Autonomous Vehicle as a Social Factor: History, Benefits, Forces, Problems, and Opportunities
Abstract

“Technology” is a term that will pale if it is abstracted from its social context. From culture to culture, technology’s triumph is never its own triumph, because marketing interests, political decisions, social alternation, economic condition all lead to it. Massive technology itself is never an “isolated genius”. In this paper, Autonomous Vehicle is articulated through the history and evolution of Self-Driving Cars and related human involvement. The evolvement of autopilot vehicles through social relations will also be discussed with the following social problems and future opportunities.

Introduction: What is Autonomous Vehicle

Autonomous vehicle (AV) is also called Self-Driving car. It describes a vehicle that is capable of sensing its environment and moving safely with little human interference. (Taeihagh, 2019, p.39) Because of inconsistent terminology, classification, and levels proposed by different organizations, the standard for “automatic” used in the industry are varied. To be more specific, a Self-Driving Car can also be called a Connected and Autonomous Vehicle (CAV), Driverless Car, Robo-car, or Robotic car. Combined with a variety of sensors and software, the autopilot system allows a car to operate and stay in control safely by itself.

The History and Evolution of Self-Driving Cars and Human Involvement

“The social and cultural context in which a work was created is an integral part of it, one that cannot and should not be slighted in apprehending the work at a later time.” (Csikszentmihalyi & Robinson, 1990, p.51) Most of the time, social and historical context should be considered a significant contributor to innovation. Although modern technology does not support us to communicate across the boundaries of time from era to era, looking back to history can give us systematic background information.

In Fabian Kröger’s Automated Driving in Its Social, Historical, and Cultural Contexts, it traces central elements in the pictorial and technological history of driverless cars. (Kröger, 2016) Here are some of the turning points I capture:

In the 1500s, the first blueprint for a self-propelled cart is sketched by Leonardo De Vinci, while the concept still sounds impossibly futuristic.

In the 1920s, the dream begins, and experiments have been conducted, although the idea back to 100 years ago sounded abstruse or even illusory at that time.

In the 1970s, the first semi-automated car was developed by Japan’s Tsukuba Mechanical Engineering Laboratory. However, special assistant including an especially marked environment, analog computer, and cameras is still required.

In the 1980s, CMU had pioneered to steer control autonomous vehicles. Although the speed and brake had to be controlled, the vehicles can travel 2,797 miles.

In the 2000s, self-parking systems began to emerge. During the meantime, the U.S. Department of Defense’s research arm sponsored a series of challenges that pushed the technologies forward.

In the 2010s, Tesla’s semi-autonomous “Autopilot” with hands-free control feature was introduced in 2015. Automobile manufactories are all racing to build autonomous vehicles.

Benefits and forces for the technology revolution

Albert Borgmann (2010) mentions in his article “Reality and Technology” that although technology is economically precise, its cultural and moral force needs explication. Technology is a massive and seductive force. According to him, the technology revolution is propelled by two major forces: (1). the change from the provision of relief and (2). the pursuit of pleasure. (Borgmann, 2010, p33) Two forces for Automotive vehicle technology will be discussed are (1). safety consideration and (2). more pleasurable comfortable travel experiences. The innovation facilitation is not just because of the technology breakthrough and hardware improvement. The combination of economic facilitation, political decision, insurance push, traffic condition also matters. In this way, the social contexts that those artifacts are situated are also mentioned.

Improved Driving Safety

It is commonly believed that autonomous vehicles reduce traffic accidents and fatalities. The developers of Google states that Automotive vehicle technology will reduce casualties of traffic accidents to half compared with nowadays. (Thurn, 2010) The reasons include:

(1). The reaction speed of Computers is far faster than human brains.

(2). Digital algorithms are not temperamental, emotional psychological effects

(3). The operating system cannot interfere with drugs or alcohol products and it never gets sleepy.

However, if the self-driving services become publicly available, the economic aspects can be seen as the highest priority to both individuals, insurances, and manufactories. Then will it create safety concern, and will the standard still meet our safety expectations? If autonomous vehicles are as safe as expected, the accidents by human factors would decrease and insurance companies might rethink traditional business models that work for the novel circumstances. In the meantime, new systemic solutions to guarantee safety in organizations including regulations, authorities, and safety culture will also be altered. A new transformation of automatization markets and business models will occur.

More Convenient and Pleasurable Travel Experience

It is not hard to imagine that improved and more comfortable driving experience will be brought by Automotive Vehicle Technology. The boring driving process can become a relaxing trip, and the passengers are welcomed to multitask both work and leisure-related activities while in the vehicles. In other words, people inside the self-driving cars can use time doing other things and spend this time to do pleasurable and productive activities.

A new socio-technological system for autonomous vehicles will be another outcome due to the new transportation plans. Although current studies show ambiguity and low predictability of long-term impact, it can assist with achieving a radical improvement in future transportation. (Aleksey & Maria, 2020) Efficient travel and ease of commuting make people care less about leaving far away from the working spaces. It can also lead to decreased urbanization and a new organization of urban space. What’s more, ownership may not be necessary. If sharing services developed and it evenly spreads out the population, the urban environment can be improved.

Other potential Social Problems

Intentionally or unintentionally, any groundbreaking change brings social issues and the self-driving vehicle will not be an exception. However, automotive vehicle technology should not be the ones to be blamed for. Attribute the tragedies to the hardware itself is like attributing crimes to the victims. “When designing interactive systems, it is critical to understand the social and collaborative aspects of interaction and experience.” (Forlizzi & Battarbee, 2004, p.266) When it comes to the social determinants of technology, what matters is the social and economic system it is in. Only if we stop victim-blaming and start to look at the social context of these man-made systems, the analyzation can be subjective and valuable. The following paragraphs will discuss: (1). Social Structure Changes and Unemployment, (2). Intensification of Social Inequality, and (3). Cyber-security Issue.

Social Structure Changes and Unemployment

Industry structure transformation comes with the evolution of self-driving cars. It is hard to tell whether it is more beneficial or harmful to our society, but to adapt to industrial innovation, factories and organizations will develop advanced routines and rules. “Success rests on the combination of people, skill sets, artifacts modes of organization.” (Matthewman, 2011, p.22) When a new industry just generates and a supply chain just launched, traditional skills and modes can no longer be used. Although new career fields will be created, people who earn their living from driving will suddenly be out of their traditional jobs. Since driving is their main skill in society, it will be difficult for such unemployed workers to quickly find new work, and the cost of giving unemployment benefits and training those low-skilled workers could be high. The domestic job loss also causes other social problems including homelessness, social isolation, increasing crime rates.

Intensification of Social Inequality

Technologies of transit are not neutral. “The technological deck has been stacked in advance to favor certain social interests and that some people were bound to receive a better hand than others.” (Winner, 1986). The increasing use of self-driving vehicles is also possible to lead to new forms of social difference. In other words, the new industries and products can globally cause unevenly distributed across classed and racial lines. In Autonomous automobilities: The social impacts of driverless vehicles. Current Sociology, the authors question how autonomous technology might reflect the values and preferences. (Bissell et al. 2018) Women may be marginalized in the evolution of autonomous systems, as same as what has been observed in other male-dominated fields including Robotics Engineering and Software Development.

“Technologies can be used in ways that enhance the power, authority, and privilege of some over others.” (Winner, L, 1986, p.25). During the 20th century, Robert Moses embodied the social class biases in the design of his low overpasses to Jones Beach that constructed in a way to achieve some sort of social effect. Some designs are intended, and some are not, but artifacts serve a purpose to favor some social/political interests and some groups of people. Sometimes sacrifices occur. It is likely that automobility has similar impacts. What’s more, how old people and people with disabilities can use the driving service stays unknown.

Cyber-security Issue

The increasing scale of hardcore technological innovations also creates cyber-security issues. Matthewman argues, although technology affects history, it is not able to drive it since it cannot be distorted from human desires, needs, and passions. (Matthewman. 2011, p.9) Automotive software involves digital algorithms, while the algorithms are designed by companies, which leaves a possibility for surveillance. Any flaws in the tracking, data-receiving, and the regulating process can be exploited. Especially during the early stage of the application, the driving system might be hacked due to an abundance of digital infrastructure. What’s more, it keeps debatable about who should be accessed to the automotive data and user information under varied conditions. This leaves the self-driving innovations a great social problem about generating, sending, and generated user data more securely.

Conclusion

Besides technological, ethical, regulatory challenges, and legal challenges, a more advanced system and design for social alternation are still necessary. Automotive Vehicle Technology leaves not only a brand-new way to build new social order in the world but also a field for designers and researchers to explore. As designers, we are still not sure the way that self-driving car will transform their driving experience. There are three elements of technological normalization: institutional, contextual, and systemic (Matthewman. 2011, p.25) What will the Automotive vehicles be? Will machines give labor, support human, or take labor? (Automation, Augmentation, or Heteromation) How people will spend their time on the road and how to improve the experience? The emotional perceptional and expressional stage of car travel stays unknown. For the design of future automotive vehicles, first, the safety of both drivers and passengers should be the priority. Secondly, Usefulness, convenience, reliability, accessibility should be considered in order to increase the acceptance of autonomous vehicles. However, what about other aspects? There are also other factors for acceptance and many challenges on the way.

Reference

Aleksey Z., & Maria R. (2020). Impact of Self-driving Cars for Urban Development. Форсайт, 14 (1 (eng)), 70–84. doi: 10.17323/2500–2597.2020.1.70.84

Bissell, David & Birtchnell, Thomas & Elliott, Anthony & Hsu, Eric. (2018). Autonomous automobilities: The social impacts of driverless vehicles. Current Sociology. 001139211881674. 10.1177/0011392118816743.

Borgmann, A., 2010. “Reality and technology,” Cambridge Journal of Economics, Oxford University Press, vol. 34(1), pages 27–35, January.

Csikszentmihalyi, M. C., & Robinson, R. R. (1990). The Art of Seeing. In The Major Dimensions of the Aesthetic Experience (pp. 27–72). J. Paul Getty Museum and the Getty Education Institute for the Arts. https://www.punyamishra.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/09/csikzentmihaly-dimensionsofaesthetics.pdf

Forlizzi, J., & Battarbee, K. (2004, August). Understanding experience in interactive systems. In Proceedings of the 5th conference on Designing interactive systems: processes, practices, methods, and techniques (pp. 261–268).

Kröger F. (2016) Automated Driving in Its Social, Historical and Cultural Contexts. In: Maurer M., Gerdes J., Lenz B., Winner H. (eds) Autonomous Driving. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-48847-8_3

Matthewman, S. (2011). Technology and Social Theory. Chapter 1, pp. 8–28

Shubbak, M., Self-Driving Cars: Legal, Social, and Ethical Aspects (December 18, 2013). Available at SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=2931847 or http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2931847

Taeihagh, A., Lim, M. (2 January 2019). “Governing autonomous vehicles: emerging responses for safety, liability, privacy, cybersecurity, and industry risks”. Transport Reviews. 39 (1): 103–128.

Thrun, S., 2010. What We’re Driving At [online], OFFICIAL GOOGLE BLOG, available from: http://googleblog.blogspot.com/2010/10/what-were-driving-at.html [Accessed 12 December 2013]

Winner, L. (1986). Do artifacts have politics? In The whale and the reactor, pp. 19–39. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
['Qingran Ni']
['Autonomous Vehicles', 'Social', 'Robotics', 'Self Driving Cars', 'Driverless Car Technology']