# Physics Formulas

Document Sample

					Physics Formulary

By ir. J.C.A. Wevers

c 1995, 2005 J.C.A. Wevers Dear reader,

Version: April 14, 2005

A This document contains a 108 page LTEX ﬁle which contains a lot equations in physics. It is written at advanced undergraduate/postgraduate level. It is intended to be a short reference for anyone who works with physics and often needs to look up equations.

This, and a Dutch version of this ﬁle, (johanw@vulcan.xs4all.nl).

can be obtained from the author,

Johan Wevers

It can also be obtained on the WWW. See http://www.xs4all.nl/˜johanw/index.html, where also a Postscript version is available. If you ﬁnd any errors or have any comments, please let me know. I am always open for suggestions and possible corrections to the physics formulary. This document is Copyright 1995, 1998 by J.C.A. Wevers. All rights are reserved. Permission to use, copy and distribute this unmodiﬁed document by any means and for any purpose except proﬁt purposes is hereby granted. Reproducing this document by any means, included, but not limited to, printing, copying existing prints, publishing by electronic or other means, implies full agreement to the above non-proﬁt-use clause, unless upon explicit prior written permission of the author. This document is provided by the author “as is”, with all its faults. Any express or implied warranties, including, but not limited to, any implied warranties of merchantability, accuracy, or ﬁtness for any particular purpose, are disclaimed. If you use the information in this document, in any way, you do so at your own risk.
A A The Physics Formulary is made with teTEX and LTEX version 2.09. It can be possible that your LTEX version has problems compiling the ﬁle. The most probable source of problems would be the use of large bezier curves and/or emTEX specials in pictures. If you prefer the notation in which vectors are typefaced in boldface, uncomment the redeﬁnition of the \vec command in the TEX ﬁle and recompile the ﬁle.

Johan Wevers

Contents
Contents Physical Constants 1 Mechanics 1.1 Point-kinetics in a ﬁxed coordinate system . . . . . . . . 1.1.1 Deﬁnitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1.2 Polar coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2 Relative motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3 Point-dynamics in a ﬁxed coordinate system . . . . . . . 1.3.1 Force, (angular)momentum and energy . . . . . 1.3.2 Conservative force ﬁelds . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3.3 Gravitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3.4 Orbital equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3.5 The virial theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4 Point dynamics in a moving coordinate system . . . . . 1.4.1 Apparent forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4.2 Tensor notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5 Dynamics of masspoint collections . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5.1 The centre of mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5.2 Collisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.6 Dynamics of rigid bodies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.6.1 Moment of Inertia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.6.2 Principal axes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.6.3 Time dependence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.7 Variational Calculus, Hamilton and Lagrange mechanics 1.7.1 Variational Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.7.2 Hamilton mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.7.3 Motion around an equilibrium, linearization . . . 1.7.4 Phase space, Liouville’s equation . . . . . . . . 1.7.5 Generating functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Electricity & Magnetism 2.1 The Maxwell equations . . . . . . . . . . 2.2 Force and potential . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3 Gauge transformations . . . . . . . . . . 2.4 Energy of the electromagnetic ﬁeld . . . . 2.5 Electromagnetic waves . . . . . . . . . . 2.5.1 Electromagnetic waves in vacuum 2.5.2 Electromagnetic waves in matter . 2.6 Multipoles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.7 Electric currents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.8 Depolarizing ﬁeld . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.9 Mixtures of materials . . . . . . . . . . . I 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 6 6 6 6 6 6 7 7 7 8 9 9 9 10 10 10 10 11 11 11 12 12

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II

Physics Formulary by ir. J.C.A. Wevers

3 Relativity 3.1 Special relativity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1.1 The Lorentz transformation . . . . . . . . 3.1.2 Red and blue shift . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1.3 The stress-energy tensor and the ﬁeld tensor 3.2 General relativity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.1 Riemannian geometry, the Einstein tensor . 3.2.2 The line element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.3 Planetary orbits and the perihelion shift . . 3.2.4 The trajectory of a photon . . . . . . . . . 3.2.5 Gravitational waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.6 Cosmology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Oscillations 4.1 Harmonic oscillations . . . . . . . . . 4.2 Mechanic oscillations . . . . . . . . . 4.3 Electric oscillations . . . . . . . . . . 4.4 Waves in long conductors . . . . . . . 4.5 Coupled conductors and transformers 4.6 Pendulums . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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13 13 13 14 14 14 14 15 16 17 17 17 18 18 18 18 19 19 19 20 20 20 20 21 21 21 21 22 22 23 24 24 24 24 25 25 25 26 26 26 27 27 28 28 29 30 30 30 31 31 32

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5 Waves 5.1 The wave equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2 Solutions of the wave equation . . . . . . . . 5.2.1 Plane waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.2 Spherical waves . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.3 Cylindrical waves . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.4 The general solution in one dimension 5.3 The stationary phase method . . . . . . . . . 5.4 Green functions for the initial-value problem . 5.5 Waveguides and resonating cavities . . . . . 5.6 Non-linear wave equations . . . . . . . . . . 6 Optics 6.1 The bending of light . . . . . . 6.2 Paraxial geometrical optics . . 6.2.1 Lenses . . . . . . . . 6.2.2 Mirrors . . . . . . . . 6.2.3 Principal planes . . . . 6.2.4 Magniﬁcation . . . . . 6.3 Matrix methods . . . . . . . . 6.4 Aberrations . . . . . . . . . . 6.5 Reﬂection and transmission . . 6.6 Polarization . . . . . . . . . . 6.7 Prisms and dispersion . . . . . 6.8 Diffraction . . . . . . . . . . . 6.9 Special optical effects . . . . . 6.10 The Fabry-Perot interferometer

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7 Statistical physics 7.1 Degrees of freedom . . . . . . . 7.2 The energy distribution function 7.3 Pressure on a wall . . . . . . . . 7.4 The equation of state . . . . . . 7.5 Collisions between molecules . .

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Physics Formulary by ir. J.C.A. Wevers

III

7.6

Interaction between molecules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

32 33 33 33 33 34 34 35 36 36 37 37 37 38 38 39 39 39 41 41 42 42 43 43 43 43 44 44 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 46 46 46 47 47 47 48 48 49 49 49 49 50 50 50 50 51

8 Thermodynamics 8.1 Mathematical introduction . . . . . . 8.2 Deﬁnitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.3 Thermal heat capacity . . . . . . . . . 8.4 The laws of thermodynamics . . . . . 8.5 State functions and Maxwell relations 8.6 Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.7 Maximal work . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.8 Phase transitions . . . . . . . . . . . 8.9 Thermodynamic potential . . . . . . . 8.10 Ideal mixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.11 Conditions for equilibrium . . . . . . 8.12 Statistical basis for thermodynamics . 8.13 Application to other systems . . . . .

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9 Transport phenomena 9.1 Mathematical introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.2 Conservation laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.3 Bernoulli’s equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.4 Characterising of ﬂows by dimensionless numbers . 9.5 Tube ﬂows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.6 Potential theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.7 Boundary layers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.7.1 Flow boundary layers . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.7.2 Temperature boundary layers . . . . . . . . 9.8 Heat conductance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.9 Turbulence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.10 Self organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Quantum physics 10.1 Introduction to quantum physics . . . . . . . 10.1.1 Black body radiation . . . . . . . . . . 10.1.2 The Compton effect . . . . . . . . . . 10.1.3 Electron diffraction . . . . . . . . . . . 10.2 Wave functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.3 Operators in quantum physics . . . . . . . . . 10.4 The uncertainty principle . . . . . . . . . . . 10.5 The Schr¨ dinger equation . . . . . . . . . . . o 10.6 Parity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.7 The tunnel effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.8 The harmonic oscillator . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.9 Angular momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.10 Spin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.11 The Dirac formalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.12 Atomic physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.12.1 Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.12.2 Eigenvalue equations . . . . . . . . . 10.12.3 Spin-orbit interaction . . . . . . . . . 10.12.4 Selection rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.13 Interaction with electromagnetic ﬁelds . . . . 10.14 Perturbation theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.14.1 Time-independent perturbation theory 10.14.2 Time-dependent perturbation theory .

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IV

Physics Formulary by ir. J.C.A. Wevers

10.15 N-particle systems 10.15.1 General . 10.15.2 Molecules 10.16 Quantum statistics

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51 51 52 52 54 54 54 55 55 56 56 56 56 57 57 57 58 58 59 60 60 62 62 62 63 63 63 63 64 65 65 65 65 66 66 66 67 67 67 67 68 68 69 69 70 70 70

11 Plasma physics 11.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.2 Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.3 Elastic collisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.3.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.3.2 The Coulomb interaction . . . . . . . 11.3.3 The induced dipole interaction . . . . 11.3.4 The centre of mass system . . . . . . 11.3.5 Scattering of light . . . . . . . . . . . 11.4 Thermodynamic equilibrium and reversibility 11.5 Inelastic collisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.5.1 Types of collisions . . . . . . . . . . 11.5.2 Cross sections . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.6 Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.7 The Boltzmann transport equation . . . . . . 11.8 Collision-radiative models . . . . . . . . . . 11.9 Waves in plasma’s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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12 Solid state physics 12.1 Crystal structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.2 Crystal binding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.3 Crystal vibrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.3.1 A lattice with one type of atoms . . . . . . 12.3.2 A lattice with two types of atoms . . . . . 12.3.3 Phonons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.3.4 Thermal heat capacity . . . . . . . . . . . 12.4 Magnetic ﬁeld in the solid state . . . . . . . . . . . 12.4.1 Dielectrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.4.2 Paramagnetism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.4.3 Ferromagnetism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.5 Free electron Fermi gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.5.1 Thermal heat capacity . . . . . . . . . . . 12.5.2 Electric conductance . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.5.3 The Hall-effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.5.4 Thermal heat conductivity . . . . . . . . . 12.6 Energy bands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.7 Semiconductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.8 Superconductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.8.1 Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.8.2 The Josephson effect . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.8.3 Flux quantisation in a superconducting ring 12.8.4 Macroscopic quantum interference . . . . . 12.8.5 The London equation . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.8.6 The BCS model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Physics Formulary by ir. J.C.A. Wevers

V

13 Theory of groups 13.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.1.1 Deﬁnition of a group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.1.2 The Cayley table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.1.3 Conjugated elements, subgroups and classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.1.4 Isomorﬁsm and homomorﬁsm; representations . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.1.5 Reducible and irreducible representations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.2 The fundamental orthogonality theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.2.1 Schur’s lemma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.2.2 The fundamental orthogonality theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.2.3 Character . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.3 The relation with quantum mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.3.1 Representations, energy levels and degeneracy . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.3.2 Breaking of degeneracy by a perturbation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.3.3 The construction of a base function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.3.4 The direct product of representations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.3.5 Clebsch-Gordan coefﬁcients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.3.6 Symmetric transformations of operators, irreducible tensor operators . 13.3.7 The Wigner-Eckart theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.4 Continuous groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.4.1 The 3-dimensional translation group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.4.2 The 3-dimensional rotation group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.4.3 Properties of continuous groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.5 The group SO(3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.6 Applications to quantum mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.6.1 Vectormodel for the addition of angular momentum . . . . . . . . . . 13.6.2 Irreducible tensor operators, matrixelements and selection rules . . . 13.7 Applications to particle physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Nuclear physics 14.1 Nuclear forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.2 The shape of the nucleus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.3 Radioactive decay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.4 Scattering and nuclear reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.4.1 Kinetic model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.4.2 Quantum mechanical model for n-p scattering . . . . . . . . 14.4.3 Conservation of energy and momentum in nuclear reactions 14.5 Radiation dosimetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Quantum ﬁeld theory & Particle physics 15.1 Creation and annihilation operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.2 Classical and quantum ﬁelds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.3 The interaction picture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.4 Real scalar ﬁeld in the interaction picture . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.5 Charged spin-0 particles, conservation of charge . . . . . . . . 1 15.6 Field functions for spin- 2 particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 15.7 Quantization of spin- 2 ﬁelds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.8 Quantization of the electromagnetic ﬁeld . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.9 Interacting ﬁelds and the S-matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.10 Divergences and renormalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.11 Classiﬁcation of elementary particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.12 P and CP-violation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.13 The standard model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.13.1 The electroweak theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.13.2 Spontaneous symmetry breaking: the Higgs mechanism

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71 71 71 71 71 72 72 72 72 72 72 73 73 73 73 74 74 74 75 75 75 75 76 77 77 77 78 79 81 81 82 82 83 83 83 84 84 85 85 85 86 86 87 87 88 89 89 90 90 92 93 93 94

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VI

Physics Formulary by ir. J.C.A. Wevers

15.13.3 Quantumchromodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.14 Path integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.15 Uniﬁcation and quantum gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Astrophysics 16.1 Determination of distances . . . . 16.2 Brightness and magnitudes . . . . 16.3 Radiation and stellar atmospheres 16.4 Composition and evolution of stars 16.5 Energy production in stars . . . . The -operator

94 95 95 96 96 96 97 97 98 99 100

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The SI units

Physical Constants
Name Number π Number e Euler’s constant Elementary charge Gravitational constant Fine-structure constant Speed of light in vacuum Permittivity of the vacuum Permeability of the vacuum (4πε0 )−1 Planck’s constant Dirac’s constant Bohr magneton Bohr radius Rydberg’s constant Electron Compton wavelength Proton Compton wavelength Reduced mass of the H-atom Stefan-Boltzmann’s constant Wien’s constant Molar gasconstant Avogadro’s constant Boltzmann’s constant Electron mass Proton mass Neutron mass Elementary mass unit Nuclear magneton Diameter of the Sun Mass of the Sun Rotational period of the Sun Radius of Earth Mass of Earth Rotational period of Earth Earth orbital period Astronomical unit Light year Parsec Hubble constant Symbol π e
n

Value 3.14159265358979323846 2.71828182845904523536
k=1

Unit

γ = lim

n→∞

1/k − ln(n)

= 0.5772156649 C m3 kg−1 s−2 m/s (def) F/m H/m Nm2 C−2 Js Js Am2 ˚ A eV m m kg Wm−2 K−4 mK J·mol−1 ·K−1 mol−1 J/K kg kg kg kg J/T m kg days m kg hours days m m m km·s−1 ·Mpc−1

e G, κ α = e2 /2hcε0 c ε0 µ0 h h = h/2π ¯ µB = e¯ /2me h a0 Ry λCe = h/me c λCp = h/mp c µH σ kW R NA k = R/NA me mp mn mu = µN

1.60217733 · 10−19 6.67259 · 10−11 ≈ 1/137 2.99792458 · 108 8.854187 · 10−12 4π · 10−7 8.9876 · 109 6.6260755 · 10−34 1.0545727 · 10−34 9.2741 · 10−24 0.52918 13.595 2.2463 · 10−12 1.3214 · 10−15 9.1045755 · 10−31

5.67032 · 10−8 2.8978 · 10−3 8.31441 6.0221367 · 1023 1.380658 · 10−23

1 12 12 m( 6 C)

D M T RA MA TA Tropical year AU lj pc H

1392 · 106 1.989 · 1030 25.38 6.378 · 106 5.976 · 1024 23.96 365.24219879 1.4959787066 · 1011 9.4605 · 1015 3.0857 · 1016 ≈ (75 ± 25)

9.1093897 · 10−31 1.6726231 · 10−27 1.674954 · 10−27 1.6605656 · 10−27 5.0508 · 10−27

Chapter 1

Mechanics
1.1 Point-kinetics in a ﬁxed coordinate system
1.1.1 Deﬁnitions
The position r, the velocity v and the acceleration a are deﬁned by: r = (x, y, z), v = (x, y, z), a = (¨, y , z ). ˙ ˙ ˙ x ¨ ¨ The following holds: s(t) = s0 + |v(t)|dt ; r(t) = r0 + v(t)dt ; v(t) = v0 + a(t)dt

1 When the acceleration is constant this gives: v(t) = v0 + at and s(t) = s0 + v0 t + 2 at2 . For the unit vectors in a direction ⊥ to the orbit et and parallel to it en holds:

et =

v v dr ˙ e˙t et = en ; en = = |v| ds ρ |e˙t | 1 det d2 r dϕ ; ρ= = 2 = ds ds ds |k|

For the curvature k and the radius of curvature ρ holds: k=

1.1.2 Polar coordinates
Polar coordinates are deﬁned by: x = r cos(θ), y = r sin(θ). So, for the unit coordinate vectors holds: ˙ ˙ e˙r = θeθ , e˙θ = −θer

˙ ˙ ¨ The velocity and the acceleration are derived from: r = rer , v = rer + rθeθ , a = (¨ − r θ2 )er + (2r θ + rθ)eθ . ˙ r ˙˙

1.2 Relative motion
For the motion of a point D w.r.t. a point Q holds: rD = rQ + ω × vQ ˙ with QD = rD − rQ and ω = θ. ω2

¨ Further holds: α = θ. means that the quantity is deﬁned in a moving system of coordinates. In a moving system holds: v = vQ + v + ω × r and a = aQ + a + α × r + 2ω × v + ω × (ω × r ) with ω × (ω × r ) = −ω 2 r n

1.3 Point-dynamics in a ﬁxed coordinate system
1.3.1 Force, (angular)momentum and energy
Newton’s 2nd law connects the force on an object and the resulting acceleration of the object where the momentum is given by p = mv: F (r, v, t) = d(mv ) dv dm m=const dp = =m +v = ma dt dt dt dt

Chapter 1: Mechanics

3

Newton’s 3rd law is given by: Faction = −Freaction . ˙ For the power P holds: P = W = F · v. For the total energy W , the kinetic energy T and the potential energy ˙ ˙ U holds: W = T + U ; T = −U with T = 1 mv 2 . 2 The kick S is given by: S = ∆p = F dt
2 2

The work A, delivered by a force, is A =
1

F · ds =

F cos(α)ds
1

˙ The torque τ is related to the angular momentum L: τ = L = r × F ; and L = r × p = mv × r, |L| = mr2 ω. The following equation is valid: τ =− Hence, the conditions for a mechanical equilibrium are: ∂U ∂θ Fi = 0 and τi = 0.

The force of friction is usually proportional to the force perpendicular to the surface, except when the motion starts, when a threshold has to be overcome: Ffric = f · Fnorm · et .

1.3.2 Conservative force ﬁelds
A conservative force can be written as the gradient of a potential: Fcons = − U . From this follows that × F = 0. For such a force ﬁeld also holds:
r1

F · ds = 0 ⇒ U = U0 −

r0

F · ds

So the work delivered by a conservative force ﬁeld depends not on the trajectory covered but only on the starting and ending points of the motion.

1.3.3 Gravitation
The Newtonian law of gravitation is (in GRT one also uses κ instead of G): Fg = −G m1 m2 er r2
2

The gravitational potential is then given by V = −Gm/r. From Gauss law it then follows:

V = 4πG .

1.3.4 Orbital equations
If V = V (r) one can derive from the equations of Lagrange for φ the conservation of angular momentum: ∂L ∂V d = = 0 ⇒ (mr2 φ) = 0 ⇒ Lz = mr2 φ = constant ∂φ ∂φ dt For the radial position as a function of time can be found that: dr dt The angular equation is then:
r 2

=

2(W − V ) L2 − 2 2 m m r

φ − φ0 =

mr2 L

0

L2 2(W − V ) − 2 2 m m r

−1

dr

r −2 ﬁeld

=

arccos 1 +

1 r 1 r0

+ km/L2 z

−

1 r0

If F = F (r): L =constant, if F is conservative: W =constant, if F ⊥ v then ∆T = 0 and U = 0.

4

Physics Formulary by ir. J.C.A. Wevers

Kepler’s orbital equations In a force ﬁeld F = kr −2 , the orbits are conic sections with the origin of the force in one of the foci (Kepler’s 1st law). The equation of the orbit is: r(θ) = with 1 + ε cos(θ − θ0 ) , or: x2 + y 2 = ( − εx)2

2W L2 k L2 ; ε2 = 1 + 2 3 2 = 1 − ; a = = 2M 2 Gµ tot G µ Mtot a 1−ε 2W a is half the√ length of the long axis of the elliptical orbit in case the orbit is closed. Half the length of the short axis is b = a . ε is the excentricity of the orbit. Orbits with an equal ε are of equal shape. Now, 5 types of orbits are possible: = 1. k < 0 and ε = 0: a circle. 2. k < 0 and 0 < ε < 1: an ellipse. 3. k < 0 and ε = 1: a parabole. 4. k < 0 and ε > 1: a hyperbole, curved towards the centre of force. 5. k > 0 and ε > 1: a hyperbole, curved away from the centre of force. Other combinations are not possible: the total energy in a repulsive force ﬁeld is always positive so ε > 1. If the surface between the orbit covered between t1 and t2 and the focus C around which the planet moves is A(t1 , t2 ), Kepler’s 2nd law is LC A(t1 , t2 ) = (t2 − t1 ) 2m Kepler’s 3rd law is, with T the period and Mtot the total mass of the system: 4π 2 T2 = 3 a GMtot

1.3.5 The virial theorem
The virial theorem for one particle is: mv · r = 0 ⇒ T = − 1 F · r = 2 The virial theorem for a collection of particles is: T = −1 2 Fi · r i + Fij · rij
1 2

r

dU dr

= 1 n U if U = − 2

k rn

particles

pairs

These propositions can also be written as: 2Ekin + Epot = 0.

1.4 Point dynamics in a moving coordinate system
1.4.1 Apparent forces
The total force in a moving coordinate system can be found by subtracting the apparent forces from the forces working in the reference frame: F = F − Fapp . The different apparent forces are given by: 1. Transformation of the origin: For = −maa 2. Rotation: Fα = −mα × r 3. Coriolis force: Fcor = −2mω × v 4. Centrifugal force: Fcf = mω 2 rn = −Fcp ; Fcp = − mv 2 er r

Chapter 1: Mechanics

5

1.4.2 Tensor notation
Transformation of the Newtonian equations of motion to xα = xα (x) gives: x ∂xα d¯β dxα = ; dt ∂ xβ dt ¯ The chain rule gives: d dxα d 2 xα d = = 2 dt dt dt dt so: x ∂xα d¯β β dt ∂x ¯ = ¯ d¯β d x ∂xα d2 xβ + β dt2 ∂x ¯ dt dt ∂xα ∂ xβ ¯

d ∂xα x x ∂ ∂xα d¯γ ∂ 2 xα d¯γ = = β γ ∂ xβ dt dt ∂ x ¯ ∂x ¯ ¯ ∂ xβ ∂ xγ dt ¯ ¯ ∂xα d2 xβ ∂ 2 xα d¯γ d 2 xα ¯ x = + β γ 2 β dt2 dt ∂x ¯ ∂ x ∂ x dt ¯ ¯ d 2 xα = Fα dt2 = Fα dxβ dxγ . dt dt d¯β x dt

Hence the Newtonian equation of motion m will be transformed into: m

dxβ dxγ d 2 xα + Γα βγ 2 dt dt dt

The apparent forces are taken from he origin to the effect side in the way Γ α βγ

1.5 Dynamics of masspoint collections
1.5.1 The centre of mass
˙ The velocity w.r.t. the centre of mass R is given by v − R. The coordinates of the centre of mass are given by: rm = mi r i mi

In a 2-particle system, the coordinates of the centre of mass are given by: R= m1 r 1 + m 2 r 2 m1 + m 2

˙ With r = r1 − r2 , the kinetic energy becomes: T = 1 Mtot R2 + 1 µr2 , with the reduced mass µ given by: 2 2 ˙ 1 1 1 = + µ m1 m2 The motion within and outside the centre of mass can be separated: ˙ ˙ Loutside = τoutside ; Linside = τinside p = mvm ; Fext = mam ; F12 = µu

1.5.2 Collisions
With collisions, where B are the coordinates of the collision and C an arbitrary other position, holds: p = mv m 1 2 is constant, and T = 2 mvm is constant. The changes in the relative velocities can be derived from: S = ∆p = µ(vaft − vbefore). Further holds ∆LC = CB × S, p S =constant and L w.r.t. B is constant.

6

Physics Formulary by ir. J.C.A. Wevers

1.6 Dynamics of rigid bodies
1.6.1 Moment of Inertia
The angular momentum in a moving coordinate system is given by: L = Iω + Ln where I is the moment of inertia with respect to a central axis, which is given by: I=
i

mi r i

2

1 ; T = Wrot = 2 ωIij ei ej = 1 Iω 2 2

or, in the continuous case: I= Further holds:

m V

r n dV =

2

r n dm m k xi xj
k

2

Li = I ij ωj ; Iii = Ii ; Iij = Iji = −

Steiner’s theorem is: Iw.r.t.D = Iw.r.t.C + m(DM )2 if axis C axis D. Object Cavern cylinder Disc, axis in plane disc through m Cavern sphere Bar, axis ⊥ through c.o.m. Rectangle, axis ⊥ plane thr. c.o.m. I I = mR2
1 I = 4 mR2 2 I = 3 mR2

Object Massive cylinder Halter Massive sphere Bar, axis ⊥ through end + b2 ) Rectangle, axis b thr. m

I I = 1 mR2 2 I = 1 µR2 2 I = 2 mR2 5 I = 1 ml2 3 I = ma2

I= I=

1 2 12 ml 1 2 12 m(a

1.6.2 Principal axes
Each rigid body has (at least) 3 principal axes which stand ⊥ to each other. For a principal axis holds: ∂I ∂I ∂I = = = 0 so Ln = 0 ∂ωx ∂ωy ∂ωz The following holds: ωk = −aijk ωi ωj with aijk = ˙ Ii − I j if I1 ≤ I2 ≤ I3 . Ik

1.6.3 Time dependence
For torque of force τ holds: ¨ τ = Iθ ; The torque T is deﬁned by: T = F × d. d L =τ −ω×L dt

1.7 Variational Calculus, Hamilton and Lagrange mechanics
1.7.1 Variational Calculus
Starting with:
b

δ
a

L(q, q, t)dt = 0 with δ(a) = δ(b) = 0 and δ ˙

du dx

=

d (δu) dx

Chapter 1: Mechanics

7

the equations of Lagrange can be derived: d ∂L ∂L = dt ∂ qi ˙ ∂qi When there are additional conditions applying to the variational problem δJ(u) = 0 of the type K(u) =constant, the new problem becomes: δJ(u) − λδK(u) = 0.

1.7.2 Hamilton mechanics
The Lagrangian is given by: L = T (qi ) − V (qi ). The Hamiltonian is given by: H = ˙ 1 ˙ ˙ dimensions holds: L = T − U = 2 m(r2 + r2 φ2 ) − U (r, φ). dqi ∂H = ; dt ∂pi dpi ∂H =− dt ∂qi qi pi − L. In 2 ˙

If the used coordinates are canonical the Hamilton equations are the equations of motion for the system:

Coordinates are canonical if the following holds: {qi , qj } = 0, {pi , pj } = 0, {qi , pj } = δij where {, } is the Poisson bracket: ∂A ∂B ∂A ∂B {A, B} = − ∂qi ∂pi ∂pi ∂qi i The Hamiltonian of a Harmonic oscillator is given by H(x, p) = p2 /2m + 1 mω 2 x2 . With new coordinates 2 √ (θ, I), obtained by the canonical transformation x = 2I/mω cos(θ) and p = − 2Imω sin(θ), with inverse 1 θ = arctan(−p/mωx) and I = p2 /2mω + 2 mωx2 it follows: H(θ, I) = ωI. The Hamiltonian of a charged particle with charge q in an external electromagnetic ﬁeld is given by: H= 1 p − qA 2m
2

+ qV

This Hamiltonian can be derived from the Hamiltonian of a free particle H = p 2 /2m with the transformations p → p − q A and H → H − qV . This is elegant from a relativistic point of view: this is equivalent to the transformation of the momentum 4-vector pα → pα − qAα . A gauge transformation on the potentials Aα corresponds with a canonical transformation, which make the Hamilton equations the equations of motion for the system.

1.7.3 Motion around an equilibrium, linearization
For natural systems around equilibrium the following equations are valid: ∂V ∂qi = 0 ; V (q) = V (0) + Vik qi qk with Vik =
0

∂2V ∂qi ∂qk

0

With T = 1 (Mik qi qk ) one receives the set of equations M q + V q = 0. If qi (t) = ai exp(iωt) is substituted, ˙ ˙ ¨ 2 this set of equations has solutions if det(V − ω 2 M ) = 0. This leads to the eigenfrequencies of the problem: aT V ak 2 k 2 ωk = T . If the equilibrium is stable holds: ∀k that ωk > 0. The general solution is a superposition if ak M a k eigenvibrations.

1.7.4 Phase space, Liouville’s equation
In phase space holds: =
i

∂ , ∂qi

i

∂ ∂pi

so

·v =

i

∂ ∂H ∂ ∂H − ∂qi ∂pi ∂pi ∂qi

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Physics Formulary by ir. J.C.A. Wevers

If the equation of continuity, ∂t +

· ( v ) = 0 holds, this can be written as: { , H} + ∂ =0 ∂t

For an arbitrary quantity A holds: ∂A dA = {A, H} + dt ∂t Liouville’s theorem can than be written as: d = 0 ; or: dt pdq = constant

1.7.5 Generating functions
Starting with the coordinate transformation: Qi = Qi (qi , pi , t) Pi = Pi (qi , pi , t) one can derive the following Hamilton equations with the new Hamiltonian K: dQi ∂K = ; dt ∂Pi Now, a distinction between 4 cases can be made: 1. If pi qi − H = Pi Qi − K(Pi , Qi , t) − ˙ pi = dF1 (qi , Qi , t) , the coordinates follow from: dt dPi ∂K =− dt ∂Qi

∂F1 ∂F1 ∂F1 ; Pi = − ; K =H+ ∂qi ∂Qi ∂t

dF2 (qi , Pi , t) ˙ 2. If pi qi − H = −Pi Qi − K(Pi , Qi , t) + ˙ , the coordinates follow from: dt pi = ∂F2 ∂F2 ∂F2 ; Qi = ; K=H+ ∂qi ∂Pi ∂t dF3 (pi , Qi , t) , the coordinates follow from: dt

˙ 3. If −pi qi − H = Pi Qi − K(Pi , Qi , t) + ˙ qi = −

∂F3 ∂F3 ∂F3 ; Pi = − ; K =H+ ∂pi ∂Qi ∂t dF4 (pi , Pi , t) , the coordinates follow from: dt

4. If −pi qi − H = −Pi Qi − K(Pi , Qi , t) + ˙ qi = −

∂F4 ∂F4 ∂F4 ; Qi = ; K=H+ ∂pi ∂pi ∂t

The functions F1 , F2 , F3 and F4 are called generating functions.

Chapter 2

Electricity & Magnetism
2.1 The Maxwell equations
The classical electromagnetic ﬁeld can be described by the Maxwell equations. Those can be written both as differential and integral equations: (D · n )d2 A = Qfree,included (B · n )d2 A = 0 E · ds = − dΦ dt dΨ dt (B · n )d2 A. np2 0 3ε0 kT · D = ρfree ·B =0 ×E =− ∂B ∂t ∂D ∂t

H · ds = Ifree,included + For the ﬂuxes holds: Ψ = (D · n )d2 A, Φ =

× H = Jfree +

The electric displacement D, polarization P and electric ﬁeld strength E depend on each other according to: D = ε0 E + P = ε0 εr E, P = p0 /Vol, εr = 1 + χe , with χe =

The magnetic ﬁeld strength H, the magnetization M and the magnetic ﬂux density B depend on each other according to: B = µ0 (H + M) = µ0 µr H, M = m/Vol, µr = 1 + χm , with χm = µ0 nm2 0 3kT

2.2 Force and potential
The force and the electric ﬁeld between 2 point charges are given by: F12 = F Q1 Q2 er ; E = 4πε0 εr r2 Q

The Lorentzforce is the force which is felt by a charged particle that moves through a magnetic ﬁeld. The origin of this force is a relativistic transformation of the Coulomb force: FL = Q(v × B ) = l(I × B ). The magnetic ﬁeld in point P which results from an electric current is given by the law of Biot-Savart, also known als the law of Laplace. In here, dl I and r points from dl to P : dBP = µ0 I dl × e r 4πr2

If the current is time-dependent one has to take retardation into account: the substitution I(t) → I(t − r/c) has to be applied.
2

The potentials are given by: V12 = −

1

1 E · ds and A = 2 B × r.

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Physics Formulary by ir. J.C.A. Wevers

Here, the freedom remains to apply a gauge transformation. The ﬁelds can be derived from the potentials as follows: ∂A E=− V − , B = ×A ∂t Further holds the relation: c2 B = v × E.

2.3 Gauge transformations
The potentials of the electromagnetic ﬁelds transform as follows when a gauge transformation is applied:   A =A− f ∂f  V =V + ∂t

so the ﬁelds E and B do not change. This results in a canonical transformation of the Hamiltonian. Further, the freedom remains to apply a limiting condition. Two common choices are: 1 ∂V ρ 1. Lorentz-gauge: · A + 2 = 0. This separates the differential equations for A and V : 2V = − , c ∂t ε0 2A = −µ0 J. 2. Coulomb gauge: · A = 0. If ρ = 0 and J = 0 holds V = 0 and follows A from 2A = 0.

2.4 Energy of the electromagnetic ﬁeld
The energy density of the electromagnetic ﬁeld is: dW = w = HdB + EdD dVol The energy density can be expressed in the potentials and currents as follows: wmag =
1 2

J · A d3 x , wel =

1 2

ρV d3 x

2.5 Electromagnetic waves
2.5.1 Electromagnetic waves in vacuum
The wave equation 2Ψ(r, t) = −f (r, t) has the general solution, with c = (ε 0 µ0 )−1/2 : Ψ(r, t) = f (r, t − |r − r |/c) 3 d r 4π|r − r |

If this is written as: J(r, t) = J(r ) exp(−iωt) and A(r, t) = A(r ) exp(−iωt) with: A(r ) = µ 4π J(r ) 1 exp(ik|r − r |) 3 d r , V (r ) = |r − r | 4πε dP k2 = dΩ 32π 2 ε0 c ρ(r ) exp(ik|r − r |) 3 d r |r − r | r:

A derivation via multipole expansion will show that for the radiated energy holds, if d, λ
2

J⊥ (r )eik·r d3 r

The energy density of the electromagnetic wave of a vibrating dipole at a large distance is: w = ε0 E 2 = p2 sin2 (θ)ω 4 0 sin2 (kr − ωt) , 16π 2 ε0 r2 c4 w
t

=

p2 sin2 (θ)ω 4 ck 4 |p |2 0 , P = 2 ε r 2 c4 32π 0 12πε0

The radiated energy can be derived from the Poynting vector S: S = E × H = cW ev . The irradiance is the time-averaged of the Poynting vector: I = |S | t . The radiation pressure ps is given by ps = (1 + R)|S |/c, where R is the coefﬁcient of reﬂection.

Chapter 2: Electricity & Magnetism

11

2.5.2 Electromagnetic waves in matter
The wave equations in matter, with cmat = (εµ)−1/2 the lightspeed in matter, are:
2

− εµ

∂2 µ ∂ − ∂t2 ρ ∂t

E =0,

2

− εµ

∂2 µ ∂ − ∂t2 ρ ∂t

B=0

give, after substitution of monochromatic plane waves: E = E exp(i(k ·r −ωt)) and B = B exp(i(k ·r −ωt)) the dispersion relation: iµω k 2 = εµω 2 + ρ The ﬁrst term arises from the displacement current, the second from the conductance current. If k is written in the form k := k + ik it follows that: k =ω
1 2 εµ

1+

1+

1 and k = ω (ρεω)2

1 2 εµ

−1 +

1+

1 (ρεω)2

This results in a damped wave: E = E exp(−k n · r ) exp(i(k n · r − ωt)). If the material is a good conductor, µω . the wave vanishes after approximately one wavelength, k = (1 + i) 2ρ

2.6 Multipoles
Because 1 1 = |r − r | r
∞ 0

r r

l

Pl (cos θ) the potential can be written as: V =

Q 4πε

n

kn rn

For the lowest-order terms this results in: • Monopole: l = 0, k0 = • Dipole: l = 1, k1 = • Quadrupole: l = 2, k2 = ρdV

r cos(θ)ρdV
1 2 i 2 2 (3zi − ri )

1. The electric dipole: dipole moment: p = Qle, where e goes from ⊕ to , and F = (p · W = −p · Eout . Q 3p · r Electric ﬁeld: E ≈ − p . The torque is: τ = p × Eout 4πεr3 r2 √ 2. The magnetic dipole: dipole moment: if r A: µ = I × (Ae⊥ ), F = (µ · )Bout 2 mv⊥ |µ| = , W = −µ × Bout 2B −µ 3µ · r − µ . The moment is: τ = µ × Bout Magnetic ﬁeld: B = 4πr3 r2

)Eext , and

2.7 Electric currents
The continuity equation for charge is: ∂ρ + ∂t I= · J = 0. The electric current is given by: dQ = dt (J · n )d2 A

For most conductors holds: J = E/ρ, where ρ is the resistivity.

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Physics Formulary by ir. J.C.A. Wevers

dΦ If the ﬂux enclosed by a conductor changes this results in an induced voltage V ind = −N . If the current dt ﬂowing through a conductor changes, this results in a self-inductance which opposes the original change: dI Vselﬁnd = −L . If a conductor encloses a ﬂux Φ holds: Φ = LI. dt µN I The magnetic induction within a coil is approximated by: B = √ where l is the length, R the radius 2 + 4R2 l and N the number of coils. The energy contained within a coil is given by W = 1 LI 2 and L = µN 2 A/l. 2 The capacity is deﬁned by: C = Q/V . For a capacitor holds: C = ε0 εr A/d where d is the distance between the plates and A the surface of one plate. The electric ﬁeld strength between the plates is E = σ/ε 0 = Q/ε0 A where σ is the surface charge. The accumulated energy is given by W = 1 CV 2 . The current through a 2 dV . capacity is given by I = −C dt For most PTC resistors holds approximately: R = R0 (1 + αT ), where R0 = ρl/A. For a NTC holds: R(T ) = C exp(−B/T ) where B and C depend only on the material. If a current ﬂows through two different, connecting conductors x and y, the contact area will heat up or cool down, depending on the direction of the current: the Peltier effect. The generated or removed heat is given by: W = Πxy It. This effect can be ampliﬁed with semiconductors. The thermic voltage between 2 metals is given by: V = γ(T − T0 ). For a Cu-Konstantane connection holds: γ ≈ 0.2 − 0.7 mV/K. In an electrical net with only stationary currents, Kirchhoff’s equations apply: for a knot holds: along a closed path holds: Vn = In Rn = 0. In = 0,

2.8 Depolarizing ﬁeld
If a dielectric material is placed in an electric or magnetic ﬁeld, the ﬁeld strength within and outside the material will change because the material will be polarized or magnetized. If the medium has an ellipsoidal shape and one of the principal axes is parallel with the external ﬁeld E0 or B0 then the depolarizing is ﬁeld homogeneous. Edep = Emat − E0 = − NP ε0

Hdep = Hmat − H0 = −N M N is a constant depending only on the shape of the object placed in the ﬁeld, with 0 ≤ N ≤ 1. For a few 1 limiting cases of an ellipsoid holds: a thin plane: N = 1, a long, thin bar: N = 0, a sphere: N = 3 .

2.9 Mixtures of materials
The average electric displacement in a material which is inhomogenious on a mesoscopic scale is given by: −1 φ2 (1 − x) where x = ε1 /ε2 . For a sphere holds: Φ = D = εE = ε∗ E where ε∗ = ε1 1 − Φ(ε∗ /ε2 ) 1 2 3 + 3 x. Further holds: φi εi
−1

i

≤ ε∗ ≤

φi ε i
i

Chapter 3

Relativity
3.1 Special relativity
3.1.1 The Lorentz transformation
The Lorentz transformation (x , t ) = (x (x, t), t (x, t)) leaves the wave equation invariant if c is invariant: ∂2 ∂2 ∂2 1 ∂2 ∂2 ∂2 ∂2 1 ∂2 + 2+ 2− 2 2 = + + − 2 2 ∂x2 ∂y ∂z c ∂t ∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2 c ∂t This transformation can also be found when ds2 = ds 2 is demanded. The general form of the Lorentz transformation is given by: x =x+ where γ= (γ − 1)(x · v )v x·v − γvt , t = γ t − 2 |v|2 c 1
2 1 − v2 c

The velocity difference v between two observers transforms according to: v = γ 1− v1 · v2 c2
−1

v2 + (γ − 1)

v1 · v2 2 v1 − γv1 v1

If the velocity is parallel to the x-axis, this becomes y = y, z = z and: x = γ(x − vt) , x = γ(x + vt ) xv xv t =γ t− 2 , t=γ t + 2 c c If v = vex holds: px = γ px −

, v =

v2 − v 1 v1 v2 1− 2 c

βW c

, W = γ(W − vpx )

With β = v/c the electric ﬁeld of a moving charge is given by: E= Q (1 − β 2 )er 4πε0 r2 (1 − β 2 sin2 (θ))3/2

The electromagnetic ﬁeld transforms according to: E = γ(E + v × B ) , B = γ B− v×E c2

Length, mass and time transform according to: ∆tr = γ∆t0 , mr = γm0 , lr = l0 /γ, with 0 the quantities in a co-moving reference frame and r the quantities in a frame moving with velocity v w.r.t. it. The proper time τ is deﬁned as: dτ 2 = ds2 /c2 , so ∆τ = ∆t/γ. For energy and momentum holds: W = mr c2 = γW0 ,

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Physics Formulary by ir. J.C.A. Wevers

W 2 = m2 c4 + p2 c2 . p = mr v = γm0 v = W v/c2 , and pc = W β where β = v/c. The force is deﬁned by 0 F = dp/dt. 4-vectors have the property that their modulus is independent of the observer: their components can change after a coordinate transformation but not their modulus. The difference of two 4-vectors transforms also as dxα . The relation with the “common” velocity a 4-vector. The 4-vector for the velocity is given by U α = dτ i i α i u := dx /dt is: U = (γu , icγ). For particles with nonzero restmass holds: U α Uα = −c2 , for particles with zero restmass (so with v = c) holds: U α Uα = 0. The 4-vector for energy and momentum is given by: pα = m0 U α = (γpi , iW/c). So: pα pα = −m2 c2 = p2 − W 2 /c2 . 0

3.1.2 Red and blue shift
There are three causes of red and blue shifts: 1. Motion: with ev · er = cos(ϕ) follows: ∆f κM = 2. f rc f v cos(ϕ) . =γ 1− f c This can give both red- and blueshift, also ⊥ to the direction of motion.

2. Gravitational redshift:

3. Redshift because the universe expands, resulting in e.g. the cosmic background radiation: R0 λ0 = . λ1 R1

3.1.3 The stress-energy tensor and the ﬁeld tensor
The stress-energy tensor is given by: Tµν = ( c2 + p)uµ uν + pgµν + The conservation laws can than be written as:
νT µν

1 α Fµα Fν + 1 gµν F αβ Fαβ 4 c2

= 0. The electromagnetic ﬁeld tensor is given by:

Fαβ =

∂Aβ ∂Aα − α ∂x ∂xβ

with Aµ := (A, iV /c) and Jµ := (J, icρ). The Maxwell equations can than be written as: ∂ν F µν = µ0 J µ , ∂λ Fµν + ∂µ Fνλ + ∂ν Fλµ = 0 The equations of motion for a charged particle in an EM ﬁeld become with the ﬁeld tensor: dpα = qFαβ uβ dτ

3.2 General relativity
3.2.1 Riemannian geometry, the Einstein tensor
The basic principles of general relativity are: 1. The geodesic postulate: free falling particles move along geodesics of space-time with the proper time τ or arc length s as parameter. For particles with zero rest mass (photons), the use of a free parameter is required because for them holds ds = 0. From δ ds = 0 the equations of motion can be derived: d 2 xα dxβ dxγ + Γα =0 βγ 2 ds ds ds

Chapter 3: Relativity

15

2. The principle of equivalence: inertial mass ≡ gravitational mass ⇒ gravitation is equivalent with a curved space-time were particles move along geodesics. 3. By a proper choice of the coordinate system it is possible to make the metric locally ﬂat in each point xi : gαβ (xi ) = ηαβ :=diag(−1, 1, 1, 1).
µ The Riemann tensor is deﬁned as: Rναβ T ν := α β T µ − by j ai = ∂j ai + Γi ak and j ai = ∂j ai − Γk ak . Here, ij jk β αT µ

, where the covariant derivative is given

Γi = jk

g il 2

∂g k ∂glj ∂glk + − jl k j ∂x ∂x ∂x

, for Euclidean spaces this reduces to: Γi = jk

∂ 2 xl ∂xi ¯ , j ∂xk ∂ xl ∂x ¯

µ µ σ σ µ are the Christoffel symbols. For a second-order tensor holds: [ α , β ]Tν = Rσαβ Tν + Rναβ Tσ , k ai = j j il i l i i l l l ij ij i lj ∂k aj − Γkj al + Γkl aj , k aij = ∂k aij − Γki alj − Γkj ajl and k a = ∂k a + Γkl a + Γkl a . The following α holds: Rβµν = ∂µ Γα − ∂ν Γα + Γα Γσ − Γα Γσ . σµ βν σν βµ βν βµ µ The Ricci tensor is a contraction of the Riemann tensor: Rαβ := Rαµβ , which is symmetric: Rαβ = Rβα . The Bianchi identities are: λ Rαβµν + ν Rαβλµ + µ Rαβνλ = 0.

α The Einstein tensor is given by: Gαβ := Rαβ − 1 g αβ R, where R := Rα is the Ricci scalar, for which 2 holds: β Gαβ = 0. With the variational principle δ (L(gµν ) − Rc2 /16πκ) |g|d4 x = 0 for variations gµν → gµν + δgµν the Einstein ﬁeld equations can be derived:

Gαβ =

8πκ Tαβ c2

, which can also be written as Rαβ =

8πκ µ 1 (Tαβ − 2 gαβ Tµ ) c2

For empty space this is equivalent to Rαβ = 0. The equation Rαβµν = 0 has as only solution a ﬂat space. The Einstein equations are 10 independent equations, which are of second order in g µν . From this, the Laplace equation from Newtonian gravitation can be derived by stating: g µν = ηµν + hµν , where |h| 1. In the stationary case, this results in 2 h00 = 8πκ /c2 . The most general form of the ﬁeld equations is: Rαβ − 1 gαβ R + Λgαβ = 2 8πκ Tαβ c2 where Λ is the cosmological constant. This constant plays a role in inﬂatory models of the universe.

3.2.2 The line element
The metric tensor in an Euclidean space is given by: gij =
k 2 µ ν

∂ xk ∂ xk ¯ ¯ . ∂xi ∂xj

In general holds: ds = gµν dx dx . In special relativity this becomes ds2 = −c2 dt2 + dx2 + dy 2 + dz 2 . This metric, ηµν :=diag(−1, 1, 1, 1), is called the Minkowski metric. The external Schwarzschild metric applies in vacuum outside a spherical mass distribution, and is given by: ds2 = −1 + 2m r c2 dt2 + 1 − 2m r
−1

dr2 + r2 dΩ2

Here, m := M κ/c2 is the geometrical mass of an object with mass M , and dΩ2 = dθ2 + sin2 θdϕ2 . This metric is singular for r = 2m = 2κM/c2 . If an object is smaller than its event horizon 2m, that implies that its escape velocity is > c, it is called a black hole. The Newtonian limit of this metric is given by: ds2 = −(1 + 2V )c2 dt2 + (1 − 2V )(dx2 + dy 2 + dz 2 ) where V = −κM/r is the Newtonian gravitation potential. In general relativity, the components of g µν are associated with the potentials and the derivatives of gµν with the ﬁeld strength. The Kruskal-Szekeres coordinates are used to solve certain problems with the Schwarzschild metric near r = 2m. They are deﬁned by:

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Physics Formulary by ir. J.C.A. Wevers

• r > 2m:

   u =       u =        v  =     v  =

r r cosh − 1 exp 2m 4m r r sinh − 1 exp 2m 4m 1− 1− r r sinh exp 2m 4m r r cosh exp 2m 4m

t 4m t 4m t 4m t 4m

• r < 2m:

• r = 2m: here, the Kruskal coordinates are singular, which is necessary to eliminate the coordinate singularity there. The line element in these coordinates is given by: ds2 = − 32m3 −r/2m 2 e (dv − du2 ) + r2 dΩ2 r

The line r = 2m corresponds to u = v = 0, the limit x0 → ∞ with u = v and x0 → −∞ with u = −v. The Kruskal coordinates are only singular on the hyperbole v 2 − u2 = 1, this corresponds with r = 0. On the line dv = ±du holds dθ = dϕ = ds = 0. For the metric outside a rotating, charged spherical mass the Newman metric applies: ds2 = 1− 2mr − e2 r2 + a2 cos2 θ c2 dt2 − r2 + a2 cos2 θ r2 − 2mr + a2 − e2 sin2 θdϕ2 + dr2 − (r2 + a2 cos2 θ)dθ2 − sin2 θ(dϕ)(cdt)

r 2 + a2 +

(2mr − e2 )a2 sin2 θ r2 + a2 cos2 θ

2a(2mr − e2 ) r2 + a2 cos2 θ

where m = κM/c2 , a = L/M c and e = κQ/ε0 c2 . √ A rotating charged black hole has an event horizon with RS = m + m2 − a2 − e2 .

Near rotating black holes frame dragging occurs because gtϕ = 0. For the Kerr metric (e = 0, a = 0) then √ follows that within the surface RE = m + m2 − a2 cos2 θ (de ergosphere) no particle can be at rest.

3.2.3 Planetary orbits and the perihelion shift
To ﬁnd a planetary orbit, the variational problem δ ds = 0 has to be solved. This is equivalent to the problem δ ds2 = δ gij dxi dxj = 0. Substituting the external Schwarzschild metric yields for a planetary orbit: du dϕ d2 u +u dϕ2 = du m 3mu + 2 dϕ h

where u := 1/r and h = r 2 ϕ =constant. The term 3mu is not present in the classical solution. This term can ˙ κM h2 in the classical case also be found from a potential V (r) = − 1+ 2 . r r The orbital equation gives r =constant as solution, or can, after dividing by du/dϕ, be solved with perturbation theory. In zeroth order, this results in an elliptical orbit: u0 (ϕ) = A + B cos(ϕ) with A = m/h2 and B an arbitrary constant. In ﬁrst order, this becomes: u1 (ϕ) = A + B cos(ϕ − εϕ) + ε A + B2 B2 − cos(2ϕ) 2A 6A

where ε = 3m2 /h2 is small. The perihelion of a planet is the point for which r is minimal, or u maximal. This is the case if cos(ϕ − εϕ) = 0 ⇒ ϕ ≈ 2πn(1 + ε). For the perihelion shift then follows: ∆ϕ = 2πε = 6πm2 /h2 per orbit.

Chapter 3: Relativity

17

3.2.4 The trajectory of a photon
For the trajectory of a photon (and for each particle with zero restmass) holds ds 2 = 0. Substituting the external Schwarzschild metric results in the following orbital equation: du dϕ d2 u + u − 3mu dϕ2 =0

3.2.5 Gravitational waves
Starting with the approximation gµν = ηµν + hµν for weak gravitational ﬁelds and the deﬁnition hµν = 1 hµν − 2 ηµν hα it follows that 2hµν = 0 if the gauge condition ∂hµν /∂xν = 0 is satisﬁed. From this, it α follows that the loss of energy of a mechanical system, if the occurring velocities are c and for wavelengths the size of the system, is given by: dE G =− 5 dt 5c with Qij = d3 Qij dt3
2

i,j

(xi xj − 1 δij r2 )d3 x the mass quadrupole moment. 3

3.2.6 Cosmology
If for the universe as a whole is assumed: 1. There exists a global time coordinate which acts as x0 of a Gaussian coordinate system, 2. The 3-dimensional spaces are isotrope for a certain value of x 0 , 3. Each point is equivalent to each other point for a ﬁxed x0 . then the Robertson-Walker metric can be derived for the line element: ds2 = −c2 dt2 + R2 (t) kr2 1− 2 4r0 (dr2 + r2 dΩ2 )

2 r0

For the scalefactor R(t) the following equations can be derived: ¨ ˙ ˙ 2R R2 + kc2 8πκp 8πκ Λ R2 + kc2 + = − 2 + Λ and = + 2 2 R R c R 3 3 where p is the pressure and parameter q: the density of the universe. If Λ = 0 can be derived for the deceleration q=− ¨ RR 4πκ = ˙2 3H 2 R

˙ where H = R/R is Hubble’s constant. This is a measure of the velocity with which galaxies far away are moving away from each other, and has the value ≈ (75 ± 25) km·s −1 ·Mpc−1 . This gives 3 possible conditions for the universe (here, W is the total amount of energy in the universe):
1 1. Parabolical universe: k = 0, W = 0, q = 2 . The expansion velocity of the universe → 0 if t → ∞. The hereto related critical density is c = 3H 2 /8πκ.

2. Hyperbolical universe: k = −1, W < 0, q < positive forever.

1 2.

The expansion velocity of the universe remains

1 3. Elliptical universe: k = 1, W > 0, q > 2 . The expansion velocity of the universe becomes negative after some time: the universe starts collapsing.

Chapter 4

Oscillations
4.1 Harmonic oscillations
ˆ ˆ The general form of a harmonic oscillation is: Ψ(t) = Ψei(ωt±ϕ) ≡ Ψ cos(ωt ± ϕ), ˆ where Ψ is the amplitude. A superposition of several harmonic oscillations with the same frequency results in another harmonic oscillation: ˆ ˆ Ψi cos(αi ± ωt) = Φ cos(β ± ωt)
i

with: tan(β) =
i

ˆ Ψi sin(αi ) ˆ Ψi cos(αi )
i

ˆ and Φ2 =
i

ˆ Ψ2 + 2 i
j>i i

ˆ ˆ Ψi Ψj cos(αi − αj )

For harmonic oscillations holds:

x(t)dt =

dn x(t) x(t) and = (iω)n x(t). iω dtn

4.2 Mechanic oscillations
For a construction with a spring with constant C parallel to a damping k which is connected to a mass M , to ˆ which a periodic force F (t) = F cos(ωt) is applied holds the equation of motion m¨ = F (t) − k x − Cx. x ˙ 2 With complex amplitudes, this becomes −mω 2 x = F − Cx − ikωx. With ω0 = C/m follows: x= where δ =
2 m(ω0

ω0 ω − . The quantity Z = F/x is called the impedance of the system. The quality of the system ˙ ω0 √ ω Cm is given by Q = . k The frequency with minimal |Z| is called velocity resonance frequency. This is equal to ω 0 . In the resonance √ curve |Z|/ Cm is plotted against ω/ω0 . The width of this curve is characterized by the points where |Z(ω)| = √ |Z(ω0 )| 2. In these points holds: R = X and δ = ±Q−1 , and the width is 2∆ωB = ω0 /Q. The stiffness of an oscillating system is given by F/x. The amplitude resonance frequency ω A is the frequency where iωZ is minimal. This is the case for ωA = ω0
1 1 − 2 Q2 .

F F , and for the velocity holds: x = √ ˙ 2 ) + ikω −ω i Cmδ + k

The damping frequency ωD is a measure for the time in which an oscillating system comes to rest. It is given 1 . A weak damped oscillation (k 2 < 4mC) dies out after TD = 2π/ωD . For a critical by ωD = ω0 1 − 4Q2 damped oscillation (k 2 = 4mC) holds ωD = 0. A strong damped oscillation (k 2 > 4mC) drops like (if k2 4mC) x(t) ≈ x0 exp(−t/τ ).

4.3 Electric oscillations
The impedance is given by: Z = R + iX. The phase angle is ϕ := arctan(X/R). The impedance of a resistor is R, of a capacitor 1/iωC and of a self inductor iωL. The quality of a coil is Q = ωL/R. The total impedance in case several elements are positioned is given by:

Chapter 4: Oscillations

19

1. Series connection: V = IZ, Ztot =
i

Zi , Ltot =
i

Li ,

1 = Ctot

i

1 Z0 , Q= , Z = R(1 + iQδ) Ci R

2. parallel connection: V = IZ, 1 = Ztot Here, Z0 = 1 1 , = Zi Ltot 1 , Ctot = Li Ci , Q =
i

i

i

R R , Z= Z0 1 + iQδ

1 L and ω0 = √ . C LC

ˆ ˆ The power given by a source is given by P (t) = V (t) · I(t), so P t = Veﬀ Ieﬀ cos(∆φ) 1ˆˆ 1 ˆ2 1 ˆ2 = 2 V I cos(φv − φi ) = 2 I Re(Z) = 2 V Re(1/Z), where cos(∆φ) is the work factor.

4.4 Waves in long conductors
These cables are in use for signal transfer, e.g. coax cable. For them holds: Z 0 = The transmission velocity is given by v = dx dx . dL dC dL dx . dx dC

4.5 Coupled conductors and transformers
For two coils enclosing each others ﬂux holds: if Φ12 is the part of the ﬂux originating from I2 through coil 2 which is enclosed by coil 1, than holds Φ12 = M12 I2 , Φ21 = M21 I1 . For the coefﬁcients of mutual induction Mij holds: N2 Φ 2 N1 Φ 1 = ∼ N 1 N2 M12 = M21 := M = k L1 L2 = I2 I1 where 0 ≤ k ≤ 1 is the coupling factor. For a transformer is k ≈ 1. At full load holds: I2 iωM V1 = =− ≈− V2 I1 iωL2 + Rload N1 L1 =− L2 N2

4.6 Pendulums
The oscillation time T = 1/f , and for different types of pendulums is given by: • Oscillating spring: T = 2π • Physical pendulum: T = 2π • Torsion pendulum: T = 2π m/C if the spring force is given by F = C · ∆l. I/τ with τ the moment of force and I the moment of inertia. I/κ with κ = 2lm the constant of torsion and I the moment of inertia. πr4 ∆ϕ

• Mathematical pendulum: T = 2π lum.

l/g with g the acceleration of gravity and l the length of the pendu-

Chapter 5

Waves
5.1 The wave equation
The general form of the wave equation is: 2u = 0, or:
2

u−

∂2u ∂2u ∂2u 1 ∂2u 1 ∂2u = + 2 + 2 − 2 2 =0 2 ∂t2 2 v ∂x ∂y ∂z v ∂t

where u is the disturbance and v the propagation velocity. In general holds: v = f λ. By deﬁnition holds: kλ = 2π and ω = 2πf . In principle, there are two types of waves: 1. Longitudinal waves: for these holds k 2. Transversal waves: for these holds k v u.

v ⊥ u.

The phase velocity is given by vph = ω/k. The group velocity is given by: vg = dvph k dn dω = vph + k = vph 1 − dk dk n dk

where n is the refractive index of the medium. If vph does not depend on ω holds: vph = vg . In a dispersive medium it is possible that vg > vph or vg < vph , and vg · vf = c2 . If one wants to transfer information with a wave, e.g. by modulation of an EM wave, the information travels with the velocity at with a change in the electromagnetic ﬁeld propagates. This velocity is often almost equal to the group velocity. For some media, the propagation velocity follows from: • Pressure waves in a liquid or gas: v = κ/ , where κ is the modulus of compression. γp/ = γRT /M. E/

• For pressure waves in a gas also holds: v =

• Pressure waves in a thin solid bar with diameter << λ: v = • waves in a string: v = Fspan l/m

• Surface waves on a liquid: v =

2πh gλ 2πγ + tanh 2π λ λ where h is the depth of the liquid and γ the surface tension. If h

λ holds: v ≈

√

gh.

5.2 Solutions of the wave equation
5.2.1 Plane waves
In n dimensions a harmonic plane wave is deﬁned by:
n

u(x, t) = 2n u cos(ωt) ˆ
i=1

sin(ki xi )

Chapter 5: Waves

21

If waves reﬂect at the end of a spring this will result in a change in phase. A ﬁxed end gives a phase change of π/2 to the reﬂected wave, with boundary condition u(l) = 0. A lose end gives no change in the phase of the reﬂected wave, with boundary condition (∂u/∂x)l = 0. If an observer is moving w.r.t. the wave with a velocity vobs , he will observe a change in frequency: the f vf − vobs Doppler effect. This is given by: = . f0 vf

The equation for a harmonic traveling plane wave is: u(x, t) = u cos( k · x ± ωt + ϕ) ˆ

5.2.2 Spherical waves
When the situation is spherical symmetric, the homogeneous wave equation is given by: 1 ∂ 2 (ru) ∂ 2 (ru) − =0 v 2 ∂t2 ∂r2 with general solution: u(r, t) = C1 f (r − vt) g(r + vt) + C2 r r

5.2.3 Cylindrical waves
When the situation has a cylindrical symmetry, the homogeneous wave equation becomes: 1 ∂2u 1 ∂ − v 2 ∂t2 r ∂r r ∂u ∂r =0

This is a Bessel equation, with solutions which can be written as Hankel functions. For sufﬁcient large values of r these are approximated by: u ˆ u(r, t) = √ cos(k(r ± vt)) r

5.2.4 The general solution in one dimension
Starting point is the equation: ∂m ∂ 2 u(x, t) = bm m 2 ∂t ∂x m=0
N

u(x, t)

where bm ∈ I Substituting u(x, t) = Aei(kx−ωt) gives two solutions ωj = ωj (k) as dispersion relations. R. The general solution is given by:
∞

u(x, t) =
−∞

a(k)ei(kx−ω1 (k)t) + b(k)ei(kx−ω2 (k)t) dk

Because in general the frequencies ωj are non-linear in k there is dispersion and the solution cannot be written any more as a sum of functions depending only on x ± vt: the wave front transforms.

5.3 The stationary phase method
Usually the Fourier integrals of the previous section cannot be calculated exactly. If ω j (k) ∈ I the stationary R phase method can be applied. Assuming that a(k) is only a slowly varying function of k, one can state that the parts of the k-axis where the phase of kx − ω(k)t changes rapidly will give no net contribution to the integral because the exponent oscillates rapidly there. The only areas contributing signiﬁcantly to the integral are areas d with a stationary phase, determined by (kx − ω(k)t) = 0. Now the following approximation is possible: dk
∞ N

−∞

a(k)ei(kx−ω(k)t) dk ≈

2π
d2 ω(ki ) 2 dki

i=1

1 exp −i 4 π + i(ki x − ω(ki )t)

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Physics Formulary by ir. J.C.A. Wevers

5.4 Green functions for the initial-value problem
This method is preferable if the solutions deviate much from the stationary solutions, like point-like excitations. Starting with the wave equation in one dimension, with 2 = ∂ 2 /∂x2 holds: if Q(x, x , t) is the solution with ∂Q(x, x , 0) = 0, and P (x, x , t) the solution with initial values initial values Q(x, x , 0) = δ(x − x ) and ∂t ∂P (x, x , 0) P (x, x , 0) = 0 and = δ(x − x ), then the solution of the wave equation with arbitrary initial ∂t ∂u(x, 0) is given by: conditions f (x) = u(x, 0) and g(x) = ∂t
∞ ∞

u(x, t) =
−∞

f (x )Q(x, x , t)dx +
−∞

g(x )P (x, x , t)dx

P and Q are called the propagators. They are deﬁned by: Q(x, x , t) = P (x, x , t) =
1 2 [δ(x

1 2v 0

− x − vt) + δ(x − x + vt)] if |x − x | > vt if |x − x | < vt

Further holds the relation: Q(x, x , t) =

∂P (x, x , t) ∂t

5.5 Waveguides and resonating cavities
The boundary conditions for a perfect conductor can be derived from the Maxwell equations. If n is a unit vector ⊥ the surface, pointed from 1 to 2, and K is a surface current density, than holds: n · ( D2 − D1 ) = σ n · ( B2 − B1 ) = 0 n × ( E2 − E1 ) = 0 n × ( H2 − H1 ) = K

In a waveguide holds because of the cylindrical symmetry: E(x, t) = E(x, y)ei(kz−ωt) and B(x, t) = B(x, y)ei(kz−ωt) . From this one can now deduce that, if Bz and Ez are not ≡ 0: ∂Ez i ∂Bz − εµω k εµω 2 − k 2 ∂x ∂y ∂Bz i ∂Ez + εµω Ex = k εµω 2 − k 2 ∂x ∂y Bx = Now one can distinguish between three cases: 1. Bz ≡ 0: the Transversal Magnetic modes (TM). Boundary condition: E z |surf = 0. 2. Ez ≡ 0: the Transversal Electric modes (TE). Boundary condition: ∂Bz ∂n = 0.
surf

By =

∂Ez i ∂Bz + εµω k εµω 2 − k 2 ∂y ∂x ∂Bz i ∂Ez − εµω Ey = k εµω 2 − k 2 ∂y ∂x

For the TE and TM modes this gives an eigenvalue problem for Ez resp. Bz with boundary conditions: ∂2 ∂2 + 2 ∂x2 ∂y ψ = −γ 2 ψ with eigenvalues γ 2 := εµω 2 − k 2

This gives a discrete solution ψ with eigenvalue γ 2 : k = εµω 2 − γ 2 . For ω < ω , k is imaginary and the wave is damped. Therefore, ω is called the cut-off frequency. In rectangular conductors the following expression can be found for the cut-off frequency for modes TE m,n of TMm,n : λ = 2 (m/a)2 + (n/b)2

Chapter 5: Waves

23

3. Ez and Bz are zero everywhere: the Transversal electromagnetic mode (TEM). Than holds: k = √ ±ω εµ and vf = vg , just as if here were no waveguide. Further k ∈ I so there exists no cut-off R, frequency. In a rectangular, 3 dimensional resonating cavity with edges a, b and c the possible wave numbers are given n1 π n2 π n3 π by: kx = , ky = , kz = This results in the possible frequencies f = vk/2π in the cavity: a b c f= v 2 n2 n2 n2 y z x + 2 + 2 a2 b c

For a cubic cavity, with a = b = c, the possible number of oscillating modes N L for longitudinal waves is given by: 4πa3 f 3 NL = 3v 3 Because transversal waves have two possible polarizations holds for them: N T = 2NL .

5.6 Non-linear wave equations
The Van der Pol equation is given by: d2 x dx 2 − εω0 (1 − βx2 ) + ω0 x = 0 dt2 dt βx2 can be ignored for very small values of the amplitude. Substitution of x ∼ e iωt gives: ω = 2 1−
1 2 2 ε ). 1 2 ω0 (iε 1 2 εω0 .

The lowest-order instabilities grow as

While x is growing, the 2nd term becomes larger

±

−1 and diminishes the growth. Oscillations on a time scale ∼ ω0 can exist. If x is expanded as x = x(0) + (1) 2 (2) εx + ε x + · · · and this is substituted one obtains, besides periodic, secular terms ∼ εt. If it is assumed that there exist timescales τn , 0 ≤ τ ≤ N with ∂τn /∂t = εn and if the secular terms are put 0 one obtains:

d dt

1 2

dx dt

2 1 2 + 2 ω 0 x2

= εω0 (1 − βx2 )

dx dt

2

This is an energy equation. Energy is conserved if the left-hand side is 0. If x 2 > 1/β, the right-hand side changes sign and an increase in energy changes into a decrease of energy. This mechanism limits the growth of oscillations. The Korteweg-De Vries equation is given by: ∂u ∂3u ∂u ∂u + b2 3 = 0 + − au ∂t ∂x ∂x ∂x
non−lin dispersive

with c = 1 + 1 ad and e2 = ad/(12b2 ). 3

This equation is for example a model for ion-acoustic waves in a plasma. For this equation, soliton solutions of the following form exist: −d u(x − ct) = cosh2 (e(x − ct))

Chapter 6

Optics
6.1 The bending of light
For the refraction at a surface holds: ni sin(θi ) = nt sin(θt ) where n is the refractive index of the material. Snell’s law is: λ1 v1 n2 = = n1 λ2 v2 If ∆n ≤ 1, the change in phase of the light is ∆ϕ = 0, if ∆n > 1 holds: ∆ϕ = π. The refraction of light in a material is caused by scattering from atoms. This is described by: n2 = 1 + ne e 2 ε0 m fj 2 ω0,j − ω 2 − iδω fj = 1. From this follows
j

j

where ne is the electron density and fj the oscillator strength, for which holds:

that vg = c/(1 + (ne e2 /2ε0 mω 2 )). From this the equation of Cauchy can be derived: n = a0 + a1 /λ2 . More n ak . general, it is possible to expand n as: n = λ2k
k=0

For an electromagnetic wave in general holds: n =

√

ε r µr .

The path, followed by a light ray in material can be found from Fermat’s principle:
2 2

δ
1

dt = δ
1

n(s) ds = 0 ⇒ δ c

2

n(s)ds = 0
1

6.2 Paraxial geometrical optics
6.2.1 Lenses
The Gaussian lens formula can be deduced from Fermat’s principle with the approximations cos ϕ = 1 and sin ϕ = ϕ. For the refraction at a spherical surface with radius R holds: n2 n1 − n 2 n1 − = v b R where |v| is the distance of the object and |b| the distance of the image. Applying this twice results in: 1 = (nl − 1) f 1 1 − R2 R1

where nl is the refractive index of the lens, f is the focal length and R1 and R2 are the curvature radii of both surfaces. For a double concave lens holds R1 < 0, R2 > 0, for a double convex lens holds R1 > 0 and R2 < 0. Further holds: 1 1 1 = − f v b

Chapter 6: Optics

25

D := 1/f is called the dioptric power of a lens. For a lens with thickness d and diameter D holds to a good approximation: 1/f = 8(n − 1)d/D 2 . For two lenses placed on a line with distance d holds: 1 1 d 1 = + − f f1 f2 f1 f2 In these equations the following signs are being used for refraction at a spherical surface, as is seen by an incoming light ray: Quantity R f v b + Concave surface Converging lens Real object Virtual image − Convex surface Diverging lens Virtual object Real image

6.2.2 Mirrors
For images of mirrors holds: 1 1 2 h2 1 = + = + f v b R 2 1 1 − R v
2

where h is the perpendicular distance from the point the light ray hits the mirror to the optical axis. Spherical aberration can be reduced by not using spherical mirrors. A parabolical mirror has no spherical aberration for light rays parallel with the optical axis and is therefore often used for telescopes. The used signs are: Quantity R f v b + Concave mirror Concave mirror Real object Real image − Convex mirror Convex mirror Virtual object Virtual image

6.2.3 Principal planes
The nodal points N of a lens are deﬁned by the ﬁgure on the right. If the lens is surrounded by the same medium on both sides, the nodal points are the same as the principal points H. The plane ⊥ the optical axis through the principal points is called the principal plane. If the lens is described by a matrix mij than for the distances h1 and h2 to the boundary of the lens holds: h1 = n m22 − 1 m11 − 1 , h2 = n m12 m12

N1 r r r O N2

6.2.4 Magniﬁcation
The linear magniﬁcation is deﬁned by: N = − b v αsyst αnone

The angular magniﬁcation is deﬁned by: Nα = −

where αsys is the size of the retinal image with the optical system and αnone the size of the retinal image without the system. Further holds: N · Nα = 1. For a telescope holds: N = fobjective/focular. The f-number is deﬁned by f /Dobjective.

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Physics Formulary by ir. J.C.A. Wevers

6.3 Matrix methods
A light ray can be described by a vector (nα, y) with α the angle with the optical axis and y the distance to the optical axis. The change of a light ray interacting with an optical system can be obtained using a matrix multiplication: n1 α 1 n2 α 2 =M y1 y2 where Tr(M ) = 1. M is a product of elementary matrices. These are: 1. Transfer along length l: MR = 1 0 l/n 1 1 −D 0 1

2. Refraction at a surface with dioptric power D: MT =

6.4 Aberrations
Lenses usually do not give a perfect image. Some causes are: 1. Chromatic aberration is caused by the fact that n = n(λ). This can be partially corrected with a lens which is composed of more lenses with different functions ni (λ). Using N lenses makes it possible to obtain the same f for N wavelengths. 2. Spherical aberration is caused by second-order effects which are usually ignored; a spherical surface does not make a perfect lens. Incomming rays far from the optical axis will more bent. 3. Coma is caused by the fact that the principal planes of a lens are only ﬂat near the principal axis. Further away of the optical axis they are curved. This curvature can be both positive or negative. 4. Astigmatism: from each point of an object not on the optical axis the image is an ellipse because the thickness of the lens is not the same everywhere. 5. Field curvature can be corrected by the human eye. 6. Distorsion gives abberations near the edges of the image. This can be corrected with a combination of positive and negative lenses.

6.5 Reﬂection and transmission
If an electromagnetic wave hits a transparent medium part of the wave will reﬂect at the same angle as the incident angle, and a part will be refracted at an angle according to Snell’s law. It makes a difference whether the E ﬁeld of the wave is ⊥ or w.r.t. the surface. When the coefﬁcients of reﬂection r and transmission t are deﬁned as: E0r E0r E0t E0t r ≡ , r⊥ ≡ , t ≡ , t⊥ ≡ E0i E0i ⊥ E0i E0i ⊥ where E0r is the reﬂected amplitude and E0t the transmitted amplitude. Then the Fresnel equations are: r = t = tan(θi − θt ) sin(θt − θi ) , r⊥ = tan(θi + θt ) sin(θt + θi )

The following holds: t⊥ − r⊥ = 1 and t + r = 1. If the coefﬁcient of reﬂection R and transmission T are deﬁned as (with θi = θr ): Ir It cos(θt ) R≡ and T ≡ Ii Ii cos(θi )

2 sin(θt ) cos(θi ) 2 sin(θt ) cos(θi ) , t⊥ = sin(θt + θi ) cos(θt − θi ) sin(θt + θi )

Chapter 6: Optics

27

with I = |S| it follows: R + T = 1. A special case is r = 0. This happens if the angle between the reﬂected and transmitted rays is 90◦ . From Snell’s law it then follows: tan(θi ) = n. This angle is called Brewster’s angle. The situation with r⊥ = 0 is not possible.

6.6 Polarization
The polarization is deﬁned as: P = Ip Imax − Imin = Ip + I u Imax + Imin

where the intensity of the polarized light is given by Ip and the intensity of the unpolarized light is given by Iu . Imax and Imin are the maximum and minimum intensities when the light passes a polarizer. If polarized light passes through a polarizer Malus law applies: I(θ) = I(0) cos2 (θ) where θ is the angle of the polarizer. The state of a light ray can be described by the Stokes-parameters: start with 4 ﬁlters which each transmits half the intensity. The ﬁrst is independent of the polarization, the second and third are linear polarizers with the transmission axes horizontal and at +45◦ , while the fourth is a circular polarizer which is opaque for L-states. Then holds S1 = 2I1 , S2 = 2I2 − 2I1 , S3 = 2I3 − 2I1 and S4 = 2I4 − 2I1 . The state of a polarized light ray can also be described by the Jones vector: E= E0x eiϕx E0y eiϕy

For the √ horizontal P -state holds: E = (1, 0), for the vertical P -state E = (0, 1), the R-state is given by √ 1 1 E = 2 2(1, −i) and the L-state by E = 2 2(1, i). The change in state of a light beam after passage of optical equipment can be described as E2 = M · E1 . For some types of optical equipment the Jones matrix M is given by: Horizontal linear polarizer: Vertical linear polarizer: Linear polarizer at +45◦ Lineair polarizer at −45◦
1 4 -λ 1 4 -λ 1 2 1 2

1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1

1 −1 −1 1 1 0 0 −i 1 0 0 i 1 i −i 1 1 −i i 1

plate, fast axis vertical plate, fast axis horizontal

eiπ/4 eiπ/4
1 2 1 2

Homogene circular polarizor right Homogene circular polarizer left

6.7 Prisms and dispersion
A light ray passing through a prism is refracted twice and aquires a deviation from its original direction δ = θi + θi + α w.r.t. the incident direction, where α is the apex angle, θi is the angle between the incident angle and a line perpendicular to the surface and θi is the angle between the ray leaving the prism and a line perpendicular to the surface. When θi varies there is an angle for which δ becomes minimal. For the refractive index of the prism now holds: 1 sin( 2 (δmin + α)) n= sin( 1 α) 2

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Physics Formulary by ir. J.C.A. Wevers

The dispersion of a prism is deﬁned by: dδ dn dδ = dλ dn dλ where the ﬁrst factor depends on the shape and the second on the composition of the prism. For the ﬁrst factor follows: 2 sin( 1 α) dδ 2 = 1 dn cos( 2 (δmin + α)) D= For visible light usually holds dn/dλ < 0: shorter wavelengths are stronger bent than longer. The refractive index in this area can usually be approximated by Cauchy’s formula.

6.8 Diffraction
Fraunhofer diffraction occurs far away from the source(s). The Fraunhofer diffraction of light passing through multiple slits is described by: 2 2 sin(N v) I(θ) sin(u) · = I0 u sin(v) where u = πb sin(θ)/λ, v = πd sin(θ)/λ. N is the number of slits, b the width of a slit and d the distance between the slits. The maxima in intensity are given by d sin(θ) = kλ. The diffraction through a spherical aperture with radius a is described by: I(θ) = I0 J1 (ka sin(θ)) ka sin(θ)
2

The diffraction pattern of a rectangular aperture at distance R with length a in the x-direction and b in the y-direction is described by: 2 2 I(x, y) sin(α ) sin(β ) = I0 α β where α = kax/2R and β = kby/2R. When X rays are diffracted at a crystal holds for the position of the maxima in intensity Bragg’s relation: 2d sin(θ) = nλ where d is the distance between the crystal layers. Close at the source the Fraunhofermodel is invalid because it ignores the angle-dependence of the reﬂected waves. This is described by the obliquity or inclination factor, which describes the directionality of the secondary emissions: E(θ) = 1 E0 (1 + cos(θ)) where θ is the angle w.r.t. the optical axis. 2 Diffraction limits the resolution of a system. This is the minimum angle ∆θ min between two incident rays coming from points far away for which their refraction patterns can be detected separately. For a circular slit holds: ∆θmin = 1.22λ/D where D is the diameter of the slit. For a grating holds: ∆θmin = 2λ/(N a cos(θm )) where a is the distance between two peaks and N the number of peaks. The minimum difference between two wavelengths that gives a separated diffraction pattern in a multiple slit geometry is given by ∆λ/λ = nN where N is the number of lines and n the order of the pattern.

6.9 Special optical effects
• Birefringe and dichroism. D is not parallel with E if the polarizability P of a material is not equal in all directions. There are at least 3 directions, the principal axes, in which they are parallel. This results in 3 refractive indices ni which can be used to construct Fresnel’s ellipsoid. In case n2 = n3 = n1 , which happens e.g. at trigonal, hexagonal and tetragonal crystals there is one optical axis in the direction of n1 . Incident light rays can now be split up in two parts: the ordinary wave is linear polarized ⊥ the plane through the transmission direction and the optical axis. The extraordinary wave is linear polarized

Chapter 6: Optics

29

in the plane through the transmission direction and the optical axis. Dichroism is caused by a different absorption of the ordinary and extraordinary wave in some materials. Double images occur when the incident ray makes an angle with the optical axis: the extraordinary wave will refract, the ordinary will not. • Retarders: waveplates and compensators. Incident light will have a phase shift of ∆ϕ = 2πd(|n 0 − ne |)/λ0 if an uniaxial crystal is cut in such a way that the optical axis is parallel with the front and back plane. Here, λ0 is the wavelength in vacuum and n0 and ne the refractive indices for the ordinary and extraordinary wave. For a quarter-wave plate holds: ∆ϕ = π/2. • The Kerr-effect: isotropic, transparent materials can become birefringent when placed in an electric ﬁeld. In that case, the optical axis is parallel to E. The difference in refractive index in the two directions is given by: ∆n = λ0 KE 2 , where K is the Kerr constant of the material. If the electrodes have an effective length and are separated by a distance d, the retardation is given by: ∆ϕ = 2πK V 2 /d2 , where V is the applied voltage. • The Pockels or linear electro-optical effect can occur in 20 (from a total of 32) crystal symmetry classes, namely those without a centre of symmetry. These crystals are also piezoelectric: their polarization changes when a pressure is applied and vice versa: P = pd + ε0 χE. The retardation in a Pockels cell is ∆ϕ = 2πn3 r63 V /λ0 where r63 is the 6-3 element of the electro-optic tensor. 0 • The Faraday effect: the polarization of light passing through material with length d and to which a magnetic ﬁeld is applied in the propagation direction is rotated by an angle β = VBd where V is the Verdet constant. ˘ • Cerenkov radiation arises when a charged particle with vq > vf arrives. The radiation is emitted within a cone with an apex angle α with sin(α) = c/cmedium = c/nvq .

6.10 The Fabry-Perot interferometer
For a Fabry-Perot interferometer holds in general: T + R + A = 1 where T is the transmission factor, R the reﬂection factor and A the absorption factor. If F is given by F = 4R/(1 − R)2 it follows for the intensity distribution: It A = 1− Ii 1−R
2

1 1 + F sin2 (θ)

 Source

 q  Lens 'E d

Screen Focussing lens √ √ The width of the peaks at half height is given by γ = 4/ F . The ﬁnesse F is deﬁned as F = 1 π F . The 2 maximum resolution is then given by ∆fmin = c/2ndF.

The term [1 + F sin2 (θ)]−1 := A(θ) is called the Airy function.

Chapter 7

Statistical physics
7.1 Degrees of freedom
A molecule consisting of n atoms has s = 3n degrees of freedom. There are 3 translational degrees of freedom, a linear molecule has s = 3n − 5 vibrational degrees of freedom and a non-linear molecule s = 3n − 6. A linear molecule has 2 rotational degrees of freedom and a non-linear molecule 3. Because vibrational degrees of freedom account for both kinetic and potential energy they count double. So, for linear molecules this results in a total of s = 6n − 5. For non-linear molecules this gives s = 6n − 6. The average energy of a molecule in thermodynamic equilibrium is E tot = 1 skT . Each degree of freedom of a 2 molecule has in principle the same energy: the principle of equipartition. The rotational and vibrational energy of a molecule are: Wrot = h2 ¯ 1 h l(l + 1) = Bl(l + 1) , Wvib = (v + 2 )¯ ω0 2I

The vibrational levels are excited if kT ≈ hω, the rotational levels of a hetronuclear molecule are excited if ¯ kT ≈ 2B. For homonuclear molecules additional selection rules apply so the rotational levels are well coupled if kT ≈ 6B.

7.2 The energy distribution function
The general form of the equilibrium velocity distribution function is P (vx , vy , vz )dvx dvy dvz = P (vx )dvx · P (vy )dvy · P (vz )dvz with P (vi )dvi = 1 v2 √ exp − i2 α α π dvi

where α = 2kT /m is the most probable velocity of a particle. The average velocity is given by v = √ 3 2α/ π, and v 2 = 2 α2 . The distribution as a function of the absolute value of the velocity is given by: 4N dN mv 2 = 3 √ v 2 exp − dv α π 2kT The general form of the energy distribution function then becomes: c(s) P (E)dE = kT where c(s) is a normalization constant, given by: 1. Even s: s = 2l: c(s) = 1 (l − 1)! 2l π(2l − 1)!! E kT
1 2 s−1

exp −

E kT

dE

2. Odd s: s = 2l + 1: c(s) = √

Chapter 7: Statistical physics

31

7.3 Pressure on a wall
The number of molecules that collides with a wall with surface A within a time τ is given by:
∞ π 2π

d N=
0 0 0

3

nAvτ cos(θ)P (v, θ, ϕ)dvdθdϕ

1 From this follows for the particle ﬂux on the wall: Φ = 4 n v . For the pressure on the wall then follows:

d3 p =

2 2mv cos(θ)d3 N , so p = n E Aτ 3

7.4 The equation of state
If intermolecular forces and the volume of the molecules can be neglected then for gases from p = and E = 3 kT can be derived: 2 1 pV = ns RT = N m v 2 3
2 3n

E

Here, ns is the number of moles particles and N is the total number of particles within volume V . If the own volume and the intermolecular forces cannot be neglected the Van der Waals equation can be derived: p+ an2 s V2 (V − bns ) = ns RT

There is an isotherme with a horizontal point of inﬂection. In the Van der Waals equation this corresponds with the critical temperature, pressure and volume of the gas. This is the upper limit of the area of coexistence between liquid and vapor. From dp/dV = 0 and d2 p/dV 2 = 0 follows: Tcr = a 8a , pcr = , Vcr = 3bns 27bR 27b2
3 8,

For the critical point holds: pcr Vm,cr /RTcr = general gas law.

which differs from the value of 1 which follows from the

∗ Scaled on the critical quantities, with p∗ := p/pcr , T ∗ = T /Tcr and Vm = Vm /Vm,cr with Vm := V /ns holds:

p∗ +

3
∗ (Vm )2

∗ Vm −

1 3

8 = 3T∗

Gases behave the same for equal values of the reduced quantities: the law of the corresponding states. A virial expansion is used for even more accurate views: p(T, Vm ) = RT B(T ) C(T ) 1 + + +··· 2 3 Vm Vm Vm

The Boyle temperature TB is the temperature for which the 2nd virial coefﬁcient is 0. In a Van der Waals gas, this happens at TB = a/Rb. The inversion temperature Ti = 2TB . The equation of state for solids and liquids is given by: 1 V = 1 + γp ∆T − κT ∆p = 1 + V0 V ∂V ∂T ∆T +
p

1 V

∂V ∂p

∆p
T

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Physics Formulary by ir. J.C.A. Wevers

7.5 Collisions between molecules
The collision probability of a particle in a gas that is translated over a distance dx is given by nσdx, where σ is v1 2 2 the cross section. The mean free path is given by = with u = v1 + v2 the relative velocity between nuσ u 1 1 m1 √ . This means the particles. If m1 m2 holds: = 1+ , so = . If m1 = m2 holds: = v1 m2 nσ nσ 2 1 . If the molecules are approximated by hard that the average time between two collisions is given by τ = nσv 1 2 2 spheres the cross section is: σ = 4 π(D1 + D2 ). The average distance between two molecules is 0.55n−1/3. Collisions between molecules and small particles in a solution result in the Brownian motion. For the average 1 motion of a particle with radius R can be derived: x2 = 3 r2 = kT t/3πηR. i A gas is called a Knudsen gas if the dimensions of the gas, something that can easily occur at low pressures. The equilibrium condition for a vessel which has a hole with surface A in it for which holds that √ √ √ √ A/π is: n1 T1 = n2 T2 . Together with the general gas law follows: p1 / T1 = p2 / T2 . Awx . d The velocity proﬁle between the plates is in that case given by w(z) = zw x /d. It can be derived that η = 1 v where v is the thermal velocity. 3 If two plates move along each other at a distance d with velocity w x the viscosity η is given by: Fx = η dQ T2 − T 1 , which results in a temper= κA dt d 1 ature proﬁle T (z) = T1 + z(T2 − T1 )/d. It can be derived that κ = 3 CmV n v /NA . Also holds: κ = CV η. A better expression for κ can be obtained with the Eucken correction: κ = (1 + 9R/4c mV )CV · η with an error <5%. The heat conductance in a non-moving gas is described by:

7.6 Interaction between molecules
For dipole interaction between molecules can be derived that U ∼ −1/r 6 . If the distance between two molecules approaches the molecular diameter D a repulsing force between the electron clouds appears. This force can be described by Urep ∼ exp(−γr) or Vrep = +Cs /rs with 12 ≤ s ≤ 20. This results in the Lennard-Jones potential for intermolecular forces: ULJ = 4 D r
12

−

D r

6

with a minimum at r = rm . The following holds: D ≈ 0.89rm . For the Van der Waals coefﬁcients a and b 2 and the critical quantities holds: a = 5.275NAD3 , b = 1.3NA D3 , kTkr = 1.2 and Vm,kr = 3.9NA D3 . A more simple model for intermolecular forces assumes a potential U (r) = ∞ for r < D, U (r) = U LJ for D ≤ r ≤ 3D and U (r) = 0 for r ≥ 3D. This gives for the potential energy of one molecule: E pot =
3D

U (r)F (r)dr.
D

with F (r) the spatial distribution function in spherical coordinates, which for a homogeneous distribution is given by: F (r)dr = 4nπr 2 dr. Some useful mathematical relations are:
∞ ∞

x e
0

n −x

dx = n! ,
0

x e

2n −x2

√ (2n)! π , dx = n!22n+1

∞

x2n+1 e−x dx = 1 n! 2
0

2

Chapter 8

Thermodynamics
8.1 Mathematical introduction
If there exists a relation f (x, y, z) = 0 between 3 variables, one can write: x = x(y, z), y = y(x, z) and z = z(x, y). The total differential dz of z is than given by: dz = ∂z ∂x dx +
y

∂z ∂y

dy
x

By writing this also for dx and dy it can be obtained that ∂x ∂y Because dz is a total differential holds · ∂y ∂z · ∂z ∂x = −1

z

x

y

dz = 0.

A homogeneous function of degree m obeys: εm F (x, y, z) = F (εx, εy, εz). For such a function Euler’s theorem applies: ∂F ∂F ∂F mF (x, y, z) = x +y +z ∂x ∂y ∂z

8.2 Deﬁnitions
• The isochoric pressure coefﬁcient: βV = • The isothermal compressibility: κT = − • The isobaric volume coefﬁcient: γp = 1 V 1 V 1 p 1 V ∂p ∂T ∂V ∂p ∂V ∂T ∂V ∂p
V

T

p

• The adiabatic compressibility: κS = −

S

For an ideal gas follows: γp = 1/T , κT = 1/p and βV = −1/V .

8.3 Thermal heat capacity
• The speciﬁc heat at constant X is: CX = T • The speciﬁc heat at constant pressure: Cp = • The speciﬁc heat at constant volume: CV = ∂S ∂T ∂H ∂T ∂U ∂T
X

p

V

34

Physics Formulary by ir. J.C.A. Wevers

For an ideal gas holds: Cmp − CmV = R. Further, if the temperature is high enough to thermalize all internal 1 rotational and vibrational degrees of freedom, holds: CV = 2 sR. Hence Cp = 1 (s + 2)R. For their ratio now 2 follows γ = (2 + s)/s. For a lower T one needs only to consider the thermalized degrees of freedom. For a 1 Van der Waals gas holds: CmV = 2 sR + ap/RT 2. In general holds: Cp − C V = T ∂p ∂T
V

·

∂V ∂T

p

= −T

∂V ∂T

2 p

∂p ∂V

T

≥0

Because (∂p/∂V )T is always < 0, the following is always valid: Cp ≥ CV . If the coefﬁcient of expansion is 0, Cp = CV , and also at T = 0K.

8.4 The laws of thermodynamics
The zeroth law states that heat ﬂows from higher to lower temperatures. The ﬁrst law is the conservation of energy. For a closed system holds: Q = ∆U + W , where Q is the total added heat, W the work done and ∆U the difference in the internal energy. In differential form this becomes: d Q = dU + d W , where d means that the it is not a differential of a quantity of state. For a quasi-static process holds: d W = pdV . So for a reversible process holds: d Q = dU + pdV . For an open (ﬂowing) system the ﬁrst law is: Q = ∆H + Wi + ∆Ekin + ∆Epot . One can extract an amount of work Wt from the system or add Wt = −Wi to the system. The second law states: for a closed system there exists an additive quantity S, called the entropy, the differential of which has the following property: dQ dS ≥ T If the only processes occurring are reversible holds: dS = d Qrev /T . So, the entropy difference after a reversible process is:
2

S2 − S 1 = So, for a reversible cycle holds: For an irreversible cycle holds: d Qrev = 0. T d Qirr < 0. T

d Qrev T

1

The third law of thermodynamics is (Nernst): lim ∂S ∂X =0
T

T →0

From this it can be concluded that the thermal heat capacity → 0 if T → 0, so absolute zero temperature cannot be reached by cooling through a ﬁnite number of steps.

8.5 State functions and Maxwell relations
The quantities of state and their differentials are: Internal energy: Enthalpy: Free energy: Gibbs free enthalpy: U H = U + pV F = U − TS G = H − TS dU = T dS − pdV dH = T dS + V dp dF = −SdT − pdV dG = −SdT + V dp

Chapter 8: Thermodynamics

35

From this one can derive Maxwell’s relations: ∂T ∂V =− ∂p ∂S ,
V

S

∂T ∂p

=
S

∂V ∂S

,
p

∂p ∂T

=
V

∂S ∂V

,
T

∂V ∂T

p

=−

∂S ∂p

T

From the total differential and the deﬁnitions of CV and Cp it can be derived that: T dS = CV dT + T For an ideal gas also holds: Sm = CV ln T T0 + R ln V V0 + Sm0 and Sm = Cp ln T T0 − R ln p p0 + Sm0 ∂p ∂T dV and T dS = Cp dT − T ∂V ∂T dp
p

V

Helmholtz’ equations are: ∂U ∂V =T
T

∂p ∂T

V

−p ,

∂H ∂p

T

=V −T

∂V ∂T

p

for an enlarged surface holds: d Wrev = −γdA, with γ the surface tension. From this follows: γ= ∂U ∂A =
S

∂F ∂A

T

8.6 Processes
The efﬁciency η of a process is given by: η = Work done Heat added Cold delivered Work added

The Cold factor ξ of a cooling down process is given by: ξ = Reversible adiabatic processes

For adiabatic processes holds: W = U1 − U2 . For reversible adiabatic processes holds Poisson’s equation: with γ = Cp /CV one gets that pV γ =constant. Also holds: T V γ−1 =constant and T γ p1−γ =constant. Adiabatics exhibit a greater steepness p-V diagram than isothermics because γ > 1. Isobaric processes Here holds: H2 − H1 = The throttle process This is also called the Joule-Kelvin effect and is an adiabatic expansion of a gas through a porous material or a small opening. Here H is a conserved quantity, and dS > 0. In general this is accompanied with a change in temperature. The quantity which is important here is the throttle coefﬁcient: αH = ∂T ∂p =
H 2 1

Cp dT . For a reversible isobaric process holds: H2 − H1 = Qrev .

1 T Cp

∂V ∂T

p

−V

The inversion temperature is the temperature where an adiabatically expanding gas keeps the same temperature. If T > Ti the gas heats up, if T < Ti the gas cools down. Ti = 2TB , with for TB : [∂(pV )/∂p]T = 0. The throttle process is e.g. applied in refridgerators. The Carnotprocess The system undergoes a reversible cycle with 2 isothemics and 2 adiabatics: 1. Isothermic expansion at T1 . The system absorbs a heat Q1 from the reservoir. 2. Adiabatic expansion with a temperature drop to T2 .

36

Physics Formulary by ir. J.C.A. Wevers

3. Isothermic compression at T2 , removing Q2 from the system. 4. Adiabatic compression to T1 . The efﬁciency for Carnot’s process is: η =1− |Q2 | T2 =1− := ηC |Q1 | T1

The Carnot efﬁciency ηC is the maximal efﬁciency at which a heat machine can operate. If the process is applied in reverse order and the system performs a work −W the cold factor is given by: ξ= The Stirling process Stirling’s cycle exists of 2 isothermics and 2 isochorics. The efﬁciency in the ideal case is the same as for Carnot’s cycle. |Q2 | |Q2 | T2 = = W |Q1 | − |Q2 | T1 − T 2

8.7 Maximal work
Consider a system that changes from state 1 into state 2, with the temperature and pressure of the surroundings given by T0 and p0 . The maximum work which can be obtained from this change is, when all processes are reversible: 1. Closed system: Wmax = (U1 − U2 ) − T0 (S1 − S2 ) + p0 (V1 − V2 ). 2. Open system: Wmax = (H1 − H2 ) − T0 (S1 − S2 ) − ∆Ekin − ∆Epot . The minimal work needed to attain a certain state is: Wmin = −Wmax .

8.8 Phase transitions
Phase transitions are isothermic and isobaric, so dG = 0. When the phases are indicated by α, β and γ holds: Gα = Gβ and m m rβα α β ∆Sm = Sm − Sm = T0 where rβα is the transition heat of phase β to phase α and T0 is the transition temperature. The following holds: rβα = rαβ and rβα = rγα − rγβ . Further Sm = ∂Gm ∂T
p

so G has a twist in the transition point. In a two phase system Clapeyron’s equation is valid:
β dp rβα S α − Sm = = m α−Vβ α − V β )T dT Vm (Vm m m

For an ideal gas one ﬁnds for the vapor line at some distance from the critical point: p = p0 e−rβα/RT There exist also phase transitions with rβα = 0. For those there will occur only a discontinuity in the second derivates of Gm . These second-order transitions appear at organization phenomena. A phase-change of the 3rd order, so with e.g. [∂ 3 Gm /∂T 3 ]p non continuous arises e.g. when ferromagnetic iron changes to the paramagnetic state.

Chapter 8: Thermodynamics

37

8.9 Thermodynamic potential
When the number of particles within a system changes this number becomes a third quantity of state. Because addition of matter usually takes place at constant p and T , G is the relevant quantity. If a system exists of more components this becomes: dG = −SdT + V dp + µi dni
i

where µ =

∂G ∂ni

is called the thermodynamic potential. This is a partial quantity. For V holds:
p,T,nj c

V =
i=1

ni

∂V ∂ni

c

:=
nj ,p,T i=1

n i Vi

where Vi is the partial volume of component i. The following holds: Vm =
i

xi V i xi dVi
i

0 =

where xi = ni /n is the molar fraction of component i. The molar volume of a mixture of two components can be a concave line in a V -x2 diagram: the mixing contracts the volume. The thermodynamic potentials are not independent in a multiple-phase system. It can be derived that ni dµi = −SdT + V dp, this gives at constant p and T : xi dµi = 0 (Gibbs-Duhmen).
i i

Each component has as much µ’s as there are phases. The number of free parameters in a system with c components and p different phases is given by f = c + 2 − p.

8.10 Ideal mixtures
For a mixture of n components holds (the index 0 is the value for the pure component): Umixture =
i

ni Ui0 , Hmixture =
i

ni Hi0 , Smixture = n
i

0 xi Si + ∆Smix

where for ideal gases holds: ∆Smix = −nR

xi ln(xi ).
i

For the thermodynamic potentials holds: µi = µ0 + RT ln(xi ) < µ0 . A mixture of two liquids is rarely ideal: i i this is usually only the case for chemically related components or isotopes. In spite of this holds Raoult’s law for the vapour pressure holds for many binary mixtures: pi = xi p0 = yi p. Here is xi the fraction of the ith i component in liquid phase and yi the fraction of the ith component in gas phase. A solution of one component in another gives rise to an increase in the boiling point ∆T k and a decrease of the freezing point ∆Ts . For x2 1 holds: ∆Tk =
2 RTk RT 2 x2 , ∆Ts = − s x2 rβα rγβ

with rβα the evaporation heat and rγβ < 0 the melting heat. For the osmotic pressure Π of a solution holds: 0 ΠVm1 = x2 RT .

8.11 Conditions for equilibrium
When a system evolves towards equilibrium the only changes that are possible are those for which holds: (dS)U,V ≥ 0 or (dU )S,V ≤ 0 or (dH)S,p ≤ 0 or (dF )T,V ≤ 0 or (dG)T,p ≤ 0. In equilibrium for each component holds: µα = µβ = µγ . i i i

38

Physics Formulary by ir. J.C.A. Wevers

8.12 Statistical basis for thermodynamics
The number of possibilities P to distribute N particles on n possible energy levels, each with a g-fold degeneracy is called the thermodynamic probability and is given by: P = N!
i n gi i ni !

The most probable distribution, that with the maximum value for P , is the equilibrium state. When Stirling’s equation, ln(n!) ≈ n ln(n) − n is used, one ﬁnds for a discrete system the Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution. The occupation numbers in equilibrium are then given by: ni = N Wi gi exp − Z kT gi exp(−Wi /kT ). For an ideal gas holds:
i

The state sum Z is a normalization constant, given by: Z =

Z=

V (2πmkT )3/2 h3

The entropy can then be deﬁned as: S = k ln(P ) . For a system in thermodynamic equilibrium this becomes: S= U + kN ln T Z N + kN ≈ U + k ln T ZN N!

For an ideal gas, with U = 3 kT then holds: S = 5 kN + kN ln 2 2

V (2πmkT )3/2 N h3

8.13 Application to other systems
Thermodynamics can be applied to other systems than gases and liquids. To do this the term d W = pdV has to be replaced with the correct work term, like d Wrev = −F dl for the stretching of a wire, d Wrev = −γdA for the expansion of a soap bubble or d Wrev = −BdM for a magnetic system.

A rotating, non-charged black hole has a temparature of T = hc/8πkm. It has an entropy S = Akc 3 /4¯ κ ¯ h with A the area of its event horizon. For a Schwarzschild black hole A is given by A = 16πm 2 . Hawkings area theorem states that dA/dt ≥ 0. Hence, the lifetime of a black hole ∼ m3 .

Chapter 9

Transport phenomena
9.1 Mathematical introduction
An important relation is: if X is a quantity of a volume element which travels from position r to r + dr in a time dt, the total differential dX is then given by: dX = ∂X ∂X ∂X dX ∂X ∂X ∂X ∂X ∂X dx + dy + dz + dt ⇒ = vx + vy + vz + ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t dt ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t dX ∂X = + (v · dt ∂t d dt )X . ∂ ∂t Xd3 V + X(v · n )d2 A operator are: rot gradφ = 0 div rotv = 0

This results in general to:

From this follows that also holds:

Xd3 V =

where the volume V is surrounded by surface A. Some properties of the div(φv ) = φdivv + gradφ · v div(u × v ) = v · (rotu ) − u · (rotv ) div gradφ = 2 φ

rot(φv ) = φrotv + (gradφ) × v rot rotv = grad divv − 2 v 2 v ≡ ( 2 v1 , 2 v2 , 2 v3 )

Here, v is an arbitrary vector ﬁeld and φ an arbitrary scalar ﬁeld. Some important integral theorems are: Gauss: Stokes for a scalar ﬁeld: Stokes for a vector ﬁeld: This results in: Ostrogradsky: (v · n )d2 A = (φ · et )ds = (v · et )ds = (divv )d3 V (n × gradφ)d2 A (rotv · n )d2 A

(rotv · n )d2 A = 0 (n × v )d2 A = (φn )d2 A = (rotv )d3 A (gradφ)d3 V ds.

Here, the orientable surface

d2 A is limited by the Jordan curve

9.2 Conservation laws
On a volume work two types of forces: 1. The force f0 on each volume element. For gravity holds: f0 = g. 2. Surface forces working only on the margins: t. For these holds: t = n T, where T is the stress tensor.

40

Physics Formulary by ir. J.C.A. Wevers

T can be split in a part pI representing the normal tensions and a part T representing the shear stresses: T = T + pI, where I is the unit tensor. When viscous aspects can be ignored holds: divT= −gradp. When the ﬂow velocity is v at position r holds on position r + dr: v(dr ) = v(r )
translation

+

rotation, deformation, dilatation

The quantity L:=gradv can be split in a symmetric part D and an antisymmetric part W. L = D + W with Dij := 1 2 ∂vi ∂vj + ∂xj ∂xi , Wij := 1 2 ∂vi ∂vj − ∂xj ∂xi

When the rotation or vorticity ω = rotv is introduced holds: Wij = 1 εijk ωk . ω represents the local rotation 2 velocity: dr · W = 1 ω × dr. 2 For a Newtonian liquid holds: T = 2ηD. Here, η is the dynamical viscosity. This is related to the shear stress τ by: ∂vi τij = η ∂xj For compressible media can be stated: T = (η divv )I + 2ηD. From equating the thermodynamical and mechanical pressure it follows: 3η + 2η = 0. If the viscosity is constant holds: div(2D) = 2 v + grad divv. The conservation laws for mass, momentum and energy for continuous media can be written in both integral and differential form. They are:

Integral notation:
1. Conservation of mass: ∂ ∂t ∂ ∂t d3 V + (v · n )d2 A = 0 v(v · n )d2 A = f0 d3 V + n · T d2 A

2. Conservation of momentum: 3. Conservation of energy: ∂ ∂t −

vd3 V + ( 1 v 2 + e) d3 V + 2

1 ( 2 v 2 + e) (v · n )d2 A =

(q · n )d2 A +

(v · f0 )d3 V +

(v · n T)d2 A

Differential notation:
1. Conservation of mass: ∂ + div · ( v ) = 0 ∂t ∂v +( v· ∂t )v = f0 + divT = f0 − gradp + divT

2. Conservation of momentum: 3. Conservation of energy: T

ds de p d = − = −divq + T : D dt dt dt

Here, e is the internal energy per unit of mass E/m and s is the entropy per unit of mass S/m. q = −κ T is the heat ﬂow. Further holds: ∂e ∂E ∂e ∂E =− , T = = p=− ∂V ∂1/ ∂S ∂s so ∂e ∂h CV = and Cp = ∂T V ∂T p with h = H/m the enthalpy per unit of mass.

Chapter 9: Transport phenomena

41

From this one can derive the Navier-Stokes equations for an incompressible, viscous and heat-conducting medium: divv ∂v + (v · ∂t C ∂T + C(v · ∂t )v )T = 0 = g − gradp + η
2 2

v

= κ

T + 2ηD : D

with C the thermal heat capacity. The force F on an object within a ﬂow, when viscous effects are limited to the boundary layer, can be obtained using the momentum law. If a surface A surrounds the object outside the boundary layer holds: F =− [pn + v(v · n )]d2 A

9.3 Bernoulli’s equations
Starting with the momentum equation one can ﬁnd for a non-viscous medium for stationary ﬂows, with
1 (v · grad)v = 2 grad(v 2 ) + (rotv ) × v

and the potential equation g = −grad(gh) that:
1 2 2v

+ gh +

dp

= constant along a streamline

For compressible ﬂows holds: 1 v 2 + gh + p/ =constant along a line of ﬂow. If also holds rotv = 0 and 2 1 the entropy is equal on each streamline holds 2 v 2 + gh + dp/ =constant everywhere. For incompressible 1 2 ﬂows this becomes: 2 v + gh + p/ =constant everywhere. For ideal gases with constant C p and CV holds, with γ = Cp /CV : γ p c2 1 2 1 = 2 v2 + = constant 2v + γ − 1 γ −1 With a velocity potential deﬁned by v = gradφ holds for instationary ﬂows: ∂φ 1 2 + 2 v + gh + ∂t dp = constant everywhere

9.4 Characterising of ﬂows by dimensionless numbers
The advantage of dimensionless numbers is that they make model experiments possible: one has to make the dimensionless numbers which are important for the speciﬁc experiment equal for both model and the real situation. One can also deduce functional equalities without solving the differential equations. Some dimensionless numbers are given by: Strouhal: Sr = Fourier: Prandtl: ωL v a Fo = ωL2 ν Pr = a v2 gL vL P´ clet: Pe = e a Lα Nusselt: Nu = κ Froude: Fr = v c vL Reynolds: Re = ν v2 Eckert: Ec = c∆T Mach: Ma =

Here, ν = η/ is the kinematic viscosity, c is the speed of sound and L is a characteristic length of the system. α follows from the equation for heat transport κ∂y T = α∆T and a = κ/ c is the thermal diffusion coefﬁcient. These numbers can be interpreted as follows: • Re: (stationary inertial forces)/(viscous forces)

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Physics Formulary by ir. J.C.A. Wevers

• Sr: (non-stationary inertial forces)/(stationary inertial forces) • Fr: (stationary inertial forces)/(gravity) • Fo: (heat conductance)/(non-stationary change in enthalpy) • Pe: (convective heat transport)/(heat conductance) • Ec: (viscous dissipation)/(convective heat transport) • Ma: (velocity)/(speed of sound): objects moving faster than approximately Ma = 0,8 produce shockwaves which propagate with an angle θ with the velocity of the object. For this angle holds Ma= 1/ arctan(θ). • Pr and Nu are related to speciﬁc materials. Now, the dimensionless Navier-Stokes equation becomes, with x = x/L, v = v/V , grad = Lgrad, L2 2 and t = tω: 2 ∂v g v Sr + (v · )v = −grad p + + ∂t Fr Re
2

=

9.5 Tube ﬂows
For tube ﬂows holds: they are laminar if Re< 2300 with dimension of length the diameter of the tube, and turbulent if Re is larger. For an incompressible laminar ﬂow through a straight, circular tube holds for the velocity proﬁle: 1 dp 2 (R − r2 ) v(r) = − 4η dx
R

For the volume ﬂow holds: ΦV =
0

v(r)2πrdr = −

π dp 4 R 8η dx

The entrance length Le is given by: 1. 500 < ReD < 2300: Le /2R = 0.056ReD √ 4R3 α π dp 3 dx 2 For ﬂows at a small Re holds: p = η v and divv = 0. For the total force on a sphere with radius R in a 1 ﬂow then holds: F = 6πηRv. For large Re holds for the force on a surface A: F = 2 CW A v 2 . 2. Re > 2300: Le /2R ≈ 50

For gas transport at low pressures (Knudsen-gas) holds: ΦV =

9.6 Potential theory
The circulation Γ is deﬁned as: Γ = (v · et )ds = (rotv ) · nd2 A = (ω · n )d2 A

For non viscous media, if p = p( ) and all forces are conservative, Kelvin’s theorem can be derived: dΓ =0 dt For rotationless ﬂows a velocity potential v = gradφ can be introduced. In the incompressible case follows from conservation of mass 2 φ = 0. For a 2-dimensional ﬂow a ﬂow function ψ(x, y) can be deﬁned: with ΦAB the amount of liquid ﬂowing through a curve s between the points A and B:
B B

ΦAB =
A

(v · n )ds =
A

(vx dy − vy dx)

Chapter 9: Transport phenomena

43

and the deﬁnitions vx = ∂ψ/∂y, vy = −∂ψ/∂x holds: ΦAB = ψ(B) − ψ(A). In general holds: ∂2ψ ∂2ψ + = −ωz 2 ∂x ∂y 2 In polar coordinates holds: ∂φ ∂ψ 1 ∂φ 1 ∂ψ = , vθ = − = r ∂θ ∂r ∂r r ∂θ Q For source ﬂows with power Q in (x, y) = (0, 0) holds: φ = ln(r) so that vr = Q/2πr, vθ = 0. 2π vr = For a dipole of strength Q in x = a and strength −Q in x = −a follows from superposition: φ = −Qax/2πr 2 where Qa is the dipole strength. For a vortex holds: φ = Γθ/2π. If an object is surrounded by an uniform main ﬂow with v = ve x and such a large Re that viscous effects are limited to the boundary layer holds: Fx = 0 and Fy = − Γv. The statement that Fx = 0 is d’Alembert’s paradox and originates from the neglection of viscous effects. The lift F y is also created by η because Γ = 0 due to viscous effects. Henxe rotating bodies also create a force perpendicular to their direction of motion: the Magnus effect.

9.7 Boundary layers
9.7.1 Flow boundary layers
√ If for the thickness of the boundary layer holds: δ L holds: δ ≈ L/ Re. With v∞ the velocity of the main ﬂow it follows for the velocity vy ⊥ the surface: vy L ≈ δv∞ . Blasius’ equation for the boundary layer is, with vy /v∞ = f (y/δ): 2f + f f = 0 with boundary conditions f (0) = f (0) = 0, f (∞) = 1. From this −1/2 follows: CW = 0.664 Rex . The momentum theorem of Von Karman for the boundary layer is: d dv τ0 (ϑv 2 ) + δ ∗ v = dx dx

where the displacement thickness δ ∗ v and the momentum thickness ϑv 2 are given by:
∞ ∞ ∗

ϑv =
0

2

(v − vx )vx dy , δ v =

0

(v − vx )dy and τ0 = −η

∂vx ∂y

y=0

The boundary layer is released from the surface if

∂vx ∂y

= 0. This is equivalent with
y=0

dp 12ηv∞ = . dx δ2

9.7.2 Temperature boundary layers
If the thickness of the temperature boundary layer δT √ Pr. L holds: 1. If Pr ≤ 1: δ/δT ≈ √ 2. If Pr 1: δ/δT ≈ 3 Pr.

9.8 Heat conductance
For non-stationairy heat conductance in one dimension without ﬂow holds: κ ∂2T ∂T = +Φ ∂t c ∂x2 where Φ is a source term. If Φ = 0 the solutions for harmonic oscillations at x = 0 are: T − T∞ x x = exp − cos ωt − Tmax − T∞ D D

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Physics Formulary by ir. J.C.A. Wevers

with D = 2κ/ω c. At x = πD the temperature variation is in anti-phase with the surface. The onedimensional solution at Φ = 0 is 1 x2 T (x, t) = √ exp − 4at 2 πat This is mathematical equivalent to the diffusion problem: ∂n =D ∂t
2

n+P −A

where P is the production of and A the discharge of particles. The ﬂow density J = −D n.

9.9 Turbulence
√ The time scale of turbulent velocity variations τt is of the order of: τt = τ Re/Ma2 with τ the molecular time scale. For the velocity of the particles holds: v(t) = v + v (t) with v (t) = 0. The Navier-Stokes equation now becomes: ∂ v +( v · ∂t ) v =− p +ν
2

v +

divSR

where SR ij = − vi vj is the turbulent stress tensor. Boussinesq’s assumption is: τij = − vi vj . It is stated that, analogous to Newtonian media: SR = 2 νt D . Near a boundary holds: νt = 0, far away of a boundary holds: νt ≈ νRe.

9.10 Self organization
For a (semi) two-dimensional ﬂow holds: dω ∂ω = + J(ω, ψ) = ν 2 ω dt ∂t With J(ω, ψ) the Jacobian. So if ν = 0, ω is conserved. Further, the kinetic energy/mA and the enstrofy V are conserved: with v = × (kψ)
∞ ∞

E ∼ ( ψ) ∼

2

0

E(k, t)dk = constant , V ∼ (

2

ψ) ∼

2

0

k 2 E(k, t)dk = constant

From this follows that in a two-dimensional ﬂow the energy ﬂux goes towards large values of k: larger structures become larger at the expanse of smaller ones. In three-dimensional ﬂows the situation is just the opposite.

Chapter 10

Quantum physics
10.1 Introduction to quantum physics
Planck’s law for the energy distribution for the radiation of a black body is: w(f ) = 8πhc 1 1 8πhf 3 , w(λ) = 3 5 ehc/λkT − 1 hf /kT − 1 c λ e

Stefan-Boltzmann’s law for the total power density can be derived from this: P = AσT 4 . Wien’s law for the maximum can also be derived from this: T λmax = kW .

10.1.2 The Compton effect
For the wavelength of scattered light, if light is considered to exist of particles, can be derived: λ =λ+ h (1 − cos θ) = λ + λC (1 − cos θ) mc

10.1.3 Electron diffraction
Diffraction of electrons at a crystal can be explained by assuming that particles have a wave character with wavelength λ = h/p. This wavelength is called the Broglie-wavelength.

10.2 Wave functions
The wave character of particles is described by a wavefunction ψ. This wavefunction can be described in normal or momentum space. Both deﬁnitions are each others Fourier transform: 1 Φ(k, t) = √ h 1 Ψ(x, t)e−ikx dx and Ψ(x, t) = √ h Φ(k, t)eikx dk

These waves deﬁne a particle with group velocity vg = p/m and energy E = hω. ¯ The wavefunction can be interpreted as a measure for the probability P to ﬁnd a particle somewhere (Born): dP = |ψ|2 d3 V . The expectation value f of a quantity f of a system is given by: f (t) = Ψ∗ f Ψd3 V , fp (t) = Φ∗ f Φd3 Vp

This is also written as f (t) = Φ|f |Φ . The normalizing condition for wavefunctions follows from this: Φ|Φ = Ψ|Ψ = 1.

10.3 Operators in quantum physics
In quantum mechanics, classical quantities are translated into operators. These operators are hermitian because their eigenvalues must be real:
∗ ψ1 Aψ2 d3 V =

ψ2 (Aψ1 )∗ d3 V

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Physics Formulary by ir. J.C.A. Wevers

When un is the eigenfunction of the eigenvalue equation AΨ = aΨ for eigenvalue a n , Ψ can be expanded into cn un . If this basis is taken orthonormal, then follows for the coefﬁcients: a basis of eigenfunctions: Ψ =
n

cn = un |Ψ . If the system is in a state described by Ψ, the chance to ﬁnd eigenvalue a n when measuring A is given by |cn |2 in the discrete part of the spectrum and |cn |2 da in the continuous part of the spectrum between a and a + da. The matrix element Aij is given by: Aij = ui |A|uj . Because (AB)ij = ui |AB|uj = |un un | = 1. ui |A |un un |B|uj holds:
n n

The time-dependence of an operator is given by (Heisenberg): dA ∂A [A, H] = + dt ∂t i¯ h with [A, B] ≡ AB − BA the commutator of A and B. For hermitian operators the commutator is always complex. If [A, B] = 0, the operators A and B have a common set of eigenfunctions. By applying this to p x and x follows (Ehrenfest): md2 x t /dt2 = − dU (x)/dx . The ﬁrst order approximation F (x)
t

≈ F ( x ), with F = −dU/dx represents the classical equation.

Before the addition of quantummechanical operators which are a product of other operators, they should be 1 made symmetrical: a classical product AB becomes 2 (AB + BA).

10.4 The uncertainty principle
If the uncertainty ∆A in A is deﬁned as: (∆A)2 = ψ|Aop − A |2 ψ = A2 − A
1 ∆A · ∆B ≥ 2 | ψ|[A, B]|ψ | 2

it follows:

1 1 1 From this follows: ∆E · ∆t ≥ 2 h, and because [x, px ] = i¯ holds: ∆px · ∆x ≥ 2 h, and ∆Lx · ∆Ly ≥ 2 hLz . ¯ h ¯ ¯

10.5 The Schr¨ dinger equation o
The momentum operator is given by: pop = −i¯ . The position operator is: xop = i¯ p . The energy h h operator is given by: Eop = i¯ ∂/∂t. The Hamiltonian of a particle with mass m, potential energy U and total h energy E is given by: H = p2 /2m + U . From Hψ = Eψ then follows the Schrodinger equation: ¨ − h2 ¯ 2m
2

ψ + U ψ = Eψ = i¯ h

∂ψ ∂t iEt h ¯

The linear combination of the solutions of this equation give the general solution. In one dimension it is: ψ(x, t) = The current density J is given by: J = + dE c(E)uE (x) exp −

h ¯ (ψ ∗ ψ − ψ ψ ∗ ) 2im ∂P (x, t) The following conservation law holds: = − J(x, t) ∂t

10.6 Parity
The parity operator in one dimension is given by Pψ(x) = ψ(−x). If the wavefunction is split in even and odd functions, it can be expanded into eigenfunctions of P:
1 ψ(x) = 2 (ψ(x) + ψ(−x)) + 1 (ψ(x) − ψ(−x)) 2 even:

ψ+

odd:

ψ−

1 o [P, H] = 0. The functions ψ + = 2 (1 + P)ψ(x, t) and ψ − = 1 (1 − P)ψ(x, t) both satisfy the Schr¨ dinger 2 equation. Hence, parity is a conserved quantity.

Chapter 10: Quantum physics

47

10.7 The tunnel effect
The wavefunction of a particle in an ∞ high potential step from x = 0 to x = a is given by ψ(x) = a−1/2 sin(kx). The energylevels are given by En = n2 h2 /8a2 m. If the wavefunction with energy W meets a potential well of W0 > W the wavefunction will, unlike the classical case, be non-zero within the potential well. If 1, 2 and 3 are the areas in front, within and behind the potential well, holds: ψ1 = Aeikx + Be−ikx , ψ2 = Ceik
x

+ De−ik

x

, ψ3 = A eikx

with k 2 = 2m(W − W0 )/¯ 2 and k 2 = 2mW . Using the boundary conditions requiring continuity: ψ = h continuous and ∂ψ/∂x =continuous at x = 0 and x = a gives B, C and D and A expressed in A. The amplitude T of the transmitted wave is deﬁned by T = |A |2 /|A|2 . If W > W0 and 2a = nλ = 2πn/k holds: T = 1.

10.8 The harmonic oscillator
2 For a harmonic oscillator holds: U = 1 bx2 and ω0 = b/m. The Hamiltonian H is then given by: 2

H= with A=
1 2 mωx

p2 + 1 mω 2 x2 = 1 hω + ωA† A 2¯ 2m 2 +√ ip and A† = 2mω
1 2 mωx

−√

ip 2mω

A = A† is non hermitian. [A, A† ] = h and [A, H] = hωA. A is a so called raising ladder operator, A † a ¯ ¯ lowering ladder operator. HAuE = (E − hω)AuE . There is an eigenfunction u0 for which holds: Au0 = 0. ¯ The energy in this ground state is 1 hω: the zero point energy. For the normalized eigenfunctions follows: 2¯ 1 un = √ n! h with En = ( 1 + n)¯ ω. 2 A† √ h ¯
n

u0 with u0 =

4

mω mωx2 exp − π¯ h 2¯ h

10.9 Angular momentum
For the angular momentum operators L holds: [Lz , L2 ] = [Lz , H] = [L2 , H] = 0. However, cyclically holds: [Lx , Ly ] = i¯ Lz . Not all components of L can be known at the same time with arbitrary accuracy. For L z h holds: ∂ ∂ ∂ Lz = −i¯ h = −i¯ x h −y ∂ϕ ∂y ∂x The ladder operators L± are deﬁned by: L± = Lx ± iLy . Now holds: L2 = L+ L− + L2 − hLz . Further, ¯ z L± = he±iϕ ± ¯ ∂ ∂ + i cot(θ) ∂θ ∂ϕ

From [L+ , Lz ] = −¯ L+ follows: Lz (L+ Ylm ) = (m + 1)¯ (L+ Ylm ). h h From [L2 , L± ] = 0 follows: L2 (L± Ylm ) = l(l + 1)¯ 2 (L± Ylm ). h From [L− , Lz ] = hL− follows: Lz (L− Ylm ) = (m − 1)¯ (L− Ylm ). ¯ h

Because Lx and Ly are hermitian (this implies L† = L ) and |L± Ylm |2 > 0 follows: l(l + 1) − m2 − m ≥ ± 0 ⇒ −l ≤ m ≤ l. Further follows that l has to be integral or half-integral. Half-odd integral values give no unique solution ψ and are therefore dismissed.

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Physics Formulary by ir. J.C.A. Wevers

10.10 Spin
For the spin operators are deﬁned by their commutation relations: [S x , Sy ] = i¯ Sz . Because the spin operators h do not act in the physical space (x, y, z) the uniqueness of the wavefunction is not a criterium here: also half odd-integer values are allowed for the spin. Because [L, S] = 0 spin and angular momentum operators do not have a common set of eigenfunctions. The spin operators are given by S = 1 hσ, with 2¯ σx = 0 1 1 0 , σy = 0 −i i 0 , σz = 1 0 0 −1

The eigenstates of Sz are called spinors: χ = α+ χ+ + α− χ− , where χ+ = (1, 0) represents the state with spin up (Sz = 1 h) and χ− = (0, 1) represents the state with spin down (Sz = − 1 h). Then the probability 2¯ 2¯ to ﬁnd spin up after a measurement is given by |α+ |2 and the chance to ﬁnd spin down is given by |α− |2 . Of course holds |α+ |2 + |α− |2 = 1. The electron will have an intrinsic magnetic dipole moment M due to its spin, given by M = −egS S/2m, with gS = 2(1 + α/2π + · · ·) the gyromagnetic ratio. In the presence of an external magnetic ﬁeld this gives a potential energy U = −M · B. The Schr¨ dinger equation then becomes (because ∂χ/∂x i ≡ 0): o i¯ h egS h ¯ ∂χ(t) = σ · Bχ(t) ∂t 4m

with σ = (σ x , σ y , σ z ). If B = Bez there are two eigenvalues for this problem: χ± for E = ±egS hB/4m = ¯ ±¯ ω. So the general solution is given by χ = (ae−iωt , beiωt ). From this can be derived: Sx = 1 h cos(2ωt) h ¯ 2 1 ¯ and Sy = 2 h sin(2ωt). Thus the spin precesses about the z-axis with frequency 2ω. This causes the normal Zeeman splitting of spectral lines.
1 ¯ The potential operator for two particles with spin ± 2 h is given by:

V (r) = V1 (r) +

1 1 (S1 · S2 )V2 (r) = V1 (r) + 2 V2 (r)[S(S + 1) − 3 ] 2 h2 ¯

This makes it possible for two states to exist: S = 1 (triplet) or S = 0 (Singlet).

10.11 The Dirac formalism
If the operators for p and E are substituted in the relativistic equation E 2 = m2 c4 + p2 c2 , the Klein-Gordon 0 equation is found: 1 ∂2 m2 c 2 2 ψ(x, t) = 0 − 2 2 − 02 c ∂t h ¯ The operator 2 − m2 c2 /¯ 2 can be separated: h 0
2

−

1 ∂2 m2 c 2 − 02 = 2 ∂t2 c h ¯

γλ

∂ m2 c 2 − 02 ∂xλ h ¯

γµ

∂ m2 c 2 + 02 ∂xµ h ¯

where the Dirac matrices γ are given by: γλ γµ + γµ γλ = 2δλµ . From this it can be derived that the γ are hermitian 4 × 4 matrices given by: γk = With this, the Dirac equation becomes: γλ ∂ m2 c 2 + 02 ∂xλ h ¯ ψ(x, t) = 0 0 iσk −iσk 0 , γ4 = I 0 0 −I

where ψ(x) = (ψ1 (x), ψ2 (x), ψ3 (x), ψ4 (x)) is a spinor.

Chapter 10: Quantum physics

49

10.12 Atomic physics
10.12.1 Solutions
The solutions of the Schr¨ dinger equation in spherical coordinates if the potential energy is a function of r o alone can be written as: ψ(r, θ, ϕ) = Rnl (r)Yl,ml (θ, ϕ)χms , with Clm Ylm = √ Plm (cos θ)eimϕ 2π For an atom or ion with one electron holds: Rlm (ρ) = Clm e−ρ/2 ρl L2l+1 (ρ) n−l−1 with ρ = 2rZ/na0 with a0 = ε0 h2 /πme e2 . The Lj are the associated Laguere functions and the Plm are the i associated Legendre polynomials: Pl
|m|

(x) = (1 − x2 )m/2

d|m| (x2 − 1)l dx|m|

, Lm (x) = n
n−1 l=0

(−1)m n! −x −m dn−m −x n e x (e x ) (n − m)! dxn−m

The parity of these solutions is (−1)l . The functions are 2

(2l + 1) = 2n2 -folded degenerated.

10.12.2 Eigenvalue equations
The eigenvalue equations for an atom or ion with with one electron are: Equation Hop ψ = Eψ Lzop Ylm = Lz Ylm L2 Ylm op = L Ylm
2

Eigenvalue En = µe4 Z 2 /8ε2 h2 n2 0 Lz = m l h ¯ L = l(l + 1)¯ h Sz = m s h ¯ S 2 = s(s + 1)¯ 2 h
2 2

Range n≥1 −l ≤ ml ≤ l l<n
1 ms = ± 2 1 2

Szop χ = Sz χ
2 Sop χ = S 2 χ

s=

10.12.3 Spin-orbit interaction
The total momentum is given by J = L + M . The total magnetic dipole moment of an electron is then M = ML + MS = −(e/2me )(L + gS S) where gS = 2.0023 is the gyromagnetic ratio of the electron. Further holds: J 2 = L2 + S 2 + 2L · S = L2 + S 2 + 2Lz Sz + L+ S− + L− S+ . J has quantum numbers j 1 with possible values j = l ± 2 , with 2j + 1 possible z-components (mJ ∈ {−j, .., 0, .., j}). If the interaction energy between S and L is small it can be stated that: E = En + ESL = En + aS · L. It can then be derived that: |En |Z 2 α2 a= 2 1 h nl(l + 1)(l + 2 ) ¯ After a relativistic correction this becomes: E = En + |En |Z 2 α2 n 1 3 − 4n j +
1 2

The ﬁne structure in atomic spectra arises from this. With gS = 2 follows for the average magnetic moment: Mav = −(e/2me )g¯ J, where g is the Land´ -factor: h e g =1+ j(j + 1) + s(s + 1) − l(l + 1) S·J =1+ J2 2j(j + 1)

For atoms with more than one electron the following limiting situations occur:

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Physics Formulary by ir. J.C.A. Wevers

1. L − S coupling: for small atoms the electrostatic interaction is dominant and the state can be characterized by L, S, J, mJ . J ∈ {|L − S|, ..., L + S − 1, L + S} and mJ ∈ {−J, ..., J − 1, J}. The spectroscopic notation for this interaction is: 2S+1 LJ . 2S + 1 is the multiplicity of a multiplet. 2. j − j coupling: for larger atoms the electrostatic interaction is smaller than the L i · si interaction of an electron. The state is characterized by ji ...jn , J, mJ where only the ji of the not completely ﬁlled subshells are to be taken into account. The energy difference for larger atoms when placed in a magnetic ﬁeld is: ∆E = gµ B mJ B where g is the Land´ factor. For a transition between two singlet states the line splits in 3 parts, for ∆m J = −1, 0 + 1. This e results in the normal Zeeman effect. At higher S the line splits up in more parts: the anomalous Zeeman effect. Interaction with the spin of the nucleus gives the hyperﬁne structure.

10.12.4 Selection rules
For the dipole transition matrix elements follows: p0 ∼ | l2 m2 |E · r |l1 m1 |. Conservation of angular momentum demands that for the transition of an electron holds that ∆l = ±1. For an atom where L − S coupling is dominant further holds: ∆S = 0 (but not strict), ∆L = 0, ±1, ∆J = 0, ±1 except for J = 0 → J = 0 transitions, ∆mJ = 0, ±1, but ∆mJ = 0 is forbidden if ∆J = 0. For an atom where j − j coupling is dominant further holds: for the jumping electron holds, except ∆l = ±1, also: ∆j = 0, ±1, and for all other electrons: ∆j = 0. For the total atom holds: ∆J = 0, ±1 but no J = 0 → J = 0 transitions and ∆mJ = 0, ±1, but ∆mJ = 0 is forbidden if ∆J = 0.

10.13 Interaction with electromagnetic ﬁelds
The Hamiltonian of an electron in an electromagnetic ﬁeld is given by: H= 1 h2 ¯ (p + eA)2 − eV = − 2µ 2µ
2

+

e2 2 e B·L+ A − eV 2µ 2µ

where µ is the reduced mass of the system. The term ∼ A2 can usually be neglected, except for very strong ﬁelds or macroscopic motions. For B = Bez it is given by e2 B 2 (x2 + y 2 )/8µ. When a gauge transformation A = A − f , V = V + ∂f /∂t is applied to the potentials the wavefunction h is also transformed according to ψ = ψeiqef /¯ with qe the charge of the particle. Because f = f (x, t), this is called a local gauge transformation, in contrast with a global gauge transformation which can always be applied.

10.14 Perturbation theory
10.14.1 Time-independent perturbation theory
To solve the equation (H0 + λH1 )ψn = En ψn one has to ﬁnd the eigenfunctions of H = H0 + λH1 . Suppose 0 that φn is a complete set of eigenfunctions of the non-perturbed Hamiltonian H 0 : H0 φn = En φn . Because φn is a complete set holds:     cnk (λ)φk ψn = N (λ) φn +  
k=n (1) (2)

When cnk and En are being expanded into λ: cnk = λcnk + λ2 cnk + · · · (1) (2) 0 En = En + λEn + λ2 En + · · ·

Chapter 10: Quantum physics

51

and this is put into the Schr¨ dinger equation the result is: En = φn |H1 |φn and o φm |H1 |φn c(1) = if m = n. The second-order correction of the energy is then given by: nm 0 0 En − E m φk |λH1 |φn | φk |H1 |φn |2 (2) . So to ﬁrst order holds: ψn = φn + φk . En = 0 0 − E0 0 En En − E k k
k=n k=n

(1)

In case the levels are degenerated the above does not hold. In that case an orthonormal set eigenfunctions φ ni is chosen for each level n, so that φmi |φnj = δmn δij . Now ψ is expanded as:     (1) cnk βi φki + · · · ψn = N (λ) αi φni + λ  
i k=n i (1) i i

0 0 0 Eni = Eni + λEni is approximated by Eni := En . Substitution in the Schr¨ dinger equation and taking dot o (1) product with φni gives: αi φnj |H1 |φni = En αj . Normalization requires that |αi |2 = 1.

10.14.2 Time-dependent perturbation theory
From the Schr¨ dinger equation i¯ o h and the expansion ψ(t) =
n

∂ψ(t) = (H0 + λV (t))ψ(t) ∂t
0 −iEn t h ¯

cn (t) exp

φn with cn (t) = δnk + λcn (t) + · · · dt

(1)

follows:

c(1) (t) n

λ = i¯ h
0

t

φn |V (t )|φk exp

0 0 i(En − Ek )t h ¯

10.15 N-particle systems
10.15.1 General
Identical particles are indistinguishable. For the total wavefunction of a system of identical indistinguishable particles holds: 1. Particles with a half-odd integer spin (Fermions): ψtotal must be antisymmetric w.r.t. interchange of the coordinates (spatial and spin) of each pair of particles. The Pauli principle results from this: two Fermions cannot exist in an identical state because then ψtotal = 0. 2. Particles with an integer spin (Bosons): ψtotal must be symmetric w.r.t. interchange of the coordinates (spatial and spin) of each pair of particles. For a system of two electrons there are 2 possibilities for the spatial wavefunction. When a and b are the quantum numbers of electron 1 and 2 holds: ψS (1, 2) = ψa (1)ψb (2) + ψa (2)ψb (1) , ψA (1, 2) = ψa (1)ψb (2) − ψa (2)ψb (1) Because the particles do not approach each other closely the repulsion energy at ψ A in this state is smaller. The following spin wavefunctions are possible: √ χA = 1 2[χ+ (1)χ− (2) − χ+ (2)χ− (1)] ms = 0 2  ms = +1  χ+ (1)χ+ (2) √ 1 χS = 2[χ+ (1)χ− (2) + χ+ (2)χ− (1)] ms = 0  2 χ− (1)χ− (2) ms = −1

Because the total wavefunction must be antisymmetric it follows: ψtotal = ψS χA or ψtotal = ψA χS .

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Physics Formulary by ir. J.C.A. Wevers

For N particles the symmetric spatial function is given by: ψS (1, ..., N ) = ψ(all permutations of 1..N )

1 The antisymmetric wavefunction is given by the determinant ψA (1, ..., N ) = √ |uEi (j)| N!

10.15.2 Molecules
The wavefunctions of atom a and b are φa and φb . If the 2 atoms approach each other there are √ possibilities: two the total wavefunction approaches the bonding function with lower total energy ψ B = 1 2(φa + φb ) or 2 √ approaches the anti-bonding function with higher energy ψ AB = 1 2(φa − φb ). If a molecular-orbital is 2 symmetric w.r.t. the connecting axis, like a combination of two s-orbitals it is called a σ-orbital, otherwise a π-orbital, like the combination of two p-orbitals along two axes. The energy of a system is: E = ψ|H|ψ . ψ|ψ

The energy calculated with this method is always higher than the real energy if ψ is only an approximation for the solutions of Hψ = Eψ. Also, if there are more functions to be chosen, the function which gives the lowest energy is the best approximation. Applying this to the function ψ = ci φi one ﬁnds: (Hij − ESij )ci = 0. This equation has only solutions if the secular determinant |Hij − ESij | = 0. Here, Hij = φi |H|φj and Sij = φi |φj . αi := Hii is the Coulomb integral and βij := Hij the exchange integral. Sii = 1 and Sij is the overlap integral. The ﬁrst approximation in the molecular-orbital theory is to place both electrons of a chemical bond in the bonding orbital: ψ(1, 2) = ψB (1)ψB (2). This results in a large electron density between the nuclei and therefore a repulsion. A better approximation is: ψ(1, 2) = C1 ψB (1)ψB (2) + C2 ψAB (1)ψAB (2), with C1 = 1 and C2 ≈ 0.6. In some atoms, such as C, it is energetical more suitable to form orbitals which are a linear combination of the s, p and d states. There are three ways of hybridization in C: √ 1. SP-hybridization: ψsp = 1 2(ψ2s ± ψ2pz ). There are 2 hybrid orbitals which are placed on one line 2 under 180◦ . Further the 2px and 2py orbitals remain. √ √ √ 2. SP2 hybridization: ψsp2 = ψ2s / 3 + c1 ψ2pz + c2 ψ2py , where (c1 , c2 ) ∈ {( 2/3, 0), (−1/ 6, 1/ 2) √ √ , (−1/ 6, −1/ 2)}. The 3 SP2 orbitals lay in one plane, with symmetry axes which are at an angle of 120◦ . 3. SP3 hybridization: ψsp3 = 1 (ψ2s ± ψ2pz ± ψ2py ± ψ2px ). The 4 SP3 orbitals form a tetraheder with the 2 symmetry axes at an angle of 109◦28 .

10.16 Quantum statistics
If a system exists in a state in which one has not the disposal of the maximal amount of information about the system, it can be described by a density matrix ρ. If the probability that the system is in state ψ i is given by ai , one can write for the expectation value a of A: a = ri ψi |A|ψi .
i

If ψ is expanded into an orthonormal basis {φk } as: ψ (i) = A =
k

k

ck φk , holds:

(i)

(Aρ)kk = Tr(Aρ)

where ρlk = c∗ cl . ρ is hermitian, with Tr(ρ) = 1. Further holds ρ = ri |ψi ψi |. The probability to ﬁnd k eigenvalue an when measuring A is given by ρnn if one uses a basis of eigenvectors of A for {φk }. For the time-dependence holds (in the Schr¨ dinger image operators are not explicitly time-dependent): o i¯ h dρ = [H, ρ] dt

Chapter 10: Quantum physics

53

For a macroscopic system in equilibrium holds [H, ρ] = 0. If all quantumstates with the same energy are equally probable: Pi = P (Ei ), one can obtain the distribution: Pn (E) = ρnn = e−En /kT with the state sum Z = Z e−En /kT
n

The thermodynamic quantities are related to these deﬁnitions as follows: F = −kT ln(Z), U = H = ∂ pn En = − ln(Z), S = −k Pn ln(Pn ). For a mixed state of M orthonormal quantum states with ∂kT n n probability 1/M follows: S = k ln(M ). The distribution function for the internal states for a system in thermal equilibrium is the most probable function. This function can be found by taking the maximum of the function which gives the number of states with Stirling’s equation: ln(n!) ≈ n ln(n) − n, and the conditions nk = N and nk Wk = W . For identical,
k k

indistinguishable particles which obey the Pauli exclusion principle the possible number of states is given by: P =
k

gk ! nk !(gk − nk )!

This results in the Fermi-Dirac statistics. For indistinguishable particles which do not obey the exclusion principle the possible number of states is given by: P = N!
k n gk k nk !

This results in the Bose-Einstein statistics. So the distribution functions which explain how particles are distributed over the different one-particle states k which are each g k -fold degenerate depend on the spin of the particles. They are given by: 1. Fermi-Dirac statistics: integer spin. nk ∈ {0, 1}, nk = with ln(Zg ) = gk ln[1 + exp((Ei − µ)/kT )]. N gk Zg exp((Ek − µ)/kT ) + 1 gk N Zg exp((Ek − µ)/kT ) − 1

2. Bose-Einstein statistics: half odd-integer spin. nk ∈ I , nk = N with ln(Zg ) = −
T →0

gk ln[1 − exp((Ei − µ)/kT )].

Here, Zg is the large-canonical state sum and µ the chemical potential. It is found by demanding nk = N , and for it holds: lim µ = EF , the Fermi-energy. N is the total number of particles. The Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution can be derived from this in the limit Ek − µ nk = N Ek exp − Z kT kT : gk exp − Ek kT

with Z =
k

With the Fermi-energy, the Fermi-Dirac and Bose-Einstein statistics can be written as: 1. Fermi-Dirac statistics: nk = gk . exp((Ek − EF )/kT ) + 1

2. Bose-Einstein statistics: nk =

gk . exp((Ek − EF )/kT ) − 1

Chapter 11

Plasma physics
11.1 Introduction
ne ne + n 0 where ne is the electron density and n0 the density of the neutrals. If a plasma contains also negative charged ions α is not well deﬁned. The degree of ionization α of a plasma is deﬁned by: α = The probability that a test particle collides with another is given by dP = nσdx where σ is the cross section. The collision frequency νc = 1/τc = nσv. The mean free path is given by λv = 1/nσ. The rate coefﬁcient K is deﬁned by K = σv . The number of collisions per unit of time and volume between particles of kind 1 and 2 is given by n1 n2 σv = Kn1 n2 . The potential of an electron is given by: V (r) = −e r exp − 4πε0 r λD with λD = ε0 kTe Ti ≈ e Ti + n i Te ) ε0 kTe ne e 2

e2 (n

because charge is shielded in a plasma. Here, λD is the Debye length. For distances < λD the plasma cannot be assumed to be quasi-neutral. Deviations of charge neutrality by thermic motion are compensated by oscillations with frequency ωpe = ne e 2 me ε 0

The distance of closest approximation when two equal charged particles collide for a deviation of π/2 is −1/3 2b0 = e2 /(4πε0 1 mv 2 ). A “neat” plasma is deﬁned as a plasma for which holds: b0 < ne λD Lp . 2 Here Lp := |ne / ne | is the gradient length of the plasma.

11.2 Transport
1 Relaxation times are deﬁned as τ = 1/νc . Starting with σm = 4πb2 ln(ΛC ) and with 2 mv 2 = kT it can be 0 found that: √ √ 8 2πε2 m(kT )3/2 4πε2 m2 v 3 0 0 = τm = 4 ne ln(ΛC ) ne4 ln(ΛC ) For momentum transfer between electrons and ions holds for a Maxwellian velocity distribution: √ √ √ √ 6π 3ε2 me (kTe )3/2 6π 3ε2 mi (kTi )3/2 0 0 τee = ≈ τei , τii = ne e4 ln(ΛC ) ni e4 ln(ΛC )

The energy relaxation times for identical particles are equal to the momentum relaxation times. Because for e-i collisions the energy transfer is only ∼ 2me /mi this is a slow process. Approximately holds: τee : τei : E τie : τie = 1 : 1 : mi /me : mi /me . The relaxation for e-o interaction is much more complicated. For T > 10 eV holds approximately: σ eo = −2/5 10−17 ve , for lower energies this can be a factor 10 lower. The resistivity η = E/J of a plasma is given by: η= √ e2 me ln(ΛC ) ne e 2 √ 2 = me νei 6π 3ε0 (kTe )3/2

Chapter 11: Plasma physics

55

The diffusion coefﬁcient D is deﬁned by means of the ﬂux Γ by Γ = nvdiﬀ = −D n. The equation of continuity is ∂t n + (nvdiﬀ ) = 0 ⇒ ∂t n = D 2 n. One ﬁnds that D = 1 λv v. A rough estimate gives 3 τD = Lp /D = L2 τc /λ2 . For magnetized plasma’s λv must be replaced with the cyclotron radius. In electrical p v ﬁelds also holds J = neµE = e(ne µe + ni µi )E with µ = e/mνc the mobility of the particles. The Einstein ratio is: kT D = µ e Because a plasma is electrically neutral electrons and ions are strongly coupled and they don’t diffuse independent. The coefﬁcient of ambipolar diffusion Damb is deﬁned by Γ = Γi = Γe = −Damb ne,i . From this follows that kTe µi kTe /e − kTi /e ≈ Damb = 1/µe − 1/µi e In an external magnetic ﬁeld B0 particles will move in spiral orbits with cyclotron radius ρ = mv/eB0 and with cyclotron frequency Ω = B0 e/m. The helical orbit is perturbed by collisions. A plasma is called magnetized if λv > ρe,i . So the electrons are magnetized if √ me e3 ne ln(ΛC ) ρe √ 2 = <1 λee 6π 3ε0 (kTe )3/2 B0 Magnetization of only the electrons is sufﬁcient to conﬁne the plasma reasonable because they are coupled to the ions by charge neutrality. In case of magnetic conﬁnement holds: p = J × B. Combined with the two stationary Maxwell equations for the B-ﬁeld these form the ideal magneto-hydrodynamic equations. For a uniform B-ﬁeld holds: p = nkT = B 2 /2µ0 . If both magnetic and electric ﬁelds are present electrons and ions will move in the same direction. If E = Er er + Ez ez and B = Bz ez the E × B drift results in a velocity u = (E × B )/B 2 and the velocity in the ˙ r, ϕ plane is r(r, ϕ, t) = u + ρ(t). ˙

11.3 Elastic collisions
11.3.1 General
The scattering angle of a particle in interaction with another particle, as shown in the ﬁgure at the right is:
∞

b s d d  ra b T c ϕ M χ

χ = π − 2b

dr r2 1− W (r) b2 − r2 E0

ra

Particles with an impact parameter between b and b + db, moving through a ring with dσ = 2πbdb leave the scattering area at a solid angle dΩ = 2π sin(χ)dχ. The differential cross section is then deﬁned as: I(Ω) = dσ b ∂b = dΩ sin(χ) ∂χ

For a potential energy W (r) = kr −n follows: I(Ω, v) ∼ v −4/n . For low energies, O(1 eV), σ has a Ramsauer minimum. It arises from the interference of matter waves behind the object. I(Ω) for angles 0 < χ < λ/4 is larger than the classical value.

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Physics Formulary by ir. J.C.A. Wevers

11.3.2 The Coulomb interaction
2 For the Coulomb interaction holds: 2b0 = q1 q2 /2πε0 mv0 , so W (r) = 2b0 /r. This gives b = b0 cot( 1 χ) and 2

I(Ω =

b ∂b b2 0 = 1 sin(χ) ∂χ 4 sin2 ( 2 χ)

Because the inﬂuence of a particle vanishes at r = λD holds: σ = π(λ2 − b2 ). Because dp = d(mv) = 0 D mv0 (1 − cos χ) a cross section related to momentum transfer σm is given by: σm = (1 − cos χ)I(Ω)dΩ = 4πb2 ln 0 1 sin( 1 χmin ) 2 = 4πb2 ln 0 λD b0 := 4πb2 ln(ΛC ) ∼ 0 ln(v 4 ) v4

where ln(ΛC ) is the Coulomb-logarithm. For this quantity holds: ΛC = λD /b0 = 9n(λD ).

11.3.3 The induced dipole interaction
The induced dipole interaction, with p = αE, gives a potential V and an energy W in a dipole ﬁeld given by: V (r) = |e|p αe2 p · er , W (r) = − =− 4πε0 r2 8πε0 r2 2(4πε0 )2 r4
∞

with ba =

4

2e2 α holds: χ = π − 2b 2 (4πε0 )2 1 mv0 2

dr r2 1− b4 b2 + a4 2 r 4r

ra

If b ≥ ba the charge would hit the atom. Repulsing nuclear forces prevent this to happen. If the scattering angle is a lot times 2π it is called capture. The cross section for capture σ orb = πb2 is called the Langevin a limit, and is a lowest estimate for the total cross section.

11.3.4 The centre of mass system
If collisions of two particles with masses m1 and m2 which scatter in the centre of mass system by an angle χ are compared with the scattering under an angle θ in the laboratory system holds: tan(θ) = m2 sin(χ) m1 + m2 cos(χ)

The energy loss ∆E of the incoming particle is given by: ∆E = E
1 2 2 m2 v 2 1 2 2 m1 v 1

=

2m1 m2 (1 − cos(χ)) (m1 + m2 )2

11.3.5 Scattering of light
Scattering of light by free electrons is called Thomson scattering. The scattering is free from collective effects if kλD 1. The cross section σ = 6.65 · 10−29 m2 and 2v ∆f = sin( 1 χ) 2 f c This gives for the scattered energy Escat ∼ nλ4 /(λ2 − λ2 )2 with n the density. If λ λ0 it is called Rayleigh 0 0 scattering. Thomson sccattering is a limit of Compton scattering, which is given by λ − λ = λC (1 − cos χ) with λC = h/mc and cannot be used any more if relativistic effects become important.

Chapter 11: Plasma physics

57

11.4 Thermodynamic equilibrium and reversibility
Planck’s radiation law and the Maxwellian velocity distribution hold for a plasma in equilibrium: ρ(ν, T )dν = 8πhν 3 2πn √ 1 E E exp − dν , N (E, T )dE = 3 3/2 c exp(hν/kT ) − 1 kT (πkT ) dE

“Detailed balancing” means that the number of reactions in one direction equals the number of reactions in the opposite direction because both processes have equal probability if one corrects for the used phase space. For the reaction Xback Xforward → ←
forward back

holds in a plasma in equilibrium microscopic reversibility: ηforward = ˆ
forward back

ηback ˆ

If the velocity distribution is Maxwellian, this gives: ηx = ˆ nx h3 e−Ekin /kT gx (2πmx kT )3/2

where g is the statistical weight of the state and n/g := η. For electrons holds g = 2, for excited states usually holds g = 2j + 1 = 2n2 . With this one ﬁnds for the Boltzmann balance, Xp + e− → X1 + e− + (E1p ): ← nB gp p = exp n1 g1 Ep − E 1 kTe

And for the Saha balance, Xp + e− + (Epi ) → X+ + 2e− : ← 1 nS n+ ne h3 p 1 = + exp gp g1 ge (2πme kTe )3/2 Epi kTe

Because the number of particles on the left-hand side and right-hand side of the equation is different, a factor g/Ve remains. This factor causes the Saha-jump. From microscopic reversibility one can derive that for the rate coefﬁcients K(p, q, T ) := σv K(q, p, T ) = gp K(p, q, T ) exp gq ∆Epq kT
pq

holds:

11.5 Inelastic collisions
11.5.1 Types of collisions
The kinetic energy can be split in a part of and a part in the centre of mass system. The energy in the centre of mass system is available for reactions. This energy is given by E= m1 m2 (v1 − v2 )2 2(m1 + m2 )

Some types of inelastic collisions important for plasma physics are: 1. Excitation: Ap + e− → Aq + e− ← 2. Decay: Aq → Ap + hf ←

58

Physics Formulary by ir. J.C.A. Wevers

3. Ionisation and 3-particles recombination: Ap + e− → A+ + 2e− ← 4. radiative recombination: A+ + e− → Ap + hf ← 5. Stimulated emission: Aq + hf → Ap + 2hf

8. Charge transfer: A+ + B → A + B+ ←

7. Penning ionisation: b.v. Ne∗ + Ar → Ar+ + Ne + e− ←

6. Associative ionisation: A∗∗ + B → AB+ + e− ←

9. Resonant charge transfer: A+ + A → A + A+ ←

11.5.2 Cross sections
Collisions between an electron and an atom can be approximated by a collision between an electron and one of the electrons of that atom. This results in πZ 2 e4 dσ = d(∆E) (4πε0 )2 E(∆E)2 Then follows for the transition p → q: σpq (E) = πZ 2 e4 ∆Eq,q+1 (4πε0 )2 E(∆E)2 pq 1 1 − Ep E ln 1.25βE Ep

For ionization from state p holds to a good approximation: σp = 4πa2 Ry 0 For resonant charge transfer holds: σex = A[1 − B ln(E)]2 1 + CE 3.3

In equilibrium holds for radiation processes: np Apq + np Bpq ρ(ν, T ) = nq Bqp ρ(ν, T )
emission stimulated emission absorption

Here, Apq is the matrix element of the transition p → q, and is given by: Apq = 8π 2 e2 ν 3 |rpq |2 with rpq = ψp |r |ψq 3¯ ε0 c3 h
q

For hydrogenic atoms holds: Ap = 1.58 · 108 Z 4 p−4.5 , with Ap = 1/τp = given by Ipq = hf Apq np /4π. The Einstein coefﬁcients B are given by: Bpq = c3 Apq Bpq gq and = 8πhν 3 Bqp gp

Apq . The intensity I of a line is

A spectral line is broadened by several mechanisms: 1. Because the states have a ﬁnite life time. The natural life time of a state p is given by τ p = 1/
q

Apq .

From the uncertainty relation then follows: ∆(hν) · τp = 1 h, this gives 2¯ ∆ν = The natural line width is usually 1 = 4πτp
q

Apq 4π

than the broadening due to the following two mechanisms:

Chapter 11: Plasma physics

59

2. The Doppler broadening is caused by the thermal motion of the particles: ∆λ 2 = λ c 2 ln(2)kTi mi

This broadening results in a Gaussian line proﬁle: √ kν = k0 exp(−[2 ln 2(ν − ν0 )/∆νD ]2 ), with k the coefﬁcient of absorption or emission. 3. The Stark broadening is caused by the electric ﬁeld of the electrons: ∆λ1/2 = ne C(ne , Te )
2/3

˚ with for the H-β line: C(ne , Te ) ≈ 3 · 1014 A−3/2 cm−3 . The natural broadening and the Stark broadening result in a Lorentz proﬁle of a spectral line: 1 1 kν = 2 k0 ∆νL /[( 2 ∆νL )2 + (ν − ν0 )2 ]. The total line shape is a convolution of the Gauss- and Lorentz proﬁle and is called a Voigt proﬁle. The number of transitions p → q is given by np Bpq ρ and by np nhf σa c = np (ρdν/hν)σa c where dν is the line width. Then follows for the cross section of absorption processes: σ a = Bpq hν/cdν. The background radiation in a plasma originates from two processes: 1. Free-Bound radiation, originating from radiative recombination. The emission is given by: εf b = hc C 1 z i ni ne √ 1 − exp − 2 λ λkTe kTe ξf b (λ, Te )

with C1 = 1.63 · 10−43 Wm4 K1/2 sr−1 and ξ the Biberman factor. 2. Free-free radiation, originating from the acceleration of particles in the EM-ﬁeld of other particles: εf f = C 1 z i ni ne hc √ exp − λ2 kTe λkTe ξf f (λ, Te )

11.7 The Boltzmann transport equation
It is assumed that there exists a distribution function F for the plasma so that F (r, v, t) = Fr (r, t) · Fv (v, t) = F1 (x, t)F2 (y, t)F3 (z, t)F4 (vx , t)F5 (vy , t)F6 (vz , t) Then the BTE is: dF ∂F = + dt ∂t
r

· (F v ) +

v

· (F a ) =

∂F ∂t

Assuming that v does not depend on r and ai does not depend on vi , holds r ·(F v ) = v· F and v ·(F a ) = a · v F . This is also true in magnetic ﬁelds because ∂ai /∂xi = 0. The velocity is separated in a thermal velocity vt and a drift velocity w. The total density is given by n = F dv and vF dv = nw. The balance equations can be derived by means of the moment method: 1. Mass balance: (BTE)dv ⇒ ∂n + ∂t · (nw) = dw + dt ∂n ∂t

cr

2. Momentum balance: 3. Energy balance:

(BTE)mvdv ⇒ mn

T + ·w+

p = mn a + R ·q =Q

(BTE)mv 2 dv ⇒

3 dp 5 + p 2 dt 2

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Physics Formulary by ir. J.C.A. Wevers

1 Here, a = e/m(E + w × B ) is the average acceleration, q = 2 nm vt2 vt the heat ﬂow, 2 mvt ∂F Q = dv the source term for energy production, R is a friction term and p = nkT the r ∂t cr pressure.

A thermodynamic derivation gives for the total pressure: p = nkT =
i

pi −

e2 (ne + zi ni ) 24πε0 λD wi :

For the electrical conductance in a plasma follows from the momentum balance, if w e ηJ = E − J ×B+ ene pe

In a plasma where only elastic e-a collisions are important the equilibrium energy distribution function is the Druyvesteyn distribution: N (E)dE = Cne with E0 = eEλv = eE/nσ. E E0
3/2

exp −

3me m0

E E0

2

dE

These models are ﬁrst-moment equations for excited states. One assumes the Quasi-steady-state solution is valid, where ∀p>1 [(∂np /∂t = 0) ∧ ( · (np wp ) = 0)]. This results in: ∂np>1 ∂t =0 ,
cr

∂n1 + ∂t

· (n1 w1 ) =

∂n1 ∂t

,
cr

∂ni + ∂t

· (ni wi ) =

∂ni ∂t

cr

with solutions np = = Further holds for all collision-dominated levels that δbp := bp −1 = −x b0 peﬀ with peﬀ = Ry/Epi and 5 ≤ x ≤ 6. For systems in ESP, where only collisional (de)excitation between levels p and p ± 1 is taken into account holds x = 6. Even in plasma’s far from equilibrium the excited levels will eventually reach ESP, so from a certain level up the level densities can be calculated. To ﬁnd the population densities of the lower levels in the stationary case one has to start with a macroscopic equilibrium: Number of populating processes of level p = Number of depopulating processes of level p , When this is expanded it becomes: ne
q<p coll. excit.

0 1 rp nS +rp nB p p

b p nS . p

nq Kqp + ne
q>p

nq Kqp +
q>p

nq Aqp + n2 ni K+p + ne ni αrad = e

coll. deexcit.

ne np
q<p

Kpq + ne np
q>p

Kpq + np
q<p

Apq + ne np Kp+
coll. ion.

coll. deexcit.

coll. excit.

11.9 Waves in plasma’s
Interaction of electromagnetic waves in plasma’s results in scattering and absorption of energy. For electromagnetic waves with complex wave number k = ω(n + iκ)/c in one dimension one ﬁnds: Ex = E0 e−κωx/c cos[ω(t − nx/c)]. The refractive index n is given by: n=c c k = = ω vf 1−
2 ωp ω2

Chapter 11: Plasma physics

61

ˆ For disturbances in the z-direction in a cold, homogeneous, magnetized plasma: B = B0 ez + Bei(kz−ωt) and i(kz−ωt) n = n0 + ne ˆ (external E ﬁelds are screened) follows, with the deﬁnitions α = ωp /ω and β = Ω/ω 2 2 2 and ωp = ωpi + ωpe:  1 2 1 − βs iβs 2 1 − βs 0 −iβs 2 1 − βs 1 2 1 − βs 0 0 

J = σ E , with σ = iε0 ω
s

where the sum is taken over particle species s. The dielectric tensor E, with property: k · (E · E) = 0 is given by E = I − σ/iε0 ω. With the deﬁnitions S = 1 − follows:
s

  α2  s 

1

  0  

α2 s , D= 2 1 − βs 

s

α 2 βs s , P =1− 2 1 − βs −iD S 0  0 0  P

α2 s
s

where n is the refractive index. From this the following solutions can be obtained: A. θ = 0: transmission in the z-direction. 1. P = 0: Ex = Ey = 0. This describes a longitudinal linear polarized wave. 2. n2 = L: a left, circular polarized wave. 3. n2 = R: a right, circular polarized wave. B. θ = π/2: transmission ⊥ the B-ﬁeld.

The eigenvalues of this hermitian matrix are R = S + D, L = S − D, λ3 = P , with eigenvectors er = √ √ 1 1 2 2(1, i, 0), el = 2 2(1, −i, 0) and e3 = (0, 0, 1). er is connected with a right rotating ﬁeld for which iEx /Ey = 1 and el is connected with a left rotating ﬁeld for which iEx /Ey = −1. When k makes an angle θ with B one ﬁnds: P (n2 − R)(n2 − L) tan2 (θ) = S(n2 − RL/S)(n2 − P )

S E =  iD 0

1. n2 = P : the ordinary mode: Ex = Ey = 0. This is a transversal linear polarized wave. 2. n2 = RL/S: the extraordinary mode: iEx /Ey = −D/S, an elliptical polarized wave. Resonance frequencies are frequencies for which n2 → ∞, so vf = 0. For these holds: tan(θ) = −P/S. For R → ∞ this gives the electron cyclotron resonance frequency ω = Ω e , for L → ∞ the ion cyclotron resonance frequency ω = Ωi and for S = 0 holds for the extraordinary mode: α2 1 − mi Ω 2 i me ω 2 = 1− m2 Ω 2 i i m2 ω 2 e 1− Ω2 i ω2

In the case that β 2

Cut-off frequencies are frequencies for which n2 = 0, so vf → ∞. For these holds: P = 0 or R = 0 or L = 0. 1 one ﬁnds Alfv´ n waves propagating parallel to the ﬁeld lines. With the Alfv´ n velocity e e vA = follows: n = 1 + c/vA , and in case vA
2 ωpe

Ωe Ωi 2 2 c + ωpi

c: ω = kvA .

Chapter 12

Solid state physics
12.1 Crystal structure
A lattice is deﬁned by the 3 translation vectors ai , so that the atomic composition looks the same from each point r and r = r + T , where T is a translation vector given by: T = u1 a1 + u2 a2 + u3 a3 with ui ∈ I . A N lattice can be constructed from primitive cells. As a primitive cell one can take a parallellepiped, with volume Vcell = |a1 · (a2 × a3 )| Because a lattice has a periodical structure the physical properties which are connected with the lattice have the same periodicity (neglecting boundary effects): ne (r + T ) = ne (r ) This periodicity is suitable to use Fourier analysis: n(r ) is expanded as: n(r ) =
G

nG exp(iG · r )

with nG =

1 Vcell

n(r ) exp(−iG · r )dV
cell

G is the reciprocal lattice vector. If G is written as G = v1 b1 + v2 b2 + v3 b3 with vi ∈ I , it follows for the N vectors bi , cyclically: ai+1 × ai+2 bi = 2π ai · (ai+1 × ai+2 ) The set of G-vectors determines the R¨ ntgen diffractions: a maximum in the reﬂected radiation occurs if: o ∆k = G with ∆k = k − k . So: 2k · G = G2 . From this follows for parallel lattice planes (Bragg reﬂection) that for the maxima holds: 2d sin(θ) = nλ. The Brillouin zone is deﬁned as a Wigner-Seitz cell in the reciprocal lattice.

12.2 Crystal binding
A distinction can be made between 4 binding types: 1. Van der Waals bond 2. Ion bond 3. Covalent or homopolar bond 4. Metalic bond. For the ion binding of NaCl the energy per molecule is calculated by: E = cohesive energy(NaCl) – ionization energy(Na) + electron afﬁnity(Cl) The interaction in a covalent bond depends on the relative spin orientations of the electrons constituing the bond. The potential energy for two parallel spins is higher than the potential energy for two antiparallel spins. Furthermore the potential energy for two parallel spins has sometimes no minimum. In that case binding is not possible.

Chapter 12: Solid state physics

63

12.3 Crystal vibrations
12.3.1 A lattice with one type of atoms
In this model for crystal vibrations only nearest-neighbour interactions are taken into account. The force on atom s with mass M can then be written as: Fs = M d 2 us = C(us+1 − us ) + C(us−1 − us ) dt2

Assuming that all solutions have the same time-dependence exp(−iωt) this results in: −M ω 2 us = C(us+1 + us−1 − 2us ) Further it is postulated that: us±1 = u exp(isKa) exp(±iKa). This gives: us = exp(iKsa). Substituting the later two equations in the ﬁst results in a system of linear equations, which has only a solution if their determinant is 0. This gives: ω2 = 4C sin2 ( 1 Ka) 2 M

Only vibrations with a wavelength within the ﬁrst Brillouin Zone have a physical signiﬁcance. This requires that −π < Ka ≤ π. The group velocity of these vibrations is given by: vg = dω = dK Ca2 1 cos( 2 Ka) . M

and is 0 on the edge of a Brillouin Zone. Here, there is a standing wave.

12.3.2 A lattice with two types of atoms
Now the solutions are: ω2 = C 1 1 + M1 M2 ±C 1 1 + M1 M2
2

ω T − 4 sin2 (Ka) M1 M2
2C M2 2C M1

Connected with each value of K are two values of ω, as can be seen in the graph. The upper line describes the optical branch, the lower line the acoustical branch. In the optical branch, both types of ions oscillate in opposite phases, in the acoustical branch they oscillate in the same phase. This results in a much larger induced dipole moment for optical oscillations, and also a stronger emission and absorption of radiation. Furthermore each branch has 3 polarization directions, one longitudinal and two transversal.

0

E K π/a

12.3.3 Phonons
The quantum mechanical excitation of a crystal vibration with an energy hω is called a phonon. Phonons ¯ can be viewed as quasi-particles: with collisions, they behave as particles with momentum hK. Their total ¯ momentum is 0. When they collide, their momentum need not be conserved: for a normal process holds: K1 + K2 = K3 , for an umklapp process holds: K1 + K2 = K3 + G. Because phonons have no spin they behave like bosons.

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12.3.4 Thermal heat capacity
The total energy of the crystal vibrations can be calculated by multiplying each mode with its energy and sum over all branches K and polarizations P : U=
K P

hω nk,p = ¯
λ

Dλ (ω)

hω ¯ dω exp(¯ ω/kT ) − 1 h

for a given polarization λ. The thermal heat capacity is then: Clattice = ∂U =k ∂T D(ω)
λ

(¯ ω/kT )2 exp(¯ ω/kT ) h h dω (exp(¯ ω/kT ) − 1)2 h

The dispersion relation in one dimension is given by: D(ω)dω = L dK L dω dω = π dω π vg

In three dimensions one applies periodic boundary conditions to a cube with N 3 primitive cells and a volume L3 : exp(i(Kx x + Ky y + Kz z)) ≡ exp(i(Kx (x + L) + Ky (y + L) + Kz (z + L))). Because exp(2πi) = 1 this is only possible if: Kx , Ky , Kz = 0; ± 4π 6π 2N π 2π ; ± ; ± ; ... ± L L L L

So there is only one allowed value of K per volume (2π/L)3 in K-space, or: L 2π
3

=

V 8π 3

allowed K-values per unit volume in K-space, for each polarization and each branch. The total number of states with a wave vector < K is: 3 L 4πK 3 N= 2π 3 for each polarization. The density of states for each polarization is, according to the Einstein model: D(ω) = dN = dω V K2 2π 2 V dK = dω 8π 3 dAω vg

The Debye model for thermal heat capacities is a low-temperature approximation which is valid up to ≈ 50K. Here, only the acoustic phonons are taken into account (3 polarizations), and one assumes that v = ωK, independent of the polarization. From this follows: D(ω) = V ω 2 /2π 2 v 3 , where v is the speed of sound. This gives:
ωD

U =3

D(ω) n hωdω = ¯
0

V ω2 hω ¯ 3V k 2 T 4 dω = 2π 2 v 3 exp(¯ ω/kT ) − 1 h 2π 2 v 3 h3 ¯
1/3

xD

0

x3 dx . ex − 1

Here, xD = hωD /kT = θD /T . θD is the Debye temperature and is deﬁned by: ¯ θD = hv ¯ k 6π 2 N V

where N is the number of primitive cells. Because xD → ∞ for T → 0 it follows from this: U = 9N kT T θD
3 ∞

0

x3 dx 3π 4 N kT 4 12π 4 N kT 3 = ∼ T 4 and CV = ∼ T3 3 x−1 e 5θD 5θD

In the Einstein model for the thermal heat capacity one considers only phonons at one frequency, an approximation for optical phonons.

Chapter 12: Solid state physics

65

12.4 Magnetic ﬁeld in the solid state
The following graph shows the magnetization versus ﬁeldstrength for different types of magnetism: M T Msat χm ∂M = ∂H
ferro paramagnetism

0 hhhh h

diamagnetism hhhh hh h

E H

12.4.1 Dielectrics
The quantum mechanical origin of diamagnetism is the Larmorprecession of the spin of the electron. Starting with a circular electron orbit in an atom with two electrons, there is a Coulomb force F c and a magnetic force on each electron. If the magnetic part of the force is not strong enough to signiﬁcantly deform the orbit holds: ω2 = Fc (r) eB eB 2 ± ω = ω0 ± (ω0 + δ) ⇒ ω = mr m m ω0 ± eB 2m
2

+ · · · ≈ ω0 ±

eB = ω0 ± ωL 2m

Here, ωL is the Larmor frequency. One electron is accelerated, the other decelerated. Hence there is a net circular current which results in a magnetic moment µ. The circular current is given by I = −Zeω L /2π, and µ = IA = Iπ ρ2 = 2 Iπ r2 . If N is the number of atoms in the crystal it follows for the susceptibility, 3 with M = µN : µ0 N Ze2 2 µ0 M =− r χ= B 6m

12.4.2 Paramagnetism
Starting with the splitting of energy levels in a weak magnetic ﬁeld: ∆Um − µ · B = mJ gµB B, and with a distribution fm ∼ exp(−∆Um /kT ), one ﬁnds for the average magnetic moment µ = fm µ/ fm . After 1 linearization and because mJ = 0, J = 2J + 1 and m2 = 2 J(J + 1)(J + 2 ) it follows that: J 3 χp = This is the Curie law, χp ∼ 1/T . µ0 N µ µ0 J(J + 1)g 2 µ2 N µ0 M B = = B B 3kT

12.4.3 Ferromagnetism
A ferromagnet behaves like a paramagnet above a critical temperature T c . To describe ferromagnetism a ﬁeld BE parallel with M is postulated: BE = λµ0 M . From there the treatment is analogous to the paramagnetic case: C µ0 M = χp (Ba + BE ) = χp (Ba + λµ0 M ) = µ0 1 − λ M T From this follows for a ferromagnet: χF = C µ0 M = which is Weiss-Curie’s law. Ba T − Tc

If BE is estimated this way it results in values of about 1000 T. This is clearly unrealistic and suggests another mechanism. A quantum mechanical approach from Heisenberg postulates an interaction between two neighbouring atoms: U = −2J Si · Sj ≡ −µ · BE . J is an overlap integral given by: J = 3kTc /2zS(S + 1), with z the number of neighbours. A distinction between 2 cases can now be made: 1. J > 0: Si and Sj become parallel: the material is a ferromagnet.

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Physics Formulary by ir. J.C.A. Wevers

2. J < 0: Si and Sj become antiparallel: the material is an antiferromagnet. Heisenberg’s theory predicts quantized spin waves: magnons. Starting from a model with only nearest neighbouring atoms interacting one can write: U = −2J Sp · (Sp−1 + Sp+1 ) ≈ µp · Bp with Bp = The equation of motion for the magnons becomes: −2J (Sp−1 + Sp+1 ) gµB

dS 2J Sp × (Sp−1 + Sp+1 ) = dt h ¯

From here the treatment is analogous to phonons: postulate traveling waves of the type Sp = u exp(i(pka − ωt)). This results in a system of linear equations with solution: hω = 4JS(1 − cos(ka)) ¯

12.5 Free electron Fermi gas
12.5.1 Thermal heat capacity
The solution with period L of the one-dimensional Schr¨ dinger equation is: ψ n (x) = A sin(2πx/λn) with o nλn = 2L. From this follows h2 nπ 2 ¯ E= 2m L In a linear lattice the only important quantum numbers are n and m s . The Fermi level is the uppermost ﬁlled level in the ground state, which has the Fermi-energy EF . If nF is the quantum number of the Fermi level, it can be expressed as: 2nF = N so EF = h2 π 2 N 2 /8mL. In 3 dimensions holds: ¯ kF = 3π 2 N V
1/3

and EF = V 3π 2

h2 ¯ 2m

3π 2 N V
3/2

2/3

The number of states with energy ≤ E is then: N = and the density of states becomes: D(E) =

2mE h2 ¯ 2m h2 ¯
3/2

. √ E= 3N . 2E

V dN = dE 2π 2

The heat capacity of the electrons is approximately 0.01 times the classical expected value 3 N k. This is caused 2 by the Pauli exclusion principle and the Fermi-Dirac distribution: only electrons within an energy range ∼ kT of the Fermi level are excited thermally. There is a fraction ≈ T /TF excited thermally. The internal energy then becomes: ∂U T T and C = ≈ Nk U ≈ N kT TF ∂T TF A more accurate analysis gives: Celectrons = 1 π 2 N kT /TF ∼ T . Together with the T 3 dependence of the 2 thermal heat capacity of the phonons the total thermal heat capacity of metals is described by: C = γT +AT 3 .

12.5.2 Electric conductance
The equation of motion for the charge carriers is: F = mdv/dt = hdk/dt. The variation of k is given by ¯ δ k = k(t) − k(0) = −eEt/¯ . If τ is the characteristic collision time of the electrons, δ k remains stable if h t = τ . Then holds: v = µE, with µ = eτ /m the mobility of the electrons. The current in a conductor is given by: J = nqv = σ E = E/ρ = neµE. Because for the collision time holds: 1/τ = 1/τL + 1/τi , where τL is the collision time with the lattice phonons and τi the collision time with the impurities follows for the resistivity ρ = ρL + ρi , with lim ρL = 0.
T →0

Chapter 12: Solid state physics

67

12.5.3 The Hall-effect
If a magnetic ﬁeld is applied ⊥ to the direction of the current the charge carriers will be pushed aside by the Lorentz force. This results in a magnetic ﬁeld ⊥ to the ﬂow direction of the current. If J = Jex and B = Bez than Ey /Ex = µB. The Hall coefﬁcient is deﬁned by: RH = Ey /Jx B, and RH = −1/ne if Jx = neµEx . The Hall voltage is given by: VH = Bvb = IB/neh where b is the width of the material and h de height.

12.5.4 Thermal heat conductivity
With = vF τ the mean free path of the electrons follows from κ = 1 C v 3 1 From this follows for the Wiedemann-Franz ratio: κ/σ = 3 (πk/e)2 T . : κelectrons = π 2 nk 2 T τ /3m.

12.6 Energy bands
In the tight-bond approximation it is assumed that ψ = eikna φ(x − na). From this follows for the energy: E = ψ|H|ψ = Eat − α − 2β cos(ka). So this gives a cosine superimposed on the atomic energy, which can often be approximated by a harmonic oscillator. If it is assumed that the electron is nearly free one can postulate: ψ = exp(ik · r ). This is a traveling wave. This wave can be decomposed into two standing waves: ψ(+) = exp(iπx/a) + exp(−iπx/a) = 2 cos(πx/a) ψ(−) = exp(iπx/a) − exp(−iπx/a) = 2i sin(πx/a) The probability density |ψ(+)|2 is high near the atoms of the lattice and low in between. The probability density |ψ(−)|2 is low near the atoms of the lattice and high in between. Hence the energy of ψ(+) is also lower than the energy of ψ)(−). Suppose that U (x) = U cos(2πx/a), than the bandgap is given by:
1

Egap =
0

U (x) |ψ(+)|2 − |ψ(−)|2 dx = U

12.7 Semiconductors
The band structures and the transitions between them of direct and indirect semiconductors are shown in the ﬁgures below. Here it is assumed that the momentum of the absorbed photon can be neglected. For an indirect semiconductor a transition from the valence- to the conduction band is also possible if the energy of the absorbed photon is smaller than the band gap: then, also a phonon is absorbed. conduction E band T • ¤ T §¥ ω ¦¤ g §¥ ¦ ◦ E T ' • Ω § T ω ¦¤ §¥ ¦ ◦

Direct transition This difference can also be observed in the absorption spectra:

Indirect transition

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Physics Formulary by ir. J.C.A. Wevers

absorption T

absorption T ... ... . .. .. . .  . .  .. . .  . Eg + hΩ ¯

hωg ¯

EE

E E

Direct semiconductor

Indirect semiconductor

So indirect semiconductors, like Si and Ge, cannot emit any light and are therefore not usable to fabricate lasers. When light is absorbed holds: kh = −ke , Eh (kh ) = −Ee (ke ), vh = ve and mh = −m∗ if the e conduction band and the valence band have the same structure. Instead of the normal electron mass one has to use the effective mass within a lattice. It is deﬁned by: m∗ = F dp/dt dK = =h ¯ = h2 ¯ a dvg /dt dvg d2 E dk 2
−1

with E = hω and vg = dω/dk and p = hk. ¯ ¯ With the distribution function fe (E) ≈ exp((µ − E)/kT ) for the electrons and fh (E) = 1 − fe (E) for the holes the density of states is given by: D(E) = 1 2π 2 2m∗ h2 ¯
3/2

E − Ec

with Ec the energy at the edge of the conductance band. From this follows for the concentrations of the holes p and the electrons n:
∞

n=
Ec

De (E)fe (E)dE = 2
3

m∗ kT 2π¯ 2 h

3/2

exp

µ − Ec kT

Eg kT m∗ mh exp − e kT 2π¯ 2 h For an intrinsic (no impurities) semiconductor holds: ni = pi , for a n − type holds: n > p and in a p − type holds: n < p. For the product np follows: np = 4 An exciton is a bound electron-hole pair, rotating on each other as in positronium. The excitation energy of an exciton is smaller than the bandgap because the energy of an exciton is lower than the energy of a free electron and a free hole. This causes a peak in the absorption just under E g .

12.8 Superconductivity
12.8.1 Description
A superconductor is characterized by a zero resistivity if certain quantities are smaller than some critical values: T < Tc , I < Ic and H < Hc . The BCS-model predicts for the transition temperature Tc : Tc = 1.14ΘD exp while experiments ﬁnd for Hc approximately: Hc (T ) ≈ Hc (Tc ) 1 − T2 2 Tc . −1 U D(EF )

Chapter 12: Solid state physics

69

Within a superconductor the magnetic ﬁeld is 0: the Meissner effect. There are type I and type II superconductors. Because the Meissner effect implies that a superconductor is a perfect diamagnet holds in the superconducting state: H = µ0 M . This holds for a type I superconductor, for a type II superconductor this only holds to a certain value Hc1 , for higher values of H the superconductor is in a vortex state to a value Hc2 , which can be 100 times Hc1 . If H becomes larger than Hc2 the superconductor becomes a normal conductor. This is shown in the ﬁgures below. µ0 M T         µ0 M T ·  · ·  · · ·   · · · · ·   · · ·   · Hc1 Type II

Hc Type I

EH

E H Hc2

The transition to a superconducting state is a second order thermodynamic state transition. This means that there is a twist in the T − S diagram and a discontinuity in the CX − T diagram.

12.8.2 The Josephson effect
For the Josephson effect one considers two superconductors, separated by an insulator. The electron wavefunction in one superconductor is ψ1 , in the other ψ2 . The Schr¨ dinger equations in both superconductors is o set equal: ∂ψ2 ∂ψ1 = hT ψ2 , i¯ ¯ h = hT ψ1 ¯ i¯ h ∂t ∂t hT is the effect of the coupling of the electrons, or the transfer interaction through the insulator. The electron ¯ √ √ wavefunctions are written as ψ1 = n1 exp(iθ1 ) and ψ2 = n2 exp(iθ2 ). Because a Cooper pair exist of two √ electrons holds: ψ ∼ n. From this follows, if n1 ≈ n2 : ∂θ2 ∂n2 ∂n1 ∂θ1 = and =− ∂t ∂t ∂t ∂t The Josephson effect results in a current density through the insulator depending on the phase difference as: J = J0 sin(θ2 − θ1 ) = J0 sin(δ), where J0 ∼ T . With an AC-voltage across the junction the Schr¨ dinger o equations become: ∂ψ1 ∂ψ2 i¯ h = hT ψ2 − eV ψ1 and i¯ ¯ h = hT ψ1 + eV ψ2 ¯ ∂t ∂t This gives: J = J0 sin θ2 − θ1 − 2eV t . h ¯

Hence there is an oscillation with ω = 2eV /¯ . h

12.8.3 Flux quantisation in a superconducting ring
For the current density in general holds: J = qψ ∗ vψ = nq [¯ θ − q A ] h m

From the Meissner effect, B = 0 and J = 0, follows: h θ = q A ⇒ ¯ θdl = θ2 − θ1 = 2πs with s ∈ I . N Because: Adl = (rotA, n )dσ = (B, n )dσ = Ψ follows: Ψ = 2π¯ s/q. The size of a ﬂux quantum h follows by setting s = 1: Ψ = 2π¯ /e = 2.0678 · 10−15 Tm2 . h

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Physics Formulary by ir. J.C.A. Wevers

12.8.4 Macroscopic quantum interference
From θ2 − θ1 = 2eΨ/¯ follows for two parallel junctions: δb − δa = h J = Ja + Jb = 2J0 sin δ0 cos eΨ h ¯ 2eΨ , so h ¯

This gives maxima if eΨ/¯ = sπ. h

12.8.5 The London equation
A current density in a superconductor proportional to the vector potential A is postulated: J= where λL = −A −B or rotJ = 2 µ 0 λL µ 0 λ2 L
2

ε0 mc2 /nq 2 . From this follows:

B = B/λ2 . L

The Meissner effect is the solution of this equation: B(x) = B0 exp(−x/λL ). Magnetic ﬁelds within a superconductor drop exponentially.

12.8.6 The BCS model
The BCS model can explain superconductivity in metals. (So far there is no explanation for high-T c superconductance). A new ground state where the electrons behave like independent fermions is postulated. Because of the interaction with the lattice these pseudo-particles exhibit a mutual attraction. This causes two electrons with opposite spin to combine to a Cooper pair. It can be proved that this ground state is perfect diamagnetic. The inﬁnite conductivity is more difﬁcult to explain because a ring with a persisting current is not a real equilibrium: a state with zero current has a lower energy. Flux quantization prevents transitions between these states. Flux quantization is related to the existence of a coherent many-particle wavefunction. A ﬂux quantum is the equivalent of about 104 electrons. So if the ﬂux has to change with one ﬂux quantum there has to occur a transition of many electrons, which is very improbable, or the system must go through intermediary states where the ﬂux is not quantized so they have a higher energy. This is also very improbable. Some useful mathematical relations are:
∞

π2 xdx = , ax + 1 e 12a2
∞

∞

π2 x2 dx = , x + 1)2 (e 3
∞

∞

π4 x3 dx = x+1 e 15

0 ∞

−∞

0

And, when
n=0

(−1) =

n

1 2

follows:
0

sin(px)dx =
0

cos(px)dx =

1 . p

Chapter 13

Theory of groups
13.1 Introduction
13.1.1 Deﬁnition of a group
G is a group for the operation • if: 1. ∀A,B∈G ⇒ A • B ∈ G: G is closed. 2. ∀A,B,C∈G ⇒ (A • B) • C = A • (B • C): G obeys the associative law. 3. ∃E∈G so that ∀A∈G A • E = E • A = A: G has a unit element. 4. ∀A∈G ∃A−1 ∈G so that A • A−1 = E: Each element in G has an inverse. If also holds: 5. ∀A,B∈G ⇒ A • B = B • A the group is called Abelian or commutative.

13.1.2 The Cayley table
Each element arises only once in each row and column of the Cayley- or multiplication table: because EA i = A−1 (Ak Ai ) = Ai each Ai appears once. There are h positions in each row and column when there are h k elements in the group so each element appears only once.

13.1.3 Conjugated elements, subgroups and classes
B is conjugate to A if ∃X∈G such that B = XAX −1 . Then A is also conjugate to B because B = (X −1 )A(X −1 )−1 . If B and C are conjugate to A, B is also conjugate with C. A subgroup is a subset of G which is also a group w.r.t. the same operation. A conjugacy class is the maximum collection of conjugated elements. Each group can be split up in conjugacy classes. Some theorems: • All classes are completely disjoint. • E is a class itself: for each other element in this class would hold: A = XEX −1 = E. • E is the only class which is also a subgroup because all other classes have no unit element. • In an Abelian group each element is a separate class. The physical interpretation of classes: elements of a group are usually symmetry operations which map a symmetrical object into itself. Elements of one class are then the same kind of operations. The opposite need not to be true.

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Physics Formulary by ir. J.C.A. Wevers

13.1.4 Isomorﬁsm and homomorﬁsm; representations
Two groups are isomorphic if they have the same multiplication table. The mapping from group G 1 to G2 , so that the multiplication table remains the same is a homomorphic mapping. It need not be isomorphic. A representation is a homomorphic mapping of a group to a group of square matrices with the usual matrix multiplication as the combining operation. This is symbolized by Γ. The following holds: Γ(E) = I , Γ(AB) = Γ(A)Γ(B) , Γ(A−1 ) = [Γ(A)]−1 I For each group there are 3 possibilities for a representation: 1. A faithful representation: all matrices are different. 2. The representation A → det(Γ(A)). An equivalent representation is obtained by performing an unitary base transformation: Γ (A) = S −1 Γ(A)S. 3. The identical representation: A → 1.

13.1.5 Reducible and irreducible representations
If the same unitary transformation can bring all matrices of a representation Γ in the same block structure the representation is called reducible: Γ(A) = Γ(1) (A) 0 0 Γ(2) (A)

This is written as: Γ = Γ(1) ⊕ Γ(2) . If this is not possible the representation is called irreducible. The number of irreducible representations equals the number of conjugacy classes.

13.2 The fundamental orthogonality theorem
13.2.1 Schur’s lemma
Lemma: Each matrix which commutes with all matrices of an irreducible representation is a constant ×I I, where I is the unit matrix. The opposite is (of course) also true. I Lemma: If there exists a matrix M so that for two irreducible representations of group G, γ (1) (Ai ) and γ (2) (Ai ), holds: M γ (1) (Ai ) = γ (2) (Ai )M , than the representations are equivalent, or M = 0.

13.2.2 The fundamental orthogonality theorem
For a set of unequivalent, irreducible, unitary representations holds that, if h is the number of elements in the group and i is the dimension of the ith representation: ¯ Γ(i)∗ (R)Γαβ (R) = µν
R∈G (j)

h
i

δij δµα δνβ

13.2.3 Character
The character of a representation is given by the trace of the matrix and is therefore invariant for base transformations: χ(j) (R) = Tr(Γ(j) (R)) Also holds, with Nk the number of elements in a conjugacy class:
k n 2 i i=1

χ(i)∗ (Ck )χ(j) (Ck )Nk = hδij

Theorem:

=h

Chapter 13: Theory of groups

73

13.3 The relation with quantum mechanics
13.3.1 Representations, energy levels and degeneracy
Consider a set of symmetry transformations x = Rx which leave the Hamiltonian H invariant. These transformations are a group. An isomorﬁc operation on the wavefunction is given by: P R ψ(x ) = ψ(R−1 x ). This is considered an active rotation. These operators commute with H: P R H = HPR , and leave the volume element unchanged: d(Rx ) = dx. PR is the symmetry group of the physical system. It causes degeneracy: if ψ n is a solution of Hψn = En ψn than also holds: H(PR ψn ) = En (PR ψn ). A degeneracy which is not the result of a symmetry is called an accidental degeneracy. Assume an PR ψν
(n) n -fold

degeneracy at En : then choose an orthonormal set ψν , ν = 1, 2, . . . ,
n

(n)

n.

The function

(n) is in the same subspace: PR ψν = κ=1 (n)

(n) ψκ Γ(n) (R) κν

where Γ is an irreducible, unitary representation of the symmetry group G of the system. Each n corresponds with another energy level. One can purely mathematical derive irreducible representations of a symmetry group and label the energy levels with a quantum number this way. A ﬁxed choice of Γ (n) (R) deﬁnes (n) the base functions ψν . This way one can also label each separate base function with a quantum number. Particle in a periodical potential: the symmetry operation is a cyclic group: note the operator describing one translation over one unit as A. Then: G = {A, A2 , A3 , . . . , Ah = E}. The group is Abelian so all irreducible representations are one-dimensional. For 0 ≤ p ≤ h − 1 follows: Γ(p) (An ) = e2πipn/h 2πp 2π mod , so: PA ψp (x) = ψp (x − a) = e2πip/h ψp (x), this gives Bloch’s ah a theorem: ψk (x) = uk (x)eikx , with uk (x ± a) = uk (x).

If one deﬁnes: k = −

13.3.2 Breaking of degeneracy by a perturbation
Suppose the unperturbed system has Hamiltonian H0 and symmetry group G0 . The perturbed system has H = H0 + V, and symmetry group G ⊂ G0 . If Γ(n) (R) is an irreducible representation of G0 , it is also a representation of G but not all elements of Γ(n) in G0 are also in G. The representation then usually becomes reducible: Γ(n) = Γ(n1 ) ⊕ Γ(n2 ) ⊕ . . .. The degeneracy is then (possibly partially) removed: see the ﬁgure below.
n1 n n2 n3

= dim(Γ(n1 ) ) = dim(Γ(n2 ) ) = dim(Γ(n3 ) )

Spectrum H0

Spectrum H
(n)

Theorem: The set of n degenerated eigenfunctions ψν irreducible representation Γ(n) of the symmetry group.

with energy En is a basis for an

n -dimensional

13.3.3 The construction of a base function
n
j

Each function F in conﬁguration space can be decomposed into symmetry types: F =
j=1 κ=1

(j) fκ

The following operator extracts the symmetry types:
j

h

Γ(j)∗ (R)PR κκ
R∈G

(j) F = fκ

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Physics Formulary by ir. J.C.A. Wevers

(j) This is expressed as: fκ is the part of F that transforms according to the κth row of Γ(j) . ¯

F can also be expressed in base functions ϕ: F =
ajκ

cajκ ϕκ

(aj)

. The functions fκ

(j)

are in general not

transformed into each other by elements of the group. However, this does happen if c jaκ = cja . Theorem: Two wavefunctions transforming according to non-equivalent unitary representations or according to different rows of an unitary irreducible representation are orthogonal: (i) (j) (i) (i) ϕκ |ψλ ∼ δij δκλ , and ϕκ |ψκ is independent of κ.

13.3.4 The direct product of representations
Consider a physical system existing of two subsystems. The subspace D (i) of the system transforms according (i) (1) (2) to Γ(i) . Basefunctions are ϕκ (xi ), 1 ≤ κ ≤ i . Now form all 1 × 2 products ϕκ (x1 )ϕλ (x2 ). These deﬁne a space D (1) ⊗ D(2) . These product functions transform as: PR (ϕ(1) (x1 )ϕλ (x2 )) = (PR ϕ(1) (x1 ))(PR ϕλ (x2 )) κ κ In general the space D (1) ⊗ D(2) can be split up in a number of invariant subspaces: Γ(1) ⊗ Γ(2) = ni Γ(i)
i (2) (2)

A useful tool for this reduction is that for the characters hold: χ(1) (R)χ(2) (R) =
i

ni χ(i) (R)

13.3.5 Clebsch-Gordan coefﬁcients
With the reduction of the direct-product matrix w.r.t. the basis ϕκ ϕλ one uses a new basis ϕµ functions lie in subspaces D (ak) . The unitary base transformation is given by:
(ak) ϕµ = κλ (i) (j) (aκ)

. These base

ϕ(i) ϕλ (iκjλ|akµ) κ ϕ(aκ) (akµ|iκjλ) µ
akµ (i) (j) (ak)

(j)

and the inverse transformation by: ϕ(i) ϕλ = κ

(j)

In essence the Clebsch-Gordan coefﬁcients are dot products: (iκjλ|akµ) := ϕ k ϕλ |ϕµ

13.3.6 Symmetric transformations of operators, irreducible tensor operators
−1 Observables (operators) transform as follows under symmetry transformations: A = PR APR . If a set of (j) operators Aκ with 0 ≤ κ ≤ j transform into each other under the transformations of G holds: −1 PR A(j) PR = κ ν

A(j) Γ(j) (R) ν νκ
(j)

If Γ(j) is irreducible they are called irreducible tensor operators A(j) with components Aκ . An operator can also be decomposed into symmetry types: A =
jk

ak , with:

(j)

a(j) = κ

j

h

−1 Γ(j)∗ (R) (PR APR ) κκ R∈G

Chapter 13: Theory of groups

75

Theorem: Matrix elements Hij of the operator H which is invariant under ∀A∈G , are 0 between states which transform according to non-equivalent irreducible unitary representations or according to different rows of such (i) (i) a representation. Further ϕκ |H|ψκ is independent of κ. For H = 1 this becomes the previous theorem. This is applied in quantum mechanics in perturbation theory and variational calculus. Here one tries to diag(i) onalize H. Solutions can be found within each category of functions ϕ κ with common i and κ: H is already diagonal in categories as a whole. Perturbation calculus can be applied independent within each category. With variational calculus the try function can be chosen within a separate category because the exact eigenfunctions transform according to a row of an irreducible representation.

13.3.7 The Wigner-Eckart theorem
Theorem: The matrix element ϕλ |Aκ |ψµ can only be = 0 if Γ(j) ⊗ Γ(k) = . . . ⊕ Γ(i) ⊕ . . .. If this is the case holds (if Γ(i) appears only once, otherwise one has to sum over a):
(k) ϕλ |A(j) |ψµ = (iλ|jκkµ) ϕ(i) A(j) ψ (k) κ (i) (i) (j) (k)

This theorem can be used to determine selection rules: the probability of a dipole transition is given by ( is the direction of polarization of the radiation): PD = 8π 2 e2 f 3 |r12 |2 with r12 = l2 m2 | · r |l1 m1 3¯ ε0 c3 h

Further it can be used to determine intensity ratios: if there is only one value of a the ratio of the matrix elements are the Clebsch-Gordan coefﬁcients. For more a-values relations between the intensity ratios can be stated. However, the intensity ratios are also dependent on the occupation of the atomic energy levels.

13.4 Continuous groups
Continuous groups have h = ∞. However, not all groups with h = ∞ are continuous, e.g. the translation group of an spatially inﬁnite periodic potential is not continuous but does have h = ∞.

13.4.1 The 3-dimensional translation group
For the translation of wavefunctions over a distance a holds: Pa ψ(x) = ψ(x − a). Taylor expansion near x gives: dψ(x) 1 2 d2 ψ(x) ψ(x − a) = ψ(x) − a + a −+... dx 2 dx2 h ∂ ¯ Because the momentum operator in quantum mechanics is given by: p x = , this can be written as: i ∂x
h ψ(x − a) = e−iapx /¯ ψ(x)

13.4.2 The 3-dimensional rotation group
This group is called SO(3) because a faithful representation can be constructed from orthogonal 3 × 3 matrices with a determinant of +1. For an inﬁnitesimal rotation around the x-axis holds: Pδθx ψ(x, y, z) ≈ ψ(x, y + zδθx , z − yδθx ) ∂ ∂ − yδθx = ψ(x, y, z) + zδθx ∂y ∂z iδθx Lx = 1− ψ(x, y, z) h ¯

ψ(x, y, z)

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Physics Formulary by ir. J.C.A. Wevers

Because the angular momentum operator is given by: Lx = So in an arbitrary direction holds: Rotations: Translations:

h ¯ i

z

∂ ∂ . −y ∂y ∂z

Pα,n = exp(−iα(n · J )/¯ ) h Pa,n = exp(−ia(n · p )/¯ ) h

Jx , Jy and Jz are called the generators of the 3-dim. rotation group, px , py and pz are called the generators of the 3-dim. translation group. The commutation rules for the generators can be derived from the properties of the group for multiplications: translations are interchangeable ↔ px py − py px = 0. Rotations are not generally interchangeable: consider a rotation around axis n in the xz-plane over an angle α. Then holds: Pα,n = P−θ,y Pα,x Pθ,y , so:
h h h h e−iα(n·J )/¯ = eiθJy /¯ e−iαJx /¯ e−iθJy /¯

If α and θ are very small and are expanded to second order, and the corresponding terms are put equal with n · J = Jx cos θ + Jz sin θ, it follows from the αθ term: Jx Jy − Jy Jx = i¯ Jz . h

13.4.3 Properties of continuous groups
The elements R(p1 , ..., pn ) depend continuously on parameters p1 , ..., pn . For the translation group this are e.g. anx , any and anz . It is demanded that the multiplication and inverse of an element R depend continuously on the parameters of R. The statement that each element arises only once in each row and column of the Cayley table holds also for continuous groups. The notion conjugacy class for continuous groups is deﬁned equally as for discrete groups. The notion representation is ﬁtted by demanding continuity: each matrix element depends continuously on pi (R). Summation over all group elements is for continuous groups replaced by an integration. If f (R) is a function deﬁned on G, e.g. Γαβ (R), holds: f (R)dR :=
G p1

···

pn

f (R(p1 , ..., pn ))g(R(p1 , ..., pn ))dp1 · · · dpn

Here, g(R) is the density function. Because of the properties of the Cayley table is demanded: f (R)dR = f (SR)dR. This ﬁxes g(R) except for a constant factor. Deﬁne new variables p by: SR(pi ) = R(pi ). If one writes: dV := dp1 · · · dpn holds: g(S) = g(E) dV dV is the Jacobian: = det dV dV ∂pi ∂pj dV dV

Here,

, and g(E) is constant.

For the translation group holds: g(a) = constant = g(0 ) because g(an )da = g(0 )da and da = da. This leads to the fundamental orthogonality theorem: Γ(i)∗ (R)Γαβ (R)dR = µν
G (j)

1
i

δij δµα δνβ
G

dR

and for the characters hold: χ(i)∗ (R)χ(j) (R)dR = δij
G G G

dR

Compact groups are groups with a ﬁnite group volume:

dR < ∞.

Chapter 13: Theory of groups

77

13.5 The group SO(3)
One can take 2 parameters for the direction of the rotational axis and one for the angle of rotation ϕ. The parameter space is a collection points ϕn within a sphere with radius π. The diametrical points on this sphere are equivalent because Rn,π = Rn,−π . Another way to deﬁne parameters is by means of Eulers angles. If α, β and γ are the 3 Euler angles, deﬁned as: 1. The spherical angles of axis 3 w.r.t. xyz are θ, ϕ := β, α. Now a rotation around axis 3 remains possible. 2. The spherical angles of the z-axis w.r.t. 123 are θ, ϕ := β, π − γ. then the rotation of a quantum mechanical system is described by: h ¯ h h ψ → e−iαJz h e−iβJy /¯ e−iγJz /¯ ψ. So PR = e−iε(n·J )/¯ . All irreducible representations of SO(3) can be constructed from the behaviour of the spherical harmonics Ylm (θ, ϕ) with −l ≤ m ≤ l and for a ﬁxed l: PR Ylm (θ, ϕ) =
m

Ylm (θ, ϕ)Dmm (R)

(l)

D

(l)

is an irreducible representation of dimension 2l + 1. The character of D (l) is given by:
l l

χ(l) (α) =
m=−l

eimα = 1 + 2
k=0

cos(kα) =

1 sin([l + 2 ]α) sin( 1 α) 2

In the performed derivation α is the rotational angle around the z-axis. This expression is valid for all rotations over an angle α because the classes of SO(3) are rotations around the same angle around an axis with an arbitrary orientation. Via the fundamental orthogonality theorem for characters one obtains the following expression for the density function (which is normalized so that g(0) = 1): g(α) =
1 sin2 ( 2 α) ( 1 α)2 2

With this result one can see that the given representations of SO(3) are the only ones: the character of another 1 representation χ would have to be ⊥ to the already found ones, so χ (α) sin2 ( 2 α) = 0∀α ⇒ χ (α) = 0∀α. This is contradictory because the dimension of the representation is given by χ (0).
1 Because fermions have an half-odd integer spin the states ψsms with s = 1 and ms = ± 2 constitute a 2-dim. 2 space which is invariant under rotations. A problem arises for rotations over 2π: h 1 1 ψ 1 ms → e−2πiSz /¯ ψ 1 ms = e−2πims ψ 2 ms = −ψ 2 ms 2 2

However, in SO(3) holds: Rz,2π = E. So here holds E → ±I Because observable quantities can always be I. written as φ|ψ or φ|A|ψ , and are bilinear in the states, they do not change sign if the states do. If only one state changes sign the observable quantities do change. The existence of these half-odd integer representations is connected with the topological properties of SO(3): the group is two-fold coherent through the identiﬁcation R0 = R2π = E.

13.6 Applications to quantum mechanics
13.6.1 Vectormodel for the addition of angular momentum
If two subsystems have angular momentum quantum numbers j 1 and j2 the only possible values for the total angular momentum are J = j1 +j2 , j1 +j2 −1, ..., |j1 −j2 |. This can be derived from group theory as follows: from χ(j1 ) (α)χ(j2 ) (α) = nj χ(J) (α) follows:
J

D(j1 ) ⊗ D(j2 ) = D(j1 +j2 ) ⊕ D(j1 +j2 −1) ⊕ ... ⊕ D(|j1 −j2 |)

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Physics Formulary by ir. J.C.A. Wevers

The states can be characterized by quantum numbers in two ways: with j 1 , m1 , j2 , m2 and with j1 , j2 , J, M . The Clebsch-Gordan coefﬁcients, for SO(3) called the Wigner coefﬁcients, can be chosen real, so: ψj1 j2 JM ψ j 1 m1 j 2 m2 =
m1 m2

ψj1 m1 j2 m2 (j1 m1 j2 m2 |JM )

=
JM

ψj1 j2 JM (j1 m1 j2 m2 |JM )

13.6.2 Irreducible tensor operators, matrixelements and selection rules
Some examples of the behaviour of operators under SO(3) 1. Suppose j = 0: this gives the identical representation with j = 1. This state is described by a (0) −1 (0) scalar operator. Because PR A0 PR = A0 this operator is invariant, e.g. the Hamiltonian of a free atom. Then holds: J M |H|JM ∼ δM M δJJ . 2. A vector operator: A = (Ax , Ay , Az ). The cartesian components of a vector operator transform equally as the cartesian components of r by deﬁnition. So for rotations around the z-axis holds:   cos α − sin α 0 D(Rα,z ) =  sin α cos α 0  0 0 1 The transformed operator has the same matrix elements w.r.t. P R ψ and PR φ: −1 PR ψ|PR Ax PR |PR φ = ψ|Ax |φ , and χ(Rα,z ) = 1 + 2 cos(α). According to the equation for characters this means one can choose base operators which transform like Y 1m (θ, ϕ). These turn out to be the spherical components: 1 1 (1) (1) (1) A+1 = − √ (Ax + iAy ), A0 = Az , A−1 = √ (Ax − iAy ) 2 2 3. A cartesian tensor of rank 2: Tij is a quantity which transforms under rotations like Ui Vj , where U and −1 V are vectors. So Tij transforms like PR Tij PR = Tkl Dki (R)Dlj (R), so like D(1) ⊗ D(1) =
kl

D(2) ⊕ D(1) ⊕ D(0) . The 9 components can be split in 3 invariant subspaces with dimension 1 (D (0) ), 3 (D(1) ) and 5 (D(2) ). The new base operators are: I. Tr(T ) = Txx + Tyy + Tzz . This transforms as the scalar U · V , so as D(0) . II. The 3 antisymmetric components Az = 1 (Txy − Tyx ), etc. These transform as the vector U × V , 2 so as D(1) . III. The 5 independent components of the traceless, symmetric tensor S: Sij = 1 (Tij + Tji ) − 1 δij Tr(T ). These transform as D (2) . 2 3 Selection rules for dipole transitions Dipole operators transform as D (1) : for an electric dipole transfer is the operator er, for a magnetic e( L + 2S )/2m. From the Wigner-Eckart theorem follows: J M |Aκ |JM = 0 except D (J ) is a part of D(1) ⊗ D(J) = D(J+1) ⊕ D(J) ⊕ D(|J−1|) . This means that J ∈ {J + 1, J, |J − 1|}: J = J or J = J ± 1, except J = J = 0. Land´ -equation for the anomalous Zeeman splitting e According to Land´ ’s model the interaction between a magnetic moment with an external magnetic ﬁeld is e determined by the projection of M on J because L and S precede fast around J. This can also be understood
(1)

Chapter 13: Theory of groups

79

from the Wigner-Eckart theorem: from this follows that the matrix elements from all vector operators show a certain proportionality. For an arbitrary operator A follows: αjm |A|αjm = αjm|A · J |αjm j(j + 1)¯ 2 h αjm |J |αjm

13.7 Applications to particle physics
The physics of a system does not change after performing a transformation ψ = eiδ ψ where δ is a constant. This is a global gauge transformation: the phase of the wavefunction changes everywhere by the same amount. There exists some freedom in the choice of the potentials A and φ at the same E and B: gauge transformations of the potentials do not change E and B (See chapter 2 and 10). The solution ψ of the Schr¨ dinger equation o with the transformed potentials is: ψ = e−iqf (r,t) ψ. This is a local gauge transformation: the phase of the wavefunction changes different at each position. The physics of the system does not change if A and φ are also transformed. This is now stated as a guide principle: the “right of existence” of the electromagnetic ﬁeld is to allow local gauge invariance. The gauge transformations of the EM-ﬁeld form a group: U(1), unitary 1 × 1-matrices. The split-off of charge in the exponent is essential: it allows one gauge ﬁeld for all charged particles, independent of their charge. This concept is generalized: particles have a “special charge” Q. The group elements now are PR = exp(−iQΘ). Other force ﬁelds than the electromagnetic ﬁeld can also be understood this way. The weak interaction together with the electromagnetic interaction can be described by a force ﬁeld that transforms according to U(1)⊗SU(2), and consists of the photon and three intermediary vector bosons. The colour force is described by SU(3), and has a gauge ﬁeld that exists of 8 types of gluons. In general the group elements are given by PR = exp(−iT · Θ), where Θn are real constants and Tn operators (generators), like Q. The commutation rules are given by [Ti , Tj ] = i cijk Tk . The cijk are the structure constants of the group. For SO(3) these constants are cijk = εijk , here εijk is the complete antisymmetric tensor with ε123 = +1. These constants can be found with the help of group product elements: because G is closed holds: eiΘ·T eiΘ ·T e−iΘ·T e−iΘ ·T = e−iΘ ·T . Taylor expansion and setting equal Θn Θ m -terms results in the commutation rules. The group SU(2) has 3 free parameters: because it is unitary there are 4 real conditions over 4 complex parameters, and the determinant has to be +1, remaining 3 free parameters. Each unitary matrix U can be written as: U = e−iH . Here, H is a Hermitian matrix. Further it always holds that: det(U ) = e−iTr(H) . For each matrix of SU(2) holds that Tr(H)=0. Each Hermitian, traceless 2 × 2 matrix can be written as a linear combination of the 3 Pauli-matrices σi . So these matrices are a choice for the operators of SU(2). One can write: SU(2)={exp(− 1 iσ · Θ)}. 2 In abstraction, one can consider an isomorphic group where only the commutation rules are considered to be known regarding the operators Ti : [T1 , T2 ] = iT3 , etc. In elementary particle physics the Ti can be interpreted e.g. as the isospin operators. Elementary particles can be classiﬁed in isospin-multiplets, these are the irreducible representations of SU(2). The classiﬁcation is: 1. The isospin-singlet ≡ the identical representation: e−iT ·Θ = 1 ⇒ Ti = 0 2. The isospin-doublet ≡ the faithful representation of SU(2) on 2 × 2 matrices.
k

80

Physics Formulary by ir. J.C.A. Wevers

The group SU(3) has 8 free parameters. (The group SU(N ) has N 2 − 1 free parameters). The Hermitian, traceless operators are 3 SU(2)-subgroups in the e1 e2 , e1 e3 and the e2 e3 plane. This gives 9 matrices, which are not all 9 linear independent. By taking a linear combination one gets 8 matrices. In the Lagrange density for the colour force one has to substitute ∂ D ∂ Ti A i → := − x ∂x Dx ∂x i=1
8

The terms of 3rd and 4th power in A show that the colour ﬁeld interacts with itself.

Chapter 14

Nuclear physics
14.1 Nuclear forces
The mass of a nucleus is given by: Mnucl = Zmp + N mn − Ebind /c2 The binding energy per nucleon is given in the ﬁgure at the right. The top is at 56 Fe, 26 the most stable nucleus. With the constants a1 a2 a3 a4 a5 = = = = = 15.760 17.810 0.711 23.702 34.000 MeV MeV MeV MeV MeV 9 8 ↑ 7 E 6 (MeV) 5 4 3 2 1 0

0

40

80

120 160 A→

200

240

and A = Z + N , in the droplet or collective model of the nucleus the binding energy E bind is given by: Ebind (N − Z)2 Z(Z − 1) − a4 = a1 A − a2 A2/3 − a3 + a5 A−3/4 2 1/3 c A A These terms arise from: 1. a1 : Binding energy of the strong nuclear force, approximately ∼ A. 2. a2 : Surface correction: the nucleons near the surface are less bound. 3. a3 : Coulomb repulsion between the protons. 4. a4 : Asymmetry term: a surplus of protons or neutrons has a lower binding energy. 5. a5 : Pair off effect: nuclei with an even number of protons or neutrons are more stable because groups of two protons or neutrons have a lower energy. The following holds: Z even, N even: = +1, Z odd, N odd: = −1. Z even, N odd: = 0, Z odd, N even: = 0. The Yukawa potential can be derived if the nuclear force can to ﬁrst approximation, be considered as an exchange of virtual pions: W0 r0 r U (r) = − exp − r r0 With ∆E · ∆t ≈ h, Eγ = m0 c2 and r0 = c∆t follows: r0 = h/m0 c. ¯ ¯ In the shell model of the nucleus one assumes that a nucleon moves in an average ﬁeld of other nucleons. 1 h Further, there is a contribution of the spin-orbit coupling ∼ L · S: ∆Vls = 2 (2l + 1)¯ ω. So each level 1 1 (n, l) is split in two, with j = l ± 2 , where the state with j = l + 2 has the lowest energy. This is just the opposite for electrons, which is an indication that the L − S interaction is not electromagnetical. The energy of a 3-dimensional harmonic oscillator is E = (N + 3 )¯ ω. N = nx + ny + nz = 2(n − 1) + l 2 h 1 ¯ where n ≥ 1 is the main oscillator number. Because −l ≤ m ≤ l and ms = ± 2 h there are 2(2l + 1)

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Physics Formulary by ir. J.C.A. Wevers

substates which exist independently for protons and neutrons. This gives rise to the so called magical numbers: nuclei where each state in the outermost level are ﬁlled are particulary stable. This is the case if N or Z ∈ {2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82, 126}.

14.2 The shape of the nucleus
A nucleus is to ﬁrst approximation spherical with a radius of R = R0 A1/3 . Here, R0 ≈ 1.4·10−15 m, constant for all nuclei. If the nuclear radius is measured including the charge distribution one obtains R 0 ≈ 1.2 · 10−15 m. The shape of oscillating nuclei can be described by spherical harmonics: R = R0 1 +
lm

alm Ylm (θ, ϕ)

l = 0 gives rise to monopole vibrations, density vibrations, which can be applied to the theory of neutron stars. √ 1 l = 1 gives dipole vibrations, l = 2 quadrupole, with a2,0 = β cos γ and a2,±2 = 2 2β sin γ where β is the deformation factor and γ the shape parameter. The multipole moment is given by µ l = Zerl Ylm (θ, ϕ). The parity of the electric moment is ΠE = (−1)l , of the magnetic moment ΠM = (−1)l+1 . e e There are 2 contributions to the magnetic moment: ML = L and MS = gS S. 2mp 2mp where gS is the spin-gyromagnetic ratio. For protons holds gS = 5.5855 and for neutrons gS = −3.8263. The z-components of the magnetic moment are given by ML,z = µN ml and MS,z = gS µN mS . The resulting magnetic moment is related to the nuclear spin I according to M = gI (e/2mp)I. The z-component is then M z = µ N g I mI .

˙ The number of nuclei decaying is proportional to the number of nuclei: N = −λN . This gives for the number of nuclei N : N (t) = N0 exp(−λt). The half life time follows from τ 1 λ = ln(2). The average life time 2 of a nucleus is τ = 1/λ. The probability that N nuclei decay within a time interval is given by a Poisson distribution: λN e−λ dt P (N )dt = N0 N! If a nucleus can decay into more ﬁnal states then holds: λ = λi . So the fraction decaying into state i is λi / λi . There are 5 types of natural radioactive decay: 1. α-decay: the nucleus emits a He2+ nucleus. Because nucleons tend to order themselves in groups of 2p+2n this can be considered as a tunneling of a He2+ nucleus through a potential barrier. The tunnel probability P is P = incoming amplitude 1 = e−2G with G = outgoing amplitude h ¯ 2m [V (r) − E]dr

G is called the Gamow factor. 2. β-decay. Here a proton changes into a neutron or vice versa: p+ → n0 + W+ → n0 + e+ + νe , and n0 → p+ + W− → p+ + e− + ν e . 3. Electron capture: here, a proton in the nucleus captures an electron (usually from the K-shell). 4. Spontaneous ﬁssion: a nucleus breaks apart. 5. γ-decay: here the nucleus emits a high-energetic photon. The decay constant is given by λ= Eγ P (l) ∼ hω ¯ (¯ c)2 h Eγ R hc ¯
2l

∼ 10−4l

Chapter 14: Nuclear physics

83

where l is the quantum number for the angular momentum and P the radiated power. Usually the decay constant of electric multipole moments is larger than the one of magnetic multipole moments. 2 The energy of the photon is Eγ = Ei − Ef − TR , with TR = Eγ /2mc2 the recoil energy, which can usually be neglected. The parity of the emitted radiation is Π l = Πi · Πf . With I the quantum number of angular momentum of the nucleus, L = h I(I + 1), holds the following selection rule: ¯ |Ii − If | ≤ ∆l ≤ |Ii + If |.

14.4 Scattering and nuclear reactions
14.4.1 Kinetic model
If a beam with intensity I hits a target with density n and length x (Rutherford scattering) the number of scatterings R per unit of time is equal to R = Inxσ. From this follows that the intensity of the beam decreases as −dI = Inσdx. This results in I = I0 e−nσx = I0 e−µx . Because dR = R(θ, ϕ)dΩ/4π = Inxdσ it follows: dσ R(θ, ϕ) = dΩ 4πnxI dσ ∆N = n ∆Ω∆x N dΩ

If N particles are scattered in a material with density n then holds: For Coulomb collisions holds: dσ dΩ =
C

1 Z1 Z2 e 2 2 4 1 8πε0 µv0 sin ( 2 θ)

14.4.2 Quantum mechanical model for n-p scattering
The initial state is a beam of neutrons moving along the z-axis with wavefunction ψ init = eikz and current density Jinit = v|ψinit |2 = v. At large distances from the scattering point they have approximately a spherical wavefunction ψscat = f (θ)eikr /r where f (θ) is the scattering amplitude. The total wavefunction is then given by eikr ψ = ψin + ψscat = eikz + f (θ) r The particle ﬂux of the scattered particles is v|ψscat |2 = v|f (θ)|2 dΩ. From this it follows that σ(θ) = |f (θ)|2 . The wavefunction of the incoming particles can be expressed as a sum of angular momentum wavefunctions: ψinit = eikz =
l

ψl

The impact parameter is related to the angular momentum with L = bp = b¯ k, so bk ≈ l. At very low energy h only particles with l = 0 are scattered, so ψ = ψ0 +
l>0

ψl and ψ0 =

sin(kr) kr

If the potential is approximately rectangular holds: ψ0 = C The cross section is then σ(θ) = sin2 (δ0 ) so σ = k2 h2 k 2 /2m ¯ W0 + W

sin(kr + δ0 ) kr 4π sin2 (δ0 ) k2

σ(θ)dΩ =

At very low energies holds: sin2 (δ0 ) =

with W0 the depth of the potential well. At higher energies holds: σ =

4π k2

sin2 (δl )
l

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14.4.3 Conservation of energy and momentum in nuclear reactions
If a particle P1 collides with a particle P2 which is in rest w.r.t. the laboratory system and other particles are created, so P1 + P 2 → Pk
k>2

the total energy Q gained or required is given by Q = (m1 + m2 −

mk )c2 .
k>2

The minimal required kinetic energy T of P1 in the laboratory system to initialize the reaction is T = −Q If Q < 0 there is a threshold energy. m1 + m 2 + 2m2 mk

Radiometric quantities determine the strength of the radiation source(s). Dosimetric quantities are related to the energy transfer from radiation to matter. Parameters describing a relation between those are called interaction parameters. The intensity of a beam of particles in matter decreases according to I(s) = I 0 exp(−µs). The deceleration of a heavy particle is described by the Bethe-Bloch equation: dE q2 ∼ 2 ds v The ﬂuention is given by Φ = dN/dA. The ﬂux is given by φ = dΦ/dt. The energy loss is deﬁned by Ψ = dW/dA, and the energy ﬂux density ψ = dΨ/dt. The absorption coefﬁcient is given by µ = (dN/N )/dx. The mass absorption coefﬁcient is given by µ/ . The radiation dose X is the amount of charge produced by the radiation per unit of mass, with unit C/kg. An old unit is the R¨ ntgen: 1Ro= 2.58 · 10−4 C/kg. With the energy-absorption coefﬁcient µE follows: o X= eµE dQ = Ψ dm W

where W is the energy required to disjoin an elementary charge. The absorbed dose D is given by D = dEabs /dm, with unit Gy=J/kg. An old unit is the rad: 1 rad=0.01 Gy. ˙ The dose tempo is deﬁned as D. It can be derived that D= µE Ψ

The Kerma K is the amount of kinetic energy of secundary produced particles which is produced per mass unit of the radiated object. The equivalent dose H is a weight average of the absorbed dose per type of radiation, where for each type radiation the effects on biological material is used for the weight factor. These weight factors are called the quality factors. Their unit is Sv. H = QD. If the absorption is not equally distributed also weight factors w per organ need to be used: H = wk Hk . For some types of radiation holds: Radiation type R¨ ntgen, gamma radiation o β, electrons, mesons Thermic neutrons Fast neutrons protons α, ﬁssion products Q 1 1 3 to 5 10 to 20 10 20

Chapter 15

Quantum ﬁeld theory & Particle physics
15.1 Creation and annihilation operators
A state with more particles can be described by a collection occupation numbers |n 1 n2 n3 · · · . Hence the vacuum state is given by |000 · · · . This is a complete description because the particles are indistinguishable. The states are orthonormal:
∞

n1 n2 n3 · · · |n1 n2 n3 · · · = The time-dependent state vector is given by Ψ(t) =
n1 n2 ···

δ ni ni
i=1

cn1 n2 ··· (t)|n1 n2 · · ·

The coefﬁcients c can be interpreted as follows: |cn1 n2 ··· |2 is the probability to ﬁnd n1 particles with momentum k1 , n2 particles with momentum k2 , etc., and Ψ(t)|Ψ(t) = |cni (t)|2 = 1. The expansion of the states in time is described by the Schr¨ dinger equation o i d |Ψ(t) = H|Ψ(t) dt

where H = H0 + Hint . H0 is the Hamiltonian for free particles and keeps |cni (t)|2 constant, Hint is the interaction Hamiltonian and can increase or decrease a c2 at the cost of others. All operators which can change occupation numbers can be expanded in the a and a † operators. a is the annihilation operator and a† the creation operator, and: √ ni |n1 n2 · · · ni − 1 · · · a(ki )|n1 n2 · · · ni · · · = √ † a (ki )|n1 n2 · · · ni · · · = ni + 1 |n1 n2 · · · ni + 1 · · · Because the states are normalized holds a|0 = 0 and a(ki )a† (ki )|ni = ni |ni . So aa† is an occupation number operator. The following commutation rules can be derived: [a(ki ), a(kj )] = 0 , [a† (ki ), a† (kj )] = 0 , [a(ki ), a† (kj )] = δij Hence for free spin-0 particles holds: H0 =
i

a† (ki )a(ki )¯ ωki h

15.2 Classical and quantum ﬁelds
Starting with a real ﬁeld Φα (x) (complex ﬁelds can be split in a real and an imaginary part), the Lagrange density L is a function of the position x = (x, ict) through the ﬁelds: L = L(Φ α (x), ∂ν Φα (x)). The Lagrangian is given by L = L(x)d3 x. Using the variational principle δI(Ω) = 0 and with the action-integral I(Ω) = L(Φα , ∂ν Φα )d4 x the ﬁeld equation can be derived: ∂L ∂ ∂L − =0 α ∂Φ ∂xν ∂(∂ν Φα ) The conjugated ﬁeld is, analogous to momentum in classical mechanics, deﬁned as: Πα (x) = ∂L ˙ ∂ Φα

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˙ With this, the Hamilton density becomes H(x) = Πα Φα − L(x). Quantization of a classical ﬁeld is analogous to quantization in point mass mechanics: the ﬁeld functions are considered as operators obeying certain commutation rules: [Φα (x), Φβ (x )] = 0 , [Πα (x), Πβ (x )] = 0 , [Φα (x), Πβ (x )] = iδαβ (x − x )

15.3 The interaction picture
Some equivalent formulations of quantum mechanics are possible: 1. Schr¨ dinger picture: time-dependent states, time-independent operators. o 2. Heisenberg picture: time-independent states, time-dependent operators. 3. Interaction picture: time-dependent states, time-dependent operators. The interaction picture can be obtained from the Schr¨ dinger picture by an unitary transformation: o |Φ(t) = eiH0 |ΦS (t) and O(t) = eiH0 OS e−iH0 The index S denotes the Schr¨ dinger picture. From this follows: o i d d |Φ(t) = Hint (t)|Φ(t) and i O(t) = [O(t), H0 ] dt dt
S S S

15.4 Real scalar ﬁeld in the interaction picture
It is easy to ﬁnd that, with M := m2 c2 /¯ 2 , holds: h 0 ∂ ∂ Φ(x) = Π(x) and Π(x) = ( ∂t ∂t
2

− M 2 )Φ(x)

2 From this follows that Φ obeys the Klein-Gordon equation (2 − M 2 )Φ = 0. With the deﬁnition k0 = 2 2 2 k + M := ωk and the notation k · x − ik0 t := kx the general solution of this equation is:

1 Φ(x) = √ V

k

√

1 a(k )eikx + a† (k )e−ikx 2ωk

i , Π(x) = √ V

1 2 ωk k

−a(k )eikx + a† (k )e−ikx

In general it holds that the term with e−ikx , the positive frequency part, is the creation part, and the negative frequency part is the annihilation part. the coefﬁcients have to be each others hermitian conjugate because Φ is hermitian. Because Φ has only one component this can be interpreted as a ﬁeld describing a particle with spin zero. From this follows that the commutation rules are given by [Φ(x), Φ(x )] = i∆(x − x ) with ∆(y) = 1 (2π)3 sin(ky) 3 d k ωk

The ﬁeld operators contain a volume V , which is used as normalization factor. Usually one can take the limit V → ∞.

∆(y) is an odd function which is invariant for proper Lorentz transformations (no mirroring). This is consistent with the previously found result [Φ(x, t, Φ(x , t)] = 0. In general holds that ∆(y) = 0 outside the light cone. So the equations obey the locality postulate.
1 The Lagrange density is given by: L(Φ, ∂ν Φ) = − 2 (∂ν Φ∂ν Φ + m2 Φ2 ). The energy operator is given by:

H=

H(x)d3 x =

hωk a† (k )a(k ) ¯
k

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87

15.5 Charged spin-0 particles, conservation of charge
The Lagrange density of charged spin-0 particles is given by: L = −(∂ ν Φ∂ν Φ∗ + M 2 ΦΦ∗ ). Noether’s theorem connects a continuous symmetry of L and an additive conservation law. Suppose that L ((Φα ) , ∂ν (Φα ) ) = L (Φα , ∂ν Φα ) and there exists a continuous transformation between Φα and Φα such as Φα = Φα + f α (Φ). Then holds ∂L ∂ fα = 0 ∂xν ∂(∂ν Φα ) This is a continuity equation ⇒ conservation law. Which quantity is conserved depends on the symmetry. The above Lagrange density is invariant for a change in phase Φ → Φe iθ : a global gauge transformation. The conserved quantity is the current density Jµ (x) = −ie(Φ∂µ Φ∗ − Φ∗ ∂µ Φ). Because this quantity is 0 for real ﬁelds a complex ﬁeld is needed to describe charged particles. When this ﬁeld is quantized the ﬁeld operators are given by 1 Φ(x) = √ V √ 1 a(k )eikx + b† (k )e−ikx 2ωk 1 , Φ† (x) = √ V √ 1 a† (k )eikx + b(k )e−ikx 2ωk

k

k

Hence the energy operator is given by: H=
k

hωk a† (k )a(k ) + b† (k )b(k ) ¯

and the charge operator is given by: Q(t) = −i J4 (x)d3 x ⇒ Q = e a† (k )a(k ) − b† (k )b(k )

k

From this follows that a† a := N+ (k ) is an occupation number operator for particles with a positive charge and b† b := N− (k ) is an occupation number operator for particles with a negative charge.

15.6 Field functions for spin- 1 particles 2
Spin is deﬁned by the behaviour of the solutions ψ of the Dirac equation. A scalar ﬁeld Φ has the property ˜ that, if it obeys the Klein-Gordon equation, the rotated ﬁeld Φ(x) := Φ(Λ−1 x) also obeys it. Λ denotes 4-dimensional rotations: the proper Lorentz transformations. These can be written as: ∂ ∂ ˜ Φ(x) = Φ(x)e−in·L with Lµν = −i¯ xµ h − xν ∂xν ∂xµ For µ ≤ 3, ν ≤ 3 these are rotations, for ν = 4, µ = 4 these are Lorentz transformations.

˜ ˜ A rotated ﬁeld ψ obeys the Dirac equation if the following condition holds: ψ(x) = D(Λ)ψ(Λ−1 x). This 1 −1 in·S ¯ results in the condition D γλ D = Λλµ γµ . One ﬁnds: D = e with Sµν = −i 2 hγµ γν . Hence: ˜ ψ(x) = e−i(S+L) ψ(x) = e−iJ ψ(x)

Then the solutions of the Dirac equation are given by: ψ(x) = ur (p )e−i(p·x±Et) ± Here, r is an indication for the direction of the spin, and ± is the sign of the energy. With the notation v r (p ) = ur (−p ) and ur (p ) = ur (p ) one can write for the dot products of these spinors: − + ur (p )ur (p ) = + + E E δrr , ur (p )ur (p ) = δrr , ur (p )ur (p ) = 0 − − + − M M

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Because of the factor E/M this is not relativistic invariant. A Lorentz-invariant dot product is deﬁned by ab := a† γ4 b, where a := a† γ4 is a row spinor. From this follows: ur (p )ur (p ) = δrr , v r (p )v r (p ) = −δrr , ur (p )v r (p ) = 0 Combinations of the type aa give a 4 × 4 matrix:
2

u
r=1

r

(p )ur (p )

−iγλ pλ + M = , 2M

2

v r (p )v r (p ) =
r=1

−iγλ pλ − M 2M

The Lagrange density which results in the Dirac equation and having the correct energy normalization is: L(x) = −ψ(x) γµ and the current density is Jµ (x) = −ieψγµ ψ. ∂ +M ∂xµ ψ(x)

15.7 Quantization of spin- 1 ﬁelds 2
The general solution for the ﬁeldoperators is in this case: ψ(x) = and ψ(x) =
†

M V M V

p

1 √ E 1 √ E

cr (p )ur (p )eipx + d† (p )v r (p )e−ipx r
r

c† (p )ur (p )e−ipx + dr (p )v r (p )eipx r
r

p

Here, c and c are the creation respectively annihilation operators for an electron and d † and d the creation respectively annihilation operators for a positron. The energy operator is given by
2

H=
p

Ep
r=1

c† (p )cr (p ) − dr (p )d† (p ) r r

To prevent that the energy of positrons is negative the operators must obey anti commutation rules in stead of commutation rules: [cr (p ), c† (p )]+ = [dr (p ), d† (p )]+ = δrr δpp , all other anti commutators are 0. r r The ﬁeld operators obey [ψα (x), ψβ (x )] = 0 , [ψα (x), ψβ (x )] = 0 , [ψα (x), ψβ (x )]+ = −iSαβ (x − x ) ∂ − M ∆(x) ∂xλ The anti commutation rules give besides the positive-deﬁnite energy also the Pauli exclusion principle and the Fermi-Dirac statistics: because c† (p )c† (p ) = −c† (p )c† (p ) holds: {c† (p)}2 = 0. It appears to be impossible r r r r r to create two electrons with the same momentum and spin. This is the exclusion principle. Another way to see + + this is the fact that {Nr (p )}2 = Nr (p ): the occupation operators have only eigenvalues 0 and 1. with S(x) = γλ To avoid inﬁnite vacuum contributions to the energy and charge the normal product is introduced. The expression for the current density now becomes Jµ = −ieN (ψγµ ψ). This product is obtained by: • Expand all ﬁelds into creation and annihilation operators, • Keep all terms which have no annihilation operators, or in which they are on the right of the creation operators, • In all other terms interchange the factors so that the annihilation operators go to the right. By an interchange of two fermion operators add a minus sign, by interchange of two boson operators not. Assume hereby that all commutators are zero.

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89

15.8 Quantization of the electromagnetic ﬁeld
1 Starting with the Lagrange density L = − 2

∂Aν ∂Aν ∂xµ ∂xµ

it follows for the ﬁeld operators A(x): 1 A(x) = √ V √ 1 2ωk
4

a m (k )
m=1

m

(k )eikx + a† (k )

m

(k )∗ e−ikx

k

The operators obey [am (k ), a† (k )] = δmm δkk . All other commutators are 0. m gives the polarization m direction of the photon: m = 1, 2 gives transversal polarized, m = 3 longitudinal polarized and m = 4 timelike polarized photons. Further holds: [Aµ (x), Aν (x )] = iδµν D(x − x ) with D(y) = ∆(y)|m=0 In spite of the fact that A4 = iV is imaginary in the classical case, A4 is still deﬁned to be hermitian because otherwise the sign of the energy becomes incorrect. By changing the deﬁnition of the inner product in conﬁguration space the expectation values for A1,2,3 (x) ∈ I and for A4 (x) become imaginary. R If the potentials satisfy the Lorentz gauge condition ∂µ Aµ = 0 the E and B operators derived from these potentials will satisfy the Maxwell equations. However, this gives problems with the commutation rules. It is now demanded that only those states are permitted for which holds ∂A+ µ |Φ = 0 ∂xµ This results in: ∂Aµ ∂xµ = 0.

From this follows that (a3 (k ) − a4 (k ))|Φ = 0. With a local gauge transformation one obtains N3 (k ) = 0 and N4 (k ) = 0. However, this only applies to free EM-ﬁelds: in intermediary states in interactions there can exist longitudinal and timelike photons. These photons are also responsible for the stationary Coulomb potential.

15.9 Interacting ﬁelds and the S-matrix
The S(scattering)-matrix gives a relation between the initial and ﬁnal states of an interaction: |Φ(∞) = S|Φ(−∞) . If the Schr¨ dinger equation is integrated: o
t

|Φ(t) = |Φ(−∞) − i and perturbation theory is applied one ﬁnds that: S= (−i)n n! n=0
∞

Hint (t1 )|Φ(t1 ) dt1

−∞

∞

···

T {Hint (x1 ) · · · Hint (xn )} d4 x1 · · · d4 xn ≡

S (n)
n=0

Here, the T -operator means a time-ordered product: the terms in such a product must be ordered in increasing time order from the right to the left so that the earliest terms act ﬁrst. The S-matrix is then given by: S ij = Φi |S|Φj = Φi |Φ(∞) . The interaction Hamilton density for the interaction between the electromagnetic and the electron-positron ﬁeld is: Hint (x) = −Jµ (x)Aµ (x) = ieN (ψγµ ψAµ ) When this is expanded as: Hint = ieN (ψ + + ψ − )γµ (ψ + + ψ − )(A+ + A− ) µ µ

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Physics Formulary by ir. J.C.A. Wevers

The expressions for S (n) contain time-ordered products of normal products. This can be written as a sum of normal products. The appearing operators describe the minimal changes necessary to change the initial state into the ﬁnal state. The effects of the virtual particles are described by the (anti)commutator functions. Some time-ordened products are: T {Φ(x)Φ(y)} T ψα (x)ψβ (y)
1 = N {Φ(x)Φ(y)} + 2 ∆F (x − y) F = N ψα (x)ψβ (y) − 1 Sαβ (x − y) 2

eight terms appear. Each term corresponds with a possible process. The term ieψ + γµ ψ + A− acting on |Φ µ gives transitions where A− creates a photon, ψ + annihilates an electron and ψ + annihilates a positron. Only µ terms with the correct number of particles in the initial and ﬁnal state contribute to a matrix element Φ i |S|Φj . Further the factors in Hint can create and thereafter annihilate particles: the virtual particles.

F T {Aµ (x)Aν (y)} = N {Aµ (x)Aν (y)} + 1 δµν Dµν (x − y) 2

The term 1 ∆F (x − y) is called the contraction of Φ(x) and Φ(y), and is the expectation value of the time2 ordered product in the vacuum state. Wick’s theorem gives an expression for the time-ordened product of an arbitrary number of ﬁeld operators. The graphical representation of these processes are called Feynman diagrams. In the x-representation each diagram describes a number of processes. The contraction functions can also be written as: ∆F (x) = lim −2i →0 (2π)4 −2i eikx d4 k and S F (x) = lim →0 (2π)4 k 2 + m2 − i eipx iγµ pµ − M 4 d p p2 + M 2 − i

Here, S F (x) = (γµ ∂µ − M )∆F (x), DF (x) = ∆F (x)|m=0 and  eikx 3 1   d k   (2π)3 ωk  F ∆ (x) =   1 e−ikx 3    d k 3 (2π) ωk

if x0 > 0

if x0 < 0

In the expressions for S (2) this gives rise to terms δ(p + k − p − k ). This means that energy and momentum is conserved. However, virtual particles do not obey the relation between energy and momentum.

15.10 Divergences and renormalization
It turns out that higher orders contribute inﬁnite terms because only the sum p + k of the four-momentum of the virtual particles is ﬁxed. An integration over one of them becomes ∞. In the x-representation this can be understood because the product of two functions containing δ-like singularities is not well deﬁned. This is solved by discounting all divergent diagrams in a renormalization of e and M . It is assumed that an electron, if there would not be an electromagnetical ﬁeld, would have a mass M 0 and a charge e0 unequal to the observed mass M and charge e. In the Hamilton and Lagrange density of the free electron-positron ﬁeld appears M 0 . So this gives, with M = M0 + ∆M : Le−p (x) = −ψ(x)(γµ ∂µ + M0 )ψ(x) = −ψ(x)(γµ ∂µ + M )ψ(x) + ∆M ψ(x)ψ(x) and Hint = ieN (ψγµ ψAµ ) − i∆eN (ψγµ ψAµ ).

15.11 Classiﬁcation of elementary particles
Elementary particles can be categorized as follows: 1. Hadrons: these exist of quarks and can be categorized in: I. Baryons: these exist of 3 quarks or 3 antiquarks.

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91

II. Mesons: these exist of one quark and one antiquark. 2. Leptons: e± , µ± , τ ± , νe , νµ , ντ , ν e , ν µ , ν τ . 3. Field quanta: γ, W± , Z0 , gluons, gravitons (?). An overview of particles and antiparticles is given in the following table: Particle u d s c b t e− µ− τ− νe νµ ντ γ gluon W+ Z graviton spin (¯ ) B h 1/2 1/3 1/2 1/3 1/2 1/3 1/2 1/3 1/2 1/3 1/2 1/3 1/2 0 1/2 0 1/2 0 1/2 0 1/2 0 1/2 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 2 0 L 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 T 1/2 1/2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 T3 1/2 −1/2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 S 0 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 C 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 B∗ 0 0 0 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 charge (e) +2/3 −1/3 −1/3 +2/3 −1/3 +2/3 −1 −1 −1 0 0 0 0 0 +1 0 0 m0 (MeV) 5 9 175 1350 4500 173000 0.511 105.658 1777.1 0(?) 0(?) 0(?) 0 0 80220 91187 0 antipart. u d s c b t e+ µ+ τ+ νe νµ ντ γ gluon W− Z graviton

Here B is the baryon number and L the lepton number. It is found that there are three different lepton numbers, one for e, µ and τ , which are separately conserved. T is the isospin, with T 3 the projection of the isospin on the third axis, C the charmness, S the strangeness and B∗ the bottomness. The anti particles have quantum numbers with the opposite sign except for the total isospin T. The composition of (anti)quarks of the hadrons is given in the following table, together with their mass in MeV in their ground state: π0 π+ π− K0 K0 K+ K− D+ D− D0 D0 F+ F−
1 2

√

2(uu+dd) ud du sd ds us su cd dc cu uc cs sc

134.9764 139.56995 139.56995 497.672 497.672 493.677 493.677 1869.4 1869.4 1864.6 1864.6 1969.0 1969.0

J/Ψ Υ p+ p− n0 n0 Λ Λ Σ+ Σ− Σ0 Σ0 Σ−

cc bb uud uud udd udd uds uds uus uus uds uds dds

3096.8 9460.37 938.27231 938.27231 939.56563 939.56563 1115.684 1115.684 1189.37 1189.37 1192.55 1192.55 1197.436

Σ+ Ξ0 0 Ξ − Ξ Ξ+ Ω− Ω+ Λ+ c ∆2− ∆2+ ∆+ ∆0 ∆−

dds uss uss dss dss sss sss udc uuu uuu uud udd ddd

1197.436 1314.9 1314.9 1321.32 1321.32 1672.45 1672.45 2285.1 1232.0 1232.0 1232.0 1232.0 1232.0

Each quark can exist in two spin states. So mesons are bosons with spin 0 or 1 in their ground state, while 1 baryons are fermions with spin 2 or 3 . There exist excited states with higher internal L. Neutrino’s have a 2 1 1 helicity of − 2 while antineutrino’s have only + 2 as possible value. The quantum numbers are subject to conservation laws. These can be derived from symmetries in the Lagrange density: continuous symmetries give rise to additive conservation laws, discrete symmetries result in multiplicative conservation laws. Geometrical conservation laws are invariant under Lorentz transformations and the CPT-operation. These are: 1. Mass/energy because the laws of nature are invariant for translations in time.

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2. Momentum because the laws of nature are invariant for translations in space. 3. Angular momentum because the laws of nature are invariant for rotations. Dynamical conservation laws are invariant under the CPT-operation. These are: 1. Electrical charge because the Maxwell equations are invariant under gauge transformations. 2. Colour charge is conserved. 3. Isospin because QCD is invariant for rotations in T-space. 4. Baryon number and lepton number are conserved but not under a possible SU(5) symmetry of the laws of nature. 5. Quarks type is only conserved under the colour interaction. 6. Parity is conserved except for weak interactions. The elementary particles can be classiﬁed into three families: leptons 1st generation 2nd generation 3rd generation e− νe µ− νµ τ− ντ quarks d u s c b t antileptons e+ νe µ+ νµ τ+ ντ antiquarks d u s c b t

Quarks exist in three colours but because they are conﬁned these colours cannot be seen directly. The color force does not decrease with distance. The potential energy will become high enough to create a quarkantiquark pair when it is tried to disjoin an (anti)quark from a hadron. This will result in two hadrons and not in free quarks.

15.12 P and CP-violation
It is found that the weak interaction violates P-symmetry, and even CP-symmetry is not conserved. Some processes which violate P symmetry but conserve the combination CP are: 1. µ-decay: µ− → e− + νµ + ν e . Left-handed electrons appear more than 1000× as much as right-handed ones. 2. β-decay of spin-polarized 60 Co: 60 Co →60 Ni + e− + ν e . More electrons with a spin parallel to the Co than with a spin antiparallel are created: (parallel−antiparallel)/(total)=20%. 3. There is no connection with the neutrino: the decay of the Λ particle through: Λ → p + + π − and Λ → n0 + π 0 has also these properties. The CP-symmetry was found to be violated by the decay of neutral Kaons. These are the lowest possible states with a s-quark so they can decay only weakly. The following holds: C|K 0 = η|K0 where η is a phase factor. Further holds P|K0 = −|K0 because K0 and K0 have an intrinsic parity of −1. From this follows that K0 and K0 are not eigenvalues of CP: CP|K0 = |K0 . The linear combinations √ √ 1 |K0 := 2 2(|K0 + |K0 ) and |K0 := 1 2(|K0 − |K0 ) 2 1 2 are eigenstates of CP: CP|K0 = +|K0 and CP|K0 = −|K0 . A base of K0 and K0 is practical while 1 1 2 2 1 2 describing weak interactions. For colour interactions a base of K 0 and K0 is practical because then the number u−number u is constant. The expansion postulate must be used for weak decays: |K0 = 1 ( K0 |K0 + K0 |K0 ) 1 2 2

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93

The probability to ﬁnd a ﬁnal state with CP= −1 is 1 0 0 2 | . 2 | K1 |K

1 2|

K0 |K0 |2 , the probability of CP=+1 decay is 2

θ1 ≡ θC is the Cabibbo angle: sin(θC ) ≈ 0.23 ± 0.01.

The relation between the mass eigenvalues of the quarks (unaccented) and the ﬁelds arising in the weak currents (accented) is (u , c , t ) = (u, c, t), and:       d 1 0 0 1 0 0 cos θ1 sin θ1 0  s  =  0 cos θ2 sin θ2   0 1 0   − sin θ1 cos θ1 0  b 0 − sin θ2 cos θ2 0 0 1 0 0 eiδ    1 0 0 d  0 cos θ3 sin θ3   s  0 − sin θ3 cos θ3 b

15.13 The standard model
When one wants to make the Lagrange density which describes a ﬁeld invariant for local gauge transformations from a certain group, one has to perform the transformation D ∂ g ∂ → = − i Lk A k µ ∂xµ Dxµ ∂xµ h ¯ Here the Lk are the generators of the gauge group (the “charges”) and the A k are the gauge ﬁelds. g is the µ matching coupling constant. The Lagrange density for a scalar ﬁeld becomes:
µν 1 a 1 L = − 2 (Dµ Φ∗ Dµ Φ + M 2 Φ∗ Φ) − 4 Fµν Fa a and the ﬁeld tensors are given by: Fµν = ∂µ Aa − ∂ν Aa + gca Al Am . ν µ lm µ ν

15.13.1 The electroweak theory
The electroweak interaction arises from the necessity to keep the Lagrange density invariant for local gauge transformations of the group SU(2)⊗U(1). Right- and left-handed spin states are treated different because the weak interaction does not conserve parity. If a ﬁfth Dirac matrix is deﬁned by:   0 0 1 0  0 0 0 1   γ5 := γ1 γ2 γ3 γ4 = −   1 0 0 0  0 1 0 0 the left- and right- handed solutions of the Dirac equation for neutrino’s are given by: ψL = 1 (1 + γ5 )ψ and ψR = 1 (1 − γ5 )ψ 2 2 It appears that neutrino’s are always left-handed while antineutrino’s are always right-handed. The hypercharge Y , for quarks given by Y = B + S + C + B∗ + T , is deﬁned by: Q = 1 Y + T3 2 so [Y, Tk ] = 0. The group U(1)Y ⊗SU(2)T is taken as symmetry group for the electroweak interaction because the generators of this group commute. The multiplets are classiﬁed as follows: e− R T T3 Y 0 0 −2
1 2

νeL e− L
1 2 1 2

uL dL
1 2 1 2 1 2

uR 0 0
4 3

dR 0 0 −2 3

− −1

1 3

−

94

Physics Formulary by ir. J.C.A. Wevers

Now, 1 ﬁeld Bµ (x) is connected with gauge group U(1) and 3 gauge ﬁelds Aµ (x) are connected with SU(2). The total Lagrange density (minus the ﬁeldterms) for the electron-fermion ﬁeld now becomes: L0,EW g g = −(ψνe,L , ψeL )γ µ ∂µ − i Aµ · ( 1 σ) − 1 i Bµ · (−1) 2 2 h h ¯ ¯ g ψeR γ µ ∂µ − 1 i (−2)Bµ ψeR 2 h ¯ ψνe,L ψeL −

Here, 1 σ are the generators of T and −1 and −2 the generators of Y . 2

15.13.2 Spontaneous symmetry breaking: the Higgs mechanism
All leptons are massless in the equations above. Their mass is probably generated by spontaneous symmetry breaking. This means that the dynamic equations which describe the system have a symmetry which the ground state does not have. It is assumed that there exists an isospin-doublet of scalar ﬁelds Φ with electrical charges +1 and 0 and potential V (Φ) = −µ2 Φ∗ Φ + λ(Φ∗ Φ)2 . Their antiparticles have charges −1 and 0. The extra µ terms in L arising from these ﬁelds, LH = (DLµ Φ)∗ (DL Φ) − V (Φ), are globally U(1)⊗SU(2) symmetric. Hence the state with the lowest energy corresponds with the state Φ ∗ (x)Φ(x) = v = µ2 /2λ =constant. The ﬁeld can be written (were ω ± and z are Nambu-Goldstone bosons which can be transformed away, and √ mφ = µ 2) as: Φ= Φ+ Φ0 = iω + √ (v + φ − iz)/ 2 and 0|Φ|0 = 0 √ v/ 2

Because this expectation value = 0 the SU(2) symmetry is broken but the U(1) symmetry is not. When the gauge ﬁelds in the resulting Lagrange density are separated one obtains: √ √ − + 1 Wµ = 1 2(A1 + iA2 ) , Wµ = 2 2(A1 − iA2 ) µ µ µ µ 2 Zµ Aµ = = gA3 − g Bµ µ g2 + g 2 g2 +g
2

≡ A3 cos(θW ) − Bµ sin(θW ) µ ≡ A3 sin(θW ) + Bµ cos(θW ) µ

g A3 + gBµ µ

where θW is called the Weinberg angle. For this angle holds: sin2 (θW ) = 0.255 ± 0.010. Relations for the masses of the ﬁeld quanta can be obtained from the remaining terms: M W = 1 vg and MZ = 1 v g 2 + g 2 , 2 2 gg = g cos(θW ) = g sin(θW ) and for the elementary charge holds: e = g2 + g 2 Experimentally it is found that MW = 80.022 ± 0.26 GeV/c2 and MZ = 91.187 ± 0.007 GeV/c2 . According to the weak theory this should be: MW = 83.0 ± 0.24 GeV/c2 and MZ = 93.8 ± 2.0 GeV/c2 .

15.13.3 Quantumchromodynamics
Coloured particles interact because the Lagrange density is invariant for the transformations of the group SU(3) of the colour interaction. A distinction can be made between two types of particles: 1. “White” particles: they have no colour charge, the generator T = 0. 2. “Coloured” particles: the generators T are 8 3 × 3 matrices. There exist three colours and three anticolours. The Lagrange density for coloured particles is given by LQCD = i Ψ k γ µ Dµ Ψ k +
k k,l a µν Ψk Mkl Ψl − 1 Fµν Fa 4

The gluons remain massless because this Lagrange density does not contain spinless particles. Because leftand right- handed quarks now belong to the same multiplet a mass term can be introduced. This term can be brought in the form Mkl = mk δkl .

Chapter 15: Quantum ﬁeld theory & Particle physics

95

15.14 Path integrals
The development in time of a quantum mechanical system can, besides with Schr¨ dingers equation, also be o described by a path integral (Feynman): ψ(x , t ) = F (x , t , x, t)ψ(x, t)dx

in which F (x , t , x, t) is the amplitude of probability to ﬁnd a system on time t in x if it was in x on time t. Then, iS[x] F (x , t , x, t) = exp d[x] h ¯ where S[x] is an action-integral: S[x] = taken over all possible paths [x]: L(x, x, t)dt. The notation d[x] means that the integral has to be ˙   
∞

1 d[x] := lim n→∞ N

dx(tn )

n

−∞

  

in which N is a normalization constant. To each path is assigned a probability amplitude exp(iS/¯ ). The h classical limit can be found by taking δS = 0: the average of the exponent vanishes, except where it is stationary. In quantum ﬁeldtheory, the probability of the transition of a ﬁeldoperator Φ(x, −∞) to Φ (x, ∞) is given by iS[Φ] F (Φ (x, ∞), Φ(x, −∞)) = exp d[Φ] h ¯ with the action-integral S[Φ] =
Ω

L(Φ, ∂ν Φ)d4 x

15.15 Uniﬁcation and quantum gravity
The strength of the forces varies with energy and the reciprocal coupling constants approach each other with increasing energy. The SU(5) model predicts complete uniﬁcation of the electromagnetical, weak and colour forces at 1015 GeV. It also predicts 12 extra X bosons which couple leptons and quarks and are i.g. responsible for proton decay, with dominant channel p+ → π 0 + e+ , with an average lifetime of the proton of 1031 year. This model has been experimentally falsiﬁed. Supersymmetric models assume a symmetry between bosons and fermions and predict partners for the currently known particles with a spin which differs 1 . The supersymmetric SU(5) model predicts uniﬁcation at 2 1016 GeV and an average lifetime of the proton of 1033 year. The dominant decay channels in this theory are p+ → K+ + ν µ and p+ → K0 + µ+ . Quantum gravity plays only a role in particle interactions at the Planck dimensions, where λ C ≈ RS : mPl = hc/G = 3 · 1019 GeV, tPl = h/mPlc2 = hG/c5 = 10−43 sec and rPl = ctPl ≈ 10−35 m.

Chapter 16

Astrophysics
16.1 Determination of distances
The parallax is mostly used to determine distances in nearby space. The parallax is the angular difference between two measurements of the position of the object from different view-points. If the annual parallax is given by p, the distance R of the object is given by R = a/ sin(p), in which a is the radius of the Earth’s orbit. The clusterparallax is used to determine the distance of a group of stars by using their motion w.r.t. a ﬁxed background. The tangential velocity vt and the radial velocity vr of the stars along the sky are given by vr = V cos(θ) , vt = V sin(θ) = ωR ˆ where θ is the angle between the star and the point of convergence and R the distance in pc. This results, with vt = vr tan(θ), in: R= vr tan(θ) 1 ˆ ⇒ R= ω p

-5 -4 M -3 -2 -1
0 1

Type 1

Type 2 RR-Lyrae 0,1 0,3 1 3 10 30 100

where p is the parallax in arc seconds. The parallax is then given by p= 4.74µ vr tan(θ)

P (days) →

with µ de proper motion of the star in /yr. A method to determine the distance of objects which are somewhat further away, like galaxies and star clusters, uses the period-Brightness relation for Cepheids. This relation is shown in the above ﬁgure for different types of stars.

16.2 Brightness and magnitudes
The brightness is the total radiated energy per unit of time. Earth receives s 0 = 1.374 kW/m2 from the Sun. Hence, the brightness of the Sun is given by L = 4πr2 s0 = 3.82 · 1026 W. It is also given by:
∞

L = 4πR

2 0

πFν dν

where πFν is the monochromatic radiation ﬂux. At the position of an observer this is πf ν , with fν = (R/r)2 Fν if absorption is ignored. If Aν is the fraction of the ﬂux which reaches Earth’s surface, the transmission factor is given by Rν and the surface of the detector is given by πa2 , then the apparent brightness b is given by:
∞

b = πa The magnitude m is deﬁned by:

2 0

fν Aν Rν dν

b1 1 = (100) 5 (m2 −m1 ) = (2.512)m2 −m1 b2

Chapter 16: Astrophysics

97

because the human eye perceives lightintensities logaritmical. From this follows that m 2 − m1 = 2.5 ·10 log(b1 /b2 ), or: m = −2.5 ·10 log(b) + C. The apparent brightness of a star if this star would be at a distance of 10 pc is called the absolute brightness B: B/b = (ˆ/10)2 . The absolute magnitude is then given by r M = −2.5 ·10 log(B) + C, or: M = 5 + m − 5 ·10 log(ˆ). When an interstellar absorption of 10−4 /pc is taken r into account one ﬁnds: M = (m − 4 · 10−4 r ) + 5 − 5 ·10 log(ˆ) ˆ r If a detector detects all radiation emitted by a source one would measure the absolute bolometric magnitude. If the bolometric correction BC is given by BC = 2.5 ·10 log Energy ﬂux received Energy ﬂux detected = 2.5 ·10 log fν dν fν Aν Rν dν

holds: Mb = MV − BC where MV is the visual magnitude. Further holds Mb = −2.5 ·10 log L L + 4.72

The radiation energy passing through a surface dA is dE = Iν (θ, ϕ) cos(θ)dνdΩdAdt, where Iµ is the monochromatical intensity [Wm−2 sr−1 Hz−1 ]. When there is no absorption the quantity Iν is independent of the distance to the source. Planck’s law holds for a black body: Iν (T ) ≡ Bν (T ) = c 1 2hν 3 wν (T ) = 2 4π c exp(hν/kT ) − 1

The radiation transport through a layer can then be written as: dIν = −Iν κν + jν ds Here, jν is the coefﬁcient of emission and κν the coefﬁcient of absorption. ds is the thickness of the layer. The optical thickness τν of the layer is given by τν = κν ds. The layer is optically thin if τν 1, the layer is optically thick if τν 1. For a stellar atmosphere in LTE holds: jν = κν Bν (T ). Then also holds: Iν (s) = Iν (0)e−τν + Bν (T )(1 − e−τν )

16.4 Composition and evolution of stars
The structure of a star is described by the following equations: dM (r) dr dp(r) dr L(r) dr dT (r) dr rad dT (r) dr conv = 4π (r)r2 = − GM (r) (r) r2

= 4π (r)ε(r)r 2 = − = 3 L(r) κ(r) , (Eddington), or 4 4πr2 4σT 3 (r) T (r) γ − 1 dp(r) , (convective energy transport) p(r) γ dr

Further, for stars of the solar type, the composing plasma can be described as an ideal gas: p(r) = (r)kT (r) µmH

98

Physics Formulary by ir. J.C.A. Wevers

where µ is the average molecular mass, usually well approximated by: µ= nmH = 1 2X +
3 4Y 1 + 2Z

where X is the mass fraction of H, Y the mass fraction of He and Z the mass fraction of the other elements. Further holds: κ(r) = f ( (r), T (r), composition) and ε(r) = g( (r), T (r), composition) Convection will occur when the star meets the Schwartzschild criterium: dT dr <
conv

dT dr

Otherwise the energy transfer takes place by radiation. For stars in quasi-hydrostatic equilibrium hold the approximations r = 1 R, M (r) = 1 M , dM/dr = M/R, κ ∼ and ε ∼ T µ (this last assumption is only 2 2 valid for stars on the main sequence). For pp-chains holds µ ≈ 5 and for the CNO chains holds µ = 12 tot 18. 8 It can be derived that L ∼ M 3 : the mass-brightness relation. Further holds: L ∼ R 4 ∼ Teﬀ . This results in the equation for the main sequence in the Hertzsprung-Russel diagram:
10

log(L) = 8 ·10 log(Teﬀ ) + constant

16.5 Energy production in stars
The net reaction from which most stars gain their energy is: 41 H → 4 He + 2e+ + 2νe + γ. This reaction produces 26.72 MeV. Two reaction chains are responsible for this reaction. The slowest, speedlimiting reaction is shown in boldface. The energy between brackets is the energy carried away by the neutrino. 1. The proton-proton chain can be divided into two subchains: 1 H + p+ → 2 D + e+ + νe , and then 2 D + p → 3 He + γ. II. pp2: 3 He + α → 7 Be + γ I. pp1: 3 He +3 He → 2p+ + 4 He. There is 26.21 + (0.51) MeV released. i. 7 Be + e− → 7 Li + ν, then 7 Li + p+ → 24 He + γ. 25.92 + (0.80) MeV. ii. 7 Be + p+ → 8 B + γ, then 8 B + e+ → 24 He + ν. 19.5 + (7.2) MeV.

Both 7 Be chains become more important with raising T .

2. The CNO cycle. The ﬁrst chain releases 25.03 + (1.69) MeV, the second 24.74 + (1.98) MeV. The reactions are shown below. → O + e+ → ↑ 14 N + p+ →
15 15

N+ν O+γ ←

15

−→ N + p+ → α +12 C ↓ 12 C + p+ → 13 N + γ ↓ 13 N → 13 C + e+ + ν ↓ 13 C + p+ → 14 N + γ ←−
15

15

N + p+ → 16 O + γ ↓ 16 O + p+ → 17 F + γ ↓ 17 F → 17 O + e+ + ν ↓ 17 O + p+ → α + 14 N

The

operator

99

The

-operator
∂ ∂ ∂ ex + ey + ez , gradf = ∂x ∂y ∂z ·a= ∂ay ∂az ∂ax + + , ∂x ∂y ∂z ex + ∂f ∂f ∂f ex + ey + ez ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂2f ∂2f ∂2f + 2 + 2 2 ∂x ∂y ∂z ey + ∂ay ∂ax − ∂x ∂y ez

In cartesian coordinates (x, y, z) holds: = f=
2

div a = rot a =

f=

×a=

∂az ∂ay − ∂y ∂z

∂ax ∂az − ∂z ∂x

In cylinder coordinates (r, ϕ, z) holds: = div a = rot a = 1 ∂ ∂ ∂f 1 ∂f ∂f ∂ er + eϕ + ez , gradf = er + eϕ + ez ∂r r ∂ϕ ∂z ∂r r ∂ϕ ∂z
2

ar 1 ∂aϕ ∂az ∂ar + + + , ∂r r r ∂ϕ ∂z 1 ∂az ∂aϕ − r ∂ϕ ∂z er +

f=

∂2f 1 ∂f 1 ∂2f ∂2f + + 2 + 2 2 2 ∂r r ∂r r ∂ϕ ∂z eϕ + ∂aϕ aϕ 1 ∂ar + − ∂r r r ∂ϕ ez

∂ar ∂az − ∂z ∂r

In spherical coordinates (r, θ, ϕ) holds: = gradf = ∂ 1 ∂ 1 ∂ er + eθ + eϕ ∂r r ∂θ r sin θ ∂ϕ ∂f 1 ∂f 1 ∂f er + eθ + eϕ ∂r r ∂θ r sin θ ∂ϕ ∂ar 2ar 1 ∂aθ aθ 1 ∂aϕ + + + + ∂r r r ∂θ r tan θ r sin θ ∂ϕ aθ 1 ∂aθ ∂aϕ aϕ 1 ∂aϕ 1 ∂ar + − − − er + r ∂θ r tan θ r sin θ ∂ϕ r sin θ ∂ϕ ∂r r aθ 1 ∂ar ∂aθ eϕ + − ∂r r r ∂θ ∂2f ∂f ∂2f 2 ∂f 1 ∂2f 1 1 + + 2 2 + 2 + 2 2 ∂r2 r ∂r r ∂θ r tan θ ∂θ r sin θ ∂ϕ2

div a = rot a =

eθ +

2

f

=

General orthonormal curvelinear coordinates (u, v, w) can be obtained from cartesian coordinates by the transformation x = x(u, v, w). The unit vectors are then given by: eu = 1 ∂x 1 ∂x 1 ∂x , ev = , ew = h1 ∂u h2 ∂v h3 ∂w

where the factors hi set the norm to 1. Then holds: gradf = 1 ∂f 1 ∂f 1 ∂f eu + ev + ew h1 ∂u h2 ∂v h3 ∂w ∂ ∂ ∂ 1 (h2 h3 au ) + (h3 h1 av ) + (h1 h2 aw ) h1 h2 h3 ∂u ∂v ∂w 1 ∂(h3 aw ) ∂(h2 av ) ∂(h1 au ) ∂(h3 aw ) 1 eu + − − h2 h3 ∂v ∂w h3 h1 ∂w ∂u 1 ∂(h2 av ) ∂(h1 au ) ew − h1 h2 ∂u ∂v ∂ h3 h1 ∂f ∂ 1 ∂ h2 h3 ∂f h1 h2 ∂f + + h1 h2 h3 ∂u h1 ∂u ∂v h2 ∂v ∂w h3 ∂w

div a = rot a =

ev +

2

f

=

100

The SI units

The SI units
Basic units
Quantity Length Mass Time Therm. temp. Electr. current Luminous intens. Amount of subst. Unit metre kilogram second kelvin ampere candela mol Sym. m kg s K A cd mol

Derived units with special names
Quantity Frequency Force Pressure Energy Power Charge El. Potential El. Capacitance El. Resistance El. Conductance Mag. ﬂux Mag. ﬂux density Inductance Luminous ﬂux Illuminance Activity Absorbed dose Dose equivalent Unit hertz newton pascal joule watt coulomb volt farad ohm siemens weber tesla henry lumen lux bequerel gray sievert Sym. Hz N Pa J W C V F Ω S Wb T H lm lx Bq Gy Sv Derivation s−1 kg · m · s−2 N · m−2 N·m J · s−1 A·s W · A−1 C · V−1 V · A−1 A · V−1 V·s Wb · m−2 Wb · A−1 cd · sr lm · m−2 s−1 J · kg−1 J · kg−1

Extra units

Preﬁxes
yotta zetta exa peta tera Y Z E P T 1024 1021 1018 1015 1012 giga mega kilo hecto deca G M k h da 109 106 103 102 10 deci centi milli micro nano d c m µ n 10−1 10−2 10−3 10−6 10−9 pico femto atto zepto yocto p f a z y 10−12 10−15 10−18 10−21 10−24


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