whole porcine bladders were obtained from a local abattoir within 4 h of slaughter and transported to the laboratory on ice in sterile transport medium ( hanks &# 39 ; balanced salt solution ( hbss ) containing 10 mm hepes ph 7 . 6 and 10 kiu / ml aprotinin ( trasylol , bayer , berkshire , uk ). intact bladders were washed in phosphate buffered saline ( pbs ) containing 0 . 1 % w / v ethylene diamine tetra - acetic acid ( edta ) and aprotinin ( 10 kiu / ml ) to inhibit protease activity . subsequent treatments , unless otherwise stated , were all carried out with protease inhibition . at each stage the intact bladder was distended with up to 500 ml buffer through a funnel inserted into the bladder neck , closed with nalgene ™ forceps ( vwr international ltd , poole , uk ) and immersed in the same solution . the bladders were decellularised by incubating the bladder for 24 h at 4 ° c . in hypotonic tris buffer ( 10 mm tris , ph 8 . 0 ) followed by distension and incubation with agitation on an orbital shaker for 24 h in 0 . 1 % ( w / v ) sodium dodecyl sulphate ( sds ) in hypotonic tris buffer at room temperature . bladders were washed in pbs without protease inhibition , before being incubated for 24 h in 50 u · ml − 1 deoxyribonuclease i ( sigma , poole , uk ) and 1 uml − 1 ribonuclease a ( sigma , poole , uk ) in 10 mm tris - hcl ph 7 . 5 with gentle agitation at 37 ° c . bladders were sterilized by incubation in 0 . 1 % ( v / v ) peracetic acid in pbs for 3 h and finally , were washed in sterile pbs once for 24 h followed by 3 periods of 1 h under aseptic conditions . the resulting material was stored in pbs at 4 ° c . for at least 6 months with no change in appearance or handling . fresh and decellularised tissue samples were fixed in 10 % ( v / v ) neutral buffered formalin , dehydrated and embedded in paraffin wax . haematoxylin and eosin staining was used to evaluate the cellular content and general histoarchitecture of the porcine bladders . miller &# 39 ; s elastin staining was used to evaluate the elastin content and the van gieson technique was used for the identification of collagen i fibres ( bancroft and stevens , theory and practise of histological techniques . london , churchill livingstone , 1990 ). immuno - labelling of specific proteins was performed using an indirect immunoperoxidase method as previously described ( booth et al , labinvestigation 76 , 843 , 1997 ). tris - buffered saline [( tbs ), 0 . 05m tris - hcl , 0 . 15m nacl , ph 7 . 6 ] was used as the diluent and wash buffer throughout . non - specific background staining was eliminated by blocking with 10 % ( v / v ) rabbit serum . monoclonal antibodies were obtained against collagen type i ( col 1 ), smooth muscle actin ( 1a4 ), laminin ( lam89 ) ( sigma , poole , uk ), collagen type iv ( civ22 ), vimentin ( v9 ) and desmin ( d33 ) ( dako , high wycombe , uk ). sections were incubated sequentially in primary antibody for 1 h , biotinylated rabbit ant - mouse ig ( f ( ab ′) 2 fragments ( dako , high wycombe , uk ) for 30 min and strepavidin / hrp abc complex ( dako , high wycombe , uk ) for 30 min , with washing between each step . bound antibody was visualized using a 3 , 3 ′- diaminobenzidene substrate ( dab ) reaction catalysed by h 2 o 2 . sections were counterstained with haematoxylin , before being dehydrated , cleared and mounted in dpx ( sigma , poole , uk ). omission of the primary antibody from the labelling protocol and the use of irrelevant primary antibodies served as negative controls . three porcine bladders were decellularised for biochemical analysis and comparison with six fresh , untreated porcine bladders . unless otherwise stated , test solutions for analysis were prepared from samples of fresh and decellularised matrix that had been freeze - dried to constant weight , hydrolysed by incubation with 6m hcl for 4 hours at 120 ° c . and neutralised to ph 7 with naoh . the amount of sulphated sugars ( gags ) was determined by dimethylmethylene blue binding ( enobakhare et al , anal . biochem . 243 , 189 , 1996 ; farndale et al , biochim . biophys . acta ., 883 , 173 , 1986 ). briefly , test solutions were incubated with the dimethylmethylene blue solution and the absorbance read at 525 nm . the amount of gags was calculated by interpolation from a standard curve prepared using chondroitin sulphate and phosphate assay buffer ( 0 . 1m sodium di - hydrogen orthophosphate , 0 . 1m di - sodium hydrogen orthophosphate , ph6 . 8 ) over a range of concentrations . the amount of hydroxyproline was determined using a method based on that described elsewhere ( brown et al , biotechniques 30 , 38 , 2001 ; edwards et al , clin chem acta 104 , 161 , 1980 ; stegemann and stadler clin chem acta , 18 , 267 , 1967 ). a range of hydroxyproline standards were prepared using trans - 4 - hydroxy - l - proline in hydroxyproline assay buffer [ 0 . 17m citric acid , 0 . 8 % ( v / v ) acetic acid , 0 . 6m sodium acetate , 0 . 57m sodium hydroxide and 20 % ( v / v ) propan - 1 - ol ph6 ]. 50 μl of each standard and test solution was aliquoted into a clear flat bottomed 96 well plate . oxidation was achieved by adding 100 μl of chloramine t solution to each well . the plate was gently shaken for five minutes and 100 μl of ehrlich &# 39 ; s reagent added . the plate was covered and incubated at 60 ° c . for 45 minutes , before reading the absorbance at 570 nm . a standard curve of hydroxyproline concentrations was plotted using the standard solutions and the amount of hydroxyproline present in the test samples determined . to measure the amount of denatured hydroxyproline , fresh and decellularised tissue samples that had been freeze - dried to constant weight were digested with α - chymotrypsin prior to analysis ( bank et al , matrix biol . 16 , 233 , 1997 ). fresh and decellularised tissue samples that had been freeze - dried to constant weight were digested in papain buffer at 60 ° c . for 24 hours as previously described ( kim et al anal biochem , 174 , 168 , 1988 ; labarca et al anal biochem , 102 , 344 1980 ). test solutions were incubated with hoechst 33258 dye solution and using a fluorometer , the plate was read using excitation at 365 nm and emission at 458 nm . the amount of dna was calculated by interpolation from a standard curve prepared using calf thymus dna solubilised in tris buffered saline ph 7 . 6 over a range of concentrations , the bladder wall is composed primarily of collagen , elastin , and smooth muscle and is organised in two major layers : the lamina propria and the detrusor . the lamina propria consists of the urothelium , which lines the luminal surface , and an underlying connective tissue matrix that contains a dense layer of randomly oriented collagen fibres in which the capillary network of the bladder is embedded . the majority of the lamina propria is constituted by a thick layer of collagen that functions to maintain the shape of the bladder wall and to limit its overall compliance ( ratio of maximum volume divided by pressure ). the detrusor muscle layer provides the contraction during voiding , and is composed of muscle fibres of 50 to 150 μm in diameter , and 20 - 50 μm apart and interconnected with collagen bundles . histological analysis of the decellularised matrix showed that whilst the urothelium and smooth muscle cells had been removed , the underlying histoarchitecture was retained . ( see fig2 and 3 and example 6 ) glycosaminoglycans ( gags ) are the main component of the ground substance in which cells , collagen ( comprised of hydroxyproline , proline and glycine ) and elastin fibres are embedded . compared to fresh bladder tissue , the proportion of hydroxyproline and gags in decellularised tissue samples relative to total dry weight , was significantly higher due to the loss of other soluble proteins and cell components ( table 1 ). table 1 below shows the biochemical characterisation of fresh and decellularised porcine bladder tissue . tissue strips were dissected from the wall of fresh ( within 24 h of slaughter ) and decellularised bladders using a scalpel and subjected to low strain - rate uniaxial tensile loading to failure . in order to study potential regional differences in the biomechanics of the bladder wall , five anatomical regions were tested , including the dorsal , ventral , lateral , trigone and lower body regions of the wall ( fig1 ). in each region , the anisotropy of the bladder wall was investigated by testing specimens along the apex - to - base and transverse directions . for each case , tissue strips measuring 20 × 5 mm were dissected and mounted onto a purpose built titanium holder ( korossis et al j heart valve dis 11 , 463 , 2002 ). the holder was supported by a removable aluminium bracket that allowed alignment of the two holder parts , defined the gauge length of the specimens and ensured that no load was imposed on the specimen until the start of the test . the gauge length of the specimens was defined by a 10 mm wide central block separating the two holder parts and screwed onto the bracket . prior to clamping , the thickness of the specimens was measured at 6 points along the long axis using a mitutoyo thickness gauge ( mitutoyo , andover , uk ) with a resolution of 0 . 01 mm and the average thickness was recorded . during clamping , care was taken to mount the specimens under zero strain . specifically , the specimen was floated onto the smooth clamp surface with minimum handling and secured in its completely relaxed state . once the specimen was clamped onto the holder , the holder with the supporting bracket was secured to a howden tensile machine and the bracket was removed . testing was conducted in physiological saline at 20 ° c . prior to loading to failure , the specimens were preconditioned by cyclic loading using a double - ramp wave function until a repeatable load - elongation response was observed . for all specimens tested , a preconditioning period of 50 cycles was sufficient to produce a steady - state response . following preconditioning , the specimens were loaded to failure using a positive ramp function at a rate of 10 mm / min . in order to obtain an accurate measure of the tissue gauge length , the tensile machine was set to produce a specimen preloading of 0 . 02 n , before the operating program started to acquire any data . therefore , zero extension was taken at the point where a 0 . 02 n load was detected . the final gauge length of the specimen was calculated as the initial gauge length ( 10 mm ) plus the extension that was needed to produce the specified preloading . failure was taken to occur when the first decrease in load was detected during extension . the mode of failure observed was middle section necking and rupture for 90 % of the specimens , independent of the specimen preparation , while the rest failed at the clamping point . during testing , load data from the load cell and extension data from the stroke of the tensile machine was acquired at a rate of 20 hz . from the recorded load data the engineering stress ( σ ) was calculated as : where f is the acquired force in newtons and a o the original cross - sectional area ( csa ) of the undeformed specimen in mm 2 . the csa was calculated as a o = w × t , where w is the width of the tissue strip ( 5 mm ) and t its average thickness . the changes in thickness and width during preloading were considered negligible and were not taken into account . the engineering strain ( ε ) was calculated from the extension data according to the formula : where δl is the extension of the specimen and l o its final gauge length . the calculated stress - strain curves obtained for the specimens of each group were averaged over the number of specimens in each group ( n = 6 ) using a mathematical analysis software package ( origin v6 . 0 , microbal ). the stress - strain behavior for each specimen was analyzed by means of six parameters . these have been described elsewhere ( korossis et al j heart dis 11 , 463 , 2002 ) and included the elastin ( ei - e ) and collagen ( col - e ) phase slopes , transition stress ( σ trans ) and strain ( ε trans ), ultimate tensile strength ( uts ) and failure strain ( ε uts ). the biomechanical parameters of the specimens in each test group were averaged , and compared by student t - test . whole porcine bladders were obtained from a local abattoir within 4 h of slaughter and transported to the laboratory on ice in sterile transport medium . the bladder stromal tissue was stripped of urothelium ( southgate et al lab invest , 71 , 583 , 1994 ) and smooth muscle cells isolated as previously described for human smooth muscle cells ( kimuli et al bju int 94 , 859 , 2004 ) were cultured in dulbecco &# 39 ; s modified eagle &# 39 ; s medium ( dmem ) ( gibco , paisley , uk ) supplemented with 10 % ( v / v ) fetal bovine serum ( fbs ) ( harlan , loughborough , uk ) and 1 % ( v / v ) l - glutamine ( sigma , poole , uk ) at 37 ° c . in a humidified atmosphere of 10 % co 2 in air . morphological examination and immunohistological staining for smooth muscle actin ( 1a4 ) ( sigma , poole , uk ) was used to confirm cell strain identity and homogeneity of the cultures . porcine smooth muscle ( psm ) cell cultures were subcultured at confluence and maintained as finite cell lines through at least 15 passages . decellularised bladder tissue was attached to the centre of a well in a 6 - well culture plate using sterile adhesive steri - strips ( 3m , manchester , uk ). porcine smooth muscle cells ( sm ) ( passage 2 to 7 ) were seeded into each well at a density of 1 × 10 4 cells / ml . as negative controls , sm cells were seeded into wells containing steri - strips without matrix and into wells without steri - strips or matrix . plates were incubated at 37 ° c ., 10 % co 2 for 48 h , 4 days or 12 days . medium was then removed from each well , and the wells washed with pbs and stained / fixed with 1 % ( w / v ) crystal violet ( sigma , poole , uk ) in 20 % ( v / v ) ethanol before visualization by light microscopy . sm cells were suspended in growth medium at 1 × 10 4 cells / ml and 200 μl was added to the individual wells of a 96 - well plate . cells were left to attach at 37 ° c ., 10 % co 2 for 2 h . a 5 cm 2 sheet of decellularised bladder matrix was diced and added to 50 ml dmem . after 24 h on a shaker the medium was removed , filter - sterilised through a 0 . 2 - μm filter and supplemented with 0 %, 5 % or 10 % ( v / v ) fbs . as a control , non - conditioned medium was prepared in a similar way , except for omitting the diced bladder matrix . the appropriate conditioned or non - conditioned medium was used to replace the medium on the cells in the 96 - well plate in replicates of six and the plates were incubated at 37 ° c . in a humidified atmosphere of 10 % co 2 in air . 3 -[ 4 , 5 - dimethyl ( thiazol - 2yl )- 3 , 5 - diphery ] tetrazolium bromide [( mtt ) sigma , poole , uk ] assays were used to compare the viability of sm cells grown in control or decellularised matrix - conditioned media . a single plate was removed on days 0 , 1 , 4 and 7 to assess cell viability with the mtt assay . mtt ( 200 μl , 0 . 5 mg / ml ) was added to each well on appropriate days and left to incubate for 4 h at 37 ° c . the mtt was replaced by 200 μl of dmso and mixed well to dissolve formazan crystals . the absorbance was read at 570 nm using a plate reader . in order to determine whether sm cells were able to repopulate the decellularised tissue , suspensions of 2 × 10 5 sm cells ( at passages 2 - 7 ) in 200 μl dmem were added to decellularised tissue samples in 6 - well plates and allowed to attach for 2 h after which time the wells were flooded with complete dmem . as a control , 200 μl of cell - free dmem was added to tissue samples in wells that were flooded with complete dmem as before . seeded and non - seeded samples were collected on days 1 , 3 , 7 , 14 and 21 in duplicate , washed in pbs and fixed in 10 % formalin for histological assessment . the complete decellularisation of porcine bladder was confirmed histologically . compared to native bladder , matrices were completely devoid of urothelium and there were no cells present within the underlying tissue . this was confirmed by hoechst 33258 staining of sections to visualize cell nuclei ( fig2 ). both miller &# 39 ; s elastin stain and the van gieson technique showed the general structure of the decellularised matrix to resemble that of native bladder ( fig3 ). immunolabelling with antibodies to αsma , desmin and vimentin indicated that some poorly soluble cytoskeletal components of smooth muscle were not removed by the decellularisation process ( fig4 ). negative staining for collagen type iv and laminin , however , confirmed removal of the basement membrane from the bladder lumen ( fig5 ). mtt assay showed that porcine cells , smooth muscle in origin ( fig6 ), underwent growth in a concentration - dependent manner as the percentage of serum in the medium increased from 0 to 10 % ( v / v ) ( fig7 ). smooth muscle cells cultured in dmem conditioned with the decellularised matrix showed a similar concentration - dependent growth . there was no statistical difference between the ultimate biomass of cells grown in control or conditioned medium under standard culture conditions . smooth muscle cells grew up to the decellularised matrix with no evidence of contact inhibition ( fig8 ) providing evidence that the decellularised matrix was not cytotoxic . smooth muscle cells were able to attach and form a confluent monolayer of cells across the surface of the decellularised matrix after 3 days in culture . under static culture conditions , there was no cell penetration into the matrix after 7 days . after 14 days , however , cells had begun to infiltrate the matrix and by 21 days had infiltrated to a depth approximately ⅓ rd that of the matrix ( fig9 ). the amount of dna per mg dry weight of porcine bladder tissue before and after decellularisation was 2 . 8 (+/− 0 . 1 ) μg · mg − 1 and 0 . 1 (+/− 0 . 1 ) μg · mg − 1 , respectively ( table 1 — see under example 1 ). there was a significant decrease in the dna content of tissue after decellularisation ( t - test ; p & lt ; 0 . 001 ). the concentrations of hydroxyproline and gags per mg dry weight of porcine bladder tissue before and after decellularisation were also significantly different , with the relative proportion of each being significantly higher in the decellularised tissue ( t - test ; p & lt ; 0 . 001 ) reflecting the differential removal of other components . tissue strips dissected from the wall of fresh and decellularised bladders were subjected to low strain - rate uniaxial tensile loading to failure . the stress - strain behaviour is shown in fig1 . in order to study potential regional differences in the biomechanics of the bladder wall , five anatomical regions were tested , including the dorsal , ventral , lateral , trigone and lower body regions of the wall . in each region , the anisotropy of the bladder wall was investigated by testing specimens along the apex - to - base and transverse directions . table 2 shows the results of biomechanical tests , thickness , elastin and collagen phase slope , transition stress and strain , ultimate tensile strength and failure strain . the results showed that decellularised bladder tissue samples are significantly thinner than the fresh bladder samples . in fresh bladder samples , the collagen phase slope values are higher in samples retrieved in an apex to base direction than in transverse samples . in addition , samples retrieved in an apex to base direction also have increased ultimate tensile strength compared to equivalent transverse samples and their failure strain is reduced . as regards the collagen and elastin phase slope values of decellularised bladder tissue samples , these are increased compared to fresh bladder tissue samples . collected in an apex to base direction , decellularised samples have increased ultimate tensile strength compared to equivalent fresh samples . no significant differences in the ultimate tensile strength of decellularised and fresh samples collected in a transverse direction were observed . the results also showed that decellularised bladder samples have decreased failure strain values as compared to fresh bladder samples and that whilst transitional stress values do not differ significantly between fresh and decellularised bladder tissue samples , there is a decrease in the transitional strain values of decellularised samples . decreased strain values and increased collagen and elastin phase slopes indicate that the decellularised tissue is stiffer than fresh tissue ( that the application of load results in less deformation per unit length of tissue ). the biomechanical properties of fresh ( fig1 a , c and e ) and decellularised ( fig1 b , d and e ) bladder tissues were established by uniaxial tensile loading to failure of bladder wall strips from five anatomical regions of the bladder , namely the trigone , lower body , lateral , ventral and dorsal regions . comparison of the results from the five anatomical bladder regions showed that different regions of the bladder demonstrated different mechanical behaviour as depicted by varying values for the collagen phase slope ( fig1 e and f ), failure strain ( fig1 a and b ) and ultimate tensile strength ( fig1 c and d ). moreover , significant anisotropy was also found between the apex - to - base and transverse directions . collagen phase slope and average failure strain values were significantly changed following decellularisation , representing decreased extensibility ( t - test , p =& lt ; 0 . 05 ), however , the ultimate tensile strength ( uts ) of the decellularised bladder wall was not significantly different from that of the fresh bladder wall ( t - test , p =& gt ; 0 . 05 ). bladder wall specimens were subjected to suture retention testing . tissue strips measuring 10 × 5 mm were dissected from the lateral region of the wall of fresh and decellularised bladders , along the apex - to - base direction , and mounted onto the titanium holder , described above . the specimens were mounted so that only one end of the specimen was clamped to the holder . one polypropylene suture ( 4 - 0 , ethicon ) with 2 mm bite depth was attached to the other end of the specimen . the suture was then secured to the upper part of the holder . subsequently , the holder with the supporting bracket was secured to the howden tensile machine and the bracket was removed . the suture was then pulled under uniaxial loading at a rate of 10 mm / min , and the suture pull - out force was recorded . there was no significant difference in the ability of fresh and decellularised bladder tissue to retain sutures under force ( t - test , p & gt ; 0 . 05 ); nor in the amount of pressure required to burst intact fresh or decellularised bladders ( t - test , p & gt ; 0 . 05 , fig1 ). fresh and decellularised whole bladders were subjected to burst testing . for this purpose a burst pressure rig was developed ( fig1 ). the rig comprised of a pressure vessel , which generated the test pressures , a pressure gauge for measuring the applied hydrostatic pressures , and a container filled with saline , which accommodated the bladder under testing . pressurised air , supplied at a rate of 20 ml / s , was used to pressurise the vessel , which was ¾s filled with saline . the inflow of air in the vessel caused the pressurization of the saline and the subsequent filling and inflation of the bladder , which was connected via silicone tubing to the pressure vessel . the pressure of the saline was increased until bursting of the bladder was achieved , and the maximum pressure just before bursting was recorded . there was no significant difference in the burst pressure of fresh and decellularised porcine bladder tissue ( fig1 ). the biomechanical properties of fresh and decellularised bladder tissues were compared with other membranous tissues that might be used in the repair of the bladder . these included fresh porcine pericardium , decellularised porcine pericardium , sis ™ and permacol ™ ( fig1 - 21 ). the decellularised porcine bladder , fresh and decellularised porcine pericardia all showed similar suture retention strength which was significantly lower ( p & lt ; 0 . 05 ; anova ) than that of sis ™ and permacol ™ ( fig1 ). the mean elastin phase slope , collagen phase slope , transition stress and ultimate tensile strength of the decellularised bladder material were not significantly different to those properties of the fresh bladder ( p & lt ; 0 . 05 ; anova ) compared to other biomaterials . these comparisons indicate that decellularised bladder matrix would make the most suitable replacement for bladder tissue with regard to biomechanical properties . in order to determine the in vivo biocompatibility of the acellular porcine bladder biomaterial , the reaction to the material was compared to that of fresh porcine bladder tissue in a mouse subcutaneous implant model . following a short term general anaesthesia , two 5 mm 2 pieces of fresh or acellular porcine bladder were implanted subcutaneously in normal mice ( female 6 - 8 week old mf - 1 hairless mice ; n = 3 in each group ). mice were sacrificed at three months and the implants and the overlying skin were retrieved . the explanted tissues were cryoembedded in oct and sections ( 5 □ m ) cut in a cryostat . representative sections from throughout the tissue were stained with haematoxylin and eosin to visualize the general histioarchitecture . the cellular infiltrate in the tissues was determined by immunoperoxidase staining using rat monoclonal antibodies to mouse cd3 ( pan t - cells ; igg2a ; caltag ) and f4 / 80 ( macrophages ; igg2b ; caltag ). goat anti - rat igg conjugated to biotin was used as the secondary antibody . appropriate negative controls were included . representative images were captured digitally . the fresh tissue explants were encapsulated by cells which were predominantly f4 / 80 ( macrophage ) or c3 ( t - cell ) positive ( fig2 ). the tissues showed signs of vacuolation / disintegration and there were very few cells present within the matrix of the implanted fresh tissues . the pattern was indicative of a foreign body response to the implanted fresh tissues . the acellular porcine bladder biomaterial explants showed minimal encapsulation and the biomaterial appeared to be integrated into the mouse skin ( fig2 ). there were sparse cd3 positive t - cells around or within the biomaterial , although cd3 positive cells were clearly visible in the epidermis of the mouse skin ( normal ). there were signs of cellular infiltration into the matrix of the biomaterial , with some of these cells being f4 / 80 positive . other cells had a fibroblastic appearance . the pattern was indicative of a wound healing - type reaction as judged by the presence of dispersed f4 / 80 positive cells in the absence of t - cells . in contrast to the fresh bladder tissue which showed an overt foreign body response when implanted subcutaneously in mice , the acellular porcine bladder biomaterial showed good integration into the mouse skin indicating that the material was biocompatible in this model . this example provides evidence for the use of acellular porcine bladder biomaterials as appropriate material for wound healing . aged stored samples of 6 , 9 , and 30 months old were tested for a variety of biomechanical strength parameters as hereinbefore described and compared to freshly ( 24 hour old ) prepared decellularised bladder material . with references to fig2 to 29 , there is presented bar chart results for mean elastin phase slope , collagen phase slope , transition stress , ultimate tensile strength , transition strain and failure strain respectively . the results ( table 3 ) from uniaxial tensile testing indicated that there was no significant differences in any of the biomechanical parameters studied between decellularised scaffolds tested 24 hours post treatment and decellularised scaffolds tested 6 , 9 and 30 months post treatment . p - values were calculated and obtained by anova ( table 4 ). these results indicate that the mechanical integrity of the decellularised bladder scaffolds remains intact for periods up to at least 30 months . in other words the shelf life of the material is at least 30 months .
the invention provides an improved method of producing a natural , acellular matrix scaffold for subsequent use in tissue - engineered replacement of tissues such as the bladder . decellularisation is carried out on an expanded or distended bladder and the product retains the strength and compliance of natural material . the invention also provides use of the matrix scaffolds as wound healing material and to investigate tissue structure and function in vitro .