Early Vedic – Morphology, Part 2
Keydana, Götz
Overview of the nominal (inflectional) morphology in Early Vedic.
 Hello again and welcome to the second video in our series on early Vedic morphology. My name is Gotzkaidano. In this video we'll talk about nouns, adjectives, pronouns and numerals and we'll start with inflection categories. Now as we already mentioned endings encode multiple five features such as case, number and gender. As we already also may mentioned endings typically merge with stem final vowels. Endings are almost always parts of the grammatical word and the prosodic word. There's a rare exception for the prosodic word namely the the pada endings about which we already talked in the phonology section like the instrumental pruvel which already always induces external sound. Different alomol occur with different stem classes and with different genders. Let's first look at case. Vedic has eight cases the nominative, the vocative, the accusative, instrumental, dative, ablative, genitive and locative. This is the order given in Indian grammars. Case marking occurs in nouns and adjectives in pronouns and in some of the numbers. We look at that later. Very frequent is a syncretism meaning that endings occur in various case scenarios. We already looked at this in a little detail in the preceding video and if you want to know more about case, Estin will explain this to you in section 4.1. There's an interesting connection between case and adverbs. On the one hand case forms can be used as adverbs as in this example here from the rikvera where you have a case form of the word day and another one of the word night both used in adverbal contexts. Also adverbial suffixes may be used instead of case affixes especially for the locative and the ablative. Another example this one here we have here a form with an adverbial affxtra and this may be interpreted as an adjective which is in agreement with the word hasta. So you may read this text as place your maze on your right hand. Now alternative would be to take it as take it in your hand on the right which is however rather clumsy. Let's now turn to number. We have three numbers the singular the dual and the plural. The dual is fully productive and it is used both with natural and with non-natural pairs. A dualet tantum is the word NASA knows actually the two nostrils and there are several pluralet tantum some of them only later. For example tamisra in the rikvera is a plural tantum and ab in classical Sanskrit becomes a pluralet tantum. As already mentioned we have syncretism meaning that form we have formal identity for example between the dative and the absolutive in the plural between the nominative and the accusative the instrumental the dative the ablative and the genitive and the local in the locative sorry in the dual. The last inflectional category we look into is gender. Velik has three genders the masculine the neuter and the feminine. The masculine and the neuter are only distinguished in the nominative. Again a lot of syncretism occurs for example we have no distinction between the nominative and the accusative in the neuter. Its core gender is completely arbitrary however feminins are either lexical or they denote individuals of the feminine sex. Masculins and feminins from identical stem types may differ in endings for example in the accusative plural in the masculine we find in un and rn and in feminine form from the same stems we find ihe, uhe and rn. You can derive feminins from masculine by adding affixes to denote females for example from the word Wurka, Wolf you can form Wurki, Shi, Wolf, Rajan, King, Radni, Queen. We would actually expect any noun to inflect for any number and case. There are however a few exceptions which we call defective nouns. An example is Puru much which in the masculine or neuter only occurs in the nominative or the accusative and four times in the genitive plural. The word Bahu meaning very much the same on the other hand occurs in all numbers in all cases and this is quite striking because there is no metric difference between the two words you would expect them to show up in any position where the other one could show up but they don't and then there is the word Prrt fight which only occurs in the locative plural and interestingly there is one example where there is a second locative morpheme added to the very same word so you get Prrtzu in fights but also Prrtzu-shu once still meaning in fights. Let's now turn our attention to the various stem classes of al-Eury-Vedic. The first stem class to mention are root nouns meaning that the ending is directly added to any root. Root nouns may end in consonant, they may end in vowel or they may end in a sonorant like Iu or syllabic R. The last type is root nouns in diphthongs like for example Diav, Heaven, Gav, Kau, Nau, Boat. Consonant stems are very frequent and still very productive they become much less productive in later stages of the Indo-Aryan languages. We may differentiate various types depending on how many stems they use. We have some which only use one stem throughout for example S stems like manas. We have others which distinguish strong and weak stems like anstems for example where you can see Ra-janam but Ra-dne in the dative and we even have some with three stems like for example the aphix Anj in Pratiancham in the accusative Pratice in the dative and Pradyakbih in the instrumental plural. But what are strong and weak stems? Well we have to distinguish them as we said in some consonant stems and they are distinguished by upload alternations and also sometimes by accent shift. Strong stem always occurs in the nominative singular, in the accusative, in the locative singular, in the nominative accusative of the dual and in the nominative plural. In most other in most stem cases elsewhere we use the weak stem. If however a stem uses a middle stem this occurs with aphixes and endings with an initial consonant. For example the aphix already mentioned Anj with middle anj and weak each and as you can see here in the weak stem we also have an accent shift to the ending. The same with anj in the strong stem, anj in the middle stem and anj the very same anj but with accent shift in the weak stem. What you can see here also which is quite what is quite important is that stem upload is independent from accent and accent shift. Okay let's now return to our survey of stem classes. We have stems in i and u which show upload in this in the stem. In the strong stem i and u like Agnium Chaturum which you can see here and in the weak stem we get i and av as in the dative Agnagi or Chaturavi. Then we have stems in long vowel. Historically they go back to stems in final laryngeal and there are actually actually still traces of this final laryngeal in syllable count because we mentioned this already. Sometimes forms like for example Ustra count as three syllables because a goes back to a. However this only happens in certain positions within the verse. It's only part of final that this happens and this may simply be due to peculiarities of the meter. We are not quite sure about this. Okay let's look at some examples of long vowel stems for example Jaya wife. Then we have in Is al Jaya. We have E stems like DV. We have another type of E stem like Vriki and you can see that they are distinguished. For example DV has a nominative singular DV without an ending but Vriki has a nominative singular with a final S and similarly in the genitive you have an accent difference. In DV you have an accent on the ending and the ending is long. In Vriki you have an accent on the vowel before the R. Remember this is an independent Svarita here, what you see here, meaning that you have to restitute a vowel there, turning this into Vriki. So the endings differ. In systematic stems we have a different set of weak endings than in all other stems. When we talk about stems one thing to mention is that Vedic has a few heterocletics. Heterocletics are forms, words, where different stems are used. For example we have something like jakrt, liver, with an end stem genitive jakna and similar but with a slightly different formation in the strong stem. Udhar adar with a genitive udna. Another interesting phenomenon when we talk about stems is supletivism, also a deviation from standard stem formation. Supletivism means that one paradigm has two stems which are in other contexts independent. We can distinguish two types. In the first time there is no etymological connection between the two stems. This is the case with E-end stems. For example we have a akshi versus akshan in the weak stem, which then turns to akshyn, I, and similar the word for bone and others. The other possibility is that the two stems which synchronically do not match go back actually to one and the same stem if we look at them historically. This is the case with the rather difficult word panthas, path, with the instrumental pati bhi, there we have a stem pati, and we have yet another stem pat in the genitive singular. Historically they all go back to the very same formation. As you can see here this is a formation with a laryngeal, but from a synchronic point of view you can't distinguish this from proper supletivism. Okay, so much about stems. As already mentioned in all of them, case syncretism is attested. Let's look at this in a little more detail. In all stem classes we have a syncretism in the nominative and the vocative, we have in stem we have a syncretism in the nominative and the accusative of the neuter, of the dative-ablative, instrumental dative-ablative-tual, genitive-locative-tual. You see there's quite a lot going on and what you can also see which is quite remarkable, we have the most syncretism in the dual, a bit less in the plural and even less in the singular. That's quite interesting. Sometimes what looks like syncretism is actually different endings. Let's just look at this very last example here. The nominative plural of consonant stems is and the same is true for the accusative, but as you can see from root nouns with mobile accent the accent differs, meaning that these are actually different affixes which only look alike, but they trigger different accents. The opposite of syncretism also exists. We have quite a lot of doublets in case forms. For example in A-stems, thematic stems, we have two instrumentals of the singular, of the masculine and the neuter, Ina and A side by side. In the nominative accusative-vocative of the dual, we have A and R. In the nominative plural, we sometimes have A and sometimes A-sav. In the instrumental plural, Ib and A- in the nominative accusative-vocative-neuter, A-ne versus A. In other stem classes, similar things apply, but to a lesser degree. Now a special phenomenon worth mentioning in this context is the endingless locative. The endingless locative is quite remarkable because the standard ending for the locative in consonant stems is always E. In stems in une u however, we have a slightly different locative. There it is formed by applying vridhi to the stem. This is completely transparent in u-stems, for example madhau, where au is simply the vridhi of the affix. But what you can see here is that with these stems, you have the very same ending, which obviously is spread from the u-stems. So agnau is the locative of agni. These are actually locatives without a proper ending. Only the stem forming affix is changed. However, we also have variants of other consonant stems, which don't have an E ending in the locative. These are always formed from the strong stem. This happens mostly with stems in n and with heteroclytics in r and n, and almost exclusively with neuters. There are only six examples for masculine n stems with an endingless locative. All this means that the endingless locative is very restricted in vetic. Okay, let's now turn to adjectives. Adjectives are in principle very unremarkable simply because of the fact that they behave exactly like nouns. I give you two examples. This one, maadho pito is a vocative and what is called for here is hanneid food. Here, maadho is an adjective. We can also have something like in this example, somiam maadho, somian hanne. Here the very same word is used as a noun. And as you can see, this is the first one is a vocative, this one, and this one is nominative, but apart from that the words are not distinguished. So you can use one word both as an adjective or as a noun without adding anything to the word. There are however some adjective forming suffixes which are quite productive. For example, you have the word summa. Summa is central for the Indian ritual and from this word you can derive various types of affixes. For example, the adjective sumia, sumia, sumavad and so on. Another adjective forming affix which is quite frequent is ka. For example from adverbs apakha or sucika, having a needle and so on. The latter one, this adjective, then is turned into a noun meaning abiding insect. Having a needle makes sense. Adjectives always agree with their head which they typically precede. You see this already in the examples above. This is the adjective here, this one, and this is the noun. And again, this is the adjective and this is the noun, always adjective before noun. This is the regular word order. Adjectives, but interestingly not only adjectives, can be graded. For gradation we have two types of suffixes. The first one is tara and tama. For the various gradation grades, for example from an adjective tavas, you can form tavastara or from puru, which we already mentioned. You can form puru tama and so on. Interestingly, as I said, you can also grade other words, for example pronouns, then you get katara, who of two, katama, who of many, and so on. You can do the same thing with adverbs, apara, apama, and the like, and even with nouns. For example vrta-tara, form from the noun vrtra, and as you might remember, vrtra is the the foe of Indra. Vrta-tara is a very great obstacle, meaning that we have an additive reading here. The other forms of graded words are built with other suffixes ians and išta, depending on adjectives, whichever suffixes you use. For example from the adjective vasu, you form graded forms like vasjans, vasijans, and vasishta. What you can see here, and this is quite remarkable, is that these graded forms are always built from the root, not from the stem. The stem here is an u stem, but this u, as you can see, does not show up in the graded form. That's quite interesting. You can also use these with nouns. For example, you can form a noun like brachmians, which is a graded form of brahman priest. You can even do this with verbs, like for example in this form here, parati-cia-vians, better at thrusting back from a verb červ to thrust back, or agamšta, coming gladly from the root gam to go or to come. These forms always have verbal subcategorization, meaning that they are still part of the verbal paradigm. I will now give a very short overview of pronouns in early Vedic. We have personal pronouns in all numbers and cases. We have no gender distinction in the pronoun, and we have massive suplativism. If you just look at the first person pronoun in the first singular in the nominative, you see aham in the accusative, there is mam in the dual nominative, then all of a sudden vam in the nominative plural, vayam, accusative plural, asmān, and so on. You see, this is actually quite a mess. Also, we have inclinic variants, about which we talked earlier in the phonology section, like for example ma in the accusative or me in the dualative and genitive, and so on. A remarkable thing about Vedic is that pronouns are not obligatory. Vedic is a pro-drop language, and I'll give you just one example, a very famous example. This is the first line in the rikvera. Agnim ire porohitam jadnasja dvam ruthi jam. Agni ain vok. Ej here is the verb, a first singular, and as you see there is no aham, which we might expect in this sentence. So pro-drop. Okay, let's now look at third person pronouns. We have quite a variety of such pronouns attested in the language. First thing to note here is that there is a special set of endings to these pronouns. Okay, let's now look at the various types. We have one pronoun with a stem ta. Ta, interestingly in the nominative singular, always surfaces as sa, with an s at the beginning, and then see various extensions of this very noun, a very same pronoun like ita or tiya. We have a proximal pronoun ayam, with various different stems in the various case forms. A distal one asau, again with various stems in the different case forms. We have critic pronouns like ina and seam, and also with third persons we have pro-drop. Again I'll give you an example here. This one, adrstan hanti ayati atu hanti parayati. As she comes, she smashes the noceums, and as she goes away she smashes them. The interesting thing here is in this case we have subject pronoun, this she in the translation does not turn up in the Vedic sentence, but we also have object pro-drop in the second case. This is the break where the second sentence starts. Adrstan is the object of the first sentence, and the very same referent is the object of the hanti of the second sentence, and in such cases you don't have to repeat this object, and you don't have to introduce an anaphoric pronoun. So we also have object pro-drop, even with referential pronouns. And these pronouns, as well as pro-drop phenomena, can be used in anaphoric and in cataphoric use. Okay, let's end our survey of pronouns by looking at some other attested pronouns. We certainly also have relative pronouns, interrogative ones, indefinite and reflexive pronouns. You see a list here. What might be interesting about these pronouns is on the one hand the fact that you can incorporate them into compounds. For example, you can have a compound like khar-artha, having what purpose? Artha is purpose, khad is the interrogative pronoun here, or king-ju, desiring what as a compound. That's quite remarkable. Another thing which might be remarkable, not that much, but nonetheless, is the fact that indefinite pronouns are formed from interrogative pronouns. So this basically here is the interrogative pronoun, and then you add an in-critic element, and what you get is indefinite. Finally, we have reflexive pronouns. The remarkable thing here is that in VEDIC their binding is much more relaxed than you may experience in modern languages, meaning that reflexive pronouns do not necessarily have to be bound within their domain. A last phenomenon we should mention in this context are so-called pronominal adjectives. Pronominal adjectives are words which are traditionally classified as adjectives, but which take pronominal endings. The interesting thing about this class of adjectives is that they do not have denotational semantics, meaning that they are on the edge between true adjectives and true pronouns. An example is anja. Others are quantifiers like ika, one, wishwa, al, sarva, hol. Okay, that's all about pronouns. We now turn to numbers. I'll give you a short overview, and the main thing we will be concerned with is how they behave regarding to agreement phenomena. The numbers one to four, in fact, for number and case throughout. Or other numbers, in fact for number and case only in the oblique cases, but not in the nominative. A quite remarkable phenomenon is that the number eight forms a nominative and accusative astau, which is formally a duo. This might point to an ancient semantics of two times four or something like that. The numbers one to nineteen are adjectives, and they always agree with their heads. The numbers larger than 20 or 20 are nouns. For example, v'ing, shati, is a noun, shatah, hundred is a noun. It's quite remarkable how these nouns are construed in Vedic. The straightforward thing that we would expect is, as they are nouns, that they take genitives. And this is tested. For example, we have something like this example here. Panchaasha tam ajvarnam, 50, this is a noun, and then you have a genitive plural, ajvarnam, 50 of the horses, 50 horses. However, these nouns can also agree with following plurals in case. And then you get something like this here, shatina haribih. Haribih is an instrumental and shatina is also one. The interesting thing here is, haribih is a plural because we talk about a hundred base, but the word hundred is still singular, meaning that you have agreement regarding to case but not regarding to number. Okay, we have cardinals, but we certainly also have ordinal numbers. They are typically formed from cardinals and they behave pretty much like adjectives. So we get something like dvitya, tertia, and the like. This is one of the affixes forming ordinals. Another one is the one you can see here in chaturta or sastra, sattata, and so on. Yet another one is ma in pancha ma, navah ma, and the like. The only ordinal which is not formed from its cardinal number is the ordinal first because this is pratama. And as you might remember, the cardinal number is ekha. This brings us to the end of our second video on Vedic morphology. I hope you enjoyed it. In the next one, my colleague Esindal will introduce you to verbal morphology. Thank you for your attention. Vahava. Danyavahava.
 Hello again and welcome to the second video in our series on early Vedic  morphology. My name is Gotzkaidano. In this video we'll talk about nouns, adjectives,  pronouns and numerals and we'll start with inflection categories. Now as we  already mentioned endings encode multiple five features such as case,  number and gender. As we already also may mentioned endings typically merge with  stem final vowels. Endings are almost always parts of the grammatical word  and the prosodic word. There's a rare exception for the prosodic word namely  the the pada endings about which we already talked in the phonology section  like the instrumental pruvel which already always induces external  sound. Different alomol occur with different stem classes and with  different genders. Let's first look at case. Vedic has eight cases the  nominative, the vocative, the accusative, instrumental, dative, ablative,  genitive and locative. This is the order given in Indian grammars. Case  marking occurs in nouns and adjectives in pronouns and in some of the numbers.  We look at that later. Very frequent is a syncretism meaning that endings occur  in various case scenarios. We already looked at this in a little detail in  the preceding video and if you want to know more about case, Estin will explain  this to you in section 4.1. There's an interesting connection between case and  adverbs. On the one hand case forms can be used as adverbs as in this example  here from the rikvera where you have a case form of the word  day and another one of the word night both used in adverbal contexts.  Also adverbial suffixes may be used instead of case affixes especially  for the locative and the ablative. Another example this one here we have here  a form with an adverbial affxtra and this may be interpreted as an adjective  which is in agreement with the word hasta. So you may read this text as  place your maze on your right hand. Now alternative would be to take it as take  it in your hand on the right which is however rather clumsy. Let's now turn to  number. We have three numbers the singular the dual and the plural. The dual  is fully productive and it is used both with natural and with non-natural pairs.  A dualet tantum is the word NASA knows actually the two nostrils and there are  several pluralet tantum some of them only later. For example tamisra in the rikvera  is a plural tantum and ab in classical Sanskrit becomes a pluralet tantum.  As already mentioned we have syncretism meaning that form we have formal identity  for example between the dative and the absolutive in the plural between the  nominative and the accusative the instrumental the dative the ablative  and the genitive and the local in the locative sorry in the dual. The last  inflectional category we look into is gender. Velik has three genders the  masculine the neuter and the feminine. The masculine and the neuter are only  distinguished in the nominative. Again a lot of syncretism occurs for example  we have no distinction between the nominative and the accusative in the  neuter. Its core gender is completely arbitrary however feminins are either  lexical or they denote individuals of the feminine sex.  Masculins and feminins from identical stem types may differ in endings for  example in the accusative plural in the masculine we find in un and rn and in  feminine form from the same stems we find ihe, uhe and rn. You can derive  feminins from masculine by adding affixes to denote females for example  from the word Wurka, Wolf you can form Wurki, Shi, Wolf, Rajan, King, Radni, Queen.  We would actually expect any noun to inflect for any number and case. There  are however a few exceptions which we call defective nouns. An example is Puru  much which in the masculine or neuter only occurs in the nominative or the  accusative and four times in the genitive plural. The word Bahu meaning very  much the same on the other hand occurs in all numbers in all cases and this is  quite striking because there is no metric difference between the two words  you would expect them to show up in any position where the other one could show  up but they don't and then there is the word Prrt fight which only occurs in  the locative plural and interestingly there is one example where there is a  second locative morpheme added to the very same word so you get Prrtzu in  fights but also Prrtzu-shu once still meaning in fights. Let's now turn our  attention to the various stem classes of al-Eury-Vedic. The first stem class to  mention are root nouns meaning that the ending is directly added to any root.  Root nouns may end in consonant, they may end in vowel or they may end in a  sonorant like Iu or syllabic R. The last type is root nouns in diphthongs like  for example Diav, Heaven, Gav, Kau, Nau, Boat. Consonant stems are very frequent  and still very productive they become much less productive in later stages of  the Indo-Aryan languages. We may differentiate various types depending  on how many stems they use. We have some which only use one stem throughout for  example S stems like manas. We have others which distinguish strong and weak  stems like anstems for example where you can see Ra-janam but Ra-dne in the  dative and we even have some with three stems like for example the aphix Anj in  Pratiancham in the accusative Pratice in the dative and Pradyakbih in the  instrumental plural. But what are strong and weak stems? Well we have to  distinguish them as we said in some consonant stems and they are  distinguished by upload alternations and also sometimes by accent shift. Strong  stem always occurs in the nominative singular, in the accusative, in the  locative singular, in the nominative accusative of the dual and in the  nominative plural. In most other in most stem cases elsewhere we use the weak  stem. If however a stem uses a middle stem this occurs with aphixes and  endings with an initial consonant. For example the aphix already mentioned Anj  with middle anj and weak each and as you can see here in the weak stem we also  have an accent shift to the ending. The same with anj in the strong stem, anj in  the middle stem and anj the very same anj but with accent shift in the weak stem.  What you can see here also which is quite what is quite important is that  stem upload is independent from accent and accent shift. Okay let's now return  to our survey of stem classes. We have stems in i and u which show upload in  this in the stem. In the strong stem i and u like Agnium Chaturum which you can  see here and in the weak stem we get i and av as in the dative Agnagi or  Chaturavi. Then we have stems in long vowel. Historically they go back to  stems in final laryngeal and there are actually actually still traces of this  final laryngeal in syllable count because we mentioned this already. Sometimes  forms like for example Ustra count as three syllables because  a goes back to a. However this only happens in certain positions within  the verse. It's only part of final that this happens and this may simply be due  to peculiarities of the meter. We are not quite sure about this. Okay let's look  at some examples of long vowel stems for example Jaya wife. Then we have in  Is al Jaya. We have E stems like DV. We have another type of E stem like Vriki  and you can see that they are distinguished. For example DV has a  nominative singular DV without an ending but Vriki has a nominative singular  with a final S and similarly in the genitive you have an accent  difference. In DV you have an accent on the ending and the ending is long. In  Vriki you have an accent on the vowel before the R. Remember this is an  independent Svarita here, what you see here, meaning that you have to restitute  a vowel there, turning this into Vriki. So the endings differ. In  systematic stems we have a different set of weak endings than in all other stems.  When we talk about stems one thing to mention is that Vedic has a few  heterocletics. Heterocletics are forms, words, where different stems are used.  For example we have something like jakrt, liver, with an end stem genitive jakna  and similar but with a slightly different formation in the  strong stem. Udhar adar with a genitive udna. Another interesting phenomenon  when we talk about stems is supletivism, also a deviation from standard stem  formation. Supletivism means that one paradigm has two stems which are in  other contexts independent. We can distinguish two types. In the first  time there is no etymological connection between the two stems. This is the case  with E-end stems. For example we have a akshi versus akshan in the weak stem,  which then turns to akshyn, I, and similar the word for bone and others. The other  possibility is that the two stems which synchronically do not match go back  actually to one and the same stem if we look at them historically. This is the  case with the rather difficult word panthas, path, with the instrumental  pati bhi, there we have a stem pati, and we have yet another stem pat in the  genitive singular. Historically they all go back to the very same formation. As  you can see here this is a formation with a laryngeal, but from a  synchronic point of view you can't distinguish this from proper  supletivism. Okay, so much about stems. As already mentioned in all of them,  case syncretism is attested. Let's look at this in a little more detail. In all  stem classes we have a syncretism in the nominative and the vocative, we have  in stem we have a syncretism in the nominative and the accusative of the  neuter, of the dative-ablative, instrumental dative-ablative-tual,  genitive-locative-tual. You see there's quite a lot going on and what you can  also see which is quite remarkable, we have the most syncretism in the dual,  a bit less in the plural and even less in the singular.  That's quite interesting.  Sometimes what looks like syncretism is actually different endings. Let's just  look at this very last example here. The nominative plural of consonant stems is  and the same is true for the accusative, but as you can see from root nouns with  mobile accent the accent differs, meaning that these are actually different affixes  which only look alike, but they trigger different accents.  The opposite of syncretism also exists. We have quite a lot of doublets in case  forms. For example in A-stems, thematic stems, we have two  instrumentals of the singular, of the masculine and the neuter,  Ina and A side by side. In the nominative accusative-vocative of the dual, we have  A and R. In the nominative plural, we sometimes have A and sometimes A-sav.  In the instrumental plural, Ib and A- in the nominative accusative-vocative-neuter,  A-ne versus A. In other stem classes, similar things apply, but to a lesser degree.  Now a special phenomenon worth mentioning in this context is the endingless  locative. The endingless locative is quite remarkable because the standard  ending for the locative in consonant stems is always E.  In stems in une u however, we have a slightly different  locative. There it is formed by applying vridhi to the stem.  This is completely transparent in u-stems, for example madhau,  where au is simply the vridhi of the affix.  But what you can see here is that with these stems, you have the very same  ending, which obviously is spread from the u-stems. So agnau is the locative of  agni. These are actually  locatives without a proper ending. Only the stem  forming affix is changed. However, we also have variants of other  consonant stems, which don't have an E ending in the  locative. These are always formed from the strong  stem. This happens mostly with stems in n and  with heteroclytics in r and n, and almost exclusively  with neuters. There are only six examples for masculine n stems with an  endingless locative. All this means that the endingless  locative is very restricted in vetic. Okay, let's now turn to adjectives.  Adjectives are in principle very unremarkable simply because of the  fact that they behave exactly like nouns. I give you two examples.  This one, maadho pito is a vocative and what is  called for here is hanneid food. Here, maadho is an adjective.  We can also have something like in this example,  somiam maadho, somian hanne. Here the very same word is used as a noun.  And as you can see, this is the first one is a vocative, this one, and this one  is nominative, but apart from that the words are not distinguished. So you can  use one word both as an adjective or as a noun without  adding anything to the word. There are however some adjective  forming suffixes which are quite productive.  For example, you have the word summa. Summa is central for the Indian  ritual and from this word you can derive various types of  affixes. For example, the adjective sumia,  sumia, sumavad and so on. Another adjective forming affix which is quite  frequent is ka. For example from adverbs apakha or sucika,  having a needle and so on. The latter one, this adjective,  then is turned into a noun meaning abiding insect.  Having a needle makes sense. Adjectives always agree with their head  which they typically precede. You see this already in the examples above.  This is the adjective here, this one, and this is the noun.  And again, this is the adjective and this is the noun, always adjective before  noun. This is the regular word order. Adjectives, but interestingly not only  adjectives, can be graded. For gradation we have two types of  suffixes. The first one is tara and tama. For the  various gradation grades, for example from an adjective tavas,  you can form tavastara or from puru, which we already mentioned. You can form  puru tama and so on. Interestingly, as I said, you can also  grade other words, for example pronouns, then you get katara, who of two,  katama, who of many, and so on. You can do the same thing with adverbs,  apara, apama, and the like, and even with nouns.  For example vrta-tara, form from the noun vrtra, and as you might remember, vrtra  is the the foe of Indra. Vrta-tara is a very great  obstacle, meaning that we have an additive reading here.  The other forms of graded words are built with other suffixes ians and  išta, depending on adjectives, whichever  suffixes you use. For example from the adjective vasu, you form  graded forms like vasjans, vasijans, and vasishta. What you can see here, and this  is quite remarkable, is that these graded forms are always built from the root,  not from the stem. The stem here is an u stem, but this u, as you can see, does  not show up in the graded form. That's quite interesting.  You can also use these with nouns. For example, you can form a noun like  brachmians, which is a graded form of brahman priest. You can even do this  with verbs, like for example in this form here, parati-cia-vians, better at  thrusting back from a verb červ to thrust back, or agamšta, coming  gladly from the root gam to go or to come. These  forms always have verbal subcategorization, meaning that they are still part of  the verbal paradigm. I will now give a very short  overview of pronouns in early Vedic. We have personal pronouns in all  numbers and cases. We have no gender distinction in the  pronoun, and we have massive suplativism. If you just look at the first person  pronoun in the first singular in the nominative, you see aham in the accusative,  there is mam in the dual nominative, then all of a sudden  vam in the nominative plural, vayam, accusative plural, asmān, and so on.  You see, this is actually quite a mess. Also, we have inclinic variants, about  which we talked earlier in the phonology section,  like for example ma in the accusative or me in the dualative and genitive, and so on.  A remarkable thing about Vedic is that pronouns are not obligatory.  Vedic is a pro-drop language, and I'll give you just one example, a very famous  example. This is the first line in the rikvera.  Agnim ire porohitam jadnasja dvam ruthi jam. Agni ain vok.  Ej here is the verb, a first singular, and as you see there is no aham,  which we might expect in this sentence. So pro-drop. Okay, let's now look at  third person pronouns. We have quite a variety of such pronouns  attested in the language. First thing to note here is that there is a  special set of endings to these pronouns. Okay, let's now look at the various  types. We have one pronoun with a stem ta.  Ta, interestingly in the nominative singular, always surfaces as sa,  with an s at the beginning, and then see various extensions of this  very noun, a very same pronoun like ita or tiya.  We have a proximal pronoun ayam, with various different stems in the  various case forms. A distal one asau, again with various  stems in the different case forms. We have critic pronouns like ina  and seam, and also with third persons we have pro-drop.  Again I'll give you an example here. This one,  adrstan hanti ayati atu hanti parayati. As she comes, she smashes the  noceums, and as she goes away she smashes them.  The interesting thing here is in this case we have subject pronoun,  this she in the translation does not turn up in the  Vedic sentence, but we also have object pro-drop in the second  case. This is the break where the second  sentence starts. Adrstan is the object of the first sentence,  and the very same referent is the object of the hanti of the second sentence,  and in such cases you don't have to repeat this object, and you don't have to  introduce an anaphoric pronoun. So we also have object pro-drop,  even with referential pronouns. And these pronouns, as well as  pro-drop phenomena, can be used in anaphoric and in  cataphoric use. Okay, let's end our survey of pronouns by looking at some  other attested pronouns. We certainly also have relative pronouns,  interrogative ones, indefinite and reflexive pronouns.  You see a list here. What might be interesting about these pronouns is on  the one hand the fact that you can incorporate them  into compounds. For example, you can have a compound like  khar-artha, having what purpose? Artha is purpose,  khad is the interrogative pronoun here, or king-ju,  desiring what as a compound. That's quite remarkable.  Another thing which might be remarkable, not that much, but nonetheless,  is the fact that indefinite pronouns are formed from interrogative pronouns.  So this basically here is the interrogative pronoun, and then you add  an in-critic element, and what you get is indefinite.  Finally, we have reflexive pronouns. The remarkable thing here is that in  VEDIC their binding is much more relaxed than you  may experience in modern languages, meaning that  reflexive pronouns do not necessarily have to be bound  within their domain. A last phenomenon we should mention in this context are  so-called pronominal adjectives. Pronominal adjectives are words which  are traditionally classified as adjectives, but which take  pronominal endings. The interesting thing about this class of adjectives is  that they do not have denotational semantics, meaning that they are on the  edge between true adjectives and true pronouns. An example is anja.  Others are quantifiers like ika, one,  wishwa, al, sarva, hol. Okay, that's all about pronouns.  We now turn to numbers. I'll give you a short overview,  and the main thing we will be concerned with is how they behave  regarding to agreement phenomena. The numbers one to four, in fact,  for number and case throughout. Or other numbers, in fact for number and case only  in the oblique cases, but not in the nominative.  A quite remarkable phenomenon is that the number eight forms a  nominative and accusative astau, which is formally a duo.  This might point to an ancient semantics of two times four or  something like that. The numbers one to nineteen are adjectives,  and they always agree with their heads. The numbers larger than 20 or 20  are nouns. For example, v'ing, shati, is a noun, shatah,  hundred is a noun. It's quite remarkable how these nouns are  construed in Vedic. The straightforward thing that we would  expect is, as they are nouns, that they take genitives.  And this is tested. For example, we have something like  this example here. Panchaasha tam ajvarnam, 50, this is a noun,  and then you have a genitive plural, ajvarnam, 50  of the horses, 50 horses. However, these nouns can also agree with  following plurals in case. And then you get something like this  here, shatina haribih. Haribih is an instrumental  and shatina is also one. The interesting thing here is,  haribih is a plural because we talk about a hundred  base, but the word hundred is still singular, meaning that you have  agreement regarding to case but not regarding to number.  Okay, we have cardinals, but we certainly also have  ordinal numbers. They are typically formed from cardinals  and they behave pretty much like adjectives. So  we get something like dvitya, tertia, and the like.  This is one of the affixes forming ordinals. Another one is the one you  can see here in chaturta or sastra, sattata, and so on.  Yet another one is ma in pancha ma, navah ma, and the like.  The only ordinal which is not formed from its cardinal number  is the ordinal first because this is pratama.  And as you might remember, the cardinal number is ekha.  This brings us to the end of our second video on Vedic morphology.  I hope you enjoyed it. In the next one, my colleague Esindal  will introduce you to verbal morphology. Thank you for your attention.  Vahava. Danyavahava.
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Hello again and welcome to the second video in our series on early Vedic morphology. My name is Gotzkaidano. In this video we'll talk about nouns, adjectives, pronouns and numerals and we'll start with inflection categories. Now as we already mentioned endings encode multiple five features such as case, number and gender. As we already also may mentioned endings typically merge with stem final vowels. Endings are almost always parts of the grammatical word and the prosodic word. There's a rare exception for the prosodic word namely the the pada endings about which we already talked in the phonology section like the instrumental pruvel which already always induces external sound. Different alomol occur with different stem classes and with different genders. Let's first look at case. Vedic has eight cases the nominative, the vocative, the accusative, instrumental, dative, ablative, genitive and locative. This is the order given in Indian grammars. Case marking occurs in nouns and adjectives in pronouns and in some of the numbers. We look at that later. Very frequent is a syncretism meaning that endings occur in various case scenarios. We already looked at this in a little detail in the preceding video and if you want to know more about case, Estin will explain this to you in section 4.1. There's an interesting connection between case and adverbs. On the one hand case forms can be used as adverbs as in this example here from the rikvera where you have a case form of the word day and another one of the word night both used in adverbal contexts. Also adverbial suffixes may be used instead of case affixes especially for the locative and the ablative. Another example this one here we have here a form with an adverbial affxtra and this may be interpreted as an adjective which is in agreement with the word hasta. So you may read this text as place your maze on your right hand. Now alternative would be to take it as take it in your hand on the right which is however rather clumsy. Let's now turn to number. We have three numbers the singular the dual and the plural. The dual is fully productive and it is used both with natural and with non-natural pairs. A dualet tantum is the word NASA knows actually the two nostrils and there are several pluralet tantum some of them only later. For example tamisra in the rikvera is a plural tantum and ab in classical Sanskrit becomes a pluralet tantum. As already mentioned we have syncretism meaning that form we have formal identity for example between the dative and the absolutive in the plural between the nominative and the accusative the instrumental the dative the ablative and the genitive and the local in the locative sorry in the dual. The last inflectional category we look into is gender. Velik has three genders the masculine the neuter and the feminine. The masculine and the neuter are only distinguished in the nominative. Again a lot of syncretism occurs for example we have no distinction between the nominative and the accusative in the neuter. Its core gender is completely arbitrary however feminins are either lexical or they denote individuals of the feminine sex. Masculins and feminins from identical stem types may differ in endings for example in the accusative plural in the masculine we find in un and rn and in feminine form from the same stems we find ihe, uhe and rn. You can derive feminins from masculine by adding affixes to denote females for example from the word Wurka, Wolf you can form Wurki, Shi, Wolf, Rajan, King, Radni, Queen. We would actually expect any noun to inflect for any number and case. There are however a few exceptions which we call defective nouns. An example is Puru much which in the masculine or neuter only occurs in the nominative or the accusative and four times in the genitive plural. The word Bahu meaning very much the same on the other hand occurs in all numbers in all cases and this is quite striking because there is no metric difference between the two words you would expect them to show up in any position where the other one could show up but they don't and then there is the word Prrt fight which only occurs in the locative plural and interestingly there is one example where there is a second locative morpheme added to the very same word so you get Prrtzu in fights but also Prrtzu-shu once still meaning in fights. Let's now turn our attention to the various stem classes of al-Eury-Vedic. The first stem class to mention are root nouns meaning that the ending is directly added to any root. Root nouns may end in consonant, they may end in vowel or they may end in a sonorant like Iu or syllabic R. The last type is root nouns in diphthongs like for example Diav, Heaven, Gav, Kau, Nau, Boat. Consonant stems are very frequent and still very productive they become much less productive in later stages of the Indo-Aryan languages. We may differentiate various types depending on how many stems they use. We have some which only use one stem throughout for example S stems like manas. We have others which distinguish strong and weak stems like anstems for example where you can see Ra-janam but Ra-dne in the dative and we even have some with three stems like for example the aphix Anj in Pratiancham in the accusative Pratice in the dative and Pradyakbih in the instrumental plural. But what are strong and weak stems? Well we have to distinguish them as we said in some consonant stems and they are distinguished by upload alternations and also sometimes by accent shift. Strong stem always occurs in the nominative singular, in the accusative, in the locative singular, in the nominative accusative of the dual and in the nominative plural. In most other in most stem cases elsewhere we use the weak stem. If however a stem uses a middle stem this occurs with aphixes and endings with an initial consonant. For example the aphix already mentioned Anj with middle anj and weak each and as you can see here in the weak stem we also have an accent shift to the ending. The same with anj in the strong stem, anj in the middle stem and anj the very same anj but with accent shift in the weak stem. What you can see here also which is quite what is quite important is that stem upload is independent from accent and accent shift. Okay let's now return to our survey of stem classes. We have stems in i and u which show upload in this in the stem. In the strong stem i and u like Agnium Chaturum which you can see here and in the weak stem we get i and av as in the dative Agnagi or Chaturavi. Then we have stems in long vowel. Historically they go back to stems in final laryngeal and there are actually actually still traces of this final laryngeal in syllable count because we mentioned this already. Sometimes forms like for example Ustra count as three syllables because a goes back to a. However this only happens in certain positions within the verse. It's only part of final that this happens and this may simply be due to peculiarities of the meter. We are not quite sure about this. Okay let's look at some examples of long vowel stems for example Jaya wife. Then we have in Is al Jaya. We have E stems like DV. We have another type of E stem like Vriki and you can see that they are distinguished. For example DV has a nominative singular DV without an ending but Vriki has a nominative singular with a final S and similarly in the genitive you have an accent difference. In DV you have an accent on the ending and the ending is long. In Vriki you have an accent on the vowel before the R. Remember this is an independent Svarita here, what you see here, meaning that you have to restitute a vowel there, turning this into Vriki. So the endings differ. In systematic stems we have a different set of weak endings than in all other stems. When we talk about stems one thing to mention is that Vedic has a few heterocletics. Heterocletics are forms, words, where different stems are used. For example we have something like jakrt, liver, with an end stem genitive jakna and similar but with a slightly different formation in the strong stem. Udhar adar with a genitive udna. Another interesting phenomenon when we talk about stems is supletivism, also a deviation from standard stem formation. Supletivism means that one paradigm has two stems which are in other contexts independent. We can distinguish two types. In the first time there is no etymological connection between the two stems. This is the case with E-end stems. For example we have a akshi versus akshan in the weak stem, which then turns to akshyn, I, and similar the word for bone and others. The other possibility is that the two stems which synchronically do not match go back actually to one and the same stem if we look at them historically. This is the case with the rather difficult word panthas, path, with the instrumental pati bhi, there we have a stem pati, and we have yet another stem pat in the genitive singular. Historically they all go back to the very same formation. As you can see here this is a formation with a laryngeal, but from a synchronic point of view you can't distinguish this from proper supletivism. Okay, so much about stems. As already mentioned in all of them, case syncretism is attested. Let's look at this in a little more detail. In all stem classes we have a syncretism in the nominative and the vocative, we have in stem we have a syncretism in the nominative and the accusative of the neuter, of the dative-ablative, instrumental dative-ablative-tual, genitive-locative-tual. You see there's quite a lot going on and what you can also see which is quite remarkable, we have the most syncretism in the dual, a bit less in the plural and even less in the singular. That's quite interesting. Sometimes what looks like syncretism is actually different endings. Let's just look at this very last example here. The nominative plural of consonant stems is and the same is true for the accusative, but as you can see from root nouns with mobile accent the accent differs, meaning that these are actually different affixes which only look alike, but they trigger different accents. The opposite of syncretism also exists. We have quite a lot of doublets in case forms. For example in A-stems, thematic stems, we have two instrumentals of the singular, of the masculine and the neuter, Ina and A side by side. In the nominative accusative-vocative of the dual, we have A and R. In the nominative plural, we sometimes have A and sometimes A-sav. In the instrumental plural, Ib and A- in the nominative accusative-vocative-neuter, A-ne versus A. In other stem classes, similar things apply, but to a lesser degree. Now a special phenomenon worth mentioning in this context is the endingless locative. The endingless locative is quite remarkable because the standard ending for the locative in consonant stems is always E. In stems in une u however, we have a slightly different locative. There it is formed by applying vridhi to the stem. This is completely transparent in u-stems, for example madhau, where au is simply the vridhi of the affix. But what you can see here is that with these stems, you have the very same ending, which obviously is spread from the u-stems. So agnau is the locative of agni. These are actually locatives without a proper ending. Only the stem forming affix is changed. However, we also have variants of other consonant stems, which don't have an E ending in the locative. These are always formed from the strong stem. This happens mostly with stems in n and with heteroclytics in r and n, and almost exclusively with neuters. There are only six examples for masculine n stems with an endingless locative. All this means that the endingless locative is very restricted in vetic. Okay, let's now turn to adjectives. Adjectives are in principle very unremarkable simply because of the fact that they behave exactly like nouns. I give you two examples. This one, maadho pito is a vocative and what is called for here is hanneid food. Here, maadho is an adjective. We can also have something like in this example, somiam maadho, somian hanne. Here the very same word is used as a noun. And as you can see, this is the first one is a vocative, this one, and this one is nominative, but apart from that the words are not distinguished. So you can use one word both as an adjective or as a noun without adding anything to the word. There are however some adjective forming suffixes which are quite productive. For example, you have the word summa. Summa is central for the Indian ritual and from this word you can derive various types of affixes. For example, the adjective sumia, sumia, sumavad and so on. Another adjective forming affix which is quite frequent is ka. For example from adverbs apakha or sucika, having a needle and so on. The latter one, this adjective, then is turned into a noun meaning abiding insect. Having a needle makes sense. Adjectives always agree with their head which they typically precede. You see this already in the examples above. This is the adjective here, this one, and this is the noun. And again, this is the adjective and this is the noun, always adjective before noun. This is the regular word order. Adjectives, but interestingly not only adjectives, can be graded. For gradation we have two types of suffixes. The first one is tara and tama. For the various gradation grades, for example from an adjective tavas, you can form tavastara or from puru, which we already mentioned. You can form puru tama and so on. Interestingly, as I said, you can also grade other words, for example pronouns, then you get katara, who of two, katama, who of many, and so on. You can do the same thing with adverbs, apara, apama, and the like, and even with nouns. For example vrta-tara, form from the noun vrtra, and as you might remember, vrtra is the the foe of Indra. Vrta-tara is a very great obstacle, meaning that we have an additive reading here. The other forms of graded words are built with other suffixes ians and išta, depending on adjectives, whichever suffixes you use. For example from the adjective vasu, you form graded forms like vasjans, vasijans, and vasishta. What you can see here, and this is quite remarkable, is that these graded forms are always built from the root, not from the stem. The stem here is an u stem, but this u, as you can see, does not show up in the graded form. That's quite interesting. You can also use these with nouns. For example, you can form a noun like brachmians, which is a graded form of brahman priest. You can even do this with verbs, like for example in this form here, parati-cia-vians, better at thrusting back from a verb červ to thrust back, or agamšta, coming gladly from the root gam to go or to come. These forms always have verbal subcategorization, meaning that they are still part of the verbal paradigm. I will now give a very short overview of pronouns in early Vedic. We have personal pronouns in all numbers and cases. We have no gender distinction in the pronoun, and we have massive suplativism. If you just look at the first person pronoun in the first singular in the nominative, you see aham in the accusative, there is mam in the dual nominative, then all of a sudden vam in the nominative plural, vayam, accusative plural, asmān, and so on. You see, this is actually quite a mess. Also, we have inclinic variants, about which we talked earlier in the phonology section, like for example ma in the accusative or me in the dualative and genitive, and so on. A remarkable thing about Vedic is that pronouns are not obligatory. Vedic is a pro-drop language, and I'll give you just one example, a very famous example. This is the first line in the rikvera. Agnim ire porohitam jadnasja dvam ruthi jam. Agni ain vok. Ej here is the verb, a first singular, and as you see there is no aham, which we might expect in this sentence. So pro-drop. Okay, let's now look at third person pronouns. We have quite a variety of such pronouns attested in the language. First thing to note here is that there is a special set of endings to these pronouns. Okay, let's now look at the various types. We have one pronoun with a stem ta. Ta, interestingly in the nominative singular, always surfaces as sa, with an s at the beginning, and then see various extensions of this very noun, a very same pronoun like ita or tiya. We have a proximal pronoun ayam, with various different stems in the various case forms. A distal one asau, again with various stems in the different case forms. We have critic pronouns like ina and seam, and also with third persons we have pro-drop. Again I'll give you an example here. This one, adrstan hanti ayati atu hanti parayati. As she comes, she smashes the noceums, and as she goes away she smashes them. The interesting thing here is in this case we have subject pronoun, this she in the translation does not turn up in the Vedic sentence, but we also have object pro-drop in the second case. This is the break where the second sentence starts. Adrstan is the object of the first sentence, and the very same referent is the object of the hanti of the second sentence, and in such cases you don't have to repeat this object, and you don't have to introduce an anaphoric pronoun. So we also have object pro-drop, even with referential pronouns. And these pronouns, as well as pro-drop phenomena, can be used in anaphoric and in cataphoric use. Okay, let's end our survey of pronouns by looking at some other attested pronouns. We certainly also have relative pronouns, interrogative ones, indefinite and reflexive pronouns. You see a list here. What might be interesting about these pronouns is on the one hand the fact that you can incorporate them into compounds. For example, you can have a compound like khar-artha, having what purpose? Artha is purpose, khad is the interrogative pronoun here, or king-ju, desiring what as a compound. That's quite remarkable. Another thing which might be remarkable, not that much, but nonetheless, is the fact that indefinite pronouns are formed from interrogative pronouns. So this basically here is the interrogative pronoun, and then you add an in-critic element, and what you get is indefinite. Finally, we have reflexive pronouns. The remarkable thing here is that in VEDIC their binding is much more relaxed than you may experience in modern languages, meaning that reflexive pronouns do not necessarily have to be bound within their domain. A last phenomenon we should mention in this context are so-called pronominal adjectives. Pronominal adjectives are words which are traditionally classified as adjectives, but which take pronominal endings. The interesting thing about this class of adjectives is that they do not have denotational semantics, meaning that they are on the edge between true adjectives and true pronouns. An example is anja. Others are quantifiers like ika, one, wishwa, al, sarva, hol. Okay, that's all about pronouns. We now turn to numbers. I'll give you a short overview, and the main thing we will be concerned with is how they behave regarding to agreement phenomena. The numbers one to four, in fact, for number and case throughout. Or other numbers, in fact for number and case only in the oblique cases, but not in the nominative. A quite remarkable phenomenon is that the number eight forms a nominative and accusative astau, which is formally a duo. This might point to an ancient semantics of two times four or something like that. The numbers one to nineteen are adjectives, and they always agree with their heads. The numbers larger than 20 or 20 are nouns. For example, v'ing, shati, is a noun, shatah, hundred is a noun. It's quite remarkable how these nouns are construed in Vedic. The straightforward thing that we would expect is, as they are nouns, that they take genitives. And this is tested. For example, we have something like this example here. Panchaasha tam ajvarnam, 50, this is a noun, and then you have a genitive plural, ajvarnam, 50 of the horses, 50 horses. However, these nouns can also agree with following plurals in case. And then you get something like this here, shatina haribih. Haribih is an instrumental and shatina is also one. The interesting thing here is, haribih is a plural because we talk about a hundred base, but the word hundred is still singular, meaning that you have agreement regarding to case but not regarding to number. Okay, we have cardinals, but we certainly also have ordinal numbers. They are typically formed from cardinals and they behave pretty much like adjectives. So we get something like dvitya, tertia, and the like. This is one of the affixes forming ordinals. Another one is the one you can see here in chaturta or sastra, sattata, and so on. Yet another one is ma in pancha ma, navah ma, and the like. The only ordinal which is not formed from its cardinal number is the ordinal first because this is pratama. And as you might remember, the cardinal number is ekha. This brings us to the end of our second video on Vedic morphology. I hope you enjoyed it. In the next one, my colleague Esindal will introduce you to verbal morphology. Thank you for your attention. Vahava. Danyavahava.
adjectives in pronouns and in some of the