The role of information in the emission of observing responses: a test of two hypotheses.
Pigeons were trained on a trial procedure in a Skinner box. Each trial began with a fixed-interval schedule. Responding on this schedule produced a stimulus and a delayed trial outcome. The stimulus signalled whether the forthcoming outcome was reinforcement or nonreinforcement. Thus, the response was an observing response. When reinforcement was the outcome on 20% of the trials, response rates in the fixed interval were higher than when reinforcement was the outcome on 80% of the trials. This result is consistent with the hypothesis that observing responses are reinforced by the information associated with the stimulus signalling reinforcement. The result seems inconsistent with the hypothesis that observing responses are also reinforced by the information associated with the stimulus signalling nonreinforcement.