man by the name of Quintus Lutaceus Chtullus,  and I put his name on the monument list for you.  And it was located on the north side of the forum,  of the Roman Forum, and the south slope of the  Capitoline Hill.  And here I show you one of these excellent Google Earth fly  overviews of this part of ancient Rome,  or what this part of ancient Rome looks like today.  And we see the landmarks that we've already pointed out,  the Colosseum at the very top, the Roman Forum lying in front  of the Colosseum, Mussolini's Via De Fori  Imperiali, the Imperial Forum over here,  the Palatine Hill up here, the Circus Maximus here,  the wedding cake, so-called, of Victor Emanuel,  modern building, 19th century building over here,  and then the Capitoline Hill, redesigned by Michelangelo with  the Oval Piazza.  The tabularium is located right here.  It is, again, facing the forum, the Roman Forum,  but it is the back wall of one of Michelangelo's palaces,  the so-called senatorial palace, designed by Michelangelo.  What Michelangelo did is what was done so often by later  architects incorporated, didn't tear down the earlier  Roman tabularium, but incorporated its wall as  the back wall of his senatorial palace,  and that's exactly what it remains today.  Here we see a view of the tabularium.  We're standing on the forum side, looking at what remains of  the tabularium, and we can see some of the  features that we've already been discussing today.  First of all, let me point out that it is made out of  concrete.  It is made out of concrete.  The building is concrete.  But here in Rome they decided not to use opus and  caratum work was not the rage in Rome.  Instead, they were much more interested in cut stone,  and you can see that they have used cut stone in this structure,  cut tufa stone.  I think you can recognize the stone as tufa.  I remember tufa is indigenous to the city of Rome.  Rome has a lot of fairly decent tufa.  They've used tufa here, and they have used tufa work  also for the arcades above.  And for the columns, the capitals are done in  travertine, added in travertine,  considered the most important part, so they use the more  expensive material there.  But you can see here, as at the Sanctuary of Hercules  at Tivoli, that we have this combination of  arcades and columns.  And once again, as was already pointed out,  columns that have no structural purpose whatsoever,  columns that are there for pure decoration.  And this scheme of arcades with columns is going to become  extremely important in the future.  One can go inside the tabularium today and see what  remains of this state archives.  There are some very interesting corridors and vaulting that one  can see.  Again, by the way, it's a nice place to go,  because there's also a panoramic window on which one can get  some spectacular views down over the Roman Forum,  and some great pictures as well, photographs as well.  We're looking here at one of the corridors of the tabularium.  You can see that the arches are made out of stone,  supported by columns.  But in between them there are a series of bays,  as you can see here.  And in between them we have domical ceilings that are made  out of concrete.  So concrete used here, combined,  concrete for the domes, combined with stone,  that the Romans were very handsome stone,  that the Romans, those in Rome,  itself favored, used for the arches and used to  decorate the walls as well.  And what's interesting is that we find in these corridors  a series of ramps and a series of steps.  And there's actually one staircase that has 66 steps,  I've counted them, 66 steps, as well as ramps.  And what we see happening here, and these are again covered  by barrel vaults, what we see happening here is the Romans  paying a lot of attention to varying the experience that you  have when you walk through buildings.  Sometimes you're going to be walking on a straight path,  sometimes you're going to be walking on a ramp,  sometimes you're going to be walking on stairs,  to vary that experience.  So, and you're going to see panoramas and so on along the  way, to make it an experience to go into a building and to  wander around that building.  But we're also going to see, and I'll show you this  particularly in the last structure we talk about today,  we're also going to see the Romans not hesitating to be the  controlling force that they very much were,  and to establish certain predetermined paths that you  have to take.  So you're having a varied experience,  but you're kind of having it in the way that the Romans want  you to have it.  And that's an interesting phenomenon that I hope we'll  think about together as we converse in the online forum.  I want to show you one last building in Rome today,  before I show you the real pièce de résistance of  concrete architecture of this early period.  I'd like to show you one more building in Rome.  It's a later building, and in some respects it belongs  in a later lecture.  It's the Theater of Marcellus in Rome,  a theater that was put up by Rome's first emperor,  Augustus, after the death of his nephew and son-in-law,  Marcellus.  He seems to have put it up, that is, Augustus seems to  have put it up.  He was in great grief at the loss of this young man,  because he had hoped that Marcellus would succeed him.  Marcellus was married to Augustus' daughter,  Julia.  He had hoped that Marcellus would succeed him,  but Marcellus unfortunately died very young.  Augustus was in incredible grief, and he put up this theater in  Rome, the Stone Theater in Rome,  in honor of Marcellus.  The theater was put up, as I mentioned,  either in XIII or in XI B.C.  So I could talk about this.  We have several lectures on Augustus, and I could talk about  this in that lecture.  But I decided to put it here, because it really is the  culmination, in a sense, of some of the  experiments we've been talking about today,  and I wanted you to see it in this context for that reason.  We are looking at the theater of Marcellus as it looks today.  Parts of it are extremely well preserved,  as you can see, at least these first two tiers  here.  The main reason that the building has survived,  and you can, well, I'll talk about the details  in a moment, the main reason that the  building has survived, and I believe I mentioned this  in the introductory lecture, is that it was reused over  time.  It was reused as a fortress in the Middle Ages.  It was used as a palace in the Renaissance,  and it was used as, most recently,  and is still being used as, a very luxurious condominium  today.  This is where Google Earth really comes in handy.  You can go, if you go on to Google Earth,  because it's very difficult to get a sense of the way in which  this ancient part of this structure relates to the rest  of the structure today, without going up above it.  And by going up above it, and looking at it both from above  and Google Earth now allows you to do 3D at the same time.  So you can do 3D and up above at the same time.  You can see the relationship of this building to its modern  locale.  And by the way, it's just in the shadow.  It's very close to the Capitoline Hill.  It's a hop, skip, and a jump from the  Capitoline Hill.  This area of Rome, it's actually the so-called  Jewish ghetto area of Rome.  It served as a ghetto in times past, and is still referred to  it that way today.  And it has some of the best restaurants in Rome.  If you have never had carcofi alla Judea, Jewish artichokes,  wow, they are incredible.  And there are several lots of restaurants in this area that  has them.  They're a real Roman treat.  It's considered a very characteristic part of the  cuisine of ancient Rome.  It's definitely something to experience.  But we see the theater of Marcellus right here.  And you can see both the façade, which is the ancient part of  it, but also the rest of the building,  and the way in which it is used today as a condominium with  apartments opening off these lovely courtyards with trees and  plants and flowers and all sorts of things there.  And there's another famous temple, the Temple of Apollo,  that is located right outside.  There are only three columns preserved of that temple,  but also its podium, right in front of the theater  of Marcellus.  This is, again, Google Earth.  You can look not only at what the building looks like today,  but you can recreate now.  All of these last couple of months they've enabled us to  recreate ancient Rome as well.  And one can do that for all of the buildings that we'll be  looking at this semester.  And this one is their recreation.  It's fairly simple, but their recreation of the  theater of Marcellus.  And it allows us to look at some of the features of that  building.  Again, sorry that I have to talk so much about  terminology at the beginning, but as I mentioned,  once we get through this, the first couple of weeks we won't  have to do much of that anymore.  But the basic components of a Roman theater were the seating,  which is called the cavia, C-A-V-E-A,  which is this semicircular seating that we see here.  The cavia is usually divided into a series of wedge-shaped  sections, which you cannot see here,  but I'll show you in another view in a moment,  wedge-shaped sections that are called,  each are called the cuneas, C-U-N-E-U-S,  cuneas, and then there is a stage building.  We're seeing the back of that here,  but a stage building facing the seating called a scani frans,  S-C-A-E-N-A-E, F-R-O-N-S, a scani frans.  What's important to us here in the context of this lecture  is that while the Greeks built their theaters,  and Greek theaters were the main prototype for Roman theaters,  while the Greeks built their theaters on hill-sods,  the Romans were not content as a civilization that was  interested primarily in urban centers,  the Romans were not content to build their theaters on hills.  They didn't want to be constrained by having to build  their theaters where hills happened to be.  And so now, with concrete construction,  what they were able to do instead was to build a hill out  of concrete anywhere they wanted to build a hill out of  concrete, right in the center of downtown Rome,  and then hollow that concrete out in order to create the  entrances and exits from that structure,  and that's exactly what they did for the Theater of Marcellus.  If we look at this detail of the outside of the Theater of  Marcellus, we will see that this building,  made out of concrete, is like the others we've talked  about today, faced with some kind of stone.  In this case, the stone is travertine.  The decision of Augustus was to get this more expensive stone,  bring it from Tivoli, and use it for this structure.  Ashtlar blocks of stone, as you can see here,  and interspersing among the arcades columns,  columns that, as were well pointed out before,  have no structural purpose whatsoever.  Columns that serve only as decoration,  and the fact that they were decoration is apparent in the  fact that they have varied the orders here.  We see the Doric order used for the first story,  and the Ionic order used for the second story,  and we think there may have been a third story today,  what you see up there is part of the later construction.  But if there was a third story, whether that had columns or  pilasters, which you'll remember,  flat columns, if it had those,  those were probably of the Corinthian order,  because that is exactly the scheme that we see on the later  Colosseum, Doric, Ionic, and ultimately  Corinthian.  But we're sure, at least, of the Doric and of the Ionic.  So these columns had no structural purpose whatsoever,  purely decorative, in a sense,  their kind of the icing on the cake.  They don't hold up the building, but they decorate it in a very  nice way, and it shows you that the Romans  are beginning to use what the Greeks used as structural  components of their buildings, namely columns to hold up  walls, to hold up roofs.  They are using them for purely decorative purposes,  playing around with their original purpose and using them in  a different way.  And we see that happening in spades here.  If you go into the building, you will see the corridors of  the theater of Marcellus.  You will see what first looks like a barrel vault done out of  concrete construction, resting on stone,  on travertine piers.  But you see that that barrel vault curves.  A curving barrel vault is technically called an annular  vault, A-N-N-U-L-A-R.  You see an annular vault here, a diagram of an annular vault  here.  It's essentially, again, a barrel vault that curves.  We sometimes refer to it as a ring vault because of its shape.  So you see those annular vaults used in the theater of  Marcellus.  These are the same vaults that will be used ultimately in the  Colosseum.  A quick view of a typical Roman theater,  the theater of Marcellus in Rome, and a typical Greek theater.  This is the famous theater at Epidorus of the mid-fourth  century BC in Greece.  And I show you, just wanted to point out the main  differences.  They look superficially alike in that both of them have an  orchestra, they have an area of seats,  they have a stage building.  But there are some important differences.  One is, and you can't see that over here,  but the Greek theater had a round orchestra.  The Roman theater always has a semi-circular orchestra.  Both of them have seats, the cavia.  Here you can see these wedge-shaped sections of seats  called the cuneas, that both Greek theaters and  also Roman theaters had.  Both of them have stage buildings, although the stage  building is more prominent in the Roman context.  But the most important distinction is the one I've  already drawn, and that is, as you can see at  Epidorus, the Greeks build their theaters on  hilltops.  You can see the trees and part of the hill very clearly here.  The Romans build theirs on hills made out of concrete.  Not always.  There are some exceptions to that.  We do have some Roman theaters built on hills when the hill  happened to be in a good location and particularly  beautifully sited.  But for the most part, Romans build them on their own  concrete construction.  I've mentioned the monument of Victor Emmanuel,  the Vittoriano.  And I just wanted to say a couple more words about it  because, and you'll see how it fits into the context here in  a moment, because it's a nineteenth-century  building.  And it's a building that was put up to honor the first king of  the Kingdom of Italy.  His name was Victor Emmanuel I.  Victor Emmanuel I.  It was put up in 1885, and you see it here,  again, a major landmark in the city.  This is a Google Earth image once again.  But the reason I show it to you in this context today is that  it is, in a sense, terrorist on the slope of the  capitaline hill.  You see Michelangelo's Oval Piazza up there.  It's terrorist on the slope, a series of levels,  staircases leading to terraces, leading to other terraces,  leading to the top of the building,  decorated with statuary.  It's a real experience to climb up it.  It's an amazing place to go.  It has the tomb of the Italian unknown soldier here,  with guards and eternal flame and all of those things.  And I must add, for any of you who have not been in Rome in  the last year and who are hoping to go sometime soon,  or whenever in the future, they have just added on top of  the victory.  It was always a great place to climb up and see great views of  Rome, but they have just added an  elevator, a modern elevator that they've created that you can  now take up, taking you even higher than you  were ever able to go before.  The views of Rome from there are among the most spectacular  that one can see in the city.  So I happened, unfortunately, when I was there this  June, it was raining.  It doesn't rain in Rome that often at that time of year,  but it was.  So many of the pictures that I took are sort of the gray  background and so on and so forth.  But nonetheless, some of the most spectacular views you  see of the city, so don't miss out on that  opportunity.  But I show it to you in this context, because of all of this  terracing up a hill, the idea for this kind of  thing goes way back to the second century B.C., and comes  from buildings like this one.  This is without any question the masterpiece of Roman  concrete architecture, concrete construction,  sanctuary design, in the second and first centuries  B.C.  We're not absolutely sure of its date.  For a long time, this is, by the way,  the sanctuary of Fortuna, Premaginia, at a town called  Palestrina.  The date is very controversial.  There are many who long associated it with the Roman  general Sulla and said that it dated to A.D.B.C.  There are others who have contended that it's much earlier  than that, it dates to the second century B.C.  And if it dates to the second century B.C., it's even more  amazing, because that means it comes at the  beginning rather than at the end of this second and first  century B.C.  development.  I tend now, I've gone back and forth,  I taught it as a sullen building for quite a while.  Now I've been teaching it the last few years as a second  century building.  It probably doesn't matter all that much.  It dates to one or the other, and it's an example of what was  going on at that particular time.  But I'm giving you a date this year as a second century B.C.,  which I think at this juncture is probably my personal opinion,  is that's probably where it belongs.  You're looking at it here.  It is an incredible, it is part of an incredible  hill town, just like Cori, the city of Palestrina.  It is a beautiful hill town.  You can see it here with all the wonderful red roofs of the  town that tie the design of the town together.  The culminating monument of that town is still the sanctuary  of Fortuna Premigania.  Once again, the Romans have found a spectacular locale for  this sanctuary, cum theater, cum shopping mall,  Mecca for Romans of its day on this hillside.  They have, once again, they have in fact taken over  the entire hillside.  They have terraced the hillside, as we can see,  and they've essentially poured concrete on that hillside to  create a system of ramps and stairways and with a temple at  the very apex.  It is pretty well preserved today.  You can see there's an awful lot of it still there.  You can either, if you're coming by car,  you can either park down here or up there,  and you can make your way up the ramps,  up the staircase to the various levels,  and then up to the theatrical entrance way into the uppermost  part.  The temple of Fortuna herself, which was at the apex and was  located probably in what may have been a kind of mountain  alcove at that particular time, was transformed in the 17th  century by the famous Barbarini family,  a Miss Italian family, the popes came from that family,  and so on.  They were very smart, too, transformed into a nice  little palace that they could go and stay in when they felt  like it a small palace, but one that takes the exact  shape of that uppermost part of the sanctuary.  I'll show that to you in a moment.  Here's a view from Google Earth.  You can see Google Earth doesn't always work.  When you go out to some of the smaller places,  it's hard to zero in on it well enough to get a decent focus.  But you can see it actually here.  You can go to Palestine and see it on Google Earth.  These are the various tiers with the palace at the uppermost  part.  Here's a restored view.  It's on your monument list that gives you a sense of what the  building looked like in antiquity.  You can see the entrance way was down here,  a small arched entrance way, but you really needed to go up  the ramps.  You could go up on either side.  So we see this composite, just like we saw at the  tabularium, this combination of ramps and  staircases to make your way up varied experiences,  but at the same time a predetermined path.  Because while you had some choice when you first arrived,  you could go up the ramp on either left and right,  and you could see it was a covered ramp in antiquity.  But when you got here, you had one choice.  You had to go up the stairway to this level,  and then there were some shops here you could explore.  But then if you wanted to go up to the next level,  you had to go back to the central stairway,  up to this level, back to the central stairway,  and then to the stairway in the shape of a theater at the  uppermost part.  So again, experiences stressed.  Your experience of the building was stressed,  but at the same time your path was determined by the Roman  designer.  This is another view of the same, where we can see the  entrance way, the ramps, the staircase leading you from  one to the other, the uppermost staircase.  Here you can well see the theatrical way in which the  theater, the semicircular theater,  is used both as an attractive entrance stairway to the  structure, but at the same time as a place where  performances could actually take place.  Then what's called a hemicycle.  You see several hemicycles here, H-E-M-I-C-Y-C-L-E.  These curved areas, the columns follow that curve.  You see that hemicycle at the very top, and then at the apex of  the structure, the shrine of Fortuna herself,  a small round shrine.  In fact, it's almost an anticlimax to see how small the  shrine at the uppermost part of the structure is.  How did the Romans achieve this?  They created, as you can see here,  a series, or they converted the hillside into a series of  man-made terraces.  They built those terraces up in some instances by barrel vaults.  You can see the series of concrete barrel vaults here,  as they have built some elements up along the way.  And the ultimate result was what you see here.  The same sort of thing we saw before, the ramps,  the staircase, the hemicycles with columns,  supporting a curved wall, a series of shops,  the spectacular theater-like staircase,  the curved hemicycle at the uppermost part,  and then peeking up at the top, the temple of Fortuna herself.  It's hard to conjure up in a classroom in New Haven the  actual experience that one has when one goes to Palestrina and  climbs through this structure, and is not as well preserved  today as it once was, obviously in antiquity.  But in the few minutes that remain, I want to try to  capture or try to take you through that experience,  and to show you how arduous it actually was.  It's a climb up there, and in fact this is one of those  examples, and there are many in Italy,  that one likes to call Stairmasters made by nature,  essentially.  Places that you can go and you exert a lot of effort into  making your way to the top of this sanctuary.  The best natural stairmaster in Italy is, of course,  any of you who've been along the Amalfi Coast,  you know there's nowhere on the Amalfi Coast that you don't  have to climb up and down with multiple times a day.  And that's exactly what's happening here,  and you can see how steep this path up the ramp was.  And we're going up the ramp again.  It was covered in antiquity.  It's open to the sky today.  As we go along the ramp we see the remnants of some of the  capitals.  These are travertine capitals, as you can see here,  fallen down.  But if you look at some of these capitals in detail you see  something quite extraordinary, and that is the capitol isn't  straight.  The uppermost part of the capitol slopes.  Now why is that?  The reason that is, is because if you're going to  put columns along the inner wall of the ramp,  which is what they did, the column,  the capitals, have to conform to the incline of the ramp.  And so they have slanted those capitals.  The whole idea, though, of changing,  the Greeks would never do something like that.  I mean, it would be sacrilege to change the shape of a capitol.  But this Roman architect has done that with abandon here.  He needed to do it because he needed to fit it into the  scheme, although he could have not had columns there,  but he wanted to have columns there.  So he slanted them.  This whole sacrilegious approach to traditional Greek and  Etruscan architecture, the willingness to make  things, to change things, to experiment.  I told you this was a change, you believe it.  The willingness to change these things, to experiment with them  in ways that had never been done before,  to go against the tenets of traditional ancient architecture,  namely that of the Greeks and the Etruscans,  is something quintessentially Roman,  and something that we see happening here,  and again, heralds a very innovative future.  Here we see again the ramp.  We see the capitals, the slant of the capitals,  and we see that the work here was done,  was concrete, faced with opus and keratum,  both for the walls and also for the ceilings.  As one makes one's way up the ramps,  we see these alcoves, all of this done,  the various shops, the alcoves,  all of it done with concrete, faced with opus and keratum.  We see the remains of the hemicycles.  You can see the columns made of tufa with travertine capitals  supporting this curved attic of the hemicycles.  We see the vaulting with its concrete construction.  This is an annular vault, once again,  where we can see the facing in the coffers is opus and keratum  work.  Another view of that, both the wall and the  annular vault, decorated with opus and keratum work.  A detail of that opus and keratum work to show you how very  attractive it was.  It's a pity that it was stuck out over in ancient Roman  times.  A view that I took again just to give you a sense of how steep  the climb is.  You've made it up the ramp.  Now you're at that central staircase.  You're on your way up.  It's very, very steep.  The stairways are pretty short, so that it's a very arduous  trip up, as I said.  And then you can get a sense of the fact that you would have  seen the sanctuary of fortune at the top.  Now you see the embracing arms of the Barbarini Palace.  You can see those arms follow the exact shape of the original  hemicycle that was once there.  And you can also see the theater staircase,  very well preserved, and I show you a detail of that  theater staircase leading into the doorway,  into the museum today.  And just in closing, a return to the restored view of the  structure itself, with the temple or the shrine  of Fortuna at the very apex, the shrine that,  unfortunately, no longer survives.  But I think as you look at this last view of this monument,  you can see that what the architects have created through  this terracing, through pouring concrete on the  spectacular hillside, is a kind of a pyramid,  a kind of a pyramid with the goddess at the apex,  a pyramid that I would contend, was more extraordinary  through what the Romans did with concrete than what nature  itself had provided in the form of this mountain.  And it gives you an incredible sense of what the Romans were  capable of doing in the second and first centuries B.C.  vis-a-vis concrete architecture, experiments that,  again, are going to have a lasting impact on the architecture  that we'll be studying in the course of this term.  Thank you.
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Good morning. It's inauguration day. Happy inauguration day to everyone. And I thought that actually the inauguration of Barack Obama today, and the particular lecture in this class, are very well suited to one another. Because although you see that the title of today's lecture is Technology and Revolution in Roman Art, I could also call it something like The Change the Romans Believed In. Because The Change the Romans Believed In, The Change the Romans Believed In, was a shift from what we've called traditional Roman architecture to innovative Roman architecture. And that's what we're going to be talking about today, what we call innovative, and what we'll call in the course of this semester, innovative Roman architecture. We've already talked about what we've called traditional Roman architecture. And I just want to look again with you to begin today with the Temple of Portunus that we looked at last time, the Temple of Portunus in Rome, near the Tiber River, a temple that was put up in the late, second, early first century B.C. And we talked about the fact that this was a traditional Roman building of this day, a traditional Roman building, though, that was quite derivative, that looked back at Greek architecture, Greek religious architecture, and Etruscan religious architecture, and drew from both of those, drew elements from both of those, and combined them together into what we termed a new Roman creation, at least in the traditional vein. We talked about the fact that the Etruscan elements of this particular monument were its tall podium, were its deep porch, were the freestanding columns in that porch, were the single staircase, and the emphasis on the façade, that having that single staircase achieved. We also talked about the fact that while there were columns all around the structure, which is actually a Greek way of doing things, that those columns were attached or engaged into the wall, which still gave it a certain sense of flatness, including on the back, that was also characteristic of Etruscan architecture. We also talked about the Greek elements that were incorporated here, and those included the fact that the building was made out of stone, and also the fact that one of the traditional Greek orders, in this case the Ionic order, was used for the structure. So this bringing together of Greek and Etruscan elements in this thoroughly Roman building, but a building that, again, we would call a traditional Roman building. And what do I mean by traditional? All the traditional Roman buildings share income in the following features. They have columns, and they have walls, and those columns and walls serve a structural purpose, and that is to hold up the flak or the sloping ceiling, and the sloping roof, and that is, in fact, exactly what you see here. But at this very same time, in the second century B.C. and into the first century B.C., we begin to see a new kind of experimentation that is going on concurrently with this. An experimentation that grows up in some of the same towns that we see traditional buildings like this. And what made this experimentation different than anything that had come before is the fact that the Romans use for these buildings a completely new material, and that material is concrete. We talked about the fact that already in the Temple of Portunus, concrete was used, but concrete was used only in the podium. You can't see it. It is inside the podium and serves to strengthen. Concrete has a great deal of strength and can sustain great weights, and so it was placed in the podium for utilitarian purposes so that it could help to support the temple that was located on top. But again, none of its expressive possibilities were explored by the designer of the Temple of Portunus or any of the other temples we looked at last time. But what begins to happen also in the course of the second and first centuries B.C. is architects beginning to realize that this new concrete technology has an opportunity to transform Roman architecture, and they begin to experiment with that transformation. In order to understand the concrete buildings that we're going to be looking at this morning, which are absolutely fascinating, and I hope you'll be as enthralled by them as I am, and they again stand at the very beginning of this development of innovative architecture in Rome. It's important to know a bit about concrete, Roman concrete, that is, and I want to make a few points about it. Roman concrete, the Latin term for it, is opus chimenticum, as I've indicated here. Roman concrete is different from what we think of today as concrete. It's a composite of various natural elements that becomes a liquid mass when mixed with water, and eventually hardens into a very, very strong substance, much stronger than any of its ingredients are on their own. Roman concrete was a mixture of stone rubble and liquid mortar and composed of lime, sand, and something called pazzolana, pazzolana being a volcanic substance, which was very plentiful in Italy, especially around the area of Pompeii, Herculaneum, the area of Campania. Concrete was used in Rome from the early second century B.C. on, but it was not until the end of the second century and the beginning of the first century that the expressive possibilities of concrete began to be fully realized. Concrete, I think this is also important to mention when you think about concrete construction in relationship to stone construction that we've already discussed, concrete is not cut or quarried the way stone is. Concrete is cast in molds. Concrete can be cast in any shape, at least any shape, that a carpenter can build with wood. And like modern builders, the Romans erected wooden frames for their walls and ceilings, and they poured concrete into those wooden frames. What's most important for us in the context of this lecture and in this course in general is that the introduction of Roman concrete into Roman architecture freed the Roman architect from the confines of a rectilinear architecture that they had inherited from the Greeks, the kind of rectilinear architecture that made up a temple like the Temple of Portunus. This is a very momentous change, and one that will have a lasting impact on the buildings of the Romans. Let me try to give you a sense of what I mean by this. One could argue that the greatest concrete structure built by the Romans was the pantheon. And I remind you of the pantheon on the right, in fact the dome of the pantheon, which would not have been possible without concrete construction. But it's interesting to compare the pantheon to an attempt that Etruscan architects made to create something similar, but out of stone. I'll show you on the left-hand side of the screen an Etruscan tomb that dates to 600 B.C. So very early in time, 600 B.C. An Etruscan tomb at a place called, it's not on your monument list, but at a place called Quinto Fiorentino, Q-U-I-N-T-O, new word F-I-O-R-E-N-T-I-N-O, Quinto Fiorentino in Etruscan territory. And what the architects have done here is to try to create a round tomb, and they've used stone, as you can see. And they have laid those stones. They've cut and quarried the stones as usual. They've tried to cut them in the shapes that they need in order to make this work. And they've piled them one on top of the other, row after row after row, until they've gotten, it started out okay at the bottom. But as they get further and further onto the top, and it gets rounder and rounder, and converges at the apex, they start to have trouble, as you can see. And although it's a heroic, a valiant attempt on their part, it isn't terribly successful, at least to my mind, aesthetically. And in fact, they were worried about it falling down, so they even had to place a stone pier here to support the dome, to make sure that it didn't drop. And actually, that was pretty successful, because here it is still today, looking pretty good in that regard. But with the introduction of concrete into architecture under the Romans, building a dome like the Pantheon was simplicity itself. All you needed to be able to do was to build one of these wooden models, wooden structures that you then poured concrete into, and voila, you have the dome of the Pantheon. So simplicity itself, transformational, vis-a-vis Roman architecture. The only problem with concrete, and there were two problems with concrete that the architects of this period had to contend with, one of them was that concrete has to be protected from moisture, that's number one, and number two, that concrete is less attractive than stone. The Roman architects of the second and first centuries B.C. solved these two problems in the same way. What they decided to do was when the concrete was still wet, they attached a stone to it. This could either be large ashlar blocks, stone blocks, or it could be small pieces of stone. That uncertain work, or opus and keratum, that we talked about last time, pressed into the concrete when it was wet, and when it all dried, that stone both made the building look more attractive, and also protected the building from moisture. We looked last time at that opus and keratum facing. I remind you of the Temple of Vesta at Tivoli, which you see here, and you will recall that the Temple of Vesta at Tivoli had concrete both in its podium for utilitarian purposes, and to support the great weight of the temple, but also that the architects explored making the cellar wall, the curved cellar wall, also out of concrete. And then when that concrete was wet, they put in the small cut, irregularly shaped stones, called uncertain work, or opus and keratum, to protect that. So we saw that already in the Temple of Vesta, even though it was a traditional temple based on Greek and Etruscan models. And we'll see it again today in several buildings. And I show you just one example, the last structure that we'll talk about today, the sanctuary of Fortuna Primigania at Palestrina, an extraordinary structure built on the hillside that also used opus and keratum as the facing. And you can see it used here for the wall and also for the coffered ceiling above. And so a stone-facing opus and keratum that was particularly favored in the second centuries B.C. and into the first centuries B.C. Over time, the choice of facing changed, although Ashlar Bloch's Tufa, Tufa, Travertine, and opus and keratum were popular in the second and first centuries. As time goes on, things change. We'll see, under the Roman emperor Nerva, there was a revolution, another kind of revolution of sorts in Roman architecture. And we'll talk about the reasons for that, and so on later in the semester. But with that revolution came an interest in a new facing material, namely brick, brick that was originally stuck out over, and in fact the opus and keratum work and the Tufa stone that we've talked about already today tended to be stuck out over as well. But by the second century we begin to see an appreciation for brick in its own right, the attractiveness of brick, and the Romans begin to use exposed brick as the facing for their buildings. And I show you one example. It's a detail of a warehouse in the Roman port city of Ostia that we'll look at later in the term, with this exposed brick facing, very attractive, different colorations, and so on and so forth. But just to alert you to the fact that, again, the kind of facing that we're talking about today will not be the only facing that is used by the Romans over time. I want to show you today a series of these concrete constructions, concrete experiments we might call them, that begin to turn up, not only in Rome itself, but also in some of the cities close to Rome that we saw Rome began to colonize in the Republic and into the age of Augustus, cities that either are the same or very close to the ones that we looked at last time. And I'll show you a map momentarily. I just want to begin with one in Rome itself. This is the so-called Porticus Emilia in Rome. The Porticus Emilia was a warehouse, a very large warehouse, on the banks of the Tiber River. The Porticus Emilia was built, as you can see from the dates on your Monument List, very early on, 193 B.C., and then restored in 174 B.C. Only a small fragment of the Porticus Emilia survives today, but we have a lot of evidence, a lot of clues, that we can piece together through scholarly detective work to determine what this building looked like in antiquity, and we can get a quite accurate sense. We have, for example, the words of the great Roman historian Livy, Livy who is writing in the age of Augustus. He tells us that the Porticus Emilia, he describes it, he mentions the Porticus Emilia, and he tells us it was located on the east bank of the Tiber River, and that it was southwest of one of Rome's seven hills, the Aventine Hill, southwest of the Aventine Hill, which is enormously helpful because it gives archaeologists and so on a clue as to where they might look for remains of this particular structure. So we have that. We also have a fragment of the building, we believe, because it's located just in the right place, and I show it to you here. It's not much. It's a piece, it's essentially a hunk of concrete that includes an arched doorway and some arched windows, but it's very important in terms of allowing us to reconstruct what this structure looked like in antiquity. But most significant of all, we have a fragment from what is known as the Marble Map of Rome. The Marble Map of Rome called the Forma Orbis, and I put that word on the monument list, that title on the monument list for you, the Forma Orbis. The Forma Orbis was a great marble map that was made of Rome in the early third century AD, under the emperorship of Septimius Severus, and put up on a wall in Rome. And we'll talk about its location later on in the semester. But it purported to represent all the buildings that were standing in Rome in the early third century AD. It is fragmentary today, but there are a fair number of fragments, and fortunately a couple of those fragments, or several of those fragments, are fragments that represent the Porticus Emilia. So we can tell from that, from that, from Libby's description, from this fragmentary remain, we can piece together what it looked like. And you can see it here, a very, very long rectangular structure that went all along the bank of the river. Storage, you need a lot of storage. Especially as the Romans began to conquer the world, they were trading more extensively with other parts of the world, and consequently they needed places along the Tiber River to store the goods that were both going out and coming in. So they built this gigantic warehouse along the banks of the Tiber. Now there's a fair amount of disagreement about some of the smaller details of this warehouse and what it looked like in antiquity. So we have to do the best that we can to bring that evidence together to determine what it looked like. But as I said, in some details you'll see there's variation. So several of the things I'm going to show you vary slightly, but the only one that you'll be ultimately responsible for is the one that's on your monument list. But I just want you to be aware of the fact that there are different interpretations of exactly what it looks like. What we are sure of, and what's most important for us today, is that it was made of concrete and that it had barrel vaults. What was a barrel vault? A barrel vault was a vault that was, again, made out of concrete, placed on a wall, and then had the vault was shaped like the side of a barrel, as you can see here, which is why it's called a barrel vault, shaped like the side of a barrel, resting on walls down below, a fairly simple shape that could not have been made a lot. It would be very difficult to make out of stone, but was easily able to be made out of concrete. And we see a series of those barrel vaults placed, one next to another, for the warehouse, for the Porticus Emilia in Rome. It was placed, and actually I neglected to mention, Livy also tells us that the Porticus Emilia had four tears. It was tiered in four levels. And we see those four tears here rising up ever so slightly along the slope of the Tiber River. This is a cross-section of what the inside of the Basilica Emilia might have looked like. You see those great barrel vaults here. You see that the architect has been adventurous in the sense that he has not placed the barrel vaults on solid wall, as we saw in that diagram, but has opened those walls up, created piers, and arches above those piers to create these arcades, which is quite ingenious and very smart, because what it does is enable there to be both axial movement through the building, but also lateral movement. You can walk not only along each barrel vault, but you can walk in between the piers, which is, as I said, creates a sense of much more openness and lateral as well as axial movement. The other thing that you see here are the back walls, where we can see just what we saw in that fragment of the building, the arched doorways, as well as the arched windows in the back walls, which of course allow light into the structure. Lots of activity needed to happen here, as things were moved in and out, and those who worked here needed to be able to see everything that they were doing. The view that you have on your Monument List is this one. It's a restored view of what the Porticus Emilia might have looked like in antiquity, and it's very helpful. It's a cutaway view, which gives you most of the major features all in one place. You can see that it is indeed tiered. There are four tiers for this structure that they move up slightly as they move up the slope of the hill. You can see the use of the barrel vaults. You can see the piers down below. You can see the flat roof that these seem to have. But as they rose up slightly along the slope of the hill, you can see that the designer has placed small curved slit windows on each tier to allow, again, additional light into the structure. And you can also see from this diagram that it was made of concrete and faced with opus in keratum work. These small irregular stones that we saw in the Temple of Vesta also used as the facing material here. Here's one more restored view, which shows you roughly the same, the four tiers, the barrel vaults, the windows on the various tiers, and then most importantly these doorways and windows in the back, as well as the general space that was available inside this extraordinary building. I mentioned that while we'll look at a couple of buildings, several buildings in Rome. I also want to go out to some of the colonies that were founded by the Romans in the vicinity of Rome in the second and first centuries B.C., and where they began to build, as we saw. They began to plant towns. They began to put walls around those towns. They began to put temples in those towns. And they also began to put other structures, including warehouses and sanctuaries and the like. The ones that we're going to look at today, again Rome is at the star, and we're going to look at buildings in Terracina, over here, in Tivoli, and also in Palestrina. And you can see the proximity of those to others we talked about last time, Norba and Coza and Iphilare Novi, and so on and so forth. It's not surprising, again, to see the Romans turning to their environs as they make these earliest towns and as they start to fill these towns to make them into the kind of mini-Romes that they so desired. So we're going to look at a series of these, of different dates, and of considerable interest in terms of what they herald for the future of Roman architecture. The first that we're going to look at is a market hall. A market hall at a place called Ferentino. Ferentino, and it dates to, I may have neglected to show you Ferentino on that map, but it's in with all the other Ferentino around 100 B.C. it dates to. And you can see that it's essentially one giant barrel vault, one giant barrel vault which was used as the market hall. You can see also that that giant barrel vault, which is made of concrete, has opening off it on the sides, a series of arched areas with also barrel vaulted on the inside. These were used as the market stalls inside this marketplace. You can also see, I believe very well, that the facing that is used for this concrete is opus in caratum work for the walls and for the vaults. And then what they've done to emphasize the location and the shape of the arches, they have used stone around those also to give further solidity to this part of the building. They have used stone, and you can see it's a combination of nicely cut Ashlar blocks down here, but also of the Bousoir blocks that we saw in the Flaery Novigate used over the arches. So this combination of both stone and of opus quadratum, stone, and also of opus and caratum used as the facing for this particular structure. What's significant about this building is that it looks forward to things that we're going to see later on develop in Roman architecture. Primarily I showed you in the introductory lecture a glimpse of the markets of Trajan in Rome, and I remind you here of the great market hall of the markets of Trajan, which is even more sophisticated in its use of concrete, because it has rib vaults, as you can see. But this experimentation that we're going to see in the early second century AD in Rome would not have been possible without the experimentation in concrete that took place in this very early stage in the second century and in the first centuries B.C. Even more, much more interesting in fact, is the building that I'd like to turn to now. And this is the so-called Sanctuary of Jupiter Anxor at Terracina. It dates, we believe, to 100 to 70 B.C. And it is like so many Roman buildings spectacularly cited. I had mentioned this on several occasions. We looked at the medieval hill town of Cori, for example, where the Temple of Hercules was located at the very apex of the hill. The Romans had an incredible knack for choosing extraordinary locations on which to site their buildings, locations that made those buildings, that accentuated those buildings from a distance, but also gave those who went to the buildings amazing views out from those buildings. This is one of those examples, the Sanctuary of Jupiter Anxor at Terracina. The best view of this sanctuary is from the sea. If you happen to be fortunate enough to be floating on a boat somewhere near Terracina, and it's a beautiful place to float, you will see from a distance the great podium of the sanctuary of Jupiter Anxor. But you can also see it from the town, which is where we're situated here. We're standing in the town, a couple of decent pizzerias right in front of us, and we're looking up at the hill on which the sanctuary finds itself. Now as you look up to that hill, all you can actually see is all that's actually up there now, which is the podium of the sanctuary. The temple is no longer there, although there's some evidence up there. Some remains give us a decent sense of what that temple looked like in antiquity. But the podium is extremely well preserved, and you see it again magnificently sighted at the top of that hill. This is a restored view of what the podium would have looked like, and you see what we know with the podium, what the podium does look like as we see it here. And as it would have supported the temple on top, and also a back columnar element over here that was roofed, as you can see. If we look at this plan, in this restored view, excuse me, we see several things that are worth noting. One, that the temple itself is very much a traditional building, and one that is very much in the tradition indeed of the buildings, of the temples that we've already discussed, and a combination of Etruscan plan and of Greek elevation that we saw in so many of these. You can see, for example, and again there's enough evidence for us to be pretty sure that this is what it looked like, high podium, single staircase, emphasis on the façade, deep porch, freestanding columns in that porch, but columns that seem to have encircled the monument. So this combination of stone construction, we think. So a combination, once again, of Etruscan and Greek elements for the temple. You'll probably notice that the temple is slightly skewed. The angle of the temple is skewed. It's not straight on, with the podium, which is very unusual for the Romans. We'll see that the Romans were very interested in everything being exactly as it should be. Axial, symmetrical, both sides matching. It's very unusual for them to skew something like this. Why did they do it? It probably has something to do either with something that was already on the site, some other building that forced them to do this, or having something to do with the particular god who was honored here and the way they wanted that to be in relationship to various elements of the rites, or east-west, or whatever. There was something that caused them to put this in the position that they did. And you can also see that it has this back colonnade behind it, covered colonnade behind it, but it isn't attached to it in any way, which is also unusual, as we'll see. The podium you see down here, made up of a series of arcades, and you can see once again both axial and lateral access, because just as in the Porticus Emilia, they have created smaller arcades in the side piers to allow this kind of axiality in the structure, or movement through the structure, in more than one way. The podium is extremely well preserved, as you can see, and extremely impressive. It's an extraordinary place to go. It's a lot of fun to go there to see this. It's off the beaten track to a certain extent, but it is on the road between Rome and Naples, so that one, if one is going from Rome down to Pompeii, this is the sort of thing one can stop and take a look at, and there's some other interesting things along the way as well. We see here the great podium as it looks today. It's made out of concrete. You can see both the large arcades and then these lateral ones that I mentioned before on the interior face of the piers. You can also see that they have used opus in keratum facing here. These are regular stones, all bunched together to create an attractive appearance, although this was probably stuck out in antiquity. And then they have used stone blocks to emphasize the juncture of each of these walls, but also to help give the building increased stability. So this combination of stone, well it's all stone, but this combination of blocks of stone and the smaller opus and keratum stones for the facing of the podium. And here's a wonderful view, I think, that shows you a panorama through a number of these lateral arches, and gives you some sense of how carefully orchestrated this was by the architect who is responsible for this. It's never too early for me to emphasize that the Romans were very concerned with creating vistas and panoramas from one part of a building to another, from one part of a complex to another. And they never lost an opportunity to do that. So as you stand and look through a series of these lateral arches, you can see how carefully arranged that was to pay attention not only to the way in which the arches, you can see them in a series, as you can see here, looking almost as if they're diminishing in size, although they aren't really. But also this idea of creating exciting visual experiences as you walk through something, not just to walk through it, but to see something that really amazes you and that fascinates you. And that creation of vista and panorama, both panorama out onto the countryside from the hilltop, but also a panorama or vista through a building, is something quintessentially Roman, and we'll see it turning up again and again and again as a major objective of Roman architecture. A view once again of the restored view of the sanctuary. The sanctuary had below it a underground passageway called a cryptoporticus, and I'll put that word on the monument list for you, a cryptoporticus that was used essentially for storage, for storage purposes for this sanctuary. And believe it or not, we actually have the cryptoporticus still preserved, and we can look at it. And it's interesting because here, too, we see the architects using concrete construction, creating a barrel vaulted corridor, in this case with windows on the end, and then a few doorways and some slit windows, all of them arched, as you can see here, to allow light into the structure. It was used, as I said, for storage purposes, storage having to do with the cult, and so on and so forth. It's very important, we're going to look at a couple of other sanctuaries as well, to keep in mind that these sanctuaries were meant, they were different than an individual temple in a forum inside an urban complex. They were meant to draw pilgrims from far and wide, which is one of the reasons that they were placed in such prominent positions on tops of mountains, so that you wouldn't have to, if you were driving by, if you were going by in your cart or whatever, and saw this from a distance, or coming by sea in a boat, seeing it from a distance, you would be drawn, it would be like a mecca that you would be drawn to. So these sanctuaries were meant to attract large numbers of people to them, so they needed to provide not just the temple itself, but other things. And they were like malls. They often included shopping areas, souvenir shops, shopping stores for local specialties, and that kind of thing, in order to encourage people to visit. I'd like to turn to another, also very interesting, sanctuary that was put up at around this time. This is the sanctuary of Hercules at Tivoli, and it was erected, we believe, sometime between 75 and 50 B.C., in Tivoli. It is an incredible place. It is not so different from the sanctuary of Jupiter, Anxar, in its general intentions, this whole idea of creating this mecca for religious activity, and also just a place that people would enjoy coming to and gathering together, for social interaction. We see a restored view of what it looked like in antiquity. It is similar to and different from the Jupiter-Anxar sanctuary. Just like the Jupiter-Anxar sanctuary, it rests on a tall and large podium. As you can see, the temple doesn't stand in isolation, but is raised up on this large podium. You can see that it has a temple in the center, this one completely pushed up against the back wall, and completely straight, so axial, and it created an axial relationship to the podium. The temple, we believe, was also one of these traditional types of temples, with the tall podium, with the staircase on one side, with columns going around at three sides, deep porch, free-standing columns, in that porch raised up on its own podium, and then the larger podium down below. One of the features that we see here that we did not see in the Jupiter-Anxar sanctuary is the use of the circular staircase here, which adds drama to the design. It's also on axis with the staircase of the temple itself, but it also serves as a kind of shape, like a theater, a theater cavea, we call it a cavea, the seating, C-A-V-E-A, the cavea of a theater. It's shaped just like that, as you can see here, and we believe its purpose was not so much as a monumental entranceway, or monumental staircase, although it served that purpose to a certain extent, but also as a place where people could gather and could sit and probably watch performances, religious performances, perhaps, or perhaps other kinds of performances, in front of this, in front of the temple of Hercules. And there may have been some kind of a stage building. There was a wall here, so there may have been also some kind of stage building in front of that semi-circular seated area. This is another restored view, showing you the same. You can perhaps see that theatrical area better here, again, serving as a dramatic staircase, and at the same time as a place where performances could take place at this structure. But all the other features are apparent. And I want you to pay special attention, special attention to the fact that we have the temple pushed up against the back wall. Not one of the short back walls, but, well, none of them are short here, but against a long back wall, as you can see, but pushed up against it, dominating the space in front of it. We're going to see, when we turn to Pompeii on Thursday, that this same idea of pushing a temple against a back wall is characteristic of forum design, the design of meeting and marketplaces, as it is for sanctuary design. The sanctuary of Hercules at Tivoli is preserved in part, and I can show you one very interesting detail, which is what you see now on the screen. We are looking at part at, we may have, let me go back for a second just to point this out. If you look at the back, if you look at along the sides and the back, you will see that there are columns above and then columns with arcades, arcades and columns in the first story, and then columns on their own in the upper story. So what I'm going to show you now is a section of the lower story of the sanctuary of Hercules at Tivoli. And we can see that what we have here is a very important combination, and it's the first time we've seen this today, of arches with columns interspersed, columns placed, engaged or attached into the wall in between these arcades, as you can see here. The construction is concrete. The facing is a combination of stone. You can look at the blocks, the Ashlar blocks and the Vuswas above the arches, and opus and keratum work for the walls, as you can see here. But the scheme of columns in between arcades, extremely important. This is setting in place the kind of scheme that we're going to see used for buildings like the Colosseum in Rome. So extremely important. There's one detail here, this is one detail about the columns, though I wonder if anyone notices, but make them different than any other columns that we've seen thus far this term. Does anyone see what that is? They definitely don't, yes, good point. That wasn't the one I had in mind, but you're absolutely right, and it leads to another point I'm going to make in the not too distant future. They don't support anything. They are used here. The building is supported by the concrete construction. The columns don't have any support role whatsoever. They're entirely for decorative purposes, so excellent point. And still one more. Look at the facing of the column. What does that tell you? What is it? What kind of facing? Opus and keratum, opus and keratum, which means what? The columns are made of concrete, too. Columns are not made out of stone, but the columns in this instance, it's unusual, but the columns in this instance made out of concrete and also faced with opus and keratum work. A view again of the complex, just to make the point that as at the sanctuary of Jupiter, Anxar at Terracina, there is an underground passageway, a cryptoporticus. But in this case, and you can see it's underneath the left side of the sanctuary, but in this instance, interestingly enough, this isn't just a storage area. It's actually a street. The ancient name for Tivoli was Tibor, T-I-B-U-R. There was a street called the Via Tiburtina that made its way from Rome to Tivoli. And this underground passageway was actually the street. The street ran underneath the sanctuary. That street or that part of the street that ran under the sanctuary can still be seen today. And you can see, it looks almost like an underground subway or something like that, you can see barrel vaulted area with a series of niches over here, probably for shops, so that along the way you could stop and shop beneath the sanctuary. So a street in this case that is part of the Via Tiburtina, leading from Rome to Tivoli. I'd like to turn now to a couple of buildings in Rome, back to Rome, to look at first a building called the Tabularium that dates to around 78 B.C. That was a very important building in Rome because it was used to house the state archives at that particular juncture. It was put up by a man, we even know who put it up, a man by the name of Quintus Lutaceus Chtullus, and I put his name on the monument list for you. And it was located on the north side of the forum, of the Roman Forum, and the south slope of the Capitoline Hill. And here I show you one of these excellent Google Earth fly overviews of this part of ancient Rome, or what this part of ancient Rome looks like today. And we see the landmarks that we've already pointed out, the Colosseum at the very top, the Roman Forum lying in front of the Colosseum, Mussolini's Via De Fori Imperiali, the Imperial Forum over here, the Palatine Hill up here, the Circus Maximus here, the wedding cake, so-called, of Victor Emanuel, modern building, 19th century building over here, and then the Capitoline Hill, redesigned by Michelangelo with the Oval Piazza. The tabularium is located right here. It is, again, facing the forum, the Roman Forum, but it is the back wall of one of Michelangelo's palaces, the so-called senatorial palace, designed by Michelangelo. What Michelangelo did is what was done so often by later architects incorporated, didn't tear down the earlier Roman tabularium, but incorporated its wall as the back wall of his senatorial palace, and that's exactly what it remains today. Here we see a view of the tabularium. We're standing on the forum side, looking at what remains of the tabularium, and we can see some of the features that we've already been discussing today. First of all, let me point out that it is made out of concrete. It is made out of concrete. The building is concrete. But here in Rome they decided not to use opus and caratum work was not the rage in Rome. Instead, they were much more interested in cut stone, and you can see that they have used cut stone in this structure, cut tufa stone. I think you can recognize the stone as tufa. I remember tufa is indigenous to the city of Rome. Rome has a lot of fairly decent tufa. They've used tufa here, and they have used tufa work also for the arcades above. And for the columns, the capitals are done in travertine, added in travertine, considered the most important part, so they use the more expensive material there. But you can see here, as at the Sanctuary of Hercules at Tivoli, that we have this combination of arcades and columns. And once again, as was already pointed out, columns that have no structural purpose whatsoever, columns that are there for pure decoration. And this scheme of arcades with columns is going to become extremely important in the future. One can go inside the tabularium today and see what remains of this state archives. There are some very interesting corridors and vaulting that one can see. Again, by the way, it's a nice place to go, because there's also a panoramic window on which one can get some spectacular views down over the Roman Forum, and some great pictures as well, photographs as well. We're looking here at one of the corridors of the tabularium. You can see that the arches are made out of stone, supported by columns. But in between them there are a series of bays, as you can see here. And in between them we have domical ceilings that are made out of concrete. So concrete used here, combined, concrete for the domes, combined with stone, that the Romans were very handsome stone, that the Romans, those in Rome, itself favored, used for the arches and used to decorate the walls as well. And what's interesting is that we find in these corridors a series of ramps and a series of steps. And there's actually one staircase that has 66 steps, I've counted them, 66 steps, as well as ramps. And what we see happening here, and these are again covered by barrel vaults, what we see happening here is the Romans paying a lot of attention to varying the experience that you have when you walk through buildings. Sometimes you're going to be walking on a straight path, sometimes you're going to be walking on a ramp, sometimes you're going to be walking on stairs, to vary that experience. So, and you're going to see panoramas and so on along the way, to make it an experience to go into a building and to wander around that building. But we're also going to see, and I'll show you this particularly in the last structure we talk about today, we're also going to see the Romans not hesitating to be the controlling force that they very much were, and to establish certain predetermined paths that you have to take. So you're having a varied experience, but you're kind of having it in the way that the Romans want you to have it. And that's an interesting phenomenon that I hope we'll think about together as we converse in the online forum. I want to show you one last building in Rome today, before I show you the real pièce de résistance of concrete architecture of this early period. I'd like to show you one more building in Rome. It's a later building, and in some respects it belongs in a later lecture. It's the Theater of Marcellus in Rome, a theater that was put up by Rome's first emperor, Augustus, after the death of his nephew and son-in-law, Marcellus. He seems to have put it up, that is, Augustus seems to have put it up. He was in great grief at the loss of this young man, because he had hoped that Marcellus would succeed him. Marcellus was married to Augustus' daughter, Julia. He had hoped that Marcellus would succeed him, but Marcellus unfortunately died very young. Augustus was in incredible grief, and he put up this theater in Rome, the Stone Theater in Rome, in honor of Marcellus. The theater was put up, as I mentioned, either in XIII or in XI B.C. So I could talk about this. We have several lectures on Augustus, and I could talk about this in that lecture. But I decided to put it here, because it really is the culmination, in a sense, of some of the experiments we've been talking about today, and I wanted you to see it in this context for that reason. We are looking at the theater of Marcellus as it looks today. Parts of it are extremely well preserved, as you can see, at least these first two tiers here. The main reason that the building has survived, and you can, well, I'll talk about the details in a moment, the main reason that the building has survived, and I believe I mentioned this in the introductory lecture, is that it was reused over time. It was reused as a fortress in the Middle Ages. It was used as a palace in the Renaissance, and it was used as, most recently, and is still being used as, a very luxurious condominium today. This is where Google Earth really comes in handy. You can go, if you go on to Google Earth, because it's very difficult to get a sense of the way in which this ancient part of this structure relates to the rest of the structure today, without going up above it. And by going up above it, and looking at it both from above and Google Earth now allows you to do 3D at the same time. So you can do 3D and up above at the same time. You can see the relationship of this building to its modern locale. And by the way, it's just in the shadow. It's very close to the Capitoline Hill. It's a hop, skip, and a jump from the Capitoline Hill. This area of Rome, it's actually the so-called Jewish ghetto area of Rome. It served as a ghetto in times past, and is still referred to it that way today. And it has some of the best restaurants in Rome. If you have never had carcofi alla Judea, Jewish artichokes, wow, they are incredible. And there are several lots of restaurants in this area that has them. They're a real Roman treat. It's considered a very characteristic part of the cuisine of ancient Rome. It's definitely something to experience. But we see the theater of Marcellus right here. And you can see both the façade, which is the ancient part of it, but also the rest of the building, and the way in which it is used today as a condominium with apartments opening off these lovely courtyards with trees and plants and flowers and all sorts of things there. And there's another famous temple, the Temple of Apollo, that is located right outside. There are only three columns preserved of that temple, but also its podium, right in front of the theater of Marcellus. This is, again, Google Earth. You can look not only at what the building looks like today, but you can recreate now. All of these last couple of months they've enabled us to recreate ancient Rome as well. And one can do that for all of the buildings that we'll be looking at this semester. And this one is their recreation. It's fairly simple, but their recreation of the theater of Marcellus. And it allows us to look at some of the features of that building. Again, sorry that I have to talk so much about terminology at the beginning, but as I mentioned, once we get through this, the first couple of weeks we won't have to do much of that anymore. But the basic components of a Roman theater were the seating, which is called the cavia, C-A-V-E-A, which is this semicircular seating that we see here. The cavia is usually divided into a series of wedge-shaped sections, which you cannot see here, but I'll show you in another view in a moment, wedge-shaped sections that are called, each are called the cuneas, C-U-N-E-U-S, cuneas, and then there is a stage building. We're seeing the back of that here, but a stage building facing the seating called a scani frans, S-C-A-E-N-A-E, F-R-O-N-S, a scani frans. What's important to us here in the context of this lecture is that while the Greeks built their theaters, and Greek theaters were the main prototype for Roman theaters, while the Greeks built their theaters on hill-sods, the Romans were not content as a civilization that was interested primarily in urban centers, the Romans were not content to build their theaters on hills. They didn't want to be constrained by having to build their theaters where hills happened to be. And so now, with concrete construction, what they were able to do instead was to build a hill out of concrete anywhere they wanted to build a hill out of concrete, right in the center of downtown Rome, and then hollow that concrete out in order to create the entrances and exits from that structure, and that's exactly what they did for the Theater of Marcellus. If we look at this detail of the outside of the Theater of Marcellus, we will see that this building, made out of concrete, is like the others we've talked about today, faced with some kind of stone. In this case, the stone is travertine. The decision of Augustus was to get this more expensive stone, bring it from Tivoli, and use it for this structure. Ashtlar blocks of stone, as you can see here, and interspersing among the arcades columns, columns that, as were well pointed out before, have no structural purpose whatsoever. Columns that serve only as decoration, and the fact that they were decoration is apparent in the fact that they have varied the orders here. We see the Doric order used for the first story, and the Ionic order used for the second story, and we think there may have been a third story today, what you see up there is part of the later construction. But if there was a third story, whether that had columns or pilasters, which you'll remember, flat columns, if it had those, those were probably of the Corinthian order, because that is exactly the scheme that we see on the later Colosseum, Doric, Ionic, and ultimately Corinthian. But we're sure, at least, of the Doric and of the Ionic. So these columns had no structural purpose whatsoever, purely decorative, in a sense, their kind of the icing on the cake. They don't hold up the building, but they decorate it in a very nice way, and it shows you that the Romans are beginning to use what the Greeks used as structural components of their buildings, namely columns to hold up walls, to hold up roofs. They are using them for purely decorative purposes, playing around with their original purpose and using them in a different way. And we see that happening in spades here. If you go into the building, you will see the corridors of the theater of Marcellus. You will see what first looks like a barrel vault done out of concrete construction, resting on stone, on travertine piers. But you see that that barrel vault curves. A curving barrel vault is technically called an annular vault, A-N-N-U-L-A-R. You see an annular vault here, a diagram of an annular vault here. It's essentially, again, a barrel vault that curves. We sometimes refer to it as a ring vault because of its shape. So you see those annular vaults used in the theater of Marcellus. These are the same vaults that will be used ultimately in the Colosseum. A quick view of a typical Roman theater, the theater of Marcellus in Rome, and a typical Greek theater. This is the famous theater at Epidorus of the mid-fourth century BC in Greece. And I show you, just wanted to point out the main differences. They look superficially alike in that both of them have an orchestra, they have an area of seats, they have a stage building. But there are some important differences. One is, and you can't see that over here, but the Greek theater had a round orchestra. The Roman theater always has a semi-circular orchestra. Both of them have seats, the cavia. Here you can see these wedge-shaped sections of seats called the cuneas, that both Greek theaters and also Roman theaters had. Both of them have stage buildings, although the stage building is more prominent in the Roman context. But the most important distinction is the one I've already drawn, and that is, as you can see at Epidorus, the Greeks build their theaters on hilltops. You can see the trees and part of the hill very clearly here. The Romans build theirs on hills made out of concrete. Not always. There are some exceptions to that. We do have some Roman theaters built on hills when the hill happened to be in a good location and particularly beautifully sited. But for the most part, Romans build them on their own concrete construction. I've mentioned the monument of Victor Emmanuel, the Vittoriano. And I just wanted to say a couple more words about it because, and you'll see how it fits into the context here in a moment, because it's a nineteenth-century building. And it's a building that was put up to honor the first king of the Kingdom of Italy. His name was Victor Emmanuel I. Victor Emmanuel I. It was put up in 1885, and you see it here, again, a major landmark in the city. This is a Google Earth image once again. But the reason I show it to you in this context today is that it is, in a sense, terrorist on the slope of the capitaline hill. You see Michelangelo's Oval Piazza up there. It's terrorist on the slope, a series of levels, staircases leading to terraces, leading to other terraces, leading to the top of the building, decorated with statuary. It's a real experience to climb up it. It's an amazing place to go. It has the tomb of the Italian unknown soldier here, with guards and eternal flame and all of those things. And I must add, for any of you who have not been in Rome in the last year and who are hoping to go sometime soon, or whenever in the future, they have just added on top of the victory. It was always a great place to climb up and see great views of Rome, but they have just added an elevator, a modern elevator that they've created that you can now take up, taking you even higher than you were ever able to go before. The views of Rome from there are among the most spectacular that one can see in the city. So I happened, unfortunately, when I was there this June, it was raining. It doesn't rain in Rome that often at that time of year, but it was. So many of the pictures that I took are sort of the gray background and so on and so forth. But nonetheless, some of the most spectacular views you see of the city, so don't miss out on that opportunity. But I show it to you in this context, because of all of this terracing up a hill, the idea for this kind of thing goes way back to the second century B.C., and comes from buildings like this one. This is without any question the masterpiece of Roman concrete architecture, concrete construction, sanctuary design, in the second and first centuries B.C. We're not absolutely sure of its date. For a long time, this is, by the way, the sanctuary of Fortuna, Premaginia, at a town called Palestrina. The date is very controversial. There are many who long associated it with the Roman general Sulla and said that it dated to A.D.B.C. There are others who have contended that it's much earlier than that, it dates to the second century B.C. And if it dates to the second century B.C., it's even more amazing, because that means it comes at the beginning rather than at the end of this second and first century B.C. development. I tend now, I've gone back and forth, I taught it as a sullen building for quite a while. Now I've been teaching it the last few years as a second century building. It probably doesn't matter all that much. It dates to one or the other, and it's an example of what was going on at that particular time. But I'm giving you a date this year as a second century B.C., which I think at this juncture is probably my personal opinion, is that's probably where it belongs. You're looking at it here. It is an incredible, it is part of an incredible hill town, just like Cori, the city of Palestrina. It is a beautiful hill town. You can see it here with all the wonderful red roofs of the town that tie the design of the town together. The culminating monument of that town is still the sanctuary of Fortuna Premigania. Once again, the Romans have found a spectacular locale for this sanctuary, cum theater, cum shopping mall, Mecca for Romans of its day on this hillside. They have, once again, they have in fact taken over the entire hillside. They have terraced the hillside, as we can see, and they've essentially poured concrete on that hillside to create a system of ramps and stairways and with a temple at the very apex. It is pretty well preserved today. You can see there's an awful lot of it still there. You can either, if you're coming by car, you can either park down here or up there, and you can make your way up the ramps, up the staircase to the various levels, and then up to the theatrical entrance way into the uppermost part. The temple of Fortuna herself, which was at the apex and was located probably in what may have been a kind of mountain alcove at that particular time, was transformed in the 17th century by the famous Barbarini family, a Miss Italian family, the popes came from that family, and so on. They were very smart, too, transformed into a nice little palace that they could go and stay in when they felt like it a small palace, but one that takes the exact shape of that uppermost part of the sanctuary. I'll show that to you in a moment. Here's a view from Google Earth. You can see Google Earth doesn't always work. When you go out to some of the smaller places, it's hard to zero in on it well enough to get a decent focus. But you can see it actually here. You can go to Palestine and see it on Google Earth. These are the various tiers with the palace at the uppermost part. Here's a restored view. It's on your monument list that gives you a sense of what the building looked like in antiquity. You can see the entrance way was down here, a small arched entrance way, but you really needed to go up the ramps. You could go up on either side. So we see this composite, just like we saw at the tabularium, this combination of ramps and staircases to make your way up varied experiences, but at the same time a predetermined path. Because while you had some choice when you first arrived, you could go up the ramp on either left and right, and you could see it was a covered ramp in antiquity. But when you got here, you had one choice. You had to go up the stairway to this level, and then there were some shops here you could explore. But then if you wanted to go up to the next level, you had to go back to the central stairway, up to this level, back to the central stairway, and then to the stairway in the shape of a theater at the uppermost part. So again, experiences stressed. Your experience of the building was stressed, but at the same time your path was determined by the Roman designer. This is another view of the same, where we can see the entrance way, the ramps, the staircase leading you from one to the other, the uppermost staircase. Here you can well see the theatrical way in which the theater, the semicircular theater, is used both as an attractive entrance stairway to the structure, but at the same time as a place where performances could actually take place. Then what's called a hemicycle. You see several hemicycles here, H-E-M-I-C-Y-C-L-E. These curved areas, the columns follow that curve. You see that hemicycle at the very top, and then at the apex of the structure, the shrine of Fortuna herself, a small round shrine. In fact, it's almost an anticlimax to see how small the shrine at the uppermost part of the structure is. How did the Romans achieve this? They created, as you can see here, a series, or they converted the hillside into a series of man-made terraces. They built those terraces up in some instances by barrel vaults. You can see the series of concrete barrel vaults here, as they have built some elements up along the way. And the ultimate result was what you see here. The same sort of thing we saw before, the ramps, the staircase, the hemicycles with columns, supporting a curved wall, a series of shops, the spectacular theater-like staircase, the curved hemicycle at the uppermost part, and then peeking up at the top, the temple of Fortuna herself. It's hard to conjure up in a classroom in New Haven the actual experience that one has when one goes to Palestrina and climbs through this structure, and is not as well preserved today as it once was, obviously in antiquity. But in the few minutes that remain, I want to try to capture or try to take you through that experience, and to show you how arduous it actually was. It's a climb up there, and in fact this is one of those examples, and there are many in Italy, that one likes to call Stairmasters made by nature, essentially. Places that you can go and you exert a lot of effort into making your way to the top of this sanctuary. The best natural stairmaster in Italy is, of course, any of you who've been along the Amalfi Coast, you know there's nowhere on the Amalfi Coast that you don't have to climb up and down with multiple times a day. And that's exactly what's happening here, and you can see how steep this path up the ramp was. And we're going up the ramp again. It was covered in antiquity. It's open to the sky today. As we go along the ramp we see the remnants of some of the capitals. These are travertine capitals, as you can see here, fallen down. But if you look at some of these capitals in detail you see something quite extraordinary, and that is the capitol isn't straight. The uppermost part of the capitol slopes. Now why is that? The reason that is, is because if you're going to put columns along the inner wall of the ramp, which is what they did, the column, the capitals, have to conform to the incline of the ramp. And so they have slanted those capitals. The whole idea, though, of changing, the Greeks would never do something like that. I mean, it would be sacrilege to change the shape of a capitol. But this Roman architect has done that with abandon here. He needed to do it because he needed to fit it into the scheme, although he could have not had columns there, but he wanted to have columns there. So he slanted them. This whole sacrilegious approach to traditional Greek and Etruscan architecture, the willingness to make things, to change things, to experiment. I told you this was a change, you believe it. The willingness to change these things, to experiment with them in ways that had never been done before, to go against the tenets of traditional ancient architecture, namely that of the Greeks and the Etruscans, is something quintessentially Roman, and something that we see happening here, and again, heralds a very innovative future. Here we see again the ramp. We see the capitals, the slant of the capitals, and we see that the work here was done, was concrete, faced with opus and keratum, both for the walls and also for the ceilings. As one makes one's way up the ramps, we see these alcoves, all of this done, the various shops, the alcoves, all of it done with concrete, faced with opus and keratum. We see the remains of the hemicycles. You can see the columns made of tufa with travertine capitals supporting this curved attic of the hemicycles. We see the vaulting with its concrete construction. This is an annular vault, once again, where we can see the facing in the coffers is opus and keratum work. Another view of that, both the wall and the annular vault, decorated with opus and keratum work. A detail of that opus and keratum work to show you how very attractive it was. It's a pity that it was stuck out over in ancient Roman times. A view that I took again just to give you a sense of how steep the climb is. You've made it up the ramp. Now you're at that central staircase. You're on your way up. It's very, very steep. The stairways are pretty short, so that it's a very arduous trip up, as I said. And then you can get a sense of the fact that you would have seen the sanctuary of fortune at the top. Now you see the embracing arms of the Barbarini Palace. You can see those arms follow the exact shape of the original hemicycle that was once there. And you can also see the theater staircase, very well preserved, and I show you a detail of that theater staircase leading into the doorway, into the museum today. And just in closing, a return to the restored view of the structure itself, with the temple or the shrine of Fortuna at the very apex, the shrine that, unfortunately, no longer survives. But I think as you look at this last view of this monument, you can see that what the architects have created through this terracing, through pouring concrete on the spectacular hillside, is a kind of a pyramid, a kind of a pyramid with the goddess at the apex, a pyramid that I would contend, was more extraordinary through what the Romans did with concrete than what nature itself had provided in the form of this mountain. And it gives you an incredible sense of what the Romans were capable of doing in the second and first centuries B.C. vis-a-vis concrete architecture, experiments that, again, are going to have a lasting impact on the architecture that we'll be studying in the course of this term. Thank you.
was a shift from what we've called traditional innovative Roman architecture. We've already that was put up in the late, second, early first traditional buildings like this. And what made again, none of its expressive possibilities were course of the second and first centuries B.C. is Primigania at Palestrina, an extraordinary revolution of sorts in Roman architecture. And sophisticated in its use of concrete, because it This is one of those examples, the Sanctuary of for storage, for storage purposes for this create a system of ramps and stairways and with a uppermost part. The temple of Fortuna herself, if you wanted to go up to the next level, you had staircase leading you from one to the other, the hillside into a series of man-made terraces. They