Departmental Secretaries in Canada and the United Kingdom1
This report examines the formal processes by which appointments and terminations of departmental secretaries are undertaken in Canada and the United Kingdom. It is based on the reviews of official procedures in those countries and the literature on the subject. The report takes into account the practices which have prevailed in recent decades and related conditions of employment for deputy ministers in Canada and permanent secretaries in the United Kingdom. The main purpose of the report is to serve as a companion piece to the study by Patrick Weller and John Wanna of Australian departmental secretaries. 
 
 
 
It should be noted that these countries operate within a shared tradition, but that there are differences between them. For example, the Canadian tradition has not maintained the separation of the political and civil service careers to the same extent as the United Kingdom, although the latter has in the past relied on an elite socialisation process for both politicians and civil servants based on the education system.