in the present invention , we identify a selective pde10 inhibitor . we use this and similarly selective pde10 inhibitors to determine that pde10 inhibitors have a characteristic and unique effect on cyclic nucleotide metabolism in a population of neurons which express pde10 at a high level , the striatal medium spiny neurons . these inhibitors also increase the phosphorylation of the transcription regulator camp response element binding protein ( creb ) in these neurons . creb phosphorylation is associated with changes in the transcription of a variety of genes . this , in turn , has functional consequences which include , but are not limited to , effects on neuronal survival and differentiation and changes in synaptic organization as reflected in augmentation of long term potentiation . we disclose here that pde10 inhibitors have such an effect in the medium spiny neurons , namely , to promote the differentiation of these neurons to a gaba phenotype . furthermore , we disclose that pde10 inhibitors have functional effects on the central nervous system in intact mammals . specifically , we disclose that pde10 inhibitors given to rats potentiate catalepsy induced by the dopamine d2 receptor antagonist haloperidol , but do not cause catalepsy when given alone at the same doses . pde10 inhibitors also inhibit the hyperlocomotion induced by the nmda receptor antagonist phencyclidine . these findings support the claims that pde10 inhibitors affect the central nervous system and can be therapeutically useful to treat the disorders of the central nervous system recited in the claims . pdes 2 , 3 and 5 , isozymes , including human pdes , can , for example , be prepared from corpus cavernosum ; pde1 , isozymes including human , from cardiac ventricle ; and pde4 , isozymes , including human , from skeletal muscle . pde6 can be prepared , for example , from canine retina . description of enzyme preparation from native tissue is described , for example , by boolell , m . et al ., int . j . impotence research 8 : 7 - 52 , 1996 , incorporated herein by reference . pdes 7 - 11 can similarly be prepared from native tissue . isozymes from the pdes 7 - 9 and 11 families can alternatively be generated from full length human recombinant clones transfected into , for example , sf9 cells as described in fisher , d . a ., et al ., biochem . biophys . res . comm . 246 , 570 - 577 , 1998 ; soderling , s . h . et al ., pnas 96 : 7071 - 7076 , 1999 ; fisher , d . a . et al ., j . biol . chem . 273 , 15559 - 15564 , 1998b ; and fawcett , l ., et al ., pnas 97 : 3702 - 3707 , 2000 ; respectively . pde10 can also be generated from a rat recombinant clone transfected into sf9 cells ( fujishige et al ., european journal of biochemistry , vol . 266 , 1118 - 1127 ( 1999 )). the enzymes are then prepared by fplc from the soluble fraction of cell lysates as described for pde6 . the aforementioned references are incorporated in their entireties herein by reference . in one assay , a substance is screened for inhibition of cyclic nucleotide hydrolysis by the pde10 and the pdes from the other gene families . the cyclic nucleotide substrate concentration used in the assay of each individual pde is ⅓ of the k m concentration , allowing for comparisons of ic 50 values across the different enzymes . pde activity is measured using a scintillation proximity assay ( spa )- based method as previously described ( fawcett et al ., 2000 ). the effect of pde inhibitors is determined by assaying a fixed amount of enzyme ( pdes 1 - 11 ) in the presence of varying substance concentrations and low substrate , such that the ic 50 approximates the k i ( cgmp or camp in a 3 : 1 ratio unlabelled to [ 3 h ]- labeled at a concentration of ⅓ km ). the final assay volume is made up to 100 μl with assay buffer [ 20 mm tris - hcl ph 7 . 4 , 5 mm mgcl 2 , 1 mg / ml bovine serum albumin ]. reactions are initiated with enzyme , incubated for 30 - 60 min at 30 ° c . to give & lt ; 30 % substrate turnover and terminated with 50 μl yttrium silicate spa beads ( amersham ) ( containing 3 mm of the respective unlabelled cyclic nucleotide for pdes 9 and 11 ). plates are re - sealed and shaken for 20 min , after which the beads were allowed to settle for 30 min in the dark and then counted on a topcount plate reader ( packard , meriden , conn .). radioactivity units can be converted to percent activity of an uninhibited control ( 100 %), plotted against inhibitor concentration and inhibitor ic 50 values can be obtained using the ‘ fit curve ’ microsoft excel extension . one example of a selective pde10 inhibitor is papaverine ( 1 -[( 3 , 4 - dimethoxyphenyl ) methyl ]- 6 , 7 - dimethoxyisoquinoline ). papaverine is a known effective smooth muscle relaxant used in the treatment of cerebral and coronary vasospasm as well as for erectile dysfunction . although the basis of these therapeutic activities is not well understood , they are generally ascribed to papaverine &# 39 ; s activity as a nonselective phosphodiesterase inhibitor ( the pharmacological basis of therapeutics ; sixth edition ; a . g . gilman , l . s . goodman , a . gilman ( eds .) macmillan publishing co ., new york , 1980 , p . 830 ). although papaverine is a naturally occurring plant alkaloid , its complete biosynthesis has been described , for example in brochmann - hanssen et al ., j . pharm . sci . 60 : 1672 , 1971 , which is incorporated herein by reference . a selective pde10 inhibitor may be administered according to the present invention either alone or in combination with pharmaceutically acceptable carriers , in either single or multiple doses . suitable pharmaceutical carriers include inert solid diluents or fillers , sterile aqueous solutions and various organic solvents . the pharmaceutical compositions formed thereby can then be readily administered in a variety of dosage forms such as tablets , powders , lozenges , syrups , injectable solutions and the like . these pharmaceutical compositions can , if desired , contain additional ingredients such as flavorings , binders , excipients and the like . thus , for purposes of oral administration , tablets containing various excipients such as sodium citrate , calcium carbonate and calcium phosphate may be employed along with various disintegrants such as starch , methylcellulose , alginic acid and certain complex silicates , together with binding agents such as polyvinylpyrrolidone , sucrose , gelatin and acacia . additionally , lubricating agents such as magnesium stearate , sodium lauryl sulfate and talc are often useful for tablefting purposes . solid compositions of a similar type may also be employed as fillers in soft and hard filled gelatin capsules . preferred materials for this include lactose or milk sugar and high molecular weight polyethylene glycols . when aqueous suspensions or elixirs are desired for oral administration , the essential active ingredient therein may be combined with various sweetening or flavoring agents , coloring matter or dyes and , if desired , emulsifying or suspending agents , together with diluents such as water , ethanol , propylene glycol , glycerin and combinations thereof . for parenteral administration , solutions containing a selective pde10 inhibitor in sesame or peanut oil , aqueous propylene glycol , or in sterile aqueous solution may be employed . such aqueous solutions should be suitably buffered if necessary and the liquid diluent first rendered isotonic with sufficient saline or glucose . these particular aqueous solutions are especially suitable for intravenous , intramuscular , subcutaneous and intraperitoneal administration . the sterile aqueous media employed are all readily available by standard techniques known to those skilled in the art . a selective pde10 inhibitor can be administered in the therapeutic methods of the invention orally , transdermally ( e . g ., through the use of a patch ), parenterally ( e . g . intravenously ), rectally , or topically . in general , the daily dosage of pde10 inhibitor for treating a disorder or condition according to the methods described herein will generally range from about 0 . 01 to about 100 mg / kg body weight of the patient to be treated . as an example , a selective pde10 inhibitor can be administered for treatment of , for example , a psychotic disorder or huntington &# 39 ; s disease , to an adult human of average weight ( about 70 kg ) in a dose ranging from about 1 mg up to about 7000 mg per day , preferably from about 1 mg to about 1000 mg per day , in single or divided ( i . e ., multiple ) portions . variations based on the aforementioned dosage ranges may be made by a physician of ordinary skill taking into account known considerations such as the weight , age , and condition of the person being treated , the severity of the affliction , and the particular route of administration chosen . the following examples illustrate the present invention . it is to be understood , however , that the invention , as fully described herein and as recited in the claims , is not intended to be limited by the details of the following examples . papaverine was screened for inhibition of cyclic nucleotide hydrolysis by pde10 and a battery of pdes from the other gene families . the cyclic nucleotides substrate concentration used in the assay of each individual pde was ⅓ of the km concentration . this allows for comparisons of ic 50 values across the different enzymes . pde activity was measured using the assay with yttrium silicate spa beads described above in the detailed description section . radioactivity units were converted to percent activity of an uninhibited control ( 100 %), plotted against inhibitor concentration and inhibitor ic 50 values obtained using the ‘ fit curve ’ microsoft excel extension . we observed that papaverine was an exceptionally potent , competitive inhibitor of pde10 with an ic 50 value of 18 nm ( table 1 ). papaverine was considerably less potent against all other pdes tested . after pde10 , the enzyme inhibited most potently by papaverine was pde4d with an ic 50 of 320 nm , a value 19 - fold lower than that for pde10 . thus , these data reveal for the first time that papaverine is a selective pde10 inhibitor and that this compound can be used in studies of this enzyme &# 39 ; s physiology . we examined the effects of papaverine , a selective pde10 inhibitor as determined in example 1 , on cyclic nucleotide metabolism in rat medium spiny neurons in primary culture . neurons cultured from e17 rat embryo striatum in the presence of bdnf displayed a phenotype very similar to that described previously ( ventimiglia et al ., eur . j . neurosci . 7 ( 1995 ) 213 - 222 ). approximately 50 % of these neurons stain positive for gaba immunoreactivity confirming the presence of medium spiny neurons in the cultures . expression of pde - 10 message in these cultures at 4 - 6 div was confirmed by rnaase protection assay . the striatal cultures were prepared as previously described ( ventimiglia et al ., eur . j . neurosci . 7 : 213 - 222 , 1995 ). briefly , striata ( caudate nucleus and putamen ) are dissected from e17 rats , were dissociated to produce a single cell suspension and plated at a density of 5 × 10 4 neurons / well in multiwell plates coated with poly - l - ornithine / laminin . the cells were plated in neurobasal medium with b27 supplements and bdnf ( 100 ng / ml ). experiments were typically performed after 4 days in vitro . medium spiny neurons comprise the majority of cells in these cultures ( 50 to 60 %, as confirmed by gaba immunoreactivity ). for the rnase protection assay , rna was prepared from these primary cultures of rat medium spiny neurons by centrifugation at 150 , 000 × g at 20 ° c . for 21 hr through a 5 . 7 m cesium chloride gradient as previously described ( iredale , p a , et al ., mol . pharmacol . 50 : 1103 - 1110 , 1996 ). the rna pellet was resuspended in 0 . 3 m sodium acetate , ph 5 . 2 , precipitated in ethanol and the concentration determined by spectrophotometry . the pde10 riboprobe was prepared by pcr amplification of a 914 bp fragment isolated from mouse cdna ( corresponding to bp 380 - bp 1294 ). this fragment was then cloned into pgem3zf . the vector was linearized and t7 rna polymerase was used to synthesize [ 32 p ]- labeled antisense riboprobe . the rnase protection assay was performed using the rpaii kit ( ambion ). briefly , 5 μg of total cellular rna was hybridized with [ 32 p ]- labeled pde10 riboprobe (˜ 105 cpm / sample ) overnight at 42 ° c . the following day the samples were incubated with rnase a and t1 for 30 min at 37 ° c . and the protected double - stranded rna fragments were then precipitated and run on a 6 % polyacrylamide gel containing urea . for analyzing effects of papaverine on cyclic nucleotides , the striatal cell cultures , after four days in vitro , were washed with ca 2 + / mg + free phosphate buffered saline and preincubated for an hour in a buffer containing ca 2 + / mg + free phosphate buffered saline , 30 mm hepes , cacl 2 1 mm , dextrose 1 mg / ml , and mgcl 2 5 mm . the striatal cells were exposed to phosphodiesterase inhibitors and incubated for twenty minutes at 37 degrees celsius . when measuring cgmp , the neurons were stimulated with sodium nitroprusside , a nitric oxide source for two minutes following the 20 - minute incubation with compound . when measuring camp , the neurons were stimulated with forskolin , an activator of adenylate cyclase for the duration of the twenty minute compound incubation . the cells were lysed using a 9 : 1 combination of camp spa direct screening assay buffer ( 0 . 05m acetate with 0 . 01 % sodium azide ) and buffer a ( 133 mg / ml dodecyltrimethylammonium bromide ) and the lysates were frozen on dry ice . a cgmp [ 1125 ] or camp [ 1125 ] scintillation proximity assay ( spa ) system ( amersham code rpa 540 and rpa 559 , respectively ) was used to detect the concentration of the respective cyclic nucleotide in the cell lysate . papaverine alone did not produce measurable changes in the basal level of either camp or cgmp in the striatal cultures . we therefore examined the effects of the compound under conditions in which camp or cgmp synthesis was stimulated with forskolin or the no donor sodium nitroprusside ( snp ), respectively . stimulation of the cultures with forskolin ( 0 . 1 - 10 μm ) for 20 min resulted in a concentration - dependent increase in camp levels . similarly , brief exposure of the cultures to snp ( 3 - 1000 μm ) for 2 min resulted in a concentration - dependent increase in cgmp levels . forskolin alone ( 10 μm ) did not alter cgmp concentrations nor did snp ( 300 μm ) increase camp levels . in order to determine the effects of papaverine on camp and cgmp metabolism , striatal cultures were incubated with various concentrations of the compound and then stimulated with submaximally effective concentrations of either forskolin ( 1 μm ) or snp ( 100 μm ). these concentrations of forskolin or snp caused a 2 - 3 fold increase over basal in camp and cgmp , respectively . papaverine caused a concentration - dependent increase in snp - induced cgmp accumulation with an ec 200 ( concentration of the inhibitor yielding a 2 - fold increase ) value of 11 . 7 μm ( table 2 ). a maximal effect was observed at 100 μm , at which cgmp levels were elevated 5 - fold over that in cultures stimulated with snp alone . papaverine also caused an increase in camp accumulation in forskolin - stimulated cultures . however , the compound was 3 . 3 - fold less potent at promoting an increase in camp than for cgmp . the effects of papaverine in the striatal cultures were compared to other pde inhibitors with different selectivities ( table 2 ). ibmx , a nonselective inhibitor caused a concentration dependent ( 3 - 100 μm ) increase in both cgmp and camp accumulation in snp - or forskolin - stimulated cultures with ec 200 values of 19 and 30 μm , respectively . the selective pde4 inhibitor rolipram increased forskolin stimulated camp accumulation with an ec 200 value of 2 . 5 μm and required 10 - fold higher concentrations to double the rate of cgmp accumulation . zaprinast , an inhibitor of cgmp preferring pdes , doubled the camp levels in these neurons at a concentration of 98 μm . however , 100 μm of this compound did not quite double the level of cgmp . these data reveal for the first time that papaverine has a unique effect on cyclic nucleotide regulation in medium spiny neurons and that this effect is due to the selectivity for pde10 . studies in human and non - human mammals indicate that the basal ganglia regulate a range of motor as well as cognition and emotional / appetitive behaviors ( graybiel , a . m . current biology 10 ( 14 ): r509 - 11 , 2000 ). experimental models in rodents have been developed which can be used to assess the effects of compounds on basal ganglia function . we find that papaverine has an unanticipated unique profile of behavioral effects in two such models . the effect of papaverine alone and in combination with haloperidol was tested for the ability to induce catalepsy in male cd rats . this animal model is used to analyze the effects of compounds on basal ganglia output . papaverine ( 1 . 0 , 3 . 2 , 10 , or 32 mg / kg .) or vehicle was administered subcutaneously . for some experiments , this was immediately followed by haloperidol . thirty minutes after drug administration ( s ), the degree of catalepsy was quantified by placing the animals forepaws on an elevated ( 10 cm ) bar ( 1 cm diameter ) and determining the latency to remove both forepaws from the bar with a latency cutoff of 30 sec . latencies were ranked within each treatment group for comparison by a kruskall - wallace analysis of variance . post hoc analysis was by the mann whitney u test . the antipsychotic agent haloperidol produces robust catalepsy in this model , as previously described ( chartoff , e et al ., j pharmacol . exp . ther . 291 : 531 - 537 , 1999 ). a maximally effective dose of haloperidol was found to be 1 mg / kg , s . c . in contrast , papaverine did not induce catalepsy when administered alone at a dose of up to 32 mg / kg s . c . ( p = 0 . 86 ). however as shown in fig1 papaverine potentiated the cataleptic effect of a submaximal dose of haloperidol ( 0 . 32 mg / kg , s . c . in 0 . 3 % tartaric acid ) ( p & lt ; 0 . 001 ). the minimum effective dose of papaverine for potentiation of haloperidol - induced catalepsy is 3 . 2 mg / kg , s . c . this experiment demonstrated that papaverine can alter basal ganglia output in a direction consistent with antipsychotic activity . effect of a selective pde 10 inhibitor in animal model for psychosis we next examined the effect of papaverine on locomotor activity in rats as measured in a shuttle box . reduction of pcp - stimulated locomotion in rodents is accepted as a primary screen in the search for novel antipsychotic agents . newer atypical antipsychotic agents generally demonstrate a preferential inhibition of pcp - versus amphetamine - stimulated locomotor activity . adult , male , sprague - dawley rats ( 250 - 300 g ) were obtained from charles river ( wilmington , mass .). locomotor activity was assessed using crossover behavior in commercially available shuttle boxes ( coulbourn instruments , allentown , pa .). data was collected in 5 minute intervals for 1 hour after drug administration . animals received either vehicle ( 5 % dmso , 5 % emulphor , 90 % saline ) phencyclidine ( pcp , sigma chem . co .) or amphetamine sulfate ( rbi ) followed immediately by either vehicle or test compound . statistical analysis was performed using the student &# 39 ; s t - test . the psychostimulants amphetamine and phencyclidine ( pcp ) both produce a robust increase in locomotor activity in this model . papaverine alone ( 32 mg / kg , i . p .) produced a small decrease in locomotor activity which was statistically significant in some studies ( fig2 ). however , this same dose of papaverine produced a significant reduction in the locomotor activity stimulated by 3 . 2 mg / kg , i . p . phencyclidine without effecting that produced by a behaviorally equivalent dose of amphetamine ( 1 mg / kg , i . p .). in another experiment using such a locomotor animal screen , papaverine was coadministered with amphetamine ( 1 mg / kg , s . c .) or pcp ( 3 . 2 mg / kg , s . c .) and locomotion measured for 30 minutes . in this experiment , papaverine effectively inhibited both amphetamine and pcp stimulated locomotion . the results of both of the above experiments show that papaverine has a behavioral effect on locomotion consistent with an antipsychotic profile . in examples 5 - 7 , below , the selective pde10 inhibitor and the selective pde1b inhibitor were determined according to an assay as described in the detailed description of the invention ( table 3 shows the ic 50 in μm of the selective pde10 inhibitor for pdes 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 , and 11 ): medium spiny neuron cultures were prepared as discussed in example 2 from striata from e17 or e18 rat embryos . the striata were digested with trypsin and the dissociated cells plated on poly - l - omithine / laminin coated plates in neurobasal medium containing b27 supplement . for assays of cyclic nucleotide formation and creb phosphorylation , neurons are also supplemented with 50 ng / ml bdnf and used at 6 div . at this time , approximately 90 % of the cells are of neuronal morphology and 50 % stain positively for gaba . in medium spiny neuron culture , we found that selective inhibitors for pde10 and pde1b , and rolipram ( which is selective for pde4 ) potentiate the increase in accumulation of camp ( fig3 ) or cgmp ( fig4 ) stimulated with forskolin or snap , respectively . however , there was no detectable change in camp or cgmp levels when the compounds were added in the absence of a stimulus . the pde inhibitors were differentiated by the potencies with which they potentiated the increase in camp versus cgmp ( table 3 ). in table 3 , potency is expressed as the ec 200 , i . e . the concentration of pde inhibitor which increases by 200 % the forskolin - or snap - induced increase in camp or cgmp , respectively . camp and cgmp activate protein kinases pka and pkg , respectively . both kinases are capable of phosphorylating the transcription regulator creb . we examined the effects of the selective pde inhibitors in table 3 on phosphorylation of creb as a downstream event in the cyclic nucleotide signaling cascade . stimulation with forskolin produced a robust increase in creb phosphorylation , as measured by western blotting . the selective pde 10 inhibitor and rolipram also increased creb phosphorylation as measured by western blotting . a comparison of the effect of the selective pde 10 inhibitor and of rolipram is shown in fig5 . the rank order of efficacy in increasing creb phosphorylation was determined to be forskolin & gt ; selective pde 10 inhibitor & gt ; rolipram . the selective pde 1b inhibitor was inactive in increasing creb phosphorylation . the transcriptional events activated following creb phosphorylation are involved in the survival and differentiation of neurons . we investigated whether the pde inhibitors in table 3 effect the survival and differentiation of the medium spiny neurons . these experiments were conducted using a protocol used by ventimiglia et al . ( see ventimiglia et al ., 1995 , supra ) to assay the effects of bdnf on these processes in medium spiny neurons . specifically , the pde inhibitors were added to the medium spiny neuron culture medium at the time of plating , and then at 6 div various parameters related to neuronal survival and differentiation were quantified using the array scan system from cellomics , inc ( pittsburgh , pa ., usa ). of the parameters examined , we found that the selective pde 10 inhibitor strikingly increased the number of gabaergic neurons ( fig6 ). blue - nuclei ; green - neuron ; red - neuron staining positively for gaba . the selective pde 10 inhibitor was as effective as bdnf , whereas rolipram and the selective pde 1b inhibitor had no effect ( fig7 ). a high expression of pde10 mrna in striatum , nucleus accumbens , and olfactory tubercle using in sftu hybridization has already been reported ( seeger , t . f . et al ., supra ). using monoclonal antibody for pde10 protein , a correspondingly high level of pde10 protein in these brain regions has also been found ( menniti , f . s ., strick , c . a ., seeger , t . f ., and ryan , a . m ., immunihistochemical localization of pde10 in the rat brain , supra ). within the striatum and n . accumbens , we found pde10 mrna expressed at high levels in the medium spiny neurons . medium spiny neurons are the output neurons of the striatum , n . accumbens , and olfactory tubercle ; and represent approximately 95 % of all the neurons in these brain structures . furthermore , a high level of pde10 protein was observed in the projections ( axons and terminals ) of medium spiny neurons projecting from the striatum , n . accumbens , and olfactory tubercle into other brain regions , including the globus pallidus and substantia nigra . these latter brain regions themselves have low or undetectable levels of pde10 mrna . therefore , the high level of pde10 protein in these regions arises from the axons and terminals of the medium spiny neurons . in addition , pde10 mrna and protein is expressed at lower levels in neurons of other brain regions , including the cortex , hippocampus and cerebellum . the high levels of pde10 expression in the striatum and nucleus accumbens are particularly interesting given that these are the major cortical input nuclei of the basal ganglia as well as the principal terminal fields for the midbrain dopaminergic projections . the striatum and its ventral extension , the nucleus accumbens , receive glutamatergic afferents from virtually every region of the cerebral cortex and function as a subcortical integration site for a wide range of cortical activities . the dorsal striatum is generally considered to be involved in the regulation of motor behavior whereas the ventral regions , including the accumbens , function in the regulation of emotional / appetitive behaviors . thus , we believe that pde10 is likely to be involved in signaling pathways that regulate a number of these basic physiological processes . in fact , we disclose that inhibition of pde10 has effects on cyclic nucleotide metabolism and creb signaling in the medium spiny neurons that are distinct from those caused by inhibition of pde 4 or pde 1 , the other major pdes expressed by these neurons . we also disclose that pde10 inhibitors have demonstrable effects on basal ganglia function in vivo . selective pde10 , 4 and 1 inhibitors each increased the accumulation of cgmp and / or camp in medium spiny neurons stimulated with snap or forskolin , respectively ( fig3 and 4 ). however , the inhibitors differed in the ratio of potency for affecting the two cyclic nucleotides ( table 3 ). these differences likely reflect the intrinsic affinity of pdes 10 , 4 , and 1b for the two cyclic nucleotides as well as differential access of the different pdes to cyclic nucleotide pools . notably , these inhibitors have no measurable effect on camp and cgmp levels in the absence of stimulation . phosphorylation of creb is one of the downstream events activated by the cyclic nucleotide signaling cascades . we demonstrate that a selective pde10 inhibitor and a selective pde 4 inhibitor increased creb phosphorylation , with the selective pde 10 inhibitor being more potent and efficacious . these effects occur when the compounds are added without other stimuli and , therefore , in the absence of detectable changes in cyclic nucleotide levels . we have shown that a selective pde 1b inhibitor is inactive . these results indicate that pde10 plays a unique role in cyclic nucleotide signaling in medium spiny neurons and , in particular , pde10 appears to be associated with the regulation of creb phosphorylation . the distinct effects of pde10 inhibition elucidated in the in . vitro systems correspond to unique effects of pde10 inhibition on the function of the basal ganglia in vivo . we disclose that the selective pde10 inhibitor papaverine potentiates the cataleptic effect of the dopamine d2 receptor antagonist haloperidol , without producing catalepsy alone . furthermore , this compound reduces the locomotor hyperactivity induced by the nmda receptor antagonist phencyclidine . this pharmacological profile of papaverine predicts that it and all pde10 inhibitors would be useful for the treatment of neurological and psychiatric disorders which involve dysfunction within the basal ganglia , as discussed below . cortical input to the striatum provides the primary excitatory drive for the gabaergic medium spiny neurons . glutamatergic activation of the medium spiny neurons is in turn regulated by the massive dopaminergic input from the midbrain . the antagonistic nature of these two afferent systems has been demonstrated in numerous studies . for example , locomotor stimulant activity in laboratory animals can be produced by either dopamine receptor agonists or antagonists of the nmda subtype of the glutamate receptor ( carlsson , m . l . and carlsson , a . trends neurosci . 13 : 272 - 276 , 1990 ). the cataleptic effect of d 2 dopamine receptor antagonists such as haloperidol is reduced by nmda receptor antagonists as is haloperidol - induced gene expression ( chartoff , e et al ., j pharmacol . exp . ther . 291 : 531 - 537 , 1999 ). more recently , it has been demonstrated that the blockade of d 2 dopamine receptors results in an increase in the phosphorylated or activated state of striatal nmda receptors ( leveque et al ., journal of neuroscience 20 ( 11 ): 4011 - 4020 , 2000 ). the recognition that all clinically effective antipsychotics possess potent d 2 antagonist activity lead to the original hypothesis that the symptoms of schizophrenia are the result of excessive activity in the mesolimbic dopamine system . the ability of a chemical compound to reduce the stimulant properties of direct or indirect dopamine agonists became an important laboratory test in the search for new antipsychotic agents . more recently , the ability of nmda receptor antagonists such as pcp to faithfully reproduce the positive , negative and cognitive symptoms of schizophrenia in man ( luby et al ., 1959 ; rosenbaum et al , 1959 ; krystal et al . 1994 ) has lead to the development of the hypofrontality theory of schizophrenia . simply put , this hypothesis proposes that striatally - mediated behavioral inhibition is deficient in schizophrenia as a consequence of reduced glutamatergic and specifically , nmda receptor - mediated , neurotransmission . this hypothesis is entirely consistent with the known antipsychotic effect of d 2 dopamine receptor antagonists given their ability to disinhibit directly or indirectly cortical input to the striatum ( as described above ). the fidelity with which pcp replicates the symptoms of schizophrenia in humans has lead to the use of pcp - stimulated locomotion in rodents as a primary screen in the search for novel antipsychotic agents . the demonstration that newer and presumably more efficacious atypical antipsychotic agents demonstrate preferential activity against pcp - over amphetamine - stimulated locomotor activity would appear to supports this approach ( gleason s . d . and shannon h . e . psychopharmacol . 129 : 79 - 84 , 1997 ). although current approaches to antipsychotic therapy generally target membrane receptors , we propose here that intracellular manipulations of pde10 within the medium spiny neurons can also produce antipsychotic effects . increases in camp and pka activity are known to enhance the response of striatal neurons to glutamate agonists including nmda ( colwell , c . s . and m . s . levine , j neuroscience 15 ( 3 ) 1704 - 1713 , 1995 ). the neuroleptic action of haloperidol is also dependent on increases in camp levels ( ward , r . p . and d . m . dorsa , neuroscience 89 ( 3 ): 927 - 938 , 1999 ) and pka activation ( adams , m . r . et al ., proc natl acad sci usa 94 : 12157 - 12161 , 1997 ). striatal cgmp levels are also increased after d 2 receptor blockade ( altar , c . a . et al ., eur j . pharmacol . 181 : 17 - 21 , 1990 ), and pkg is known to phosphorylate some of the same downstream substrates as pka , including the endogenous inhibitor of protein phosphatase i , darp ( greengard p et al ., brain res . rev . 26 : 274 - 284 , 1998 ). therefore , we hypothesized that agents able to selectively increase cyclic nucleotide levels in medium spiny neurons in the striatum could reasonably be expected to augment striatal function with a resulting antipsychotic effect , and that a pde10 inhibitor will have therapeutic efficacy in the treatment of psychosis because such a compound will inhibit the pde10 catalyzed metabolism of camp and cgmp , increasing the levels of these cyclic nucleotides in the medium spiny neurons . in addition to psychosis , abnormal function of the basal ganglia has been implicated in a variety of neuropsychiatric conditions including attention - deficit / hyperactivity disorder ( adhd ) and related attentional disorders ( seeman , p . et al ., molecular psychiatry 3 : 386 - 96 , 1998 ), depression ( kapur , s ., biol . psychiatry 32 : 1 - 17 , 1992 ; willner , p ., brain res . 287 : 225 - 236 , 1983 ) obsessive comulsive disorders including tourette &# 39 ; s syndrome and other tic disorders ( graybiel am . rauch sl . toward a neurobiology of obsessive - compulsive disorder . neuron . 28 ( 2 ): 343 - 7 , 2000 ) and substance abuse ( self , d . w . annals of med . 30 : 379 - 389 , 1998 ). several neurological disorders including parkinson &# 39 ; s disease , restless leg syndrome ( hening , w . et al ., sleep 22 : 970 - 999 , 1999 ) and huntington &# 39 ; s disease ( vonsattel j p et al ., neuropathological classification of huntington &# 39 ; s disease . j . neuropathol . exp . neurol . 44 : 559 - 577 . 1985 ) are also linked to basal ganglia dysfunction . thus , based on our studies described herein , we believe that a pde10 inhibitor will have a therapeutic impact on such disorders . creb phosphorylation induces transcription of a variety of genes which can have a variety of effectos on neuronal function , including enhancing the survival and / or differentiation of neurons . we disclose that selective pde10 inhibitors can increase the differentiation of medium spiny neurons to a gabaergic phenotype ( fig6 ). rolipram ( the selective pde4 inhibitor ) and the selective pde 1b inhibitor did not demonstrate such activity ( fig7 ). the effects of pde10 inhibition on creb phosphorylation are particularly noteworthy with regard to the treatment of neurodegenerative conditions such as huntington &# 39 ; s disease . also , creb phosphorylation in medium spiny neurons and differentiation of medium spiny neurons to a gabaergic phenotype each provide a useful means for identifiecation of organic compounds having activity as selective pde 10 inhibitors . the data herein indicate a unique role for pde10 in the differentiation and / or survival of medium spiny neurons . these neurons are selectively vulnerable in huntington &# 39 ; s disease and it has been hypothesized that this may result from a loss of trophic support for these neurons ( zuccato et al . loss of huntingtin - mediated bdnf gene transcription in huntington &# 39 ; s disease . science . 293 : 493 - 498 , 2001 ). we conclude that selective pde 10 inhibitors have neurotrophic activity with respect to medium spiny neurons . we furthermore conclude that pde 10 inhibitors are likely to have neurotrophic activity with respect to any neurons that express pde 10 , and that pde 10 inhibitors are therefore useful for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases , including , but not limited to , the neuodegenerative diseases identified herein . finally , pde10 mrna and protein are expressed also in neurons of the hippocampus and cortex . since cognitive processes are dependant on hippocampus and cortex functioning , we believe that pde10 also plays a role in cognitive processes and that a pde10 inhibitor can also be used to treat disorders having a characteristic component of deficient cognitive and / or attention function , such as alzheimer &# 39 ; s disease and age - related cognitive decline ( arcd ).
the invention provides a method for treating certain neurologic and psychiatric disorders in mammals , including humans , comprising administration of a selective pde10 inhbitor . in particular , the invention relates to treatment of mood , movement , and anxiety disorders ; psychosis ; drug , for example alcohol , addiction ; disorders having as a symptom deficient cognition ; and neurodegenerative disorders and conditions . the invention furthermore provides the use of papaverine as a selective inhibitor of pde10 . the invention also provides assays for identifying chemical compounds that have activity as selective pde10 inhibitors .