38751479
The Effect of Visual and Textual Accompaniments to Verbal Stimuli on the Listening Comprehension Test Performance of Iranian High and Low Proficient EFL Learners
The present study aimed at comparing the effect of a series of static images with that of condensed paraphrased scripts accompanying verbal stimuli in listening comprehension tests supplemented with visual or textual input. It utilized three batteries of IELTS listening tests: one sampling 58 participants to carry out the study with, another with supplemented visual or textual aids, and the other without such aids. The participants were then divided into higher proficient listeners group (HPL) and the lower proficient listeners group (LPL) on the basis of their performance on a general listening module of the IELTS examination. The HPL was subsequently divided into two groups: one receiving static images with verbal stimuli, another receiving script presentations with the same verbal stimuli. The LPL was also divided into two groups with the same procedure. The analysis of results showed that listening tests with static images yielded better performance than script presentations, visual aids were more advantageous to lower proficient listeners while textual aids were more advantageous to higher proficient listeners, and tests with more static images yielded much better performance than those with fewer static images.
144473841
Film audiences as overhearers
Abstract This paper attempts to describe the workings of film discourse by focusing on the cognitive processes involved in the comprehension and design of verbal exchanges on screen. Several concepts have been developed to account for various forms of mediated discourse ( Burger, 1984; Short, 1981; Clark, 1996 ); however, these concepts do not explain how the audience co-constructs meaning ( Duranti, 1986 ) and they fail to spell out the mental engagement involved in this co-construction. The approach introduced here accords a central position to the spectator, who acts as an “overhearer” in the sense of Goffman (1976, 1979) . The cognitive processes that lead to an understanding of film dialogue are parallel to those happening in the case of overhearers in everyday situations. This also has consequences for the design of film dialogue. Both understanding and design of film dialogue are based on underlying patterns of knowledge, including knowledge about real conversation and film dialogues.
60728052
The listener: No longer the silent partner in reduced intelligibility
Abstract In this study I investigate the impact of different characteristics of the L2 speech signal on the intelligibility of L2 speakers of English to native listeners. Three native listeners were observed and questioned as they orthographically transcribed utterances taken from connected conversational speech produced by three L2 speakers from different L1 backgrounds (Korean, Mandarin, and Vietnamese). Where the listeners experienced difficulty in identifying the speaker’s intended words, the features of the speech signal they relied on were identified, and links were made between the difficulties they experienced and the way in which the features in question varied from standard English phonology. Regardless of the speaker they were listening to, when attempting to identify the speaker’s intended words, all three listeners relied heavily and consistently on the speaker’s syllable stress pattern (the number and pattern of strong and weak syllables), and more consistently on segments in strong syllables than those in weak syllables. Both non-standard syllable stress patterns and non-standard segments misled them into wrongly identifying a speaker’s intended words, but for all three speakers, it was non-standard segments in strong syllables that misled those most often. These findings have implications for L2 listeners wanting to improve their English listening skills, as well as for L2 speakers wanting to improve their intelligibility.
145066278
Construct implications of including still image or video in computer-based listening tests
Over the past decade, listening comprehension tests have been converting to computer-based tests that include visual input. However, little research is available to suggest how test takers engage with different types of visuals on such tests. The present study compared a series of still images to video in academic computer-based tests to determine how test takers engage with these two test modes. The study, which employed observations, retrospective reports and interviews, used data from university-level non-native speakers of English. The findings suggest that test takers engage differently with these two modes of delivery. Specifically, while test takers engaged minimally and similarly with the still images, there was wide variation in the ways and degree to which they engaged with the video stimulus. Implications of the study are that computer-based tests of listening comprehension could include still images with only minimally altering the construct that is measured by audio-only listening tests, but the utilization of video in such computer-based tests may require a rethinking of the listening construct.
30687419
Are they watching? Test-taker viewing behavior during an L2 video listening test
The accessibility of video technology has made it possible to utilize both the auditory and visual channels to present listening texts in the second language (L2) classroom and on L2 listening tests. However, there has been little research investigating the extent to which L2 listeners actually watch the video monitor when presented with a listening video text. The current study investigated test-taker behavior on an L2 video listening test. Thirty-six testtakers were videotaped while taking a listening test composed of six separate video texts, and the amount of time test-takers made eye contact with the video monitor was computed. An analysis of the data indicated that the group of participants oriented to the video monitor 69% of the time while the video text was played. In addition, the study yielded valuable information concerning the consistency of the test-takers’ viewing behavior.
61853918
PLAYING THE VIDEOTEXT: A MEDIA LITERACY PERSPECTIVE ON VIDEO-MEDIATED L2 LISTENING
Adopting a literacy perspective towards student interactions with digital media can extend and develop views of second language (L2) listening comprehension. In this case study, variations in play are grounded in a media literacy perspective as a way to frame student work with authentic videotext. Twenty-two Australian students of Japanese watched three digitized news clips as they talked aloud. Qualitative analysis of their immediately retrospective verbal reports showed that learners do indeed play and replay the media texts as they, for example, perform, fool around, and establish signposts. The article concludes with a discussion urging language teachers and researchers to adopt media literacy perspectives in their use of electronic media.
60109270
语言测试要略 = Fundamental considerations in language testing
Preface 1. Introduction The aims of the book The climate for language testing Research and development: needs and problems Research and development: an agenda Overview of the book Notes 2. Measurement Introduction Definition of terms: measurement, test, evaluation Essential measurement qualities Properties of measurement scales Characteristics that limit measurement Steps in measurement Summary Notes Further reading Discussion questions 3. Uses of Language Tests Introduction Uses of language tests in educational programs Research uses of language tests Features for classifying different types of language test Summary Further reading Discussion questions 4. Communicative Language Ability Introduction Language proficiency and communicative competence A theoretical framework of communicative language ability Summary Notes Further reading Discussion questions 5. Test Methods Introduction A framework of test method facets Applications of this framework to language testing Summary Notes Further reading Discussion questions 6. Reliability Introduction Factors that affect language test scores Classical true score measurement theory Generalizability theory Standard error of measurement: Interpreting individual test scores within classical true score and generalizability theory Item response theory Reliability of criterion-referenced test scores Factors that affect reliability estimates Systematic measurement error Summary Notes Further reading Discussion questions 7. Validation Introduction Reliability and validity revisited Validity as a unitary concept The evidential basis of validity Test bias The consequential or ethical basis of validity Post mortem: face validity Summary Notes Further reading Discussion questions 8. Some Persistent Problems and Future Directions Introduction Authentic language tests Some future directions A general model for explaining performance on language tests Apologia et prolegomenon Summary Notes Further reading Discussion questions Bibliography Author index Subject index
60619271
COMMENTARY: LEARNER-BASED LISTENING AND TECHNOLOGICAL AUTHENTICITY
Language teachers know that even the best technology cannot provide the high degree of interaction required to acquire meaningful proficiency in a foreign language. Even the most polished packages available today (and likely to be available for several years to come) cannot evaluate learner input and provide subtle shades of context-based feedback, except in the narrowest of circumstances. Technology’s dull blade is even more apparent the moment interactive orality is required. A simple phone call to a voice-automated service center reminds us to what extent mass-market speech recognition is crude and speaker-finicky, even in English. The speakers of less common languages may have to wait years before work begins on speech recognition for speakers of their languages.
57641579
A model for listening and viewing comprehension in multimedia environments
This paper proposes an instructional design model appropriate for humanistic multimedia Computer-Enhanced Language Learning (CELL) in a self-access environment for second language learning through listening and viewing comprehension. The model is grounded in sociocultural theory, and set against a background of research into the complexities of listening and viewing, individual learner differences and learning styles, characteristics of self-directed and autonomous learning, and user-friendly instructional software design.
55677094
The Development of an Audio Computer-Based Classroom Test of ESL Listening Skills
There are very few examples of audio-based computerized tests, but for many disciplines, such as foreign language and music, there appear to be many benefits to this type of testing. The purpose of the present study was to develop and compare computer-delivered and audiocassette/paper-and-pencil versions of a listening test. The test was a measure of progress achievement of academic listening comprehension and vocabulary for high-intermediate level students of English as a Second Language (ESL) at a university-affiliated institute. The underlying assumption investigated was that the use of computer and audio technology for classroom progress tests would provide benefits of convenience and improved sound quality while providing measurement quality and validity that were at least comparable to the paper form of such tests. Results with 28 students indicate that the computerized test performed at least as well as the paper-and-pencil version, with generally comparable validity. Appendixes contain the paper-and-pencil test and a list of the student survey questions. (Contains 4 figures, 11 references, and 7 additional resources.) (SLD) ******************************************************************************** Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made from the original document. ******************************************************************************** The Development of an Audio Computer-Based Classroom Test of ESL Listening Skills Sha Balizet Dave Treder Cynthia G. Parshall University of South Florida The number of computer exams has increased dramatically in the last decade, especially for large-scale placement tests. However, there are currently very few applications of audiobased computerized tests. This limited development is especially true in terms of classroom or progress tests. For a wide range of disciplines, such as foreign language and music, there appear to be significant benefits to this type of computerized testing. The purpose of the present research was to develop and compare computer-delivered and audiocassette/paper-and-pencil versions of a listening test. The test was a measure of progress achievement of academic listening comprehension and vocabulary for high-intermediate level students of English as a Second Language (ESL) at a university-affiliated institute. Our underlying assumption, investigated in this study, was that the use of computer and audio technology for classroom progress tests would provide benefits of convenience and improved sound quality, while providing measurement quality and validity that were at least comparable to the paper form of such tests. PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE AND I DISSEMINATE THIS MATERIAL HAS BEEN GRANTED BY 1 TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES , INFORMATION CENTER (ERIC) ) U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION Office of Educational Research and Improvement EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION CENTER (ERIC) Gol <is doCUment has been reproduced as received from the person or organization originating it. O Minor changes have been made to improve reproduction quarity. Points of view or opinions stated in this document do not necessarily represent official OERI position or policy. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, CO Computer Applications in Education SIG, Montreal, Canada, April 19-23, 1999. 0) Cs1
143081932
EFFECTS OF THE PRESENCE AND ABSENCE OF VISUALS ON PERFORMANCE ON TOEFL® CBT LISTENING-COMPREHENSION STIMULI
This study was conducted in order to begin to understand the effects of providing different types of visuals – such as pictures, diagrams, and still photos of the speakers – with items on the computer-based Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL®). A nested crossover design (subjects nested in proficiency, level, and form) was used to examine the effects of language proficiency (high or low), still photos (present or absent), and type of stimuli (dialogues/short conversations, academic discussions, mini-talks with context visuals, mini-talks with content visuals) on performance on TOEFL multiple-choice items. Three two-way interactions were significant: proficiency by type of stimuli, type of stimuli by visual condition, and type of stimuli by time. The weakest of these interactions, type of stimuli by visual condition, was the most interesting; it indicated that the presence of visuals results in facilitation of performance when the visuals bear information that complement the audio portion of the stimulus. The interaction effect between type of stimulus and time suggests that the trend toward the use of longer stimuli is not without consequences, and these consequences may extend to testing situations. Responses to a series of questionnaires indicate that the majority of the subjects preferred the stimuli that were accompanied by visuals.
163436188
The Cambridge Guide To Teaching English To Speakers Of Other Languages
Thank you very much for reading the cambridge guide to teaching english to speakers of other languages. As you may know, people have look hundreds times for their chosen books like this the cambridge guide to teaching english to speakers of other languages, but end up in infectious downloads. Rather than enjoying a good book with a cup of tea in the afternoon, instead they cope with some infectious virus inside their desktop computer.
144719215
Support for Foreign Language Listeners
■ The assessment of listening comprehension in a second language has received relatively little attention until recently. This study investigated the effectiveness of providing different types of listening support for learners in a foreign language environment with a low level of English proficiency. The research was conducted with 140 students taking an English listening course at a college in Taiwan. The participants took sections of a listening test under four different conditions. Two of the conditions provided support in the form of either a set of pictures or a written background text. The third condition was a repetition of the test input, whereas the fourth one was simply no type of support. After the test, the participants completed a short questionnaire and some of them were also interviewed. According to the results, repeating the input was the most effective treatment, followed by having visual and textual support. However, the limits of the learners' English competence meant that all of the types of support could improve their comprehension only to a certain degree. Nevertheless, the provision of appropriate support may motivate foreign language learners to improve their listening proficiency by making adequate comprehension more attainable for them.
62006571
The effects of captioning videos used for foreign language listening activities
This study investigated the effects of captioning during video-based listening activities. Second- and fourth-year learners of Arabic, Chinese, Spanish, and Russian watched three short videos with and without captioning in randomized order. Spanish learners had two additional groups: one watched the videos twice with no captioning, and another watched them twice with captioning. After the second showing of the video, learners took comprehension and vocabulary tests based on the video. Twenty-six learners participated in interviews following the actual experiment. They were asked about their general reactions to the videos (captioned and noncaptioned). Results from t-tests and two-way ANOVAs indicated that captioning was more effective than no captioning. Captioning during the first showing of the videos was more effective for performance on aural vocabulary tests. For Spanish and Russian, captioning first was generally more effective than captioning second; while for Arabic and Chinese, there was a trend toward captioning second being more effective. The interview data revealed that learners used captions to increase their attention, improve processing, reinforce previous knowledge, and analyze language. Learners also reported using captions as a crutch.
8241054
Measuring Oral Proficiency in Distance, Face-to-Face, and Blended Classrooms
Robert Blake, University of California – Davis Nicole L. Wilson, Pearson & University of California – Santa Cruz Maria Cetto, University of California – Davis Cristina Pardo-Ballester, Iowa State University Although the foreign-language profession routinely stresses the importance of technology for the curriculum, many teachers still harbor deep-seated doubts as to whether or not a hybrid course, much less a completely distance-learning class, could provide L2 learners with a way to reach linguistic proficiency, especially with respect to oral language skills. In this study, we examine the case of Spanish Without Walls (SWW), a first-year language course offered at the University of California Davis in both hybrid and distance-learning formats. The SWW curriculum includes materials delivered via CD-ROM/DVD programs, online content-based web pages, and synchronous bimodal chat that includes sound and text. The contribution of each of these components is evaluated in the context of a successful technologically assisted course. To address the issue of oral proficiency, we compare the results from both classroom and distance-learning students who took the 20minute Versant for Spanish test, delivered by phone and automatically graded. The data generated by this instrument shows that classroom, hybrid, and distance L2 learners reach comparable levels of oral proficiency during their first year of study. Reference is also made to two other ongoing efforts to provide distance-learning courses in Arabic and Punjabi, two languages where special difficulties in their writing systems have an impact on the design of the distant-learning format. The rationale for offering language courses in either a hybrid or distance-learning format is examined in light of increasing societal pressures to help L2 learners reach advanced proficiency, especially in less commonly taught languages (LCTLs).
51806572
RESEARCH ON TEXT COMPREHENSION IN MULTIMEDIA ENVIRONMENTS
Based on underlying theories of L2 reading comprehension and text comprehension with multimedia, and in light of the new tools and modes of information presentation that are now available, researchers have a variety of avenues for studying how people comprehend text in a second language with the help of multimodal instructional materials. In this paper we discuss how L2 reading research is focusing increasingly on the cognitive processes involved in reading, that is, the interaction of lower-level, bottom-up processes such as vocabulary acquisition with higherlevel, top-down processes such as activating prior knowledge. We combine this knowledge with current research on learning with multimedia, focusing on how learners integrate verbal and visual information, particularly with respect to the individual differences among learners that moderate, if not determine, learning processes. INTRODUCTION The process of reading and comprehending in one's native language (L1) is very complex, due to the myriad of factors that interact with each other in a non-linear and non-sequential manner. The issues and their accompanying complexity are further compounded when describing and understanding reading comprehension in a second or foreign language (L2). In facilitating L2 reading comprehension, the use of sound, pictures, and animated pictures or video in addition to text have played an important role in vocabulary acquisition and in overall text comprehension, and are unquestioned components of instructional materials for language learning (Chun & Plass, 1996a, 1996b; Cohen, 1987; Hanley, Herron, & Cole, 1995; Leow, 1995; Oller, 1996; Omaggio, 1979; Secules, Herron, & Tomasello, 1992). The possibility of an instructional use for these different modes of information on a computer raises questions concerning learning from media (Clark, 1994; Clark & Salomon, 1986; Kozma, 1991; Ross, 1994), and concerning the specifics of language learning with multimedia. Of special interest are questions regarding the difference in cognitive processes in learning from different sources, and regarding the effect of individual learner differences on learning from media. How does the process of comprehension of text differ from comprehension of pictures, and how does the combination of pictures and text affect comprehension? What effect do students' learning preferences, abilities, and cognitive styles have on the answers to these questions? This paper is concerned with the research regarding text comprehension in multimedia environments. We first summarize research results in L2 reading comprehension and text comprehension with multimedia, and synthesize these findings into a model of L2 reading comprehension with multimedia. We then review the research questions currently asked by scholars working in the field and, based on the model proposed, derive new and more specific research questions. Volker Hegelheimer & Carol Chapelle Methodological Issues in Research on Learner Computer ... Language Learning & Technology 56 L2 READING COMPREHENSION Historical Perspective From a historical perspective, our understanding of reading in a second or foreign language (L2) has changed considerably in the last several decades. In the midto late 1960s, reading was considered a skill for learners to acquire, mainly to reinforce the grammar and vocabulary being taught orally (e.g., under audiolingualism). In the 1970s researchers argued that greater importance should be placed on reading and advocated a psycholinguistic model or theory of reading (Goodman, 1967; Smith, 1971, 1979). During the 1980s the perspectives of Goodman and Smith were extended, and L2 researchers began to examine L1 reading research more closely (e.g., Bernhardt, 1991; Goodman, 1985; Smith, 1982). Currently, there are two overlapping approaches to viewing and describing reading that reflect, in part, the development of reading research. The first might be termed a "reading components" perspective in that reading is subdivided into skills and knowledge areas. This approach goes well beyond viewing reading as a simple collection of skills or knowledge in that it also focuses on the cognitive processes involved in reading in general. The second approach to describing reading is in terms of metaphors: The most prevalent metaphors in the literature are the bottom-up approaches, the top-down approaches, and the interactive approaches. Due to the fact that many of the current views of L2 reading have been shaped by research on L1 readers, this section first summarizes the main characterizations of L1 reading comprehension. The additional factors that come into play when dealing with L2 reading comprehension will be discussed next. Finally, a comparison of L1 and L2 readers in terms of cognitive comprehension processes will lead into the following section on text comprehension with multimedia. Reading Components Approach Briefly, the view of reading from a so-called "reading components" perspective proposes to subdivide reading into six general component skills and knowledge areas (as summarized by Grabe, 1991): (a) automatic recognition skills; (b) vocabulary and structural knowledge; (c) formal discourse structure knowledge; (d) content/world background knowledge; (e) synthesis and evaluation skills/strategies; and (f) metacognitive knowledge and skills monitoring. Some researchers rank these factors in terms of importance for the comprehension process. For example, Laufer & Sim (1985) posit the following factors in order of decreasing importance: knowledge of vocabulary, subject matter, discourse markers, syntactic structure. In essence, they find that vocabulary is most important, syntax least important. It is important to note that the above-mentioned skills are increasingly being described by cognitive and educational psychologists in terms of the processes that learners go through in developing such skills or knowledge. For example, the so-called "automatic recognition skills" that typically involve recognizing letters, characters, and words have recently begun to be recognized as important in L2 reading. Automatic lexical access involves lower-level processing and, in a fluent reader, requires little processing capacity (cf. Koda, 1992). With the shift in emphasis from a pure skills approach to a process approach, researchers turned to the comprehension research that formed a major domain of the field of cognitive psychology. Thus, most of the current views of L2 reading have been shaped by the solid and extensive body of research by cognitive psychologists on L1 reading comprehension (Grabe, 1991). There are a number of excellent reviews of the literature on L1 reading comprehension (e.g., Bernhardt, 1991; Grabe, 1991; Horiba, 1996; Swaffar, Arens, & Byrnes, 1991). As an overall description of the process of reading comprehension, Swaffar et al. state that "fluent readers synthesize textual subsystems (e.g., content, context, intent, language) into a larger metasystem of meaning" (p. 21) and that "in short, readers comprehend a text Volker Hegelheimer & Carol Chapelle Methodological Issues in Research on Learner Computer ... Language Learning & Technology 57 when they construct a mental representation for incoming pieces of verbal information" (p. 22), see section "Text Comprehension with Multimedia." De Beaugrande (1982), among others, concludes that "what is in fact comprehended is not sentences, but conceptual content" (p. 180). One cognitive view of reading suggests that it is a process or set of ordered stages, consisting of a beginning state, an end state, and intervening transformations (e.g., Just & Carpenter, 1987). Some researchers believe that reading comprehension involves multiple cognitive processes that are hierarchically related to one another (e.g., Horiba, 1996). These processes (from recognizing letters, characters, and words, to analyzing the syntactic and semantic structure of clauses and sentences, to generating inferences) must take place in an orchestrated manner (Rayner & Pollatsek, 1989). However, neither the "hierarchy of processes" view nor the proposition that they take place in an "orchestrated manner" insists that the process be linear. Just and Carpenter (1980) define the process as a clearly nonlinear one. Readers are active in the selection of portions of the text for processing, and former portions of the text may inform latter ones, just as latter portions of the text may inform former ones through feedback. Similarly, other researchers believe that reading comprehension results from interactive variables that operate simultaneously rather than sequentially (Samuels & Kamil, 1984; Swaffar et al., 1991). A second major approach to understanding the reading process is to describe it using metaphors. The three most common metaphors for describing the reading process are bottom-up processing, top-down processing, and interactive processing (cf. Samuels and Kamil, 1984; Silberstein, 1987; Swaffar et al., 1991). These terms and metaphors are described below. Metaphoric Approaches Bottom-up processing models place primary emphasis on textual decoding. They can be seen as datadriven and emphasize the priority of the text as input and, hence, lower-level processes such as letter and word recognition. In contrast, top-down models place primary emphasis on reader interpretation and prior knowledge. They are seen as concept-driven, in the sense that the text is "sampled" and predictions are made on the basis of the reader's prior syntactic and semantic knowledge (Goodman, 1967). Other models are more balanced in suggesting that linguistic knowledge from several sources (orthographic, lexical, syntactic and semantic) interacts in the L1 reading process (Rumelhart, 1977). Readers may also try to compensate for deficiencies at one level (e.g., word recognition) by relying more on a source at a lower or higher level (e.g., contextual knowledge) (Stanovich, 1980). T
143273879
Testing for language teachers
The main objective of this text is to assist language teachers in writing better tests. The author defines a good test as one that contains validity, reliability, practicality and a positive reaction. Hughes offers practical and realistic guidance on how to create a good test. The author pays special attention to the effect of testing on teaching - a test should not only be reliable and valid but should also have a positive effect on teaching. Chapters on the testing of writing, oral ability, reading, listening, grammar and vocabulary, and test administration are included. Also included are testing techniques that have been proven to be useful for teachers, and statistics that enable teachers to interpret test results. Reader activities can be found at the end of each chapter.
143787855
Context and content visuals and performance on listening comprehension stimuli
The listening comprehension section of the TOEFL has traditionally involved audio presentations of language without accompanying visual stimuli. Now that TOEFL is computer based, listening comprehension items are being created that include both audio and visual information. A nested cross-over design (participants nested in proficiency, level and form) was used to examine the effects of visual condition (present or absent), type of stimuli (dialogues/short conversations, academic discussions and mini-talks) and language proficiency (high or low) on performance on CBT (Computer-based Test) listening comprehension items. Three two-way interactions were significant: proficiency by type of stimuli, type of stimuli by visual condition and type of stimuli by time. The interaction between type of stimuli by visual condition although weak, was perhaps the most interesting and indicated that the presence of visuals results in facilitation of performance when the visuals bear information that complements the audio portion of the stimulus.
144837270
Facilitating Listening Comprehension Through Rate-Control
Rate-controlled recorded text can not only be used to facilitate listen ing comprehension through reducing speech rate but it can also help language learners become accustomed to increasingly rapid deliveries. Auditory material of this kind can be produced by speech compressors, temporal spacing or multi-recording of texts. This paper, therefore, briefly describes L1 and L2 research on temporal variables relevant to facilitating listening comprehension. This is followed by a consideration of practical applications of this research to L2 listening comprehension in preparing recorded materials, in teacher-talk and in testing.
62185697
To show or not to show: The effects of item stems and answer options on performance on a multiple-choice listening comprehension test
Abstract The purpose of this study is to examine whether the choice between three multiple-choice listening comprehension test formats results in any difference in listening comprehension test performance. The three formats entail (a) allowing test takers to preview both the question stem and answer options prior to listening; (b) allowing test takers to preview only the answer options; and (c) allowing preview of the question stems, but not answer options. Account is taken of additional, intervening factors relating to the content of the items that were tested; and we report on the extent to which they too may have contributed to difficulty. The results indicate that format (b) produces significantly fewer correct answers than the other two formats. No significant difference in test scores is found between the other two formats. The analysis suggests that the differences may be associated with reliance on a lexical matching strategy on the part of test takers. Implications are drawn for test developers and test takers.
141224585
Validation of listening comprehension tests: the effect of text and question type
The paper reports on a study which investigated the effect of both texts and question types on test taker's scores on listening comprehension tests. Listening comprehension tests were administered to 150 EFL learners in their last year of secondary school. The listening stimuli consisted of three text types, a newsbroadcast, a lecturette, and a consultative dialogue, varying in the degree of oral features they contained. The consultative dialogue was the most orally-oriented version, followed by the lecturette and followed then by the newsbroadcast which constituted the most literate version of the three text types. Test takers listened to two different versions about the two topics and answered identical questions to enable comparison of performance on the different text types. The questions were classified into global and local types, according to the strategies utilized for text processing. A third category, trivial questions type, referred to items relating to trivial factual details, such as numerical figures and names. Results indicated that different types of texts located at different points on the oral/literate continuum resulted in different test scores, so that the more 'listenable' texts were easier. In terms of the ques tion types, the results showed that subjects performed better on items referring to local cues than on items referring to global cues. This was observed across topics as well as across text types and across students' levels. Trivial questions were seen to affect performance differently. Implications of the results for the selection of texts and tasks on listening comprehension tests are drawn to arrive at highly construct valid listening comprehension tests.
60743720
Communicative Language Testing
Reflecting the shift which has recently occurred in approaches to languages testing in response to developments in teaching, this book highlights the importance of context, purposiveness and realistic discourse in testing, as in teaching. Discrete point, integrative and communicative approaches are all considered, together with their limitations in terms of validity, reliability and efficiency. Guidelines are given for monitoring tests, and samples of the tests considered to represent the best of current EFL testing practice in the UK, are provided.
144336053
Second Thoughts on Teaching Listening
Two views of listening are examined. The first, listening as comprehension, emphasizes accessing meaning through listening, and focusses on the message rather than on form. The second, listening as acquisition, emphasizes the role of listening in promoting language acquisition, and emphasizes the role of noticing in facilitating language development. These two views of listening lead in different directions for classroom pedagogy and pose some dilemmas for classroom instruction and materials development.
29224130
Help Options and Multimedia Listening: Students' Use of Subtitles and the Transcript
As multimedia language learning materials become prevalent in foreign and second language classrooms, their design is an important avenue of research in ComputerAssisted Language Learning (CALL). Some argue that the design of the pedagogical materials should be informed by theory such as the interactionist SLA theory, which suggests that input modification can help comprehension, but does not provide specific guidance regarding choices designers should make when they attempt to implement theory-based features like modified input. This empirical study was designed to provide evidence about one such issue: whether subtitles or transcripts are more effective in providing modified input to learners. A multimedia listening activity containing a video of an academic lecture was designed to offer help in the form of target language subtitles (captions) and lecture transcripts in cases of comprehension breakdowns. Eighteen intermediate ESL students enrolled in an academic listening class at a research university participated in the study. Two tests and questionnaires in addition to screen recordings were used to analyze students' performance on the activity and their use of help. The results indicate that participants interacted with the subtitles more frequently and for longer periods of time than with the transcript. Also, the study identified four patterns of learner interaction with the help options. Since, overall, the participants interacted with help less than half of the time they opened help pages, an important challenge in investigating help options lies in finding ways to promote the use of help.