phosphorthioate oligonucleotides were synthesized by biosynthesis inc ., lewisville , tex . since initial feasibility studies were conducted in rats , the first produced antisense oligonucleotides were directed against rat gad sequences . the sequence used to generate rat gad 67 antisense was 5 ′ tggaagatgccatcagctcgg3 ′ ( seq id no : 1 ). the sequence used to generate rat gad 65 antisense was 5 ═ ccggagatgccatgggttctg3 ′ ( seq id no : 2 ). the sequence used to generate human gad 65 is 5 ′ ccggagatgccatcggctttg3 ′ ( seq id no : 3 ). the sequence used to generate human gad 67 is 5 ′ tcgaagacgccatcagctcgg3 ′ ( seq id no : 4 ). the antisense sequence used for the monkey ( saimiri sciureus ) studies was the gad 67 : 5 ′- gaagatggggtcgaagacgc - 3 ′ ( seq id no : 5 ). the control oligonucleotide for the monkey and rat gad 67 studies was a scrambled nucleotide sequence of the monkey gad 67 antisense sequence : 5 ′- taggagcagactgagagggcg - 3 ′ ( seq id no : 6 ). these sequences were obtained by searching genbank for the appropriate gene name . these sequences were analyzed using an open reading frame finder program at the national center for biotechnology information world wide web site . the initiation of translation site was found and a 21 base antisense molecule complementary to the region spanning 8 bases 5 ′ to 13 bases 3 ′ (− 8 to + 13 ) to the initiation triplet was selected . these 21 base oligonucleotides were analyzed for cross reactivity with other genes using the ncbi blast server . the results of this search indicated that the oligos were only homologous with the genes they were directed against . based on the blast algorithm , rat antisense molecules could react with gad rna of rat ( rattus norvegicus ) and mouse ( mus musculus ). further manual analysis of gad 67 revealed a 90 . 5 % sequence identity between rat , pig ( sus scrofa ) and human ( homo sapien ) at the mrna level surrounding the translation initiation site . manual analysis of gad 65 sequences indicate 85 . 7 % identify with human gad 65 in the region surrounding the initiation of translation site . based on the blast algorithm , human gad 65 antisense molecules could react with human gad - 2 mrna ( a glutamate decarboxylase gene found in the human pancreas ) and human gad 65 . the human gad 67 antisense molecule could react with human gad 67 ( both in the brain and pancreas isoforms ) and gad 67 from both pig and cat ( felis cactus ). the rat gad 67 antisense ( seq id no : 1 ) is composed of 23 . 8 % adenosine , 23 . 8 % cytosine , 33 . 3 % guanine , and 19 . 0 % thymine . the rat gad 65 antisense ( seq id no : 2 ) is composed of 14 . 3 % adenosine , 23 . 8 % cytosine , 38 . 1 % guanine , and 23 . 8 % thymine . the human gad 67 ( seq id no : 4 ) is composed of 23 . 8 % adenosine , 33 . 3 % cytosine , 28 . 6 % guanine , and 14 . 3 % thymine . the human gad 65 ( seq id no : 3 ) is composed of 14 . 3 % adenosine , 28 . 6 % cytosine , 33 . 3 % guanine , and 23 . 8 % thymine . a missense molecule to be used in control experiments was designed by scrambling the base order of the antisense molecule . this control oligonucleotide for the gad 67 studies was a scrambled nucleotide sequence of the monkey ( saimiri sciureus ) gad 67 antisense sequence : 5 ′- taggagcagactgagagggcg - 3 ′ ( seq id no : 6 ). the missense has the same percentages of each nucleotide as the antisense but the sequence has been changed . the missense oligonucleotides were analyzed using the ncbi blast server . the results of this analysis indicate that the missense molecules have no detectable homology with any known genes . the antisense oligonucleotide was dissolved in sterile artificial cerebrospinal fluid ( 124 mm nacl , 1 mm kcl , 2 . 4 mm cacl 2 , 26 mm nahco 3 , 1 . 24 mm nah 2 po 4 , 2 mm d - glucose , and 1 . 3 mm mgso 4 ) to a final concentration of 43 . 1 μm . this resulted in an infusion of 21 . 5 μm / hr over a 2 week period . initial studies have been conducted in adult male sprague - dawley rats ( 226 - 250 g ). animals were anesthetized with sodium pentobarbital and placed in standard stereotaxic frame . animals were given unilateral lesions of the nigrostriatal dopamine system using the neurotoxin 6 - hydroxdopamine - hydrobromide ( 6 - ohda - hbr ). two injections of 8 mm 6 - ohda - hbr in 0 . 9 % nacl containing 1 . 4 mm ascorbic acid were made into the substantial nigra pars compacta ( snc ) on one side of the brain . one injection was placed into the medial snc and the other into the lateral snc . four weeks after lesioning , rats were assessed for the degree of rotational asymmetry after injection with the dopamine agonist apomorphine . apomorphine - induced rotations in a direction away from the side of lesion is a standard measure of experimentally - induced parkinsonism in rats . the ability of a drug to attenuate apomorphine - induced rotations is an accepted measure of anti - parkinson efficacy . the number of complete 360 degree rotations was counted in 5 - minute epochs over a total observation period of 1 hour . rats rotating an average of 5 times per minute or more are considered to have at least 90 % lesion to the nigrostriatal dopamine system . animals with fewer rotations have lesser degrees of dopamine system damage . once animals were shown to have lesion - induced rotations in response to apomorphine administration , they were randomly assigned to receive antisense treatment or sham infusions . the antisense was delivered via alzet model 2002 mini asmotic pumps ( alza corp . palo alto , calif . ), and a 32 gauge custom cannula ( 9 . 5 mm below pedestal ) which were made by plastics one inc . ( roanoke , va .). these pumps are designed to pump at a rate of approximately 0 . 5 μl / hr for 14 days . this results in a total antisense infusion of 7 , 241 pmols . the pumps and cannula were prepared according to manufacturer instructions . briefly , the pumps were filled under sterile conditions with 250 microliters of either rat gad 67 antisense ( seq id no : 1 ) or control or missense ( seq id no : 6 ) vehicle solution . a flow moderator , cannula for brain infusion and 4 mm of connector tubing were connected and attached to the pump . the pump assembly was then primed over night at 37 ° c . in sterile saline . the pumps were implanted into animals the following day . for pump implantation , rats were anesthetized with sodium pentobarbital and placed in a standard stereotaxic device on a homeothermic blanket . core temperature was maintained at 37 ° c . in some animals the brain infusion cannula was implanted just above the entopeduncular nucleus ( the rodent analog of the gpi , 2 . 3 mm behind bregma , 2 . 5 mm lateral to the midline and 7 . 7 mm below the skull surface , according to the atlas of paxinos and watson ). other animals had the brain infusion cannula implanted just above the substantia nigra pars reticulate ( 5 . 3 mm behind bregma , 2 . 5 mm lateral to the midline , 8 . 2 mm below the skull surface , according to the atlas of paxinos and watson ). these two targets were chosen because they represent the two major output areas of the basal ganglia . overactivity of gaba - containing neurons in these brain regions are most likely responsible for the expression of parkinsonian symptoms . the cannulae were secured in place with dental acrylic . all animals had the alzet pump placed in a subcutaneous pocket located between the scapulae on the back . scalp wounds were closed with autoclip wound clips and rats were kept warm until they regained consciousness . rats were again tested for apomorphine - induced rotations at 7 and 14 days after osmotic pump implantation . fifteen to 17 days after pump implantation , animals were killed by decapitation and brains were immediately removed for analysis . brains were removed and either flash frozen on dry ice for immunohistochemistry or microdissected for hplc analysis of gaba content . additional antisense experiments were carried out whereby a single injection of antisense oligonucleotide was given to nine rats . these nine rats were lesioned with 6 - ohda , as described above . approximately 3 to 4 weeks after lesioning , rats were tested for apomorphine - induced rotational asymmetry as described above . once the integrity of the lesion was confirmed by a positive rotation response , animals were implanted with a guide cannula situated in the brain overlying the entopeduncular nucleus . within weeks of recovery from surgery , rotational asymmetry was assessed again to re - establish a baseline response . rats were then lightly anesthetized with an isofluorane / oxygen mixture and antisense oligonucleotide to gad 67 ( seq id no : 1 ) was slowly infused into the entopeduncular nucleus via an injection cannula inserted through the guide cannula . each injection contained 250 ng of antisense in 0 . 5 μl . three squirrel monkeys ( 1 male , 2 female ) were used for this pilot study . all animals had gross activity measures recorded while in an observation cage with use of an automated doppler - based activity monitoring system . activity measures were first recorded when animals were normal . at least 3 to 5 activity sessions were recorded , each lasting at least 2 to 3 hours . animals were then made parkinsonian by administration of several doses of the neurotoxin mptp ( 1 . 5 to 2 . 5 mg / kg , i . m .). toxin was administered until animals developed a stable parkinsonian syndrome . animals were stably parkinsonian for a minimum of 6 months prior to antisense treatment . in preparation for antisense administration , animals were implanted with dual cannulae overlying the internal segment of the globus pallidus bilaterally . after surgery , activity measures were recorded once again to insure that there was no shift in baseline activity measures . after at least a week recovery period following surgery , the monkeys were restrained in a primate chair and antisense oligonucleotide was slowing infused into the internal globus pallidus sites via internal cannulae inserted through the implanted guide cannulae . for each experiment , gad 67 ( seq id no : 5 ) oligonulceotide was diluted fresh in sterile artificial cerebrospinal fluid ( csf ). a total injection of 500 ng was made , with 250 ng injected into each of the sites on each side of the brain . the injection volume was 1 . 0 to 2 . 0 μl . following administration of antisense , animals were returned to their cages and activity monitoring began 24 to 48 hrs . later and was recorded at various times over the next 2 to 3 wks . after antisense studies were performed , the same procedure was repeated using a missense oligonucleotide that was a scrambled sequence of the antisense oligonucleotide . studies with the missense oligonucleotide ( seq id no : 5 ) were performed exactly as the antisense studies . in normal rats implanted with gad 67 antisense ( seq id no : 1 ) in the globus pallidus , hplc analysis showed that a 2 week antisense infusion into the entopeduncular nucleus caused on average 65 % reduction in gaba levels when compared with the contralateral untreated hemisphere . rats that had gad 67 antisense ( seq id no : 1 ) infused above the entopeduncular nucleus had the number of apomorphine - induced rotations reduced by an average of 52 %. rats that had the gad 67 antisense ( seq id no : 1 ) infused above the substantia nigra pars reticulata ( snr ) had the number of apomorphine - induced rotations reduced by an average of 31 %. the combined improvement in rotational asymmetry from both groups of animals is approximately 39 %. fig4 is a graphical representation of these results . a change in the surgical coordinates may improve the response to snr antisense infusion . simultaneous infusions into both structures may also improve the response . in comparison , rats that received sham infusion showed an increase in apomorphine - induced rotations of 23 % over the same time period . rats that had received the single injection method , apomorphine - induced rotations were reduced by an average of 34 % when measured 24 hours after infusion . by 6 days after infusion , rotations were increased 5 % above pre - antisense levels . the same rats received infusion of the scrambled oligonucleotide ( seq id no : 6 ) and these animals showed 25 % and 38 % increases in apomorphine - induced rotations 24 hours and 6 days , respectively , after control infusion . these data demonstrate the feasibility and efficacy of this treatment as a means to reduce parkinsonian symptomatology in a model commonly accepted for screening efficacy of potential new anti - parkinson therapeutics . the results of the monkey pilot study revealed that although the time courses and magnitudes of the effect differed slightly across the 3 animals , all animals showed an increase in spontaneous activity ( a lessening of akinesia and bradykinesia ) following antisense ( seq id no : 5 ) treatment but not following missense oligonucleotide ( seq id no : 6 ) treatment . individual animal differences could have been due to slight differences in placement of the injection cannulae and individual differences in the degree of parkinsonism and levels of spontaneous activity . nontheless , these non - human primate studies present proof of principle that the therapy has potential beneficial effects on the major symptoms of parkinson &# 39 ; s disease .
the present invention relates to a method of treatment of parkinson &# 39 ; s disease , and to the use of antisense oligonucleotides or triplex oligonucleotides introduced into targeted brain structures to decrease the function of brain circuits known to be overactive in the parkinsonian brain . antisense or triplex oligonucleotides are targeted to the internal globus pallidus and / or substantia nigra pars reticulata where the expression of glutamic acid decarboxylase is downregulated . the present invention also relates to a method of treatment of parkinson &# 39 ; s disease where antisense or triplex oligonucleotides are targeted to the internal globus pallidus and / or substantia nigra pars reticulata for the downregulation of glutamate receptors . the present invention further relates to a method of treatment of parkinson &# 39 ; s disease where antisense or triplex oligonucleotides are targeted to the thalamic motor nuclei for the downregulation of gaba receptors .