29259412
Diagnostic validity of ICD-10 acute and transient psychotic disorders and DSM-5 brief psychotic disorder
Abstract Background: Short-lived psychotic disorders are currently classified under “acute and transient psychotic disorders” (ATPDs) in ICD-10, and “brief psychotic disorder” (BPD) in DSM-5. This study's aim is to review the literature and address the validity of ATPDs and BPD. Method: Papers published between January 1993 and December 2016 were identified through searches in Web of Science. Reference lists in the located papers provided further sources. Results: A total of 295 articles were found and 100 were included in the review. There were only a few studies about the epidemiology, vulnerability factors, neurobiological correlates and treatment of these disorders, particularly little interest seems to exist in BPD. The available evidence suggests that short-lived psychotic disorders are rare conditions and more often affect women in early to middle adulthood. They also are neither associated with premorbid dysfunctions nor characteristic family predisposition, while there seems to be greater evidence of environmental factors particularly in developing countries and migrant populations. Follow-up studies report a favourable clinical and functional outcome, but case identification has proved difficult owing to high rates of transition mainly either to schizophrenia and related disorders or, to a lesser extent, affective disorders over the short- and longer-terms. Conclusions: Although the lack of neurobiological findings and little predictive power argue against the validity of the above diagnostic categories, it is important that they are kept apart from longer-lasting psychotic disorders both for clinical practice and research. Close overlap between ATPDs and BPD could enhance the understanding of these conditions.
42771207
Wimmer’s concept of psychogenic psychosis revisited
In the early twentieth century the Danish psychiatrist August Wimmer (1872—1937) developed the concept of psychogenic psychosis (PP) as a category of mental disorders separate from schizophrenia and manic depression. It subsumed a variety of clinical conditions with affective, confusional and paranoid features typically triggered by a psychical trauma. Wimmer’s work has established itself as one of the classic texts in Scandinavian psychiatry but, for linguistic reasons, long remained almost unknown in other European countries. Translated into English in 2003, it is now available for historical and psychopathological analyses. This paper describes the original meaning of PP and sets it in context, then discusses the implications arising from the usage of the diagnostic categories introduced to replace PP in modern international classifications.
45864186
Acute and transient psychotic disorder: a 1‐year follow‐up study
A study sample consisting of 51 patients suffering from acute and transient psychotic disorder (ATPD) (ICD‐10) on initial examination was evaluated at 1‐year follow‐up. The findings show a diagnostic change in half of the patients (48%), most often to schizophrenia (15%) and affective disorder (28%). From index admission to follow‐up, patients with an unchanged diagnosis of ATPD manage fairly well with regard to psychosocial functioning, and no deteriorating development is observed. In the majority of cases no personality disorder (PD) (ICD‐10, 54%; DSM‐IV, 71%) is apparent, and the ATPD is not related to any specific PD. With regard to diagnostic stability, no significant demographic, social or clinical predictors were found. The findings highlight the need for validation of the concept of ATPD, and point to the fact that brief psychotic episodes with an acute onset may be an early manifestation of severe mental disorder (schizophrenia and affective disorder).
9627809
Psychogenic (reactive) and hysterical psychoses: a cross‐system reliability study
The aim of this study was to investigate the concepts of reactive and hysterical psychoses and how they are classified in standardized diagnostic Systems. To this end we identified all of the patients who had been admitted to a psychiatric in‐patient unit and diagnosed as suffering from psychogenic psychosis, reactive psychosis, hysterical psychosis or hysteria, using ICD‐9 criteria. The case notes of these patients were then re‐examined and diagnoses reached using DSM‐III‐R, DSM‐IV and ICD‐10 criteria and the Present State Examination (PSE)/catego computer program. The objective of this study was to evaluate the agreement between the diagnoses of reactive and hysterical psychosis obtained using ICD‐9 criteria with those obtained using the DSM‐III‐R, DSM‐IV, ICD‐10 and PSE diagnostic Systems. A total of 67 case notes were identified in which the above diagnoses had been made: 27 cases with ICD‐9 ‘hysteria’ and 26 cases with ‘other reactive and not otherwise specified psychoses’. Using the DSM‐III‐R criteria, 27 cases were diagnosed as psychotic disorder NOS, 12 as brief reactive psychosis and 11 as bipolar disorder. Using the DSM‐IV criteria, 21 cases were diagnosed as psychotic disorder NOS, 11 as mood disorder, 7 as brief disorder without stressor, and 12 as brief disorder with stressor. Using the ICD‐10 criteria, 18 cases were diagnosed as unspecified non‐organic psychosis, 12 as mood disorder, 10 as acute and transient psychotic disorder without stressor and 13 as acute and transient psychotic disorder with stressor. Using the PSE/catego program, the most common diagnoses were class ‘S’ schizophrenia (17), class ‘P?’ uncertain psychosis (16) and class ‘M+’ mixed and manic affective disorder (11). Using the kappa coefficient a very low level of agreement was found between ICD‐9 ‘hysteria’ and ‘other reactive and non‐specified psychoses’ and the corresponding categories of DSM‐III‐R and the PSE/catego program. We concluded that, although DSM‐III‐R provides operational criteria for brief reactive psychosis, and DSM‐IV and ICD‐10 provide such criteria for brief or acute psychotic disorder, these bear little relationship to the original concept of the disorder. The PSE/catego program provides a very systematic approach to symptomatology, but the diagnostic classes have little clinical usefulness.
36598561
The concordance of ICD-10 acute and transient psychosis and DSM-IV brief psychotic disorder
Background. ICD-10 acute and transient psychotic disorder (ATPD; F23) and DSM-IV brief psychotic disorder (BPD; 298.8) are related diagnostic concepts, but little is known regarding the concordance of the two definitions. Method. During a 5-year period all in-patients with ATPD were identified; DSM-IV diagnoses were also determined. We systematically evaluated demographic and clinical features and carried out follow-up investigations at an average of 2·2 years after the index episode using standardized instruments. Results. Forty-two (4·1%) of 1036 patients treated for psychotic disorders or major affective episode fulfilled the ICD-10 criteria of ATPD. Of these, 61·9% also fulfilled the DSM-IV criteria of brief psychotic disorder; 31·0%, of schizophreniform disorder; 2·4%, of delusional disorder; and 4·8%, of psychotic disorder not otherwise specified. BPD showed significant concordance with the polymorphic subtype of ATPD, and DSM-IV schizophreniform disorder showed significant concordance with the schizophreniform subtype of ATPD. BPD patients had a significantly shorter duration of episode and more acute onset compared with those ATPD patients who did not meet the criteria of BPD (non-BPD). However, the BPD group and the non-BPD group of ATPD were remarkably similar in terms of sociodemography (especially female preponderance), course and outcome, which was rather favourable for both groups. Conclusions. DSM-IV BPD is a psychotic disorder with broad concordance with ATPD as defined by ICD-10. However, the DSM-IV time criteria for BPD may be too narrow. The group of acute psychotic disorders with good prognosis extends beyond the borders of BPD and includes a subgroup of DSM-IV schizophreniform disorder.
41615639
Nonschizophrenic Psychotic Disorders: The Case of Cycloid Psychoses
Background: Cycloid psychosis is a psychiatric disorder known for about 100 years. This disorder is at present partly and simplified represented in the ICD-10. Sampling and Methods: Over a period of 15 months, 139 consecutively acutely admitted psychotic patients were assessed, by means of different diagnostic instruments, in order to investigate the prevalence and the symptom profile of cycloid psychoses. In addition, the concordance between the diagnoses cycloid psychosis, brief psychotic disorder, and acute polymorphic psychotic disorder with or without symptoms of schizophrenia was calculated. Results: Cycloid psychoses were present in 13% of the patients. There was a significant but small overlap with the DSM brief psychotic disorder and the ICD acute polymorphic psychotic disorder. Conclusions: This study demonstrates that cycloid psychoses can be identified with the proper diagnostic instruments in a proportion that is also found in other studies. Since this type of psychosis entails a distinct prognosis and may require a specific treatment, its identification is of clinical importance. Limitations are the nature of the psychiatric facility with an inherent bias in the selection of patients and the lack of a long-term evaluation.
207337725
Nonaffective Acute Psychoses: Uncertainties on the Way to DSM-V and ICD-11
Since the early 20th century, a group of nonaffective psychoses with acute onset and brief duration have been described in different countries under various names, including cycloid psychosis, bouffée délirante, and reactive psychosis. These psychoses share several characteristics, including benign course, greater prevalence in women than men and in developing countries than in industrialized countries, and high prevalence of premorbid psychological and physiologic stressors. However, the variations in names and minute details of symptomatology have overshadowed the basic similarities across these various descriptions. Confusion in classification persists in the two contemporary diagnostic systems, the DSM-IV and the ICD-10. We believe that most cases of these psychoses could be captured under a broad, unified category of nonaffective psychosis with acute onset and brief duration, and urge the authors of the upcoming revisions of the DSM and ICD to create such a category. A unified diagnostic category for these disorders would reduce unnecessary fragmentation in the diagnostic systems and assist in the progress of research on these rare conditions.
151610762
Acute and transient psychoses: clinical and nosological issues
Summary This article examines the clinical, epidemiological and nosological aspects of short-lived psychotic disorders as currently classified under ‘acute and transient psychotic disorders' in ICD-10 and ‘brief psychotic disorder’ in DSM-5. After describing earlier diagnostic concepts such as bouffée délirante, cycloid psychosis, reactive psychosis and schizophreniform psychosis, we present an overview of the literature and discuss implications for classification, diagnosis and treatment of these conditions, pointing out differences from longer-lasting psychotic disorders.
47109207
The PRISMA statement for reporting systematic reviews and meta-analyses of studies that evaluate health care interventions: explanation and elaboration.
Systematic reviews and meta-analyses are essential to summarize evidence relating to efficacy and safety of health care interventions accurately and reliably. The clarity and transparency of these reports, however, is not optimal. Poor reporting of systematic reviews diminishes their value to clinicians, policy makers, and other users. Since the development of the QUOROM (QUality Of Reporting Of Meta-analysis) Statement--a reporting guideline published in 1999--there have been several conceptual, methodological, and practical advances regarding the conduct and reporting of systematic reviews and meta-analyses. Also, reviews of published systematic reviews have found that key information about these studies is often poorly reported. Realizing these issues, an international group that included experienced authors and methodologists developed PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses) as an evolution of the original QUOROM guideline for systematic reviews and meta-analyses of evaluations of health care interventions. The PRISMA Statement consists of a 27-item checklist and a four-phase flow diagram. The checklist includes items deemed essential for transparent reporting of a systematic review. In this Explanation and Elaboration document, we explain the meaning and rationale for each checklist item. For each item, we include an example of good reporting and, where possible, references to relevant empirical studies and methodological literature. The PRISMA Statement, this document, and the associated Web site (http://www.prisma-statement.org/) should be helpful resources to improve reporting of systematic reviews and meta-analyses.
1579345
P0227 - Acute and transient psychotic disorders: Precursors, epidemiology, course and outcome
Background: ICD-10 delineates Acute and Transient Psychotic Disorders (ATPD, F 23) as distinct from schizophrenia and affective psychosis. We investigated the descriptive epidemiology of ATPD and predictive validity of the diagnosis, compared its three-year outcomes with affective psychosis and schizophrenia, and explored whether acute onset and early remission identify a distinct good outcome subgroup in non-affective psychoses. Method: Between 1992-1994, all first-episode psychosis patients in Nottingham were identified and assigned an intake ICD-10 diagnosis. Patients were assessed three years later using established outcome measures and longitudinal diagnosis assigned. Multivariate analyses were conducted to determine whether acute onset and early remission predicted favourable three-year outcome in non-affective psychotic disorders. Results: Of 168 cases of first-episode psychosis, 112 received an intake diagnosis of non-affective psychoses (F20-29) and 32 (19%) of ATPD (F23). ATPD diagnosis was stable in women over three years, but not in men. Outcomes of ATPD were better than schizophrenia and similar to affective psychosis. In non-affective psychoses, favourable outcomes were a function of gender and good premorbid functioning rather than acute onset and early remission. Conclusion: ICD-10 ATPD criteria identify a diagnostically unstable group of disorders consisting of ‘good outcome’ schizophrenia, affective psychosis and a very small group of ‘true’ non-affective, non-schizophrenic acute and transient psychoses. Although ATPD have a better outcome than schizophrenia, in non-affective psychoses, acute onset and early remission do not independently predict favourable outcome over three years.
21879399
Incidence and diagnostic stability of ICD-10 acute and transient psychotic disorders.
OBJECTIVE
The 10th Revision of the International Classification of Diseases (ICD-10) introduced a new diagnostic category, F23 acute and transient psychotic disorders (ATPD) to embrace clinical concepts such as the French bouffée délirante, Kleist and Leonhard's cycloid psychoses, and the Scandinavian reactive and schizophreniform psychoses. The relative rarity of these disorders and insufficient follow-up studies with adequate numbers of patients makes ATPD classification as uncertain as their validity. The aim of this study was to evaluate incidence and validity of ATPD in terms of diagnostic stability.


METHOD
A 6-year analysis of readmission patterns of all subjects listed in the Danish psychiatric central register as having been first-ever admitted to hospital or treated in outpatient services with a diagnosis of ATPD from January 1 to December 31, 1996, was conducted.


RESULTS
The incidence of ATPD was 9.6 per 100 000 population, with a higher rate of females than males (9.8 vs 9.4). Incidence rates by age group were higher for males than for females, with a marked reversal of this pattern above 50 years. This contrasted with incidence of schizophrenia that was almost twice as high in males as in females, particularly in the 20-29 year age group. Of 416 cases with a first-admission diagnosis of ATPD, an increasing number tended to change on subsequent admissions, nearly half to another F2 category schizophrenia and related disorders. The overall stability rate reached only 39%.


CONCLUSIONS
Although demographic differences from schizophrenia are topics that deserve further research, poor diagnostic stability argues against attempts to separate ATPD from borderland disorders.
24737199
Variations in incidence and age of onset of acute and transient psychotic disorders
PurposeTo determine incidence and age of onset of the ICD-10 category of ‘acute and transient psychotic disorders’ (ATPDs) characterised by subtypes with polymorphic, schizophrenic and predominantly delusional symptoms, pointing out differences from schizophrenia (SZ) and bipolar affective disorder (BD).MethodsWe identified all subjects aged 15–64 years who were listed for the first time in the Danish Psychiatric Register with a diagnosis of ATPDs (n = 3,350), SZ (n = 4,576) and BD (n = 3,200) in 1995–2008. Incidence rates and rate ratios (IRR; 95 % confidence interval) by gender and age were calculated.ResultsThe incidence of ATPDs was 6.7 per 100,000 person-years, similarly high for both genders (IRR 1.0; 0.9–1.1). Among the ATPD subtypes, polymorphic psychotic disorder was more common in females (IRR 1.4; 1.2–1.6) as opposed to those featuring schizophrenic symptoms, which tended to occur in younger males (IRR 1.4; 1.2–1.7). No significant gender difference was found for acute predominantly delusional disorder (IRR 1.0; 0.9–1.2), which had a later onset than any ATPD subtypes. SZ had an incidence twice as high in males (IRR 2.0; 1.9–2.2), and an earlier age of onset than ATPDs. A different pattern was observed for BD in terms of a slightly greater incidence in females (IRR 1.1; 1.0–1.1), and a later age of onset than both ATPDs and SZ.ConclusionThese findings are likely to reflect the heterogeneity of the clinical features encompassed by ATPDs, and contribute to building a case for their revision in ICD-11.
21604017
Course and outcome of first-admitted patients with acute and transient psychotic disorders (ICD-10:F23). Focus on relapses and social adjustment.
OBJECTIVE
The aim of the present study was to investigate course and outcome of acute and transient psychotic disorders (ATPD).


METHOD
A sample of 73 first-hospitalized patients was evaluated after three to seven years in order to determine the frequency of relapses and to assess social adjustment.


RESULT
Forty-two percent experienced no relapse, 46% experienced relapses without developing marked deficits in social adjustment and 12% had relapses associated with a severe social impairment. At discharge from first hospitalization the last group was distinguishable from the other two with respect to negative and depressive symptoms as well as the total score of the Strauss-Carpenter scale.


CONCLUSION
Only a minority of first-hospitalized patients with ATPD develop a severe social impairment after three to seven years. This subgroup, however, is not compatible with the concept of a "transient" psychotic disturbance, but rather with an early manifestation of a chronic schizophrenic disorder.
1496822
Transition to schizophrenia in acute and transient psychotic disorders
Background The diagnostic category of acute and transient psychotic disorders (ATPD) was introduced in ICD-10. Subsequent studies have called into question its validity and reliability. Aims To determine the pattern of diagnostic revision to schizophrenia in first-ever diagnosed ATPD. Method Using data drawn from the Scottish Morbidity Record, we estimated incidence and diagnostic change in first-ever diagnosed ATPD in Scottish hospitals between January 1997 and December 2010 (n = 2923). Results The average incidence of ATPD was 4.1 per 100 000 population per year. Diagnostic stability was estimated at 53.9% over an average of approximately 4 years of observation. The most common diagnostic shift was to schizophrenia (12.6%), over an average of 1.7 years. Estimates of the transition risks for schizophrenia were 80% at 2.8 years and 90% at 4.6 years. Longer first admission to hospital, younger age at onset and male gender were associated with increased risk and earlier development of schizophrenia. Conclusions Routinely collected data suggest that approximately one in eight individuals with first-ever diagnosed ATPD will develop schizophrenia within 3–5 years. Those at high risk of transition may benefit from monitoring for possible diagnostic change.
2476437
Incidence and diagnostic diversity in first‐episode psychosis
Reay R, Mitford E, McCabe K, Paxton R, Turkington D. Incidence and diagnostic diversity in first‐episode psychosis.
6175923
Acute polymorphic psychotic disorder: diagnostic stability over 3 years
Objective: Acute polymorphic psychotic disorder without symptoms of schizophrenia (APPD) in ICD‐10 is unique in many characteristics. This study aimed at investigating the diagnostic stability of APPD over 3 years.
16997774
Substance use disorders among treatment naïve first-episode psychosis patients.
OBJECTIVES
To examine the prevalence of substance use among treatment naïve patients with first episode psychosis presenting to a psychiatry outpatient clinic in India.


METHODS
The study sample consisted of 139 first episode treatment naïve patients with psychosis from in and around Bangalore, a city in South India. Self as well as informant-reported data on type, use and duration of substance use as well as the severity of psychotic symptoms were collected using structured instruments. Urine toxicology screen was also conducted for six common drugs of abuse. Breath alcohol analysis was performed in all patients.


RESULTS
Acute and transient psychosis was the most common diagnosis (42.4%). Overall, 20% of the population reported current substance use disorder (excluding nicotine). Current alcohol dependence was diagnosed among 17.3%, whereas cannabis dependence in 3.6%. Life time as well as current use of cannabis was less than 6%. While one patient reported inhalant abuse none reported use of amphetamine or opioids. There was very high concordance between reported drug use and urine toxicology screen.


CONCLUSION
The use of illicit drugs is substantially less among first episode drug naïve patients with psychosis in an Indian urban clinical setting compared to rates reported from developed countries like North America, Canada and UK.
24978516
Acute and transient psychotic disorder in a developing country
Background: Acute and transient psychotic disorders (ATPDs) are relatively under-researched. There is therefore a dearth of information on the disorders especially in developing countries, where they have been shown to be relatively common. Aim: To describe the socio-demographic and clinical characteristics of patients with ATPD, as well as to examine the factors that are associated with early recovery in patients with ATPD in a developing country. Methods: A review of 124 cases of untreated first episode of ATPD that presented at the University College Hospital, Ibadan, Nigeria over a five-year period. Results: Of the new cases that presented at the psychiatry department of the hospital, 10.1% were ATPDs. There was no significant difference between the proportions of males and females presenting at the hospital (50.8% vs 49.2%). Mean age at presentation was 29.5 (SD = 9.6) years, while the mean duration of illness before presentation was 7.3 (SD = 6.1) days. Female gender was significantly associated with earlier recovery (p = .047). Conclusion: ATPDs are common in developing countries. The epidemiology in developing countries is probably different from that of the developed countries.
22628920
Onset of acute and transient psychotic disorder in India: a study of socio-demographics and factors affecting its outcomes.
OBJECTIVE
Acute and transient psychotic disorder has been accepted as a distinct diagnostic entity in the ICD-10. However, there are few studies delineating its demographics and factors affecting its outcome. This study aimed to examine the socio-demographic profile of patients with acute and transient psychotic disorder and the variables associated with the onset of illness and their effect on illness outcome in an Indian setting.


METHODS
This was a retrospective study in which case notes of patients admitted from 1 January to 31 December 2012 and diagnosed with acute and transient psychotic disorder (according to the ICD-10 diagnostic criteria) were analysed. Socio-demographic variables and variables associated with the onset of illness were noted. Duration of hospital stay was used as a proxy measure for clinical outcome.


RESULTS
A total of 185 patient records were analysed. Overall, 49% of the patients were males and 51% were females. Most of the cases (60%) were aged between 20 and 39 years. The majority was married, unemployed, educated up to middle school, living in a nuclear family, and had a rural background. Age (p = 0.05) and marital status (p = 0.03) significantly affected the outcome. Overall, 46% of the patients had stress as a precipitating factor, 27% reported substance use, and 23% had a family history of psychiatric illness prior to the onset of their illness. The onset of illness was from May to October in 54% of the patients, with the duration of untreated illness ranging from 7 to 15 days in 38% of the patients. The clinical outcome was significantly affected by duration of untreated illness (p = 0.05).


CONCLUSIONS
Acute and transient psychotic disorders show slight female preponderance and occur in early adulthood. There is no precipitating stress in most cases and shorter duration of untreated illness predicts favourable clinical outcome.
11975211
Mortality and causes of death of acute and transient psychotic disorders
BackgroundLittle is known about mortality associated with acute transient psychoses. This paper examines mortality and causes of death of ICD-10 F23 ‘Acute and transient psychotic disorders’ (ATPD).MethodData from all subjects aged over 15 years who were enrolled in 1996 in the Danish psychiatric register with a first-admission diagnosis of ATPD were linked to the national register of causes of death. The standardized mortality ratio (SMR) for overall mortality and specific categories were calculated.ResultsOver the period 1996–2001, 87 (17.3%) of 503 patients with ATPD had died, accounting for a mortality rate of 35.3 per 1,000 person/years. The SMR for all causes (2.9), natural causes (2.5), and unnatural causes (9.2) were significantly increased. Suicide had the greatest SMR (30.9).ConclusionsThese findings argue for excess mortality of ATPD particularly from suicide.
29864538
Excess mortality of acute and transient psychotic disorders: comparison with bipolar affective disorder and schizophrenia
To investigate mortality and causes of death of short‐lived psychotic disorders, by carrying out a comparison with bipolar disorder and schizophrenia.
7091945
Suicidal behavior in acute and transient psychotic disorders
The aim of the study was to investigate the frequency and characteristics of suicidal behavior in a cohort of patients with acute transient psychotic disorder (ATPD), diagnosed according to ICD-10 (F23). In a longitudinal study, 42 patients fulfilling the ICD-10 criteria of ATPD were investigated in comparison to matched control groups with 'positive schizophrenia' (PS) and bipolar schizoaffective disorder (BSAD). Suicidal behavior was studied in the index episode and during the long-term course, including a 5-year prospective follow-up. The prevalence of suicidal behavior during the entire course of illness in ATPD was 35.7% compared to 57.1% in BSAD and 40.5% in PS. The difference was not significant when the duration of the illness was taken into account. Suicidal behavior in ATPD was associated with the acute episode, while in PS, suicidal behavior mainly occurred during the longitudinal course. In logistic regression models, suicidal behavior was associated with a higher educational level and lower conscientiousness in the NEO Five-Factor Inventory for patients with PS, but not ATPD. Suicidal behavior in ATPD is frequent, in particular during the acute episode. It seems to be associated with the dramatic psychotic symptomatology during the acute episode.
4755045
Correlates of Suicide-Related Ideations and Attempts in Patients with Acute and Transient Psychotic Disorder.
INTRODUCTION
Acute and transient psychotic disorder (ATPD) is a brief, self-limiting psychiatric disorder commonly seen in developing countries. This condition is associated with an elevated risk of suicide, but data on this association are lacking in developing countries.


METHODOLOGY
Consecutive outpatients with a diagnosis ATPD as per ICD-10 criteria (n=29) were recruited over a period of six months (February-July 2014) and retrospectively assessed for suicide-related ideations and attempts and their correlates both during and in between episodes of their illness.


RESULTS
A total of 16 patients (55.17%) experienced suicide-related ideations, which occurred during a psychotic episode in 14 patients. Six patients (20.69%) made suicide attempts. A later age of onset was significantly associated with suicidality (p=0.04), as was a family history of depression or related ("spectrum") conditions (p<0.01). A relationship with higher educational status, reported in an earlier study, was not replicated in our sample.


CONCLUSIONS
Suicide-related ideation and suicide attempts are common in ATPD, and may be linked to a later onset and a genetic loading for depression-related conditions.
22825133
Acute and transient psychosis in old age and the subsequent risk of dementia: A nationwide register‐based study
Aim:  Using the unique Danish psychiatric and somatic health registers, we investigated the rate of subsequent dementia in patients with late‐onset acute and transient psychosis.
2657036
Family study of acute and transient psychotic disorders: comparison with schizophrenia
Background: Acute non-organic psychoses, as often described in European and Indian literature, and categorized as `Acute and transient psychotic disorders' in ICD-10, lack a clear nosological distinction from schizophrenia. Methods: A family study of psychiatric disorders in first-degree relatives (FDRs) of 40 ICD-10-diagnosed probands of acute and transient psychotic disorders (ATP) was carried out using a semi-structured interview schedule. The results were compared with those of 40 schizophrenic probands. Results: FDRs of ATP probands had a higher prevalence of ATP than those of schizophrenic probands. FDRs of schizophrenic probands had significantly higher prevalence of schizophrenia than those of ATP probands. ATP subtypes with schizophrenic symptomatology (ICD-10 codes F 23.1 and F 23.2 ) had more family history of schizophrenia than the rest of the ATP subtypes. Conclusion: ATP as a group has a differential pattern of risk of illness compared to schizophrenia. Further, the subtypes subsumed under ICD-10 ATP may be genetically heterogeneous, those with schizophrenia-like symptomatology being possibly more akin to schizophrenia itself or forming an interface between ATP and schizophrenia.
22403109
Testing the stress‐vulnerability hypothesis in ICD‐10‐diagnosed acute and transient psychotic disorders
Objective:  To examine if family‐history‐positive (FHP) vis‐à‐vis family‐history‐negative (FHN) probands with ICD‐10‐diagnosed acute and transient psychotic disorders (ATPD) differ significantly with respect to number of life events and cumulative stress score prior to the onset of ATPD.
9487483
Acute and transient psychotic disorder: comorbidity with personality disorder
A study sample of 51 patients with acute and transient psychotic disorder (ATPD) (ICD‐10) is presented. The findings suggest that, in hospital settings, ATPD is a non‐frequent condition with onset in early adult life and most often associated with female sex, good premorbid social functioning and no or minor/moderate psychosocial stressors. The DSM‐IV criteria distribute the patients into three diagnostic categories: schizophreniform disorder (41%), brief psychotic disorder (33%) and psychotic disorder not otherwise classified (25%). A high prevalence (63%) of personality disorders (PD) is revealed after recovery from the psychotic episode. The ATPD is not related to any specific PD, and in a substantial minority (37%) of cases no PD is found. The unspecified category is by far the most frequent PD in patients with ATPD. The sample will be followed up and reassessed.
22009086
The association between duration of untreated psychosis in first psychotic episode patients and help seeking behaviors in Jogjakarta, Indonesia
ABSTRACT Help seeking is predictor of prognosis in the first episode of psychotic disorders. Caregivers play a key role in deciding from whom to seek help. In Indonesia, caregivers often seek help from alternative healers first and health professionals later, which is believed to result in delayed psychiatric treatment and risk for poor prognosis. This study measured the duration of untreated psychosis (DUP) in a sample of 100 persons being treated for a first episode of psychosis in Yogyakarta, Indonesia. We attempted to measure and determine associations among caregivers’ explanatory models, help seeking behaviors and DUP in this sample. The data were then statistically analyzed. The DUP for this population was very short. Most caregivers were parents or spouses (72 and 12%, respectively) and at the time of being interviewed described medical explanatory models for the psychotic symptoms (60%). A majority described having visited traditional/alternative healers prior to their visit to health professionals (67%). Despite this, the DUP was not significantly different for these two groups. Thus, first resort to traditional/alternative healers did not predict prolonged DUP. Further study with a larger sample is needed to better understand the relationship between care seeking, use of alternative healers and DUP in Indonesia.
12223762
Family psychiatric morbidity of acute and transient psychotic disorders and their relationship to schizophrenia and bipolar disorder
Background Although transient psychotic disorders are currently classified as a category separate from schizophrenia (SZ) and affective disorders, their distinctive features remain uncertain. This study examines the family psychiatric morbidity of the ICD-10 category of ‘acute and transient psychotic disorders’ (ATPDs), pointing out differences from SZ and bipolar disorder (BD). Method From a cohort of 2.5 million persons, we identified all patients enrolled in the Danish Psychiatric Register who were ever admitted with ATPDs (n=2537), SZ (n = 10639) and BD disorder (n=5292) between 1996 and 2008. The relative risk (RR) of ATPDs, SZ and BD associated with psychiatric morbidity in first-degree relatives (FDRs) was calculated as the incidence rate ratio using Poisson regression. Results The RR of ATPDs [1.93, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.76–2.11] was higher if patients with ATPDs had at least one FDR admitted with any mental disorder than patients without family psychiatric antecedents. An additional risk arose if they had FDRs admitted not only with ATPDs (RR 1.60, 95% CI 1.33–1.92) but also with SZ (RR 2.06, 95% CI 1.70–2.50) and/or BD (RR 1.55, 95% CI 1.23–1.96). Despite some overlap, the risk of SZ (RR 2.80, 95% CI 2.58–3.04) and BD (RR 3.68, 95% CI 3.29–4.12) was markedly higher if patients with SZ and BD had FDRs admitted with the same condition. Conclusions These findings suggest that family psychiatric predisposition has a relatively modest impact on ATPDs and argue against a sharp differentiation of ATPDs from SZ and BD.
12034898
Presentation of acute psychosis in an Egyptian sample: a transcultural comparison.
The symptomatological and diagnostic differentiations and outcome of acute psychosis were studied in 50 Egyptian patients using the Schedule of Clinical Assessment of Acute Psychotic States (SCAAPS). The prevailing symptoms were delusions, worry, irritability, mood changes, and disturbed behavior. Sixty-four percent of the patients were symptom-free at 1-year follow-up assessment. Various factors that affect clinical and social outcome were discussed. The problem of diagnostic terms was also studied comparing SCAAPS terms with those of DSM-III-R and ICD-10. The most frequent diagnosis was psychogenic psychosis or brief reactive psychosis corresponding to the previously mentioned first and second systems, respectively. The inclusion of acute and transient polymorphic psychotic disorders with or without stress in ICD-10 will encompass those clinical syndromes in different cultures. A comparative study with a matched Indian sample was also conducted, the results of which are discussed in detail.
22098967
Diagnostic stability over 2 years in patients with acute and transient psychotic disorders
Objective: The nosological entity of acute and transient psychotic disorders (ATPD) as an independent diagnostic category has become a subject of controversial opinions. The present study aimed to follow-up the diagnostic stability of index episode of ATPD and to examine the influence of clinical and socio-demographic factors on the ATPD prognosis. Method: A sample of 153 (60.1% females; mean age 27.8 ± 8.2) first-admitted patients with ATPD was followed over 2 years. The clinical manifestations, global functioning and quality of life were regularly evaluated during follow-up period. Results: At the end of follow-up, the overall stability rate of ATPD, excluding the cases not readmitted until last assessment, reached 34%. The diagnostic transition was observed in 35.9% of the patients, mostly to schizophrenia and schizoaffective disorders. There was a significant deterioration in several clinical and social indicators among the patients who developed schizophrenia, compared with those with stable ATPD, whereas no reliable predictors were found for diagnostic transition to schizophrenia, except younger age, unmarried status and period of the first hospitalization. Conclusion: A sizeable proportion of the patients with initial diagnosis of ATPD is likely to represent early manifestations of schizophrenia-related disorders. In agreement with some previous observations, our study indicates a lack of strong rationale for separating ATPD from other psychotic disorders within the ICD-10 F2 category.
25991270
Long-term stability of acute and transient psychotic disorders
Objective: To examine the temporal stability of the category ‘acute and transient psychotic disorders’ (ATPDs), ICD-10 Classification of Mental and Behavioural Disorders, including subtypes characterised by polymorphic, schizophrenic and predominantly delusional features. Method: We checked the readmission patterns of all patients aged 15–64 years (n = 5426), whether admitted to hospital or treated as outpatients, who were enrolled for the first time in the Danish Psychiatric Register with a diagnosis of ATPDs between 1995 and 2008. Results: An increasing number of cases with ATPDs changed diagnosis in subsequent admissions after 1, 2 and 5 years, mainly either to schizophrenia and related disorders or affective disorders. In their last admission, on average after 7.3 years, there were 2429 patients listed with ATPDs, accounting for an overall stability of 44.8%. Females were less likely than males to develop another diagnosis. Among the ATPD subtypes, polymorphic psychotic disorder without schizophrenic symptoms had a higher stability than those featuring schizophrenic or predominantly delusional features. Conclusions: The low diagnostic stability of ATPDs reflects the lack of clearly defining features and argues against their validity as a distinct category.
26122860
First-episode acute and transient psychotic disorder in Latvia: A 6-year follow-up study
Abstract Background: Acute and transient psychotic disorder (ATPD; F23, ICD-10) is an acute, short-lived psychosis, which has variable prevalence worldwide and has not been extensively studied. Aims: To explore the first episode of ATPD in patients in Latvia by describing the clinical features, analyzing the longitudinal changes of diagnosis and associated socio-demographic characteristics. Material and Methods: Retrospective chart review of all first-time hospitalized patients fulfilling the ICD-10 criteria for ATPD treated at the Riga Centre of Psychiatry and Addiction Disorders, Latvia, during a 3-year period. Patients were followed-up and assessed using standardized instruments. Results: During a 3-year period, 294 patients were first-time hospitalized with a ATPD diagnosis; 54% were women. The average age at first psychotic episode was 35.7 ± 12.3 years for women, and 30.0 ± 10.8 years for men (P < 0.0001). Over an average of 5.6 years follow-up period, 51% of patients were not re-hospitalized. Later diagnosis was changed to schizophrenia in 73% of the re-hospitalized patients, mostly within the first 2 years of illness. The overall stability rate of ATPD diagnosis reached 58%. Typical polymorphic symptomatology, abrupt onset (i.e. within 48 h), less frequent anxiety, but more frequent hallucinations were observed in ATPD patients that later developed schizophrenia (P < 0.05). Stressful life events in the 6 months prior to the first episode were found in 44% of patients. Conclusions: Combining these assessments from first-episode ATPD patients in Latvia, with data from other countries may help to predict the development of disease and provide the possible basis for potential changes to ICD-11.
21585700
Psychiatric disorders in ASEAN-migrants in Malaysia--a university hospital experience.
UNLABELLED
Malaysia's workforce presently includes 13% foreigners most coming from the neighboring ASEAN-countries. No data of the prevalence of psychiatric disorders amongst this population is currently available.


METHOD
All patients from ASEAN-countries admitted to the University Hospital, Kuala Lumpur between January 1994 and June 1996 were included in a prospective study.


RESULTS
During the study period 39 patients were admitted. Five patients were male (12.8%) and 34 female (87.2%). Most came from Indonesia (51.3%) and the Philippines (41.0%), while one each was from Brunei, Singapore and Thailand. Thirty (76.9%) were working in Malaysia as unskilled workers, 23 (59.0%) as maids. Six of the patients (15.4%) were married to Malaysians and only three (7.2%) held white-collar jobs. Three patients (7.2%) received the diagnosis schizophrenia and ten (25.6%) acute and transient psychotic disorder. Two (5.1%) were diagnosed as bipolar affective disorder--manic and two (5.1%) as depression without psychotic features. Five patients (12.8%) were depressed and had as well presence of psychotic features. Adjustment disorders mostly with depressed mood was diagnosed in fourteen (35.9%), three (7.2%) received another diagnosis.


CONCLUSION
The study showed high rates of acute and transient psychosis as well as adjustment disorders indicating high stress level in this population. In particular maids from Indonesia and the Philippines with their dependent and isolated situation seem vulnerable to develop psychiatric disorders. However, overall the rates of psychiatric admissions (only 1.3%) in the ASEAN-nationals is relatively low and tends to support the view that migrants do not suffer from an excess of mental disorders.
8912497
Acute Psychiatric Disorders in Foreign Domestic Workers in Hong Kong: a Pilot Study
Aim: To explore the psychopathology of foreign domestic workers (FDWs) who had an acute psychiatric disorder in Hong Kong. Method: This was a retrospective chart review. Demographic and clinical data were extracted from case records of FDWs who were admitted for the first time as inpatients for psychiatric treatment to three regional hospitals of the same catchment area in Hong Kong between 2000 and 2004. Relevant socio-demographic data on local FDWs and the general population of Hong Kong were obtained from local government departments. Results: Twenty-seven Filipino and 14 Indonesian FDWs presenting with their first and so far only psychiatric admission were identified. There were significantly more FDWs who were single or never married in the sample. Filipino FDWs tended to fall ill after 4 years of service in Hong Kong while the corresponding figure for Indonesian FDWs was 2 years. Indonesian FDWs were older and had less access to social and medical services than their Filipino counterparts. Home sickness and marital problems were more commonly identified as stressors rather than workrelated difficulties. Acute and Transient Psychotic Disorder (ICD-10) was diagnosed in over 60% of the subjects, making FDWs two times more vulnerable than local women of similar age for this illness. Conclusions: FDWs constitute a vulnerable group in terms of psychiatric morbidity. Concerted political, social and psychological efforts would be require to alleviate the distress faced by this particularly disadvantaged subset of female expatriates.
30427337
Ethnic and Clinical Characteristics of a Portuguese Psychiatric Inpatient Population
The present study examined the association between ethnicity and clinical characteristics of patients admitted to a psychiatric inpatient unit in Portugal. The only ethnicity-related terms routinely recorded in the medical records were “Black” (mainly from the African Portuguese-speaking countries of Cape Verde, Angola, Guinea, Sao Tome and Mozambique) and “White.” Black immigrants appeared to be over-represented, comprising 19.6% of inpatients; and were younger and more frequently male when compared with White inpatients. They were more frequently diagnosed with schizophrenia and acute or transient psychosis, and less frequently diagnosed with delusional and personality disorders than White inpatients. These results are consistent with previous studies in the US and UK, and highlight the need for more culturally sensitive care in mental health services.
12329877
Short-term course and outcome of acute and transient psychotic disorders: Differences from other types of psychosis with acute onset
Background: The category of ‘acute and transient psychotic disorders’ (ATPDs) appeared in the ICD-10 Classification of Mental and Behavioural Disorders (ICD-10), but its distinctive features remain uncertain. Aim: To examine the course and outcome of ATPDs, pointing out differences from other types of psychosis. Methods: A one-year follow-up investigation of patients enrolled at the former World Health Organization (WHO) Centre for Research and Training in Mental Health in Aarhus (Denmark) for the WHO collaborative study on acute psychoses. Results: Of 91 patients aged 15–60 years presenting with acute psychosis, 47 (51.6%) were diagnosed with ATPD, and it occurred more commonly in females; yet, the other acute psychoses featured mainly mood disorders and affected equally both genders. After 1 year, the ATPD diagnosis did not change in 28 cases (59.6%); the remaining developed either affective psychoses (27.7%), or schizophrenia and schizoaffective disorder (12.8%). Nearly, all patients with unchanged diagnosis of ATPD enjoyed full recovery, while those with other types of acute psychosis had significantly higher rates of recurrence or incomplete remission. Duration of illness within 4 weeks and stressful events in the 3 months before symptom onset predicted 1-year favourable clinical outcome for acute psychoses. Conclusion: Although ATPDs fared better over the short-term than other acute psychoses, their diagnostic stability is relatively low.
25081583
The Validity of the DSM-IV Diagnostic Classification System of Non-Affective Psychoses
Objective: The schizophrenia and other non-affective disorders categories listed in the DSM-IV, are currently under revision for the development of the fifth edition. The aim of the present study is to demonstrate the validity of these categories by investigating possible differences between diagnostic patient subgroups on various measures. Methods: 1064 patients with a diagnosis of non-affective psychosis (schizophrenia N = 731 (paranoid type 82%), schizoaffective N = 63, schizophreniform N = 120, psychosis not otherwise specified/brief psychotic disorder N = 150) participated in this study. Dependent variables were demographic and clinical characteristics, severity of psychopathology, premorbid and current functioning, and indicators of quality of life. Results: Within the diagnostic group of schizophrenia, no significant differences were observed between paranoid schizophrenia, disorganized, and undifferentiated schizophrenia. Patients with schizophrenia experienced more severe psychopathology and had poorer levels of current functioning compared to patients with psychosis not otherwise specified or brief psychotic disorder. Differences between schizophrenia and schizoaffective disorder were less clear. Conclusion: Our results do not support the validity of schizophrenia subtypes. Schizophrenia can be distinguished from brief psychotic disorder and psychotic disorder not otherwise specified. These findings may fuel the actual DSM-V discussion.
21735014
Lifetime prevalence of psychotic and bipolar I disorders in a general population.
CONTEXT
Recent general population surveys of psychotic disorders have found low lifetime prevalences. However, this may be owing to methodological problems. Few studies have reported the prevalences of all specific psychotic disorders.


OBJECTIVE
To provide reliable estimates of the lifetime prevalences of specific psychotic disorders.


DESIGN
General population survey.


SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS
A nationally representative sample of 8028 persons 30 years or older was screened for psychotic and bipolar I disorders using the Composite International Diagnostic Interview, self-reported diagnoses, medical examination, and national registers. Those selected by the screens were then re-interviewed with the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV. Best-estimate DSM-IV diagnoses were formed by combining the interview and case note data. Register diagnoses were used to estimate the effect of the nonresponders.


MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES
Diagnosis of any psychotic or bipolar I disorder according to the DSM-IV criteria.


RESULTS
The lifetime prevalence of all psychotic disorders was 3.06% and rose to 3.48% when register diagnoses of the nonresponder group were included. Lifetime prevalences were as follows: 0.87% for schizophrenia, 0.32% for schizoaffective disorder, 0.07% for schizophreniform disorder, 0.18% for delusional disorder, 0.24% for bipolar I disorder, 0.35% for major depressive disorder with psychotic features, 0.42% for substance-induced psychotic disorders, and 0.21% for psychotic disorders due to a general medical condition. The National Hospital Discharge Register was the most reliable of the screens (kappa = 0.80). Case notes supplementing the interviews were essential for specific diagnoses of psychotic disorders.


CONCLUSIONS
Multiple sources of information are essential for accurate estimation of lifetime prevalences of psychotic disorders. The use of comprehensive methods reveals that their lifetime prevalence exceeds 3%.
39445034
Predicting features of later development of schizophrenia among patients with acute and transient psychotic disorder
Abstract  It is acknowledged that a considerable proportion of patients who have an episode of acute and transient psychotic disorder (ATPD), will develop schizophrenia after the episode is remitted. If features discriminating the patients who later developed schizophrenia from those who underwent a monomorphous ATPD‐only course are discerned, they may be useful for predicting the prognosis. The authors performed a chart review study of those who were hospitalized with the diagnosis of ATPD and followed up thereafter for >5 years and compared two subject groups: 10 later‐schizophrenia‐developing (SD) patients and 15 non‐schizophrenia‐developing (non‐SD) patients. Assessment of the subjects, conducted by two psychiatrist raters blind to the subject groups, included frequency of ATPD episodes, adaptation levels and life events before admission, and psychiatric symptoms before and after admission. The interrater reliability of the assessment proved to be favorable. As a result, early recurrence of psychotic episodes in the follow‐up period, lack of acute upsurge of insomnia in an early phase of the episode and poor premorbid heterosexual relations characterized the SD patients. The result indicated heterogeneity of ATPD episodes.
46605222
Acute and transient psychotic disorders versus persistent delusional disorders: A comparative longitudinal study
Aim:  The aim of this work is to investigate differences between two non‐schizophrenic, non‐organic psychotic disorders, namely persistent delusional disorders (PDD) and acute and transient psychotic disorders (ATPD) according to ICD‐10.
38217327
Progress toward achieving a common language in psychiatry, II: Results from the international field trials of the ICD-10 diagnostic criteria for research for mental and behavioral disorders.
OBJECTIVE
In preparing for the publication of ICD-10, the Division of Mental Health of the World Health Organization developed several versions of chapter V, which deals with mental and behavioral disorders. The version for research purposes is called the Diagnostic Criteria for Research (ICD-10 DCR) and gives operational criteria for the diagnosis of mental disorders. This article describes the results of international field trials undertaken to evaluate the draft criteria and refine them further.


METHOD
Data were obtained to assess interrater agreement, the confidence with which diagnoses could be made, and the ease of use of the criteria. Additional substudies examined the concordance between ICD-10 DCR, ICD-10 Clinical Descriptions and Diagnostic Guidelines, and other national classification systems (e.g., DSM-IV). The field trials were carried out at 151 clinical centers in 32 countries by 942 clinician/researchers who conducted 11,491 individual assessments of patients. Results for cases assessed by at least two raters are reported here.


RESULTS
Most clinician/researchers found the criteria to be explicit and easy to apply. Interrater agreement was high for most diagnostic categories. For some categories, such as those dealing with certain polymorphic psychotic disorders or milder forms of affective disorders, the criteria were rated as somewhat difficult to use, and reliability was lower. Comparison of the results of these field trials with those of the ICD-10 Clinical Descriptions and Diagnostic Guidelines demonstrated that there are increases in interrater agreement when the operational criteria are used.


CONCLUSIONS
The use of internationally accepted research criteria enhances the reliability of diagnosis of mental disorders made in research settings worldwide.
25698569
Patient characteristics and diagnostic discrepancy in first-episode psychosis.
Despite the operational criteria in diagnostic systems there is still marked diversity between clinical and research diagnoses in populations with psychotic disorders. The objective of the current study was to explore the association of patient-related factors with diagnostic agreement between clinical diagnoses and Schedules for Clinical Assessment in Neuropsychiatry (SCAN-2) diagnoses in first-episode psychosis. The sample included 80 consecutive patients. As explanatory variables we used demographic characteristics (gender, age, living circumstances, education, and social activities), measures of psychopathology (Positive and Negative Symptom scale [PANSS], Hamilton Depression Scale, Global Assessment of Functioning Scale [GAF], and Strauss-Carpenter Scale), duration of untreated psychosis, and diagnostic category according to SCAN-2 interview. The overall agreement value between the clinical and research diagnoses was 0.55 (kappa). In the whole sample low scores on the PANSS negative subscale, low level of education, and high score on the PANSS item for delusions predicted diagnostic discrepancy. Acute and transient psychotic disorder as a research diagnosis predicted diagnostic agreement. In the schizophrenia group, young age and lack of social activities predicted diagnostic agreement. Bivariate comparisons of treatment compliance, perceived medication side effects, or negative attitudes towards treatment showed no associations with diagnostic agreement. The results confirm some of the findings in the few previous studies. The diagnosis of schizophrenia is likely to be delayed and there is a need for further education with clinicians in recognizing the symptoms of schizophrenia.
23938987
The acute transient polymorphic psychosis: a biochemical subtype of the cycloid psychosis
Background: The pathogenesis of atypical psychoses, in particularly those characterized by polymorphic psychopathology, is hypothesized to be related to disturbances in amino acid metabolism. Objective: In the present study, the role of the amino acid serine was investigated in patients with acute transient polymorphic psychosis. Methods: Patients were loaded with serine and with the amino acids glycine and alanine as controls and subsequently evaluated for the development of psychopathological symptoms. In addition, plasma levels of amino acids were measured. Results: In a subgroup of patients suffering from atypical psychoses, this biochemical challenge resulted in the reappearance of psychedelic symptoms in particular. Furthermore, significantly lower plasma concentrations of serine were found. In vitro experiments revealed a disturbance in the one-carbon metabolism. In another group of patients the loading provoked vegetative symptoms and fatigue. Conclusions: Disturbances in amino acid metabolism may be involved in the emergence of certain psychotic disorders.
23437399
Genome‐wide association study of atypical psychosis
Atypical psychosis with a periodic course of exacerbation and features of major psychiatric disorders [schizophrenia (SZ) and bipolar disorder (BD)] has a long history in clinical psychiatry in Japan. Based upon the new criteria of atypical psychosis, a Genome‐Wide Association Study (GWAS) was conducted to identify the risk gene or variants. The relationships between atypical psychosis, SZ and BD were then assessed using independent GWAS data. Forty‐seven patients with solid criteria of atypical psychosis and 882 normal controls (NCs) were scanned using an Affymetrics 6.0 chip. GWAS SZ data (560 SZ cases and 548 NCs) and GWAS BD (107 cases with BD type 1 and 107 NCs) were compared using gene‐based analysis. The most significant SNPs were detected around the CHN2/CPVL genes (rs245914, P = 1.6 × 10−7), COL21A1 gene (rs12196860, P = 2.45 × 10−7), and PYGL/TRIM9 genes (rs1959536, P = 7.73 × 10−7), although none of the single‐nucleotide polymorphisms exhibited genome‐wide significance (P = 5 × 10−8). One of the highest peaks was detected on the major histocompatibility complex region, where large SZ GWASs have previously disclosed an association. The gene‐based analysis suggested significant enrichment between SZ and atypical psychosis (P = 0.01), but not BD. This study provides clues about the types of patient whose diagnosis lies between SZ and BD. Studies with larger samples are required to determine the causal variant. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
1137127
The concept of ‘atypical psychoses’: Special reference to its development in Japan
Abstract Reviewing the development of concepts of ‘atypical’ psychoses in European countries and in the United States shows that there are various terminologies which are given to a group of psychoses unclassifiable within Kraepelinian dichotomy. Bouffee delirante (French school), cycloid psychoses (Leonhard, Perris), reactive psychoses (Scandinavian school) and acute schizoaffective psychoses (Kasanin) are the most common terms. These are consistent in terms of acute onset, polymorphic symptomatology and good prognosis, and are considered to be distinct from major psychoses, especially from typical schizophrenia. The concept atypical psychoses in Japan was developed under the influence of Mitsuda's clinico‐genetic studies. According to Mitsuda, atypical psychoses are not mere phenotypical variants of typical schizophrenia and manic‐depressive psychosis (MDP) but belong to a genetically different category and are probably heterogeneous. The characteristic features in the Japanese concept of atypical psychoses emphasizes the alteration of consciousness in symptomatology and pays attention to the nosological relationship with epilepsy, as well as with schizophrenia and MDP. Thus, in Japan it is generally considered that atypical psychoses are independent of ‘typical’ major psychoses and are located nosologically in the border area between typical schizophrenia, MDP and epilepsy.
1166416
Prevalence of item level negative symptoms in first episode psychosis diagnoses
UNLABELLED
The relevance of negative symptoms across the diagnostic spectrum of the psychoses remains uncertain. The purpose of this study was to report on prevalence of item and subscale level negative symptoms across the first episode psychosis (FEP) diagnostic spectrum in an epidemiological sample, and to ascertain whether items and subscales were more prevalent in a schizophrenia spectrum diagnoses group compared to an 'all other psychotic diagnoses' group. We measured negative symptoms in 330 patients presenting with FEP using the Scale for Assessment of Negative Symptoms (SANS), and ascertained diagnosis using the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM IV. Prevalence of SANS items and subscales were tabulated across all psychotic diagnoses, and logistic regression analysis determined which items and subscales were predictive of schizophrenia spectrum diagnoses. SANS items were most prevalent in schizophrenia spectrum conditions but frequently presented in other FEP diagnoses, particularly substance induced psychotic disorder and Major Depressive Disorder. Brief psychotic disorder and bipolar disorders had low levels of negative symptoms. SANS items and subscales which significantly predicted schizophrenia spectrum diagnoses, were also frequently present in some of the other psychotic diagnoses.


CONCLUSIONS
SANS items have high prevalence in FEP, and while commonest in schizophrenia spectrum conditions are not restricted to this diagnostic subgroup.
21048316
Cognitive deficits in nonaffective functional psychoses: A study in the Democratic Republic of Congo
Cognition has been studied extensively in schizophrenia in Western countries. Far less research is devoted, however, to cognitive functioning in brief psychotic disorder and schizophreniform disorder. Moreover, few studies have been performed in third world countries. In this study, we want to fill this gap by comparing the cognitive functioning of three groups of ambulant, first-episode patients with a non-affective psychosis in the Democratic Republic of Congo. To test if cognitive dysfunction is a core symptom of psychosis in an African population, 153 healthy control subjects are compared with a sample of 68 patients with brief psychotic disorder, 50 patients with schizophreniform disorder, and 70 patients with schizophrenia in a cross-sectional study on several distinctive cognitive domains including verbal, visual, and working memory, attention, visuomotor control, motor speed, verbal fluency, and executive functions. In addition, these three groups of patients are compared among themselves on these cognitive domains. Results indicate that patients perform significantly worse than healthy controls on all cognitive domains with cognitive deficits being most pronounced in verbal and working memory, attention, motor speed, and executive functions. No major differences were found, however, between the three patient groups.
19606495
Diagnosis and neurocognitive profiles in first-episode non-affective psychosis patients
Abstract
This study explored whether there are distinguishable neurocognitive profiles in diagnostic subgroups of first-episode non-affective psychosis (FEP) patients. Four hundred and eighty-seven individuals with diagnoses of non-affective psychosis disorders were evaluated 6 months after first contact with psychiatric services. Individuals with schizophrenia (n = 257), schizophreniform (n = 141), brief psychotic disorder (n = 54), and psychosis not otherwise specified (n = 35) were compared on baseline neuropsychological variables using analyses of variance and covariance with potential clinical, premorbid, and sociodemographic confounders. The brief psychotic disorder subgroup was the least impaired on global cognitive function, in particular when compared to the schizophrenia subgroup, and specifically on executive function, processing speed, and motor dexterity domains. However, with the exception of the processing speed domain, profile differences could be explained by sex, age, psychotic and negative symptoms, years of education, and premorbid IQ. These results suggest processing speed as a diagnostic marker for brief psychotic disorder in FEP patients. Further, there are quantitative and qualitative differences across the schizophrenia spectrum disorders subgroups, indicating different profiles with varying degrees of deficit.

6916384
Diagnostic Stability of ICD/DSM First Episode Psychosis Diagnoses: Meta-analysis
Background: Validity of current International Classification of Disease/Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (ICD/DSM) first episode psychosis diagnoses is essential in clinical practice, research, training and public health. Method: We provide a meta-analytical estimate of prospective diagnostic stability and instability in ICD-10 or DSM-IV first episode diagnoses of functional psychoses. Independent extraction by multiple observers. Random effect meta-analysis conducted with the “metaprop,” “metaninf,” “metafunnel,” “metabias,” and “metareg” packages of STATA13.1. Moderators were tested with meta-regression analyses. Heterogeneity was assessed with the I 2 index. Sensitivity analyses tested robustness of results. Publication biases were assessed with funnel plots and Egger’s test. Findings: 42 studies and 45 samples were included, for a total of 14 484 first episode patients and an average follow-up of 4.5 years. Prospective diagnostic stability ranked: schizophrenia 0.90 (95% CI 0.85–0.95), affective spectrum psychoses 0.84 (95% CI 0.79–0.89), schizoaffective disorder 0.72 (95% CI 0.61–0.73), substance-induced psychotic disorder 0.66 (95% CI 0.51–0.81), delusional disorder 0.59 (95% CI 0.47–0.71), acute and transient psychotic disorder/brief psychotic disorder 0.56 (95% CI 0.62–0.60), psychosis not otherwise specified 0.36 (95% CI 0.27–0.45, schizophreniform disorder 0.29 (95% CI 0.22–0.38). Diagnostic stability within schizophrenia spectrum psychoses was 0.93 (95% CI 0.89–0.97); changes to affective spectrum psychoses were 0.05 (95% CI 0.01–0.08). About 0.10 (95% CI 0.05–0.15) of affective spectrum psychoses changed to schizophrenia spectrum psychosis. Across the other psychotic diagnoses there was high diagnostic instability, mostly to schizophrenia. Interpretation: There is meta-analytical evidence for high prospective diagnostic stability in schizophrenia spectrum and affective spectrum psychoses, with no significant ICD/DSM differences. These results may inform the development of new treatment guidelines for early psychosis and impact drug licensing from regulatory agencies.
206946315
Adolescent insanity revisited: course and outcome in early-onset schizophrenia spectrum psychoses in an 8-year follow-up study.
OBJECTIVES
Despite inclusion of adolescent insanity-a concept proposed by Thomas Clouston in late XIX century-into the broader nosological entity of dementia praecox, the uniqueness of early psychosis is still discussed. The aim of the current study is the assessment of course and outcome in the large sample of early-onset psychosis subjects.


METHOD
Of 299 patients hospitalized in the period 1998-2008 in an adolescent psychiatry ward with schizophrenia spectrum diagnosis 158 completed a follow-up interview. Data concerning current diagnosis, further admissions, current treatment status and occupational and relationship outcome were analyzed after a mean of 8 years of follow-up.


RESULTS
Mean age at the index admission and the follow-up was 16.6 ± 1.2 and 24.5 ± 3.0 years respectively. After the subsequent discharge almost all subjects (97%) at least briefly continued psychiatric treatment and 75% of patients had been readmitted. Overall diagnostic stability was 42%. For schizophrenia spectrum disorders and schizophrenia diagnostic stability was 72% and 78%, respectively. At the follow-up assessment 119 (77.3%) of the traced subjects declared current psychiatric treatment and 110 (73.3%) were receiving pharmacotherapy. Almost half of the subjects (48%) were employed or studying and more than a third (35.8%) remained in a stable relationship. Different distributions of baseline diagnoses were observed in males and females, and the latter showed a better outcome.


CONCLUSION
Early-onset psychoses were characterized by limited diagnostic stability, a necessity for further treatment and hospitalizations and significant percentage of unfavorable functional outcomes. Baseline diagnosis of acute and transient psychotic disorders and female gender were associated with an overall better outcome.
21196719
A five year diagnostic follow-up of 1840 patients after a first episode non-schizophrenia and non-affective psychosis
OBJECTIVE
It is not clear which patients with a first psychotic episode will develop schizophrenia. We performed a diagnostic follow-up of patients treated for a first time non-affective, non-schizophrenia psychosis and explored potential predictors of a subsequent schizophrenia or schizoaffective diagnosis.


METHODS
This register-based cohort study comprises individuals born between 1973 and 1978 in Sweden, with a first hospital-treated psychosis excluding schizophrenia, schizoaffective disorder, bipolar disorder and depressive disorder with psychotic symptoms (n=1840). The patients were followed for five years regarding subsequent diagnoses. Psychiatric, social, family history of psychiatric illness, premorbid intellectual level, head injuries and obstetrical complications were investigated by logistic regression as predictors of schizophrenia or schizoaffective diagnosis.


RESULTS
During the follow-up, 18% were diagnosed with schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder, 5% were diagnosed with bipolar disorder, whereas 29% were not re-admitted to a psychiatric clinic. Patients with a first-degree relative hospitalized for schizophrenia and/or bipolar disorder had an increased risk of subsequent diagnosis for schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder (odds ratio 1.9 and 95% confidence interval 1.1 to 3.0)), whereas previous severe criminality was associated with a decreased risk (odds ratio 0.5, 95% confidence interval 0.3-0.8).


CONCLUSION
Diagnostic outcome was diverse after a first non-schizophrenia and non-affective psychosis. Family history of severe mental illness and no previous conviction for severe criminality were the strongest risk factors for a future schizophrenia or schizoaffective diagnosis.
20812790
Prognosis of Brief Psychotic Episodes: A Meta-analysis.
IMPORTANCE
The prognostic significance of competing constructs and operationalizations for brief psychotic episodes (acute and transient psychotic disorder [ATPD], brief psychotic disorder [BPD], brief intermittent psychotic symptoms [BIPS], and brief limited intermittent psychotic symptoms [BLIPS]) is unknown.


OBJECTIVE
To provide a meta-analytical prognosis of the risk of psychotic recurrence in patients with remitted first-episode ATPD, BPD, BIPS, and BLIPS and in a benchmark group of patients with remitted first-episode schizophrenia (FES). We hypothesized a differential risk: FES > ATPD > BPD > BIPS > BLIPS.


DATA SOURCES
The Web of Knowledge and Scopus databases were searched up to May 18, 2015; the articles identified were reviewed as well as citations of previous publications and results of a manual search of the reference lists of retrieved articles.


STUDY SELECTION
We included original articles that reported the risk of psychotic recurrence at follow-up for patients in remission from first-episode ATPD, BPD, BLIPS, BIPS, and FES.


DATA EXTRACTION AND SYNTHESIS
Independent extraction by multiple observers. Random-effects meta-analysis was performed, and moderators were tested with meta-regression analyses, Bonferroni corrected. Heterogeneity was assessed with the I2 index. Sensitivity analyses tested the robustness of the results. Publication bias was assessed with funnel plots and the Egger test.


MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES
Proportion of patients with baseline ATPD, BPD, BLIPS, and BIPS who had any psychotic recurrence at 6, 12, 24, and 36 or more months of follow-up.


RESULTS
Eighty-two independent studies comprising up to 11,133 patients were included. There was no prognostic difference in risk of psychotic recurrence between ATPD, BPD, BLIPS, and BIPS at any follow-up (P > .03). In the long-term analysis, risk of psychotic recurrence (reported as mean [95% CI]) was significantly higher in the FES group (0.78 [0.58-0.93] at 24 months and 0.84 [0.70-0.94] at ≥ 36 months; P < .02 and P < .001, respectively) compared with the other 4 groups (0.39 [0.32-0.47] at 24 months and 0.51 [0.41-0.61] at ≥ 36 months). There were no publication biases. Sex and exposure to antipsychotic medication modulated the meta-analytical estimates (.002 < P < .03).


CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE
There are no prognostic differences in risk of psychotic recurrence between ATPD, BPD, BLIPS, and BIPS constructs of brief psychotic episodes. Conversely, there is consistent meta-analytical evidence for better long-term prognosis of brief psychotic episodes compared with remitted first-episode schizophrenia. These findings should influence the diagnostic practice and clinical services in the management of early psychosis.
13037244
Longitudinal follow-up in acute and transient psychotic disorders and schizophrenia.
We prospectively studied the long-term course of individuals with acute and transient psychotic disorders and a control group with positive schizophrenia matched for age and gender. Follow-up investigations using standardised instruments were performed at three time-points covering 7 years after the index episode or 12 years after the first episode. During follow-up, those with positive schizophrenia experienced a deterioration in their general functioning whereas those with acute and transient psychotic disorders retained their high level of functioning. At the end of the observation period, 12 out of 39 (31%) of those with acute and transient psychotic disorders were functioning well without medication compared with 0 out of 38 with positive schizophrenia.
27353682
The Munich 15-year follow-up study (MUFUSSAD) on first-hospitalized patients with schizophrenic or affective disorders: Assessing courses, types and time stability of diagnostic classification
Abstract Objective In the context of the development of DSM-V and ICD-11 it appears to be useful to get further data on the validity of the diagnostic differentiation between schizophrenic and affective disorders. This study investigated the relevance of the main diagnostic groups schizophrenia, schizoaffective psychosis and affective disorder in the context of different diagnostic systems (ICD-9, ICD-10, DSM –IV), assessing their time stability, long-term courses, types and functional outcome. Methods A total of 323 first hospitalized inpatients of the Psychiatric Department of the University Munich were recruited at index time. The full follow-up evaluation including standardized assessment procedures could be performed in 197 patients. Results The re-diagnosis of the patients’ disorders shows that with the transition from ICD-9 to ICD-10 or DSM-IV, the group of affective disorders increased numerically while the diagnostic groups of schizophrenia and schizoaffective disorders decreased in size. The structured clinical interview for DSM-IV (SCID) analysis showed that altogether ICD-10 and DSM-IV had a relatively high diagnostic stability. Of the patients with an ICD-10 diagnosis of schizophrenia, 57% had a chronic course; 61% of the patients with a DSM-IV diagnosis of schizophrenia. Patients with affective disorders, according either to ICD-10 or DSM-IV, had in more than 90% of the cases an episodic-remitting course. In terms of prediction of long-term outcome regarding the differentiation between chronic and non-chronic course, the ICD-10 diagnoses did give a slightly better predictive result than a dimensional approach based on the key psychopathological syndrome scores. Conclusions The differentiation between schizophrenic and affective disorders seems meaningful especially under predictive aspects. A dimensional syndromatological description does not exceed the predictive power of the investigated main diagnostic categories, but might increase the clinically relevant information.
9057674
Five-year stability of ICD-10 diagnoses among Chinese patients presented with first-episode psychosis in Hong Kong
BACKGROUND
Diagnostic stability is one measure of predictive validity for psychiatric syndromes. It is an under-studied area in functional psychosis despite its clinical and research implications. We aimed at evaluating the stability of ICD-10 diagnoses in a sample of young people with first-episode psychosis.


METHOD
One hundred and sixty-six Hong Kong Chinese enrolled in a regional first-episode psychosis treatment program were studied. Subjects' baseline and final 5-year consensus diagnoses were established via systematic medical records' review to determine diagnostic stability and to identify predictors of diagnostic shift towards schizophrenia spectrum.


RESULTS
The overall diagnostic consistency was 80.7%. Bipolar affective disorder and schizophrenia were the most stable diagnostic categories over 5 years with prospective consistency of 100% and 95.8% respectively. The least stable baseline diagnoses were unspecified non-organic psychosis, acute and transient psychotic disorders and delusional disorder. Around one-fifth (19.3%) of subjects had diagnostic revision in 5 years. The predominant pattern of diagnostic shift was towards schizophrenia spectrum disorder. Family history of psychosis and longer duration of untreated psychosis were associated with diagnostic transition towards schizophrenia spectrum.


CONCLUSIONS
Schizophrenia and bipolar affective disorder were diagnostically stable and could be reliably classified at intake in a Chinese first-episode psychosis sample using the ICD-10 criteria. Diagnostic instability in the least prevalent categories of functional psychosis highlights the limitations of current taxonomies and calls for ongoing revision of diagnostic criteria. In the absence of biological marker, longitudinal validation across consecutive episodes is necessary for accurate diagnostic ascertainment.
14087690
A prospective follow-up study of first-episode acute transient psychotic disorder in Latvia
BackgroundAcute and transient psychotic disorder (ATPD) has been described as an acute psychosis with brief onset and polymorphous symptomatology (WHO, 1993). The study of ATPD is growing increasingly relevant as scientists start an active discussion of the possibility of changing the ATPD classification in the next International Classification of Diseases (ICD-11). The aims of this study were to describe the clinical features of the index episode of ATPD in patients in Latvia, to analyse the stability and longitudinal changes of the diagnosis, to explore potential correlations between the sociodemographic and disease characteristics and to describe stressful life events before the first ATPD episode.MethodsA prospective follow-up study of all first-time admitted patients from the Riga Centre of Psychiatry and Addiction Disorders who fulfilled the ICD-10 criteria for ATPD (WHO, 1993) during the 15-month period from 9 January 2010 to 30 March 2011 and followed up until 31 October 2012. Stressful life events, demographics and clinical features during the index episode were assessed.ResultsOne hundred two patients were admitted with first-episode ATPD. The majority were females (60.7%). Over an average 26.5-month follow-up period, 59.8% of the patients were not readmitted. The overall stability rate of ATPD diagnosis in our sample was 67.4% (p = 0.0001). In the subgroup of patients who were readmitted, 70.7% had their diagnosis converted to schizophrenia in subsequent visits. Stressful life events before the first episode were found in 49.0% of first-episode ATPD patients. Thought disorder was found to be the strongest statistically significant predictor of ATPD diagnosis conversation to schizophrenia (odds ratio 4.3), with high Wald's criterion (9.435) in binary logistic regression.ConclusionsATPD is prevalent in Latvia, with rather high overall stability rate. Combining these data from first-episode ATPD patients in Latvia with data from other countries may help predict the development of the disease and provide a basis for potential changes to ICD-11.
25224024
Outcome of first-episode acute and transient psychotic disorder in Hong Kong Chinese: a 20-year retrospective follow-up study
Abstract Background: ‘Acute and transient psychotic disorder’ (ATPD) is a category in ICD-10 marked by psychosis with acute onset and early remission. It remains relatively under-researched, despite controversies over its nosological status in the current classification system. Aims: (1) To assess the changes in diagnosis over time in patients initially diagnosed as ATPD. (2) To identify factors predicting changes in diagnosis, and compare the long-term outcomes of various patterns of diagnostic shift. (3) To make recommendations on the classification and treatment of ATPD based on the findings of the study. Methods: This was a retrospective longitudinal study based on review of medical records of patients first admitted to a regional hospital in Hong Kong for ATPD during the period from 1990–2000. Results: Of the 87 subjects initially diagnosed as ATPD, 64.4% had their diagnoses revised over an average of 20 years, mostly to bipolar disorder and schizophrenia. Among those with diagnosis of ATPD unchanged, 54.8% had one single episode, while the remaining 45.2% had recurrence. Subjects with diagnostic shift had significantly younger age of onset, more first-degree relatives with a history of mental illness, and more subsequent psychiatric admissions. Conclusions: ATPD is likely a composite category consisting of clinically distinct outcome groups, for which further research is warranted to identify diagnostic features that distinguish them at initial presentation and revise the current nosological status of ATPD. Long-term follow-up, judicial use of antipsychotics, and education on prognosis are of paramount importance in managing patients diagnosed with ATPD.
11848631
Long‐term clinical course of patients with acute polymorphic psychotic disorder without symptoms of schizophrenia
Abstract  Few studies have investigated the long‐term course of patients with acute polymorphic psychotic disorder, despite the clinical relevance. The present study focused on the frequency of acute polymorphic psychotic disorder without symptoms of schizophrenia (F23.0) and the prognosis of patients with the disorder over a long period. A total of 388 inpatients with nonaffective psychosis were examined and cases with F23.0 were retrospectively investigated regarding clinical course over 12 years with reference to clinical charts. A total of 16 cases were diagnosed with F23.0 according to first episode. After 12 years, five cases were rediagnosed with schizophrenia, and one case with borderline‐type emotionally unstable personality disorder, although the diagnosis of F23.0 was not changed in 10 older patients. Of the four cases with >2 repeated episodes of F23.0, the same clinical picture as in the first episode was observed in three, while one case showed continuous residual symptoms. F23.0 does not represent a homogeneous clinical entity. In some cases, diagnosis changes to schizophrenia, but others display repeated episodes of F23.0.
208503729
Diagnostic Stability in Patients with First-Episode Psychosis
Objective: To examine the short-term stability of Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th edn; DSM-IV) and International Classification of Diseases (10th revision; ICD-10) diagnoses in a group of patients with first-episode psychosis. Method: Sixty patients with first-episode psychosis admitted consecutively to Roozbeh Hospital, Tehran, were sampled; their illnesses could not be attributed to any medical or substance-induced conditions. Patients were assessed at the time of discharge from the hospital, and at 3, 6and 12 month intervals following admission. Ateach visit, two psychiatrists made consensusDSM-IV and ICD10 diagnoses, based on all available information. Stability was discerned as the consistency between diagnoses at the time of discharge and at 12 month follow up. Results: Forty-eight patients completed follow up. Affective psychotic disorders and schizophrenia in both classification systems were highly stable. In addition, all patients with DSM-IV brief psychotic disorder and ICD-10 acute and transient psychotic disorders remained the same at follow up. Conclusions: Affective psychoses and schizophrenia, in line with previous findings, remained stable. Diagnoses of brief psychoses were highly stable as well; this could reflect a non-relapsing course ofacute brief psychoses, especially in developing countries.
26405431
Diagnostic stability and status of acute and transient psychotic disorders
We read with interest the article by Pillmann & Marneros ([2005][1]). Acute and transient psychosis is a common clinical presentation in the developing world. We retrieved medical records of all patients with psychotic disorders (F06.0–06.3, F20–29, F30.2, F31.2, F31.5, F32.3, F33.3) who
207448001
Short-Term Diagnostic Stability of Acute Psychosis: Data from a Tertiary Care Psychiatric Center in South India
Context: Studies on acute psychosis in patients from India report good outcome. A small proportion of these patients may suffer relapses or other develop major psychiatric disorders later. Aim: The aim of this study was to examine the diagnostic stability of acute psychosis in patients from India. Materials and Methods: The records of patients who presented with the first episode of acute and transient psychotic disorder (n=57) over 1 year (2004) were analyzed, and the follow-up data at the end of 1 and 2 years were recorded. Results: The mean age of the sample was 30.72 years. The mean duration of illness episode was 18.15±17.10 days. The follow-up data were available for 77.2% (n=44) and 75.4% (n=43) of the sample at the end of first and second years. Relapse was recorded in 47.4 and 54.4% at the end of first and second years, respectively. Conclusion: The diagnosis changed into other disorders such as bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, and unspecified psychosis, while a majority retained the initial diagnosis of acute psychosis. The findings suggest that acute psychosis is a relatively stable condition. A small percentage of these patients may go on to develop schizophrenia or bipolar disorder.
38426498
Diagnostic stability 18 months after treatment initiation for first-episode psychosis.
OBJECTIVES
(1) Assessment of diagnostic stability of psychotic disorders or psychotic mood disorders from 6 weeks to 18 months after initiation of treatment in a representative first-episode psychosis (FEP) sample. (2) Comparison between those patients who shifted from DSM-IV schizophreniform disorder to schizophrenia or schizo-affective disorder and those whose diagnosis of schizophreniform disorder remained stable.


METHOD
The Early Psychosis Prevention and Intervention Centre (EPPIC) in Australia admitted 786 FEP patients from January 1998 to December 2000. Data were collected from patients' medical records (MRs) using a standardized questionnaire. Seven hundred four MRs were available, 36 of which were excluded owing to nonpsychotic diagnoses or a psychotic disorder due to a general medical condition. Of the remaining 668 patients, 176 (26.3%) were lost to follow-up. Four hundred ninety-two subjects were analyzed. Strategies to assure validity and reliability of diagnoses were applied.


RESULTS
The same diagnosis was made at baseline (< or = 6 weeks after admission into EPPIC) and 18 months for 69.9% of the patients. Among the most consistent diagnoses were schizophrenia (97.3%), schizoaffective disorder (94.1%), and bipolar disorder (83.2%); the least stable, as expected, was schizophreniform disorder (40.0%). In subjects with schizophreniform disorder at baseline, the best predictors of a shift from schizophreniform disorder to schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder were a higher baseline Clinical Global Impressions-Severity of Illness scale score and lower premorbid Global Assessment of Functioning score, although the variance accounted for was small (R2 = .07).


CONCLUSIONS
A longitudinally based diagnostic process in FEP samples is needed, especially in schizophreniform disorder and bipolar disorder. However, a thorough initial assessment of patient and family by a specialized team of investigators regarding the kind and duration of patient symptoms may lead to high diagnostic stability, especially in schizophrenia and schizoaffective disorder, even in a FEP sample with a relatively short duration of untreated psychosis.
13451465
Diagnostic stability over 3 years in a total group of first-episode psychosis patients
First-episode psychosis (FEP) patients are often given diagnoses that later have to be changed. The aim of this study was to measure the diagnostic stability in a total group of FEP patients; 146 FEP patients were followed longitudinally and prospectively. Their revised baseline diagnoses were compared with their 3-year follow-up diagnoses. The schizophrenic spectrum disorders showed a high diagnostic stability as a group, but there was a great flow of patients between the different schizophrenic spectrum diagnoses. Also schizophrenia was a stable diagnosis. The affective psychosis group was homogenous without interaction of other psychosis groups. The other psychosis diagnoses, both regarded as a group and individually, turned out to be quite heterogeneous, with low stability values and a split course, often ending up in the schizophrenic spectrum. Fifty one per cent did not fulfil the criteria for DSM-IV axis 1 psychosis diagnosis at follow-up. In conclusion, our findings suggest that in the early phase of psychosis. Only three different diagnostic categories would be sufficient; “schizophrenic spectrum type”, “afftective psychosis,” and for the rest “psychotic disorder NOS.”
44390136
Diagnostic Stability 2 Years After Treatment Initiation in the Early Psychosis Intervention Programme in Singapore
Objective: To evaluate the diagnostic stability of psychotic disorders over a 2 year period in patients presenting with first-episode psychosis. Methods: One hundred and fifty-four patients were recruited from an early psychosis intervention programme (EPIP). They were diagnosed by the attending psychiatrist using the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV Axis I at first contact (baseline) and after 24 months. The diagnoses were classified into the following categories: schizophrenia spectrum disorders (schizophrenia, schizophreniform disorder and schizoaffective disorder), affective psychosis (bipolar and major depressive disorders with psychotic symptoms), and other non-affective psychosis (delusional disorder, psychosis not otherwise specified and brief psychotic disorder). Two measueres of stability, the prospective and the retrospective consistency were determined for each diagnosis. Results: The diagnoses with the best prospective consistency were schizophrenia (87.0%) and affective psychosis (54.5%). The shift into schizophrenia spectrum disorder was the most frequent diagnostic change. Duration of untreated psychosis was found to be the only significant predictor of shift. Conclusion: It is difficult to make a definitive diagnosis at first contact. The clinical need to review the diagnosis throughout the period of follow up is emphasized.
12096756
TREATMENT OF ACUTE AND TRANSIENT PSYCHOTIC DISORDERS WITH LOW AND HIGH DOSES OF ORAL HALOPERIDOL
The apparent rationale for the popular use of high doses of neuroleptics in psychotic patients is to increase the degree and speed of therapeutic response .However, several recent reports have questioned these claims. The present study was undertaken with the aim to compare the efficacy of high and low oral doses of haloperidol in the treatment of acute and transient psychotic disorders. The sample comprised of forty patients of both sexes diagnosed as acute and transient psychotic disorder who were randomly assigned to high dose (20 mg/day) and low dose (5 mg /day) haloperidol groups with equal number of subjects (n=20) in both groups. Weekly assessment was done on Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale and Haloperidol Side-effects Check List (day 7, 14, 21, 28, 35 & 42). Both groups showed significant improvement in BPRS from baseline scores on all assessments. Comparison of the improvement rate in both study groups revealed no significant difference.
11255646
RISPERIDONE VERSUS HALOPERIDOL IN ACUTE AND TRANSIENT PSYCHOTIC DISORDER
The mechanism of action of a relatively new antipsychotic drug-Risperidone differs from conventional antipsychotics like Haloperidol. We compared low dosages of Risperidone with near equivalent dosages of Haloperidol in first episode drug naive Acute and Transient Psychotic disorder. A single blind randomised four-week study protocol was employed. Highly significant and comparable efficacy as assessed by Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale and Global Assessment of Functioning Scale was seen at the end of the Study protocol in both the groups. Risperidone had significantly, an early onset of action on some of the positive as well as negative symptoms with less incidence of Extrapyramidal Symptoms in comparison to Haloperidol. We conclude that Risperidone may represent a potential useful first line agent in the treatment of Acute and Transient Psychotic Disorder.
25387846
A preliminary open trial of olanzapine in paediatric acute and transient psychotic disorders
Background: Acute and transient psychotic disorders (ATPD) have been characterized by the development of florid psychotic symptoms within 2 weeks and complete remission of symptoms. Although there are no definite guidelines, these are usually treated by antipsychotic medication. Aim: This preliminary study examined the effectiveness of olanzapine in paediatric ATPD. Methods: In this 6-week open trial of olanzapine in paediatric ATPD, the patients were rated weekly on the Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale (BPRS), Clinical Global Impression (CGI) Scale and Dosage Record Treatment Emergent Symptom Scale (DOTES). Results: Twenty-three patients (11 males, 12 females; mean age 14.0±1.3 years; range 11–16 years) were included in the study. The mean olanzapine dosage was 12.7±3.9 mg/day (range 5–20 mg/day). All the patients showed significant improvement in 6 weeks. The results showed a significant decrease (p< 0.0001) in scores of BPRS (mean at baseline 46.2±7.0 to 21.4±3.9 at week 6). Severity of illness (CGI) decreased from 4.7±0.8 to 1.6±0.9 in 6 weeks. Also, global improvement (CGI) showed marked improvement in 14 (60.9%), good improvement in 8 (34.8%) and minimal improvement in 1 (4.3%) patient. Some common side-effects were dryness of mouth (n=14, 60.9%), increase in appetite (n=12, 52%), weight gain (n=12, 52%) and drowsiness (n=8, 34.8%). No patient developed extrapyramidal symptoms. Conclusion: Olanzapine was safe and effective in paediatric ATPD.
9307284
Gender differences in schizophrenia
Sex differences in schizophrenia can be caused by the disease process itself, by genetic and hormonal differences, by differences in the maturation and morphology of the brain and in age- and gender-specific behavioural patterns. These hypotheses will be tested on the major results reported in the literature as well as on different levels (epidemiology, risk factors, animal experiments, a controlled clinical study) on data from the ABC Schizophrenia Study. Symptomatology, lifetime risk and symptom-related course of illness-the latter without consideration of age-show no gender differences. However, until menopause illness onset is delayed and severity of illness is reduced by oestrogen on the level of gene expression and transmitter functioning. Oestrogen has an antagonistic effect on the-familial or exogenous-predisposition to illness. As a result, the age distribution of onset and the severity of first-episode illness in young men and post-menopausal women differ from the normal. First intervention trials with oestrogen substitution of neuroleptic therapy have demonstrated antipsychotic effects. The poorer social course of schizophrenia in men than in premenopausal women is accounted for by men's lower level of social development at illness onset and the subsequent impediment of their further development. Men's socially adverse illness behaviour, too, is a contributing factor. Scarcity of the knowledge of differences in the development, morphology and functioning of the male and female brain does not yet allow any definitive conclusions about gender differences in schizophrenia.
30394751
Epidemiology of nonaffective acute remitting psychosis vs schizophrenia. Sex and sociocultural setting.
BACKGROUND
This article first examines the epidemiology of nonaffective acute remitting psychosis with respect to variation in incidence by sex and sociocultural setting. Second, it examines whether nonaffective acute remitting psychosis can be epidemiologically differentiated from schizophrenia.


METHODS
The data were drawn from the World Health Organization Determinants of Outcome Study. Sex-specific incidence rates were obtained for two sites in the developing-country setting and for six sites in the industrialized-country setting.


RESULTS
For nonaffective acute remitting psychosis, the incidence in men was about one-half the incidence in women, and the incidence in the developing-country setting was about 10-fold the incidence in the industrialized-country setting. These associations with sex and with setting were sharply distinct from those of schizophrenia.


CONCLUSION
The epidemiologic patterns of this form of psychosis may be distinct from those of schizophrenia and could yield clues to its causes.
23504045
Fever and acute brief psychosis in urban and rural settings in north India.
BACKGROUND
This case-control study used data from Chandigarh, North India to investigate the association between antecedent fever and acute brief psychosis.


AIMS
To assess whether antecedent fever may be a biological correlate of acute brief psychosis, and contribute to the nosology of acute brief psychosis.


METHOD
The study was based in an incidence cohort from two catchment areas, an urban and a rural site, that were part of the World Health Organization Determinants of Outcome study. The cases (n = 17) met criteria for acute brief psychosis; controls (n = 40) were patients with other acute and subacute psychoses. The Life Events Schedule was used to determine the presence of antecedent fever.


RESULTS
The crude odds ratio for fever as a risk factor for acute brief psychosis was 6.2 (P = 0.004). The odds ratio in a logistic regression analysis--adjusted for site, gender and CATEGO classification--was 11.2 (P = 0.003).


CONCLUSIONS
Antecedent fever may be a biological correlate of acute brief psychosis. This finding supports the validity of this entity, and has implications for its aetiology and diagnosis.
23235855
Epidemiology, diagnosis, and course of brief psychoses.
OBJECTIVE
This study investigated acute and nonacute brief psychoses. On the basis of previous work, the authors proposed that 1) acute brief psychoses occur predominantly in females, 2) they often do not conform to the diagnoses of DSM-III-R, 3) they are temporally stable, and 4) nonacute brief psychoses do not share these distinctive features.


METHOD
The data are from a follow-up study of 221 first-admission patients with affective and nonaffective psychoses. Patients were given extensive assessments at initial evaluation, 6-month follow-up, and 24-month follow-up. The research team made consensus ratings of the presence of psychosis, DSM-III-R diagnosis, mode of onset of disorder, and course of disorder. Brief psychoses were defined by a diagnosis of nonaffective psychosis at the initial evaluation and a rating of full remission at 6-month follow-up; acute brief psychoses met the additional criterion of acute onset as defined by ICD-10.


RESULTS
Twenty (9%) of the 221 psychoses were brief psychoses. Only seven (3%) were acute brief psychoses, but among these, six occurred in women, five were undiagnosable, and none had evolved into an affective disorder or a chronic disorder by the time of the 24-month follow-up. The 13 nonacute brief psychoses did not exhibit distinctive features, and five of them later evolved into chronic disorders.


CONCLUSIONS
Acute brief psychoses emerged as a highly distinctive and temporally stable form of psychosis that may merit a separate diagnostic classification. The more numerous nonacute brief psychoses may represent mild forms of nonaffective psychoses such as schizophrenia.
4598791
Delineation of acute and transient psychotic disorders in a developing country setting.
BACKGROUND
We examined whether acute transient psychoses can be distinguished from schizophrenia and the affective disorders.


METHOD
We studied 46 cases of nonaffective acute psychosis in the Chandigarh Acute Psychosis Study. With respect to separation from schizophrenia, we examined the distribution of duration of the episode. With respect to separation from affective disorders, we assessed the frequency of affective symptoms.


RESULTS
Duration was bimodal, suggesting the presence of two distinct conditions of short and long duration. Affective symptoms were minimal, suggesting that these were not atypical affective syndromes.


CONCLUSIONS
Acute transient psychoses conform neither with schizophrenia of brief duration nor with atypical affective psychosis, and thus require separate classification as proposed in the ICD-10.
21086933
Long-term course of acute brief psychosis in a developing country setting.
BACKGROUND
This study in North India compared acute brief psychosis--defined by acute onset, brief duration and no early relapse--with other remitting psychoses, over a 12-year course and outcome.


METHOD
In a cohort of incident psychoses, we identified 20 cases of acute brief psychosis and a comparison group of 43 other remitting psychoses based on two-year follow-up. Seventeen people (85%) in the acute brief psychosis group and 36 (84%) in the comparison group were reassessed at five, seven and 12 years after onset, and were rediagnosed using ICD-10 criteria.


RESULTS
At 12-year follow-up, the proportion with remaining signs of illness was 6% (n = 1) for acute brief psychosis versus 50% (n = 18) for the comparison group (P = 0.002). Using ICD-10 criteria, the majority in both groups were diagnosed as having schizophrenia.


CONCLUSIONS
Acute brief psychosis has a distinctive and benign long-term course when compared with other remitting psychoses. This finding supports the ICD-10 concept of a separable group of acute and transient psychotic disorders. To effectively separate this group, however, the ICD-10 criteria need modification.
10166069
Non‐affective Acute Remitting Psychosis: a preliminary report from Iran
Objective:  To investigate the concept of ‘Non‐affective Acute Remitting Psychosis’ (NARP) in a group of patients with first episode psychosis in Iran.
6280229
Clinical and serotonergic predictors of non‐affective acute remitting psychosis in patients with a first‐episode psychosis
Objective:  The study aimed to establish clinical predictors of non‐affective acute remitting psychosis (NARP) and assess whether these patients showed a distinct serotonergic profile.
33719692
Duration of remitting psychoses with acute onset
Background The acute and transient psychotic disorders (ATPD) in ICD–10 advanced the nosology of remitting psychoses with acute onset. But the proposed criteria for ATPD – especially in regard to duration – are tentative and need to be validated. Aims To evaluate: (a) the duration of remitting psychoses with acute onset; (b) the applicability of the ATPD criteria for these cases; and (c) differences in duration and ATPD diagnoses across sociocultural settings. Method Data from the World Health Organization Determinants of Outcome study were used. Results The 98 cases of remitting psychoses with acute onset had a modal duration of 2–4 months, with 43% falling in this range. Mainly because of this, few met the ATPD criteria. Duration and diagnostic findings were similar across settings. Conclusions ATPD criteria need refinement, especially in regard to duration. Further studies aimed at early detection and assessment of onset and duration of these disorders are needed.
9442739
Clinical characteristics, 4-year course, and DSM-IV classification of patients with nonaffective acute remitting psychosis.
OBJECTIVE
The authors examined the clinical characteristics and 48-month illness course of cases of nonaffective acute remitting psychosis and described the classification of these cases in the DSM-IV system.


METHOD
The data were derived from the Suffolk County (N.Y.) Mental Health Project, a study of first-admission patients with psychotic disorders admitted to psychiatric facilities between September 1989 and December 1995. The authors compared the demographic and clinical characteristics, 48-month course, and longitudinal research diagnoses of 16 patients with nonaffective acute remitting psychosis, defined by onset in 2 weeks or less and duration of less than 6 months, to those of 26 patients with other nonaffective remitting psychoses.


RESULTS
Nonaffective acute remitting psychosis had a distinctly benign course-46% of the patients remained in full remission throughout the 48-month follow-up, compared with 14% of patients with other remitting psychoses. Nonaffective acute remitting psychosis was also associated with fewer negative symptoms than other remitting psychoses. By 24-month follow-up, only 6% of the patients with nonaffective acute remitting psychosis, compared with 77% of the patients with other remitting psychoses, received a research diagnosis of schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder, whereas 44% of patients with nonaffective acute remitting psychosis, compared with 12% of patients with other remitting psychoses, were given the residual diagnosis of psychotic disorder not otherwise specified.


CONCLUSIONS
Nonaffective acute remitting psychosis is a highly distinctive yet not adequately classified condition. Better delineation of nonaffective acute remitting psychosis in current diagnostic systems could lead to better understanding of this condition and improve the applicability of diagnostic systems in developing countries, where these conditions are more common than in industrialized countries.
12703491
Clinical symptoms of psychotic episodes and 25‐hydroxy vitamin D serum levels in black first‐generation immigrants
Dark‐skinned immigrants have a higher risk for schizophrenia and other psychoses than other immigrants. The first British studies reported that first‐generation immigrants (FGIs) from the Caribbean presented atypical psychoses. This study examines the characteristics of psychotic episodes in black FGIs to Canada.
4410308
The environment and schizophrenia
Psychotic syndromes can be understood as disorders of adaptation to social context. Although heritability is often emphasized, onset is associated with environmental factors such as early life adversity, growing up in an urban environment, minority group position and cannabis use, suggesting that exposure may have an impact on the developing ‘social’ brain during sensitive periods. Therefore heritability, as an index of genetic influence, may be of limited explanatory power unless viewed in the context of interaction with social effects. Longitudinal research is needed to uncover gene–environment interplay that determines how expression of vulnerability in the general population may give rise to more severe psychopathology.
204329250
Mapping the onset of psychosis: the Comprehensive Assessment of At‐Risk Mental States
Objective: Recognizing the prodrome of a first psychotic episode prospectively creates the opportunity of intervention, which could delay, ameliorate or even prevent onset. Valid criteria and a reliable methodology for identifying possible prodromes are needed. This paper describes an instrument, the Comprehensive Assessment of At-Risk Mental States (CAARMS), which has been designed for such a purpose. It has two functions: (i) to assess psychopathology thought to indicate imminent development of a first-episode psychotic disorder; and (ii) to determine if an individual meets criteria for being at ultra high risk (UHR) for onset of first psychotic disorder. This paper describes the pilot evaluation of the CAARMS.Method: Several methodologies were used to test the CAARMS. First, CAARMS scores in a group of UHR young people and the association between CAARMS scores and the risk of transition to psychotic disorder, were analysed. Second, CAARMS scores in a UHR group were compared to a control group. To asses...
9491270
Classifying psychosis – Challenges and opportunities
Abstract Within the efforts to revise ICD-10 and DSM-IV-TR, work groups on the classification of psychotic disorders appointed by the World Health Organization (WHO) and the American Psychiatric Association (APA) have proposed several changes to the corresponding classification criteria of schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders in order to increase the clinical utility, reliability and validity of these diagnoses. These proposed revisions are subject to field trials with the objective of studying whether they will lead to an improvement of the classification systems in comparison to their previous versions. Both a challenge and an opportunity, the APA and WHO have also considered harmonizing between the two classifications. The current status of both suggests that this goal can only be met in part. The main proposed revisions include changes to the number and types of symptoms of schizophrenia, the replacement of existing schizophrenia subtypes with dimensional assessments or symptom specifiers, different modifications of the criteria for schizoaffective disorder, a reorganization of the delusional disorders and the acute and transient psychotic disorders in ICD-11, as well as the revision of course and psychomotor symptoms/catatonia specifiers in both classification systems.
45821324
Concordance of Acute and Transient Psychoses and Cycloid Psychoses
Objective: We prospectively investigated a sample of 42 patients with acute and transient psychotic disorder (ATPD) as defined by the 10th revision of the International Classification of Diseases (ICD-10; F23) to determine the clinical and demographic features of this entity and its relationship to cycloid psychoses. Methods: During a 5-year period, all in-patients with ATPD were identified. We systematically evaluated demographic and clinical features and carried out follow-up investigations on average 2 years after the index episode, using standardised instruments. Results: We found 42 cases of ATPD (4.1%) among 1,036 patients treated for psychotic disorders or a major affective episode. There was a marked female preponderance in ATPD (79%). Fifty-five percent of cases concurrently met the criteria of cycloid psychosis according to Perris and Brockington [in Perris C, Struwe G, Jansson B (eds): Biological Psychiatry. Amsterdam, Elsevier, 1981, pp 447–450]. There was no difference in gender distribution between cycloid and non-cycloid ATPD. As expected, abrupt onset and polymorphic features were significantly more common in cycloid than in non- cycloid ATPD. At follow-up, patients with cycloid ATPD showed less persistent alterations and better social functioning. Conclusion: ATPD as defined by ICD-10 is a heterogeneous category. A diagnosis of cycloid psychosis is made in half of the cases of ATPD, and in these cases, the prognosis is more favourable.
9629630
Cycloid psychosis: a clinical and nosological study
Background. Despite its clinical relevance, the diagnosis of cycloid psychosis has been relatively neglected in the psychiatric literature and in the current nosological systems. This study examined the clinical validity and nosological status of the cycloid psychosis concept. Method. Six-hundred and sixty psychotic in-patients were assessed for psychosis-related variables and diagnosed according to DSM-III-R, DSM-IV, ICD-10 and the Perris & Brockington criteria for cycloid psychosis. The cycloid psychosis diagnosis (N=68, 10·3%) was examined in regard to its discriminant validity, concordance with other psychotic disorders, and predictive validity in relation to schizophrenia and psychotic mood disorders. To address putative heterogeneity within cycloid psychosis, affective (N=38) and non-affective (N=30) subgroups were examined. Results. Cycloid psychosis had good discriminant validity regarding other psychoses (95% of correctly classified cases) and poor concordance with individual diagnoses from the formal diagnostic systems (κ<0·22). Cycloid patients had levels of psychotic, disorganization and first-rank symptoms comparable to schizophrenia, and levels of affective symptoms in-between schizophrenia and mood disorders. Regarding most clinical variables and morbidity risk of mood disorders, cycloid psychosis was closer to mood disorders. Cycloid psychosis had higher psychosocial stressors than schizophrenia and mood disorders. Affective and non-affective groups of cycloid psychosis differed in a number of variables indicating an overall better outcome for the non-affective group. Conclusions. Cycloid psychosis does not correspond closely to any DSM-III-R, DSM-IV or ICD-10 category of psychosis, and more specifically this nosological concept is not well represented by the different formal definitions of remitting psychotic disorders. Cycloid psychosis seems to be an heterogeneous condition in that affective and non-affective subgroups can be differentiated.
31657293
Bouffée Délirante and ICD-10 Acute and Transient Psychoses: A Comparative Study
Objective: ICD-10 acute and transient psychotic disorder (ATPD; F23) has one of its historical roots in the French concept of bouffée délirante. This study explores the empirical relationship of the two concepts. Method: During a 5-year period, all inpatients with ATPD were identified; the diagnosis of bouffée délirante was also determined. We systematically evaluated demographic and clinical features and carried out follow-up investigations at an average of 2.2 years after the index episode using standardized instruments. Results: Forty-two (4.1%) of 1036 patients treated for psychotic disorders or major affective episode fulfilled the ICD-10 criteria of ATPD. Of these, only 28.6% also fulfilled the criteria of bouffée délirante. Patients with bouffée délirante were significantly younger than the remaining ATPD patients. Outcome parameters were generally more favourable for patients diagnosed with bouffée délirante than for ATPD patients without a concurrent diagnosis of bouffée délirante, but the difference was statistically significant only for occupational status. Conclusions: There are indications that a diagnosis of bouffée délirante carries a somewhat better prognosis than ATPD in general. However, the low frequency of operationally diagnosed bouffée délirante suggests that the criteria might be too narrow.
7942309
Acute and transient psychotic disorders (ICD-10 F23): a review from a European perspective
The tenth revision of the International Classification of Mental and Behavioural Disorders (ICD-10) introduced the category F23 ‘Acute and transient psychotic disorders’ (ATPD) to incorporate clinical concepts such as the French bouffée délirante, cycloid psychosis (Germany), and the Scandinavian reactive and schizophreniform psychoses. The aim of this paper is to review the literature on ATPD and to examine how it has been differentiated from the other categories of F2 group ‘schizophrenia and related disorders’. Papers published between 1993 and 2007 were found through searches in Medline, PsychInfo and Google Scholar. Further references were identified from book chapters and comprehensive reviews of the topic. ATPD is reported as being prevalent in females and as having onset in early-middle adulthood. Although follow-up studies suggest that its outcome is more favourable than other disorders in the F2 group, ATPD tends to recur and half of cases convert mainly into either schizophrenia or affective disorders. No evidence supports the view that the traditional conditions subsumed under ATPD all refer to this diagnostic category. The lack of defining features and poor prognostic validity argue against the separation of ATPD from borderland categories.