Early Vedic – Morphology, Part 3
Dahl, Eystein
Introduction to the verbal morphology of Early Vedic.
 Hello and welcome to this third video on early Vedic morphology. I'm Aisendal. In this video we'll talk about verbal morphology. We'll have a look at typological characteristics, formal categories, morphological processes, person number, voice, and the fourth stem tense aspect system, mood formation and voice formation. In regards to typological characteristics of early Vedic, we may note that it has a predominantly synthetic character. It has an employee's functional morphology and it has a formal distinction between finite forms, verbal adjectives, verbal nouns, and verbal adverbs. Finite and adjectival forms showing inflectional portmanteau suffixes forming complex paradigms. And verbal adverbs and verbal nouns on the other hand have no inflectional morphology and appear in one form only. The distinction between finite and non-finite verb forms is central to understanding the Vedic verb system. Finite verb forms express five categories. These are tense aspect, modality, voice, person, and number. Non-finite verb forms comprise nominal forms, some of which express voice and number. We may also point to the fact that there are a number of morphological processes employed in the Vedic verbal system. We have zero derivation as illustrated by the present stem ad from the verb ad to it. We have suffixation. This is illustrated by the present stem chara from the verb char to move. Infixation, this is illustrated by the present stem yulnagj from the verb yorj to yoke. And also redeplication, typically found in the perfect but also elsewhere. Tatard from the verb tard to split. And Vedic also employs apophany or ablaut. This is illustrated here by the by the change between us and us in the present stem of the verb us to be. We now turn to the dimensions of person, number, and active and middle voice. These are expressed by endings that is portmanteau suffixes added to the verb stem stem. There are four sets of endings in Vedic. These are primary endings, secondary endings, perfect endings, and imperative endings. Presence indicative, for instance, is formed by adding primary endings to the present stem. As you can see here, the primary ending, me, of the first person singular active, and the primary ending of the third person singular active are added directly to the present stem. So is the maasi, the first person plural active ending. So you have then person and number expressed by endings. And then yajamahi, mahi is the ending of the first person plural middle. So the ending contains information both about person, number, and voice. And they are actually used to distinguish certain mood forms at least to some extent. Now, aspect tense distinctions are expressed by so-called primary or basic stems. There are four tense aspect stems in Vedic. These are illustrated here by the verb bhavi to become happen. We have the present stem here, which is formed by adding the suffix a to the root pava, the full grade of the root. Then we have the auris stem, which is simply containing the root. The perfect stem is formed by redeplication and redeplicating the first part of the root. And the future stem is formed by adding the suffix sia to the root. Here as well, full grade of the root. These stems are formed by subparadhymes, or the verb comprising finite verb forms and verbal adjectives. Now, while the perfect and future stems have relatively uniform patterns of formation, the present and auris show several options. It should be noted that not all verbs show all of these stem types, and certain verbs also show more than one present and or auris stem. Now, turning now to the present, future and perfect indicative, we see that the present and future indicative select primary endings. As you can see here, both the present and the future indicative has the me ending in the first person singular, C in the second person singular, active, that is, and T in the third person. On the other hand, the perfect indicative selects perfect endings. We have the redeplication characteristic of the perfect stem, and it gets the ending A in A in the first person, TA in the second person, and A again in third person. We have it here as well, A with a redeplicated stem, TA and A. Now, turning now to the Vedic past tenses, that is the imperfect, the aurist, and the pluperfect. They tend to select secondary endings, but they also are characterized by a preverbal affix A, the so-called augment. Here we have examples of the imperfect first singular active. A-pavan, we see how this secondary ending M is added to the present stem, the full grade present stem, as you may recall from the previous slide, and is preceded. This form is also preceded by this A, which always has an accent when an accent is present. We also have then third singular active, abhavat, with the third singular secondary ending and the augment. The aurist on the other hand, abhavan, here we see the aurist stem, the bow, there's a simple root there, and abhut. Here we have an automatic stem, it lacks this suffix A, we will come back to that in a later video. And abhut from bow become. So we have the augment here, here, and here, and the primary endings, no secondary endings, sorry, the secondary endings here. Also in the pluperfect, we find the same pattern, the augment A with accent, and the secondary ending M in this case. We now turn to nonindicative mood formation, which has a slightly less unitary character. The injunctive mood is formed by adding secondary endings to the primary stem. Here we see examples of the present injunctive formed by adding a secondary ending, the secondary ending here, to the present stem. And also here, the secondary ending from the present stem of tux, fashion make. The aurist injunctive, on the other hand, this is an automatic formation, so we get the full version of the secondary ending here. Karam, the third singular injunctive is kar, this is originally from kart, but the t falls because of morpho-tactic constraints. Now, shifting our focus to the operative and subjunctive mood, these mood categories are formed by adding suffixes to the primary stems, forming secondary mood stems. While all of the primary stems are in principle compatible with the operative suffix, such forms rarely appear outside the present aurist system. The future stem is not compatible with the subjunctive suffix, reflecting the fact that the future and subjunctive have overlapping functional domains. We see here that these two suffixes, the suffixes we use, that I use to form to form the operative, there are basically two varieties of this. It's the simple long E, I, I, and it's a different variety here, these are epiphoonic varieties of one of the same suffixes used with thematic and arithmetic stems respectively. Now, and this E in with the thematic stems merges with the A, becoming an A in the synchronic phonological system. We also see that the present subjunctive, here we have a merger of the stem final A and the subjunctive suffix A, which becomes a long A in the Sanskrit. And the A is subjunctive bova, where we have an automatic stem, where the subjunctive suffix is added directly to the automatic stem form. Now, finite forms of the operative are derived by adding secondary endings to the operative stem. We see here, for instance, that the operative stem bova takes a secondary ending here in the second person and also in the third person. The subjunctive, on the other hand, is formed by adding primary or secondary endings to the subjunctive stem. This is a bit peculiar, but we see this in the variety between bhavati and bhavat. This is an inherited trait also, by the way, which you find in other in European languages as well. The imperative mood has special endings. It expresses the person, number, voice and directive modality. In this manner, the ending hi in stuhi, praise, express second singular, active, imperative, whereas the sva endings in tra sva from tra protect, expresses here, hi expresses the middle voice, but also second singular imperative voice. Voice formation. There are basically three voice categories in early Vedic. These are the active, middle and passive words. Active and middle voice forms are characteristically distinguished by different sets of endings. Here we have, for instance, a difference between ajatii and ajatii, both of which are from the verb to drive, where ti is the active ending and te is the middle ending, both of which are primary endings. In the imperfect, we find exactly the same kind of opposition between the te, the secondary ending, inactive and ta, the secondary ending of the middle. And there is also a similar point could be made by barema and barema hi, which we find here with operative forms. It is unclear to what extent early Vedic has dedicated passive morphology. There are a number of constructions that are conventional label passive. They include a present passive formed by the suffix ja, a defective aria's passive formed directly from the root, a verbal adjective in ta or na, past passive participle, a traditional label for that one, and a verbal adjective derived by suffix ja, or one of its varieties, aya in ja-tva. This is usually referred to as the future passive participle or gerundim. Sometimes we also find middle forms with passive like functions. As discussed in another video, few, if any of these categories, may count as passive in the strict sense, then some of them are compatible with intransitive verbs and then yield an active meaning in exactly those cases. Present passive is formed by adding the suffix ja to the reduced form of the verbal root. We have here och ja from watch, which means to speak. Krija from kar means make, create, and the present passive consistently selects middle endings, and that goes for all kinds of forms including indicative and non-indicative forms. So we have examples like och ja te here, och ja with the middle ending te, krija te, and we have similarly the subjunctive och ja te, och ja te from va carry. There is a considerable formal overlap with middle forms of stems in ja, of the type we find here, trusch ja te. And this combined with the fact that finite verb forms are unexcented in main clauses, the exact delimitation between present passives and middle forms of stems in ja often remain somewhat blurred. The so-called a ris passive is formed from the strengthened form of the verbal root. It is defective in the sense that it only has forms of the third singular, the third present singular, and has the ending i. So we have things like a kari, i which has been made, from kar to make, create, a yogi from yogi to yog. And the point here is that this formation is not restricted to transitive predicates. It also appears with some unaccusative verbs like gam to come, agami which we have here, which means has just come from the verb gam to come. Likewise there is a verbal adjective in ta and in some cases it appears with the alimorphina which is formed from the weak form of the root. We have karta from kar, make, create, jita from jai conquer and pinna from ped split. This morpheme is not restricted to transitive predicates and it is also in principle compatible with unaccusatives as we can see from gata from gam to come. So it's probably more correct to regard it as a resultative verbal adjective than really a passive in a strict sense. The fact that the construction in ta na is equally well compatible with transitive and in transitive or at least unaccusative and transitive predicates strongly suggests that this is not the passive construction but rather a patient-oriented resultative construction which also which has a slightly different alignment pattern than other constructions in the language at this time. It is also worth noting that the this particular construction lies behind the ergative construction which developed later on in the middle indovarian phase and has lived on to present day indovarian languages. Turning now to the gerund, the verbal adjective in ja which is formed directly from the verbal root. It expresses a future necessity so that we have constructions like go ja from go to hide which means that must be or should be hidden and or go ja from go to fight that should be or must be fought in the future. This formation, this construction is restricted to transitive predicates and always shows passive meaning. Bahavu, Tanya Vada, thank you so much for your attention.
 Hello and welcome to this third video on early Vedic morphology. I'm Aisendal.  In this video we'll talk about verbal morphology. We'll have a look at typological characteristics,  formal categories, morphological processes, person number, voice, and the fourth stem  tense aspect system, mood formation and voice formation.  In regards to typological characteristics of early Vedic, we may note that it has a predominantly  synthetic character. It has an employee's functional morphology and it has a formal distinction  between finite forms, verbal adjectives, verbal nouns, and verbal adverbs. Finite and adjectival  forms showing inflectional portmanteau suffixes forming complex paradigms. And verbal adverbs  and verbal nouns on the other hand have no inflectional morphology and appear in one form only.  The distinction between finite and non-finite verb forms is central to understanding the  Vedic verb system. Finite verb forms express five categories. These are tense aspect,  modality, voice, person, and number. Non-finite verb forms comprise nominal forms, some of which  express voice and number. We may also point to the fact that there are a number of morphological  processes employed in the Vedic verbal system. We have zero derivation as illustrated by the  present stem ad from the verb ad to it. We have suffixation. This is illustrated by the present  stem chara from the verb char to move. Infixation, this is illustrated by the present stem yulnagj  from the verb yorj to yoke. And also redeplication, typically found in the perfect but also elsewhere.  Tatard from the verb tard to split. And Vedic also employs apophany or ablaut. This is illustrated  here by the by the change between us and us in the present stem of the verb us to be.  We now turn to the dimensions of person, number, and active and middle voice. These are expressed by  endings that is portmanteau suffixes added to the verb stem stem. There are four sets of endings  in Vedic. These are primary endings, secondary endings, perfect endings, and imperative endings.  Presence indicative, for instance, is formed by adding primary endings to the present stem.  As you can see here, the primary ending, me, of the first person singular active,  and the primary ending of the third person singular active are added directly to the present stem.  So is the maasi, the first person plural active ending. So you have then person and number  expressed by endings. And then yajamahi, mahi is the ending of the first person plural middle.  So the ending contains information both about person, number, and voice. And they are actually  used to distinguish certain mood forms at least to some extent.  Now, aspect tense distinctions are expressed by so-called primary or basic stems.  There are four tense aspect stems in Vedic. These are illustrated here by the verb bhavi  to become happen. We have the present stem here, which is formed by adding the suffix a to the root  pava, the full grade of the root. Then we have the auris stem, which is simply containing the root.  The perfect stem is formed by redeplication and redeplicating the first part of the root.  And the future stem is formed by adding the suffix sia to the root. Here as well, full grade of the  root. These stems are formed by subparadhymes, or the verb comprising finite verb forms and  verbal adjectives. Now, while the perfect and future stems have relatively uniform patterns of  formation, the present and auris show several options. It should be noted that not all verbs  show all of these stem types, and certain verbs also show more than one present and or auris stem.  Now, turning now to the present, future and perfect indicative, we see that the present  and future indicative select primary endings. As you can see here, both the present  and the future indicative has the me ending in the first person singular,  C in the second person singular, active, that is, and T in the third person. On the other hand,  the perfect indicative selects perfect endings. We have the redeplication characteristic of the  perfect stem, and it gets the ending A in A in the first person, TA in the second person,  and A again in third person. We have it here as well, A with a redeplicated stem,  TA and A. Now, turning now to the Vedic past tenses, that is the imperfect, the aurist,  and the pluperfect. They tend to select secondary endings, but they also are characterized by a  preverbal affix A, the so-called augment. Here we have examples of the imperfect first singular  active. A-pavan, we see how this secondary ending M is added to the present stem, the full grade  present stem, as you may recall from the previous slide, and is preceded. This form is also preceded  by this A, which always has an accent when an accent is present. We also have then third singular  active, abhavat, with the third singular secondary ending and the augment. The aurist on the other  hand, abhavan, here we see the aurist stem, the bow, there's a simple root there, and abhut.  Here we have an automatic stem, it lacks this suffix A, we will come back to that in a later  video. And abhut from bow become. So we have the augment here, here, and here, and the primary  endings, no secondary endings, sorry, the secondary endings here. Also in the pluperfect,  we find the same pattern, the augment A with accent, and the secondary ending M in this case.  We now turn to nonindicative mood formation, which has a slightly less unitary character.  The injunctive mood is formed by adding secondary endings to the primary stem.  Here we see examples of the present injunctive formed by adding a secondary ending, the secondary  ending here, to the present stem. And also here, the secondary ending from the present stem of  tux, fashion make. The aurist injunctive, on the other hand, this is an automatic formation,  so we get the full version of the secondary ending here. Karam, the third singular injunctive is  kar, this is originally from kart, but the t falls because of morpho-tactic constraints.  Now, shifting our focus to the operative and subjunctive mood, these mood categories are formed  by adding suffixes to the primary stems, forming secondary mood stems. While all  of the primary stems are in principle compatible with the operative suffix,  such forms rarely appear outside the present aurist system. The future stem is not compatible  with the subjunctive suffix, reflecting the fact that the future and subjunctive have overlapping  functional domains. We see here that these two suffixes, the suffixes we use, that I use to form  to form the operative, there are basically two varieties of this. It's the simple long E, I,  I, and it's a different variety here, these are epiphoonic varieties of one of the same suffixes  used with thematic and arithmetic stems respectively. Now, and this E in with the  thematic stems merges with the A, becoming an A in the synchronic phonological system.  We also see that the present subjunctive, here we have a merger of the stem final  A and the subjunctive suffix A, which becomes a long A in the Sanskrit.  And the A is subjunctive bova, where we have an automatic stem, where the subjunctive suffix is  added directly to the automatic stem form.  Now, finite forms of the operative are derived by adding secondary endings to the operative stem.  We see here, for instance, that the operative stem bova takes a secondary ending  here in the second person and also in the third person. The subjunctive, on the other hand,  is formed by adding primary or secondary endings to the subjunctive stem. This is a bit peculiar,  but we see this in the variety between bhavati and bhavat. This is an inherited trait also,  by the way, which you find in other in European languages as well.  The imperative mood has special endings. It expresses the person, number, voice and directive  modality. In this manner, the ending hi in stuhi, praise, express second singular, active, imperative,  whereas the sva endings in tra sva from tra protect, expresses here,  hi expresses the middle voice, but also second singular imperative voice.  Voice formation. There are basically three voice categories in early Vedic. These are the active,  middle and passive words. Active and middle voice forms are characteristically distinguished  by different sets of endings. Here we have, for instance, a difference between ajatii and ajatii,  both of which are from the verb to drive, where ti is the active ending and te is the middle ending,  both of which are primary endings. In the imperfect, we find exactly the same kind of  opposition between the te, the secondary ending, inactive and ta, the secondary ending of the  middle. And there is also a similar point could be made by barema and barema hi,  which we find here with operative forms. It is unclear to what extent early Vedic has  dedicated passive morphology. There are a number of constructions that are conventional label passive.  They include a present passive formed by the suffix ja, a defective aria's passive  formed directly from the root, a verbal adjective in ta or na, past passive participle, a traditional  label for that one, and a verbal adjective derived by suffix ja, or one of its varieties,  aya in ja-tva. This is usually referred to as the future passive participle or gerundim.  Sometimes we also find middle forms with passive like functions. As discussed in another video,  few, if any of these categories, may count as passive in the strict sense,  then some of them are compatible with intransitive verbs and then yield an active meaning in  exactly those cases. Present passive is formed by adding the suffix ja  to the reduced form of the verbal root. We have here och ja from watch, which means to speak.  Krija from kar means make, create, and the present passive consistently selects  middle endings, and that goes for all kinds of forms including indicative and non-indicative  forms. So we have examples like och ja te here, och ja with the middle ending te, krija te, and we  have similarly the subjunctive och ja te, och ja te from va carry. There is a considerable formal  overlap with middle forms of stems in ja, of the type we find here, trusch ja te. And this  combined with the fact that finite verb forms are unexcented in main clauses, the exact  delimitation between present passives and middle forms of stems in ja often remain somewhat blurred.  The so-called a ris passive is formed from the strengthened form of the verbal root.  It is defective in the sense that it only has forms of the third singular,  the third present singular, and has the ending i. So we have things like a kari,  i which has been made, from kar to make, create, a yogi from yogi to yog.  And the point here is that this formation is not restricted to transitive predicates.  It also appears with some unaccusative verbs like gam to come, agami which we have here,  which means has just come from the verb gam to come.  Likewise there is a verbal adjective in ta and in some cases it appears with the  alimorphina which is formed from the weak form of the root. We have karta from kar,  make, create, jita from jai conquer and pinna from ped split. This morpheme is not restricted to  transitive predicates and it is also in principle compatible with unaccusatives as we can see from  gata from gam to come. So it's probably more correct to regard it as a resultative verbal  adjective than really a passive in a strict sense. The fact that the construction in ta  na is equally well compatible with transitive and in transitive or at least unaccusative  and transitive predicates strongly suggests that this is not the passive construction but rather  a patient-oriented resultative construction which also which has a slightly different alignment  pattern than other constructions in the language at this time. It is also worth noting that the  this particular construction lies behind the ergative construction which developed later on  in the middle indovarian phase and has lived on to present day indovarian languages.  Turning now to the gerund, the verbal adjective in ja which is formed directly from the verbal root.  It expresses a future necessity so that we have constructions like go ja from go to hide  which means that must be or should be hidden and or go ja from go to fight that should be or  must be fought in the future. This formation, this construction is restricted to transitive  predicates and always shows passive meaning. Bahavu, Tanya Vada, thank you so much for your attention.
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Hello and welcome to this third video on early Vedic morphology. I'm Aisendal. In this video we'll talk about verbal morphology. We'll have a look at typological characteristics, formal categories, morphological processes, person number, voice, and the fourth stem tense aspect system, mood formation and voice formation. In regards to typological characteristics of early Vedic, we may note that it has a predominantly synthetic character. It has an employee's functional morphology and it has a formal distinction between finite forms, verbal adjectives, verbal nouns, and verbal adverbs. Finite and adjectival forms showing inflectional portmanteau suffixes forming complex paradigms. And verbal adverbs and verbal nouns on the other hand have no inflectional morphology and appear in one form only. The distinction between finite and non-finite verb forms is central to understanding the Vedic verb system. Finite verb forms express five categories. These are tense aspect, modality, voice, person, and number. Non-finite verb forms comprise nominal forms, some of which express voice and number. We may also point to the fact that there are a number of morphological processes employed in the Vedic verbal system. We have zero derivation as illustrated by the present stem ad from the verb ad to it. We have suffixation. This is illustrated by the present stem chara from the verb char to move. Infixation, this is illustrated by the present stem yulnagj from the verb yorj to yoke. And also redeplication, typically found in the perfect but also elsewhere. Tatard from the verb tard to split. And Vedic also employs apophany or ablaut. This is illustrated here by the by the change between us and us in the present stem of the verb us to be. We now turn to the dimensions of person, number, and active and middle voice. These are expressed by endings that is portmanteau suffixes added to the verb stem stem. There are four sets of endings in Vedic. These are primary endings, secondary endings, perfect endings, and imperative endings. Presence indicative, for instance, is formed by adding primary endings to the present stem. As you can see here, the primary ending, me, of the first person singular active, and the primary ending of the third person singular active are added directly to the present stem. So is the maasi, the first person plural active ending. So you have then person and number expressed by endings. And then yajamahi, mahi is the ending of the first person plural middle. So the ending contains information both about person, number, and voice. And they are actually used to distinguish certain mood forms at least to some extent. Now, aspect tense distinctions are expressed by so-called primary or basic stems. There are four tense aspect stems in Vedic. These are illustrated here by the verb bhavi to become happen. We have the present stem here, which is formed by adding the suffix a to the root pava, the full grade of the root. Then we have the auris stem, which is simply containing the root. The perfect stem is formed by redeplication and redeplicating the first part of the root. And the future stem is formed by adding the suffix sia to the root. Here as well, full grade of the root. These stems are formed by subparadhymes, or the verb comprising finite verb forms and verbal adjectives. Now, while the perfect and future stems have relatively uniform patterns of formation, the present and auris show several options. It should be noted that not all verbs show all of these stem types, and certain verbs also show more than one present and or auris stem. Now, turning now to the present, future and perfect indicative, we see that the present and future indicative select primary endings. As you can see here, both the present and the future indicative has the me ending in the first person singular, C in the second person singular, active, that is, and T in the third person. On the other hand, the perfect indicative selects perfect endings. We have the redeplication characteristic of the perfect stem, and it gets the ending A in A in the first person, TA in the second person, and A again in third person. We have it here as well, A with a redeplicated stem, TA and A. Now, turning now to the Vedic past tenses, that is the imperfect, the aurist, and the pluperfect. They tend to select secondary endings, but they also are characterized by a preverbal affix A, the so-called augment. Here we have examples of the imperfect first singular active. A-pavan, we see how this secondary ending M is added to the present stem, the full grade present stem, as you may recall from the previous slide, and is preceded. This form is also preceded by this A, which always has an accent when an accent is present. We also have then third singular active, abhavat, with the third singular secondary ending and the augment. The aurist on the other hand, abhavan, here we see the aurist stem, the bow, there's a simple root there, and abhut. Here we have an automatic stem, it lacks this suffix A, we will come back to that in a later video. And abhut from bow become. So we have the augment here, here, and here, and the primary endings, no secondary endings, sorry, the secondary endings here. Also in the pluperfect, we find the same pattern, the augment A with accent, and the secondary ending M in this case. We now turn to nonindicative mood formation, which has a slightly less unitary character. The injunctive mood is formed by adding secondary endings to the primary stem. Here we see examples of the present injunctive formed by adding a secondary ending, the secondary ending here, to the present stem. And also here, the secondary ending from the present stem of tux, fashion make. The aurist injunctive, on the other hand, this is an automatic formation, so we get the full version of the secondary ending here. Karam, the third singular injunctive is kar, this is originally from kart, but the t falls because of morpho-tactic constraints. Now, shifting our focus to the operative and subjunctive mood, these mood categories are formed by adding suffixes to the primary stems, forming secondary mood stems. While all of the primary stems are in principle compatible with the operative suffix, such forms rarely appear outside the present aurist system. The future stem is not compatible with the subjunctive suffix, reflecting the fact that the future and subjunctive have overlapping functional domains. We see here that these two suffixes, the suffixes we use, that I use to form to form the operative, there are basically two varieties of this. It's the simple long E, I, I, and it's a different variety here, these are epiphoonic varieties of one of the same suffixes used with thematic and arithmetic stems respectively. Now, and this E in with the thematic stems merges with the A, becoming an A in the synchronic phonological system. We also see that the present subjunctive, here we have a merger of the stem final A and the subjunctive suffix A, which becomes a long A in the Sanskrit. And the A is subjunctive bova, where we have an automatic stem, where the subjunctive suffix is added directly to the automatic stem form. Now, finite forms of the operative are derived by adding secondary endings to the operative stem. We see here, for instance, that the operative stem bova takes a secondary ending here in the second person and also in the third person. The subjunctive, on the other hand, is formed by adding primary or secondary endings to the subjunctive stem. This is a bit peculiar, but we see this in the variety between bhavati and bhavat. This is an inherited trait also, by the way, which you find in other in European languages as well. The imperative mood has special endings. It expresses the person, number, voice and directive modality. In this manner, the ending hi in stuhi, praise, express second singular, active, imperative, whereas the sva endings in tra sva from tra protect, expresses here, hi expresses the middle voice, but also second singular imperative voice. Voice formation. There are basically three voice categories in early Vedic. These are the active, middle and passive words. Active and middle voice forms are characteristically distinguished by different sets of endings. Here we have, for instance, a difference between ajatii and ajatii, both of which are from the verb to drive, where ti is the active ending and te is the middle ending, both of which are primary endings. In the imperfect, we find exactly the same kind of opposition between the te, the secondary ending, inactive and ta, the secondary ending of the middle. And there is also a similar point could be made by barema and barema hi, which we find here with operative forms. It is unclear to what extent early Vedic has dedicated passive morphology. There are a number of constructions that are conventional label passive. They include a present passive formed by the suffix ja, a defective aria's passive formed directly from the root, a verbal adjective in ta or na, past passive participle, a traditional label for that one, and a verbal adjective derived by suffix ja, or one of its varieties, aya in ja-tva. This is usually referred to as the future passive participle or gerundim. Sometimes we also find middle forms with passive like functions. As discussed in another video, few, if any of these categories, may count as passive in the strict sense, then some of them are compatible with intransitive verbs and then yield an active meaning in exactly those cases. Present passive is formed by adding the suffix ja to the reduced form of the verbal root. We have here och ja from watch, which means to speak. Krija from kar means make, create, and the present passive consistently selects middle endings, and that goes for all kinds of forms including indicative and non-indicative forms. So we have examples like och ja te here, och ja with the middle ending te, krija te, and we have similarly the subjunctive och ja te, och ja te from va carry. There is a considerable formal overlap with middle forms of stems in ja, of the type we find here, trusch ja te. And this combined with the fact that finite verb forms are unexcented in main clauses, the exact delimitation between present passives and middle forms of stems in ja often remain somewhat blurred. The so-called a ris passive is formed from the strengthened form of the verbal root. It is defective in the sense that it only has forms of the third singular, the third present singular, and has the ending i. So we have things like a kari, i which has been made, from kar to make, create, a yogi from yogi to yog. And the point here is that this formation is not restricted to transitive predicates. It also appears with some unaccusative verbs like gam to come, agami which we have here, which means has just come from the verb gam to come. Likewise there is a verbal adjective in ta and in some cases it appears with the alimorphina which is formed from the weak form of the root. We have karta from kar, make, create, jita from jai conquer and pinna from ped split. This morpheme is not restricted to transitive predicates and it is also in principle compatible with unaccusatives as we can see from gata from gam to come. So it's probably more correct to regard it as a resultative verbal adjective than really a passive in a strict sense. The fact that the construction in ta na is equally well compatible with transitive and in transitive or at least unaccusative and transitive predicates strongly suggests that this is not the passive construction but rather a patient-oriented resultative construction which also which has a slightly different alignment pattern than other constructions in the language at this time. It is also worth noting that the this particular construction lies behind the ergative construction which developed later on in the middle indovarian phase and has lived on to present day indovarian languages. Turning now to the gerund, the verbal adjective in ja which is formed directly from the verbal root. It expresses a future necessity so that we have constructions like go ja from go to hide which means that must be or should be hidden and or go ja from go to fight that should be or must be fought in the future. This formation, this construction is restricted to transitive predicates and always shows passive meaning. Bahavu, Tanya Vada, thank you so much for your attention.
we'll talk about verbal morphology. We'll have a be. We now turn to the dimensions of person,