2139083
Ménétrier disease and gastrointestinal stromal tumors: hyperproliferative disorders of the stomach.
Ménétrier disease and gastrointestinal stromal tumors (GISTs) are hyperproliferative disorders of the stomach caused by dysregulated receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs). In Ménétrier disease, overexpression of TGF-alpha, a ligand for the RTK EGFR, results in selective expansion of surface mucous cells in the body and fundus of the stomach. In GISTs, somatic mutations of the genes encoding the RTK KIT (or PDGFRA in a minority of cases) result in constitutive kinase activity and neoplastic transformation of gut pacemaker cells (interstitial cells of Cajal). On the basis of the involvement of these RTKs in the pathogenesis of these disorders, Ménétrier disease patients have been effectively treated with a blocking monoclonal antibody specific for EGFR and GIST patients with KIT and PDGFRA tyrosine kinase inhibitors.
21006976
Hypertrophic gastropathy with gastric adenocarcinoma: Menetrier's disease and lymphocytic gastritis?
Lymphocytic gastritis is a form of gastric inflammation characterised by a pronounced increase in lymphocytes in gastric surface and foveolar epithelium. Lymphocytic gastritis is often associated with endoscopic evidence of 'varioliform gastritis'. Lymphocytic gastritis has recently been reported to be associated with other forms of hypertrophic gastropathies. We present a case of hypertrophic gastropathy with gastric adenocarcinoma, with both Menetrier's disease and lymphocyte gastritis. Immunohistochemical studies showed that the intraepithelial lymphocytes were predominantly alpha/beta T cells as in the normal stomach and not gamma/delta T cells as in coeliac sprue. This case together with the six recently published cases suggests that Menetrier's disease and lymphocytic gastritis may be part of the same disease spectrum.
29460009
Hypertrophic lymphocytic gastritis with a gastric carcinoma.
Lymphocytic gastritis is a recently described gastric inflammation, characterized by an increased intraepithelial lymphocytic infiltrate mainly composed of T-lymphocytes. Endoscopically it correlates mainly with diffuse varioliform gastritis. Ménétrier's disease is a hypertrophic gastropathy with enlarged gastric folds. The histological picture is that of foveolar hyperplasia and glandular cysts of the mucosa. A few small series of lymphocytic gastritis with microscopic and endoscopic features of Ménétrier's disease have been published previously. We describe a similar case associated with a gastric adenocarcinoma.
23494969
Intramucosal carcinoma of the gastric antrum complicating Menetrier's disease.
A 48-year-old man presented with haematemesis and was found to have Menetrier's disease. Three and a half years later early gastric cancer was detected at routine follow-up endoscopy. This is the first report of the development of early gastric cancer during follow-up in a case of Menetrier's disease. It is probable that patients with Menetrier's disease are at increased risk of gastric cancer, and should have regular endoscopic follow-up with gastric biopsy.
21220793
Expression of gastric mucin in the stomachs of two patients with Menetrier's disease: An immunohistochemical study
Abstract  Menetrier's disease is a rare gastric condition characterized by marked proliferation of the mucosa and variable mucus secretion and achlorhydria. We report, for the first time, minor variations in MUC1‐7 distribution in the mucosa of two stomachs from patients with Menetrier's disease, when compared with a normal stomach. All stomachs stained positively for MUC4, 5AC and 6 and showed no or little staining with MUC2 and 3. Thus, Menetrier's disease is characterized by an excess quantity of mucus secretion, but differs little from normal stomachs with regards to the types of mucin produced. The mucins, MUC1–7, are found with variable distribution in different body tissues; MUC4, MUC5AC and MUC6 are typically found in gastric mucosa.
37265622
Menetrier's disease: a form of hypertrophic gastropathy or gastritis?
BACKGROUND
Menetrier's disease is characterized by giant gastric folds and foveolar hyperplasia. The extent of mucosal inflammation and glandular atrophy, however, is controversial. The aim of this study was to test the hypothesis that patients previously diagnosed with Menetrier's disease actually represent at least two diseases: (1) Hypertrophic lymphocytic gastritis (HLG) and (2) Massive foveolar hyperplasia and minimal inflammation (MFH).


METHODS
All cases of possible Menetrier's disease were identified, and their clinical, laboratory, and pathological data were reviewed. In twenty-three patients with giant fundal folds, full-thickness tissue specimens (n = 19) or large suction biopsy (n = 4) tissue specimens were obtained.


RESULTS
Two distinct, nonoverlapping histological patterns were found; 13 patients had HLG and 10 patients had MFH. Clinical features and frequency of Helicobacter pylori were similar in these two groups. Patients with HLG had severe inflammation with numerous intraepithelial lymphocytes and mild foveolar hyperplasia. Alternatively, patients with MFH had greater foveolar hyperplasia, significantly thicker mucosa, and greater mucosal edema.


CONCLUSIONS
Patients with MFH represent a form of hypertrophic gastropathy and should be designated as having Menetrier's disease, whereas patients with HLG should be considered part of the spectrum of lymphocytic gastritis.
30394674
Biology of gastrointestinal stromal tumors.
Once a poorly defined pathologic oddity, in recent years, gastrointestinal stromal tumor (GIST) has emerged as a distinct oncogenetic entity that is now center stage in clinical trials of kinase-targeted therapies. This review charts the rapid progress that has established GIST as a model for understanding the role of oncogenic kinase mutations in human tumorigenesis. Approximately 80% to 85% of GISTs harbor activating mutations of the KIT tyrosine kinase. In a series of 322 GISTs (including 140 previously published cases) studied by the authors in detail, mutations in the KIT gene occurred with decreasing frequency in exons 11 (66.1%), 9 (13%), 13 (1.2%), and 17 (0.6%). In the same series, a subset of tumors had mutations in the KIT-related kinase gene PDGF receptor alpha (PDGFRA), which occurred in either exon 18 (5.6%) or 12 (1.5%). The remainder of GISTs (12%) were wild type for both KIT and PDGFRA. Comparative studies of KIT-mutant, PDGFRA-mutant, and wild-type GISTs indicate that there are many similarities between these groups of tumors but also important differences. In particular, the responsiveness of GISTs to treatment with the kinase inhibitor imatinib varies substantially depending on the exonic location of the KIT or PDGFRA mutation. Given these differences, which have implications both for the diagnosis and treatment of GISTs, we propose a molecular-based classification of GIST. Recent studies of familial GIST, pediatric GIST, and variant forms of GIST related to Carney's triad and neurofibromatosis type 1 are discussed in relationship to this molecular classification. In addition, the role of mutation screening in KIT and PDGFRA as a diagnostic and prognostic aid is emphasized in this review.
7598241
Gastrointestinal stromal tumors – definition, clinical, histological, immunohistochemical, and molecular genetic features and differential diagnosis
Abstract. Gastrointestinal stromal tumors (GISTs) are the most common mesenchymal tumors of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. They are defined here as KIT (CD117, stem cell factor receptor)-positive mesenchymal spindle cell or epithelioid neoplasms primary in the GI tract, omentum, and mesentery. GISTs typically present in older individuals and are most common in the stomach (60–70%), followed by small intestine (20–25%), colon and rectum (5%), and esophagus (<5%). Benign tumors outnumber the malignant ones by a wide margin. Approximately 70% of GISTs are positive for CD34, 20–30% are positive for smooth muscle actin (SMA), 10% are positive for S100 protein and <5% are positive for desmin. The expression of CD34 and SMA is often reciprocal. GISTs commonly have activating mutations in exon 11 (or rarely exon 9 and exon 13) of the KIT gene that encodes a tyrosine kinase receptor for the growth factor named stem cell factor or mast cell growth factor. Ligand-independent activation of KIT appears to be a strong candidate for molecular pathogenesis of GISTs, and it may be a target for future treatment for such tumors. Other genetic changes in GISTs discovered using comparative genomic hybridization include losses in 14q and 22q in both benign and malignant GISTs and occurrence in various gains predominantly in malignant GISTs. GISTs have phenotypic similarities with the interstitial cells of Cajal and, therefore, a histogenetic origin from these cells has been suggested. An alternative possibility, origin of pluripotential stem cells, is also possible; this is supported by the same origin of Cajal cells and smooth muscle and by the common SMA expression in GISTs. GISTs differ clinically and pathogenetically from true leiomyosarcomas (very rare in the GI tract) and leiomyomas. The latter occur in the GI tract, predominantly in the esophagus (intramural tumors) and the colon and rectum (muscularis mucosae tumors). They also differ from schwannomas that are benign S100-positive spindle cell tumors usually presenting in the stomach. GI autonomic nerve tumors (GANTs) are probably a subset of GIST. Other mesenchymal tumors that have to be separated from GISTs include inflammatory myofibroblastic tumors in children, desmoid, and dedifferentiated liposarcoma. Angiosarcomas and metastatic melanomas, both of which are often KIT-positive, should not be confused with GISTs.
20405305
Gastrointestinal Stromal Tumors of the Stomach: A Clinicopathologic, Immunohistochemical, and Molecular Genetic Study of 1765 Cases With Long-term Follow-up
Gastrointestinal (GI) stromal tumors (GISTs), the specific KIT- or PDFGRA-signaling driven mesenchymal tumors, are the most common mesenchymal tumors of the GI tract. In this study, we analyzed 1869 cases originally classified as smooth muscle tumors of the stomach and found that 1765 (94%) of these were GISTs. The GISTs had a slight male predominance (55%) with a median age of 63 years. Only 2.7% of tumors occurred before the age of 21 years and 9.1% before the age of 40 years. The tumors varied from 0.5 to 44 cm (median, 6.0 cm) and most commonly presented with GI bleeding; 12% were incidentally detected. Several histologic variants were recognized among the spindle cell tumors (sclerosing, palisaded-vacuolated, hypercellular, and sarcomatous) and of epithelioid tumors (sclerosing, dyscohesive, hypercellular, and sarcomatous). Outcome was strongly dependent on tumor size and mitotic activity. Only 2% to 3% of tumors <10 cm and <5 mitoses/50 HPFs metastasized, whereas 86% of tumors >10 cm and >5 mitoses/50 HPFs metastasized. However, tumors >10 cm with mitotic activity <5/50 HPFs and those <5 cm with mitoses >5/50 HPFs had a relatively low metastatic rate (11% and 15%). A small number of patients survived intra-abdominal metastasis up to over 20 years. Tumor location in fundus or gastroesophageal junction, coagulative necrosis, ulceration, and mucosal invasion were unfavorable factors (P < 0.001), whereas tumor location in antrum was favorable (P < 0.001). KIT expression was detected in 91% of the cases, CD34 in 82%, smooth muscle actin in 18%, and desmin in 5%; the latter two were favorable (P < 0.001). KIT exon 11 mutations were detected in 119 cases; patients with point mutations fared better than those with deletions (P < 0.01). PDGFRA exon 18 mutations (total 86 cases) were common in epithelioid GISTs and most commonly represented a D842V point mutation; none of these was prognostically significant. The above results may be helpful for setting the criteria for adjuvant treatment such as Gleevec.
20126031
KIT-Negative Gastrointestinal Stromal Tumors: Proof of Concept and Therapeutic Implications
The diagnosis of gastrointestinal stromal tumor (GIST) is currently based on morphologic features and immunohistochemical demonstration of KIT (CD117). However, some tumors (in our estimation approximately 4%) have clinicopathologic features of GIST but do not express KIT. To determine if these lesions are truly GISTs, we evaluated 25 tumors with clinical and histologic features typical of GIST, but with negative KIT immunohistochemistry, for KIT and PDGFRA mutations using DNA extracted from paraffin-embedded tissue. Most tumors originated in the stomach (N = 14) or omentum/mesentery (N = 5). The neoplasms were composed of epithelioid cells (13 cases), admixed epithelioid and spindle cells (8 cases), or spindle cells (4 cases). Absence of KIT expression was confirmed by immunoblotting in 5 cases. Tumor karyotypes performed in 4 cases were noncomplex with monosomy 14 or 14q deletion, typical of GIST. Mutational analysis revealed PDGFRA and KIT mutations in 18 and 4 tumors, respectively, whereas 3 tumors did not have apparent KIT or PDGFRA mutations. The PDGFRA mutations primarily involved exon 18 (N = 15) and included 11 tumors with missense mutation in codon 842 (PDGFRA D842V or D842Y). In conclusion, a small subset of GISTs with otherwise typical clinicopathologic and cytogenetic features do not express detectable KIT protein. When compared with KIT-positive GISTs, these KIT-negative GISTs are more likely to have epithelioid cell morphology, contain PDGFRA oncogenic mutations, and arise in the omentum/peritoneal surface. Notably, some KIT-negative GISTs contain imatinib-sensitive KIT or PDGFRA mutations; therefore, patients with KIT-negative GISTs should not, a priori, be denied imatinib therapy.
24297216
Myxoid epithelioid gastrointestinal stromal tumor (GIST) with mast cell infiltrations: a subtype of GIST with mutations of platelet-derived growth factor receptor alpha gene.
We analyzed 30 gastrointestinal stromal tumors (GISTs) that were immunohistochemically weak or negative for KIT. Histologically, all 30 GISTs consisted of epithelioid tumor cells in at least a part of the tumor. The tumor cells showed different morphologies and arranged themselves in different histological patterns. In 20 of the 30 GISTs, round or oval epithelioid tumor cells often showed a less cohesive pattern of growth and showed eosinophilic cytoplasm and peripherally placed nuclei with myxoid stroma, whereas in the remaining 10 cases, tumor cells were arranged in a more cohesive pattern without myxoid stroma. The former type of tumors is called myxoid epithelioid GISTs in this study. Subsequent mutational analyses showed that the platelet-derived growth factor receptor alpha (PDGFRA) gene mutations in exon 12 or exon 18 were identified in 20 (66.7%) of the 30 GISTs, and especially in 18 (90%) of the 20 myxoid epithelioid GISTs. Moreover, 17 (85%) of the 20 myxoid epithelioid GISTs were accompanied by mast cell infiltrations within the tumor nodules. In the remaining cases, 2 (6.7%) of the 30 GISTs had c-kit gene mutations in exon 11, and no mutation was found in 8 (26.7%) of 30 GISTs. None of the patients with myxoid epithelioid GISTs died of disease. These results suggest that myxoid epithelioid GISTs are a distinct subtype of GISTs that are closely correlated with the PDGFRA gene mutation and that recognition of such histological characteristics should be helpful for molecular subclassification of GISTs that are important for molecular targeting therapy by imatinib mesylate (STI571).
9019135
Clinicopathologic study of primary malignant gastrointestinal stromal tumor of the stomach, with special reference to prognostic factors: analysis of results in 140 surgically resected patients
Abstract.Background: Malignant gastrointestinal stromal tumors (GISTs), previously termed leiomyosarcomas or epithelioid leiomyosarcomas, are known to show wide variability in their malignancy. We evaluated the clinicopathological features of a large number of primary malignant gastric GISTs to clarify which features were independent prognostic factors.Methods: Clinicopathologic features (age, sex, tumor location, mode of growth and size, surgical method, ulceration, cell type, nuclear atypia, cellularity, mitotic index, growth pattern, necrosis, hemorrhage, direct tumor invasion, peripheral lymphoid cuffing, expression of α-smooth muscle actin [α-SMA], desmin, caldesmon, vimentin, CD34, c-kit protein and S-100 protein, and MIB-1 index) were evaluated by multivariate analysis in 140 patients with resected primary malignant gastric GISTs to identify independent prognostic factors.Results: Univariate analysis showed that each of the following factors had a significant deleterious influence on prognosis: male sex, tumor size 10 cm or more, presence of ulceration, an epithelioid cell component, severe nuclear atypia, high cellularity, a mitotic index of more than 10, an exogastric or invasive growth pattern, necrosis, hemorrhage, direct tumor invasion of surrounding tissue, negative caldesmon immunoreactivity, positive S-100 protein immunoreactivity, and a MIB-1 antigen labeling index of more than 10%. Multivariate analysis showed that male sex, tumor size 10 cm or more, presence of an epithelioid cell component, and a mitotic index of more than 10 were statistically significant indicators of a poor prognosis (P = 0.013, 0.001, 0.014, and <0.001, respectively). Multivariate analysis using the MIB-1 index instead of a mitotic count showed that male sex, tumor size 10 cm or more, presence of necrosis, and a MIB-1 antigen labeling index of more than 10% were independent predictors of a poor prognosis (P = 0.009, 0.001, 0.043, and <0.001, respectively).Conclusion: Male sex, tumor size 10 cm or more, and cell proliferation as estimated by the mitotic index or MIB-1 index are independent indicators of a poor prognosis in primary malignant gastric GIST.
24084566
Treatment and Risk Factors for Recurrence after Curative Resection of Gastrointestinal Stromal Tumors of the Stomach
The current definitive treatment for gastrointestinal stromal tumor (GIST) of the stomach is complete resection. GIST has a highly variable clinical course, and recurrent disease sometimes develops despite curative treatment. Although several known risk factors for recurrence exist, adequate treatment strategies are lacking. This study evaluated factors associated with relapse after curative treatment. Sixty patients with gastric GIST were identified from a hospital disease registry database. Clinicopathologic characteristics of these patients were reviewed and the Cox proportional hazards regression analysis was used to identify recurrent risk factors. With a median follow-up of 60 months (range 5–286 months), recurrence occurred in eight (13%) patients, three of whom underwent resection of the recurrent disease and are alive to date. Univariate analysis demonstrated that invasion of the adjacent organs (p = 0.0005), tumor size (p = 0.0046), and expression of proliferative markers [MIB-1 proliferative index (PI) ≥ 10%] (p = 0.0001) were significant risk factors for recurrence. Multivariate analysis with these three factors as variables revealed that only MIB-1 PI was a significant independent risk factor for recurrence (p = 0.0051). In conclusion, surgical resection may be indicated whenever a recurrent GIST is considered resectable. A high MIB-1 PI was identified as an independent indicator of risk for recurrent disease following curative surgery.
21289606
NCCN Task Force report: optimal management of patients with gastrointestinal stromal tumor (GIST)--expansion and update of NCCN clinical practice guidelines.
NCCN's Sarcoma Clinical Practice Guidelines in Oncology include a subsection regarding treatment recommendations on gastrointestinal stromal tumors (GISTs). GIST is one area of medicine where the standard of practice has been affected rapidly and dramatically by the introduction of effective molecularly targeted therapy for this disease. There are few examples in modern medicine in which the implementation of new technologies into practice has so radically and rapidly affected clinical diagnostic strategies and treatments with significant implications for the care of patients. Because of these recent changes, NCCN organized a broad multidisciplinary panel composed of experts in the fields of diagnostic radiology, pathology, molecular diagnostics, surgery, medical oncology, and radiation oncology to discuss the optimal approach for the care of patients with GIST at all stages of the disease. The GIST task force is composed of NCCN faculty and other key experts from North America, comprising the United States and Canada. The purpose of this meeting was to expand on the existing NCCN clinical practice guidelines for gastrointestinal sarcomas and to identify areas of future research to optimize our understanding and treatment of this disease.
26672774
Prognostic factors influencing survival in gastrointestinal leiomyosarcomas. Implications for surgical management and staging.
The appropriate surgical therapeutic options for either localized or more advanced disease in patients with gastrointestinal leiomyosarcomas remain unclear. A staging classification for this disease has not been adopted nor risk factors identifying patients at risk for recurrence defined. To address these issues, this study evaluated the influence of various clinicopathologic variables on overall and disease-free survival. In an univariate analysis of overall survival involving 191 patients, the Cox proportional hazards model identified four factors that were associated with a significantly better outcome: complete resection without tumor rupture (p less than 0.001), localized lesions (p less than 0.001), low grade of tumor (p = 0.02), and tumors smaller than 5 cm (p = 0.03). When interactive effects of these factors were taken into account, however, type of resection of the tumor was selected as the only significant prognostic factor in a multivariate analysis. Complete resection without tumor rupture improved overall survival of patients with localized disease (median, 46 months) as well as those with contiguous organ invasion (median, 36 months) or peritoneal implants (median, 36 months). In contrast, patients with incomplete resections survived for a median of 21 months. Patients with tumor rupture, despite removal of all gross disease, behaved similarly to those with incomplete resections; median survival was only 17 months. For disease-free survival, important determinants selected from a multivariate analysis were tumor rupture (p = 0.002), contiguous organ invasion (p = 0.02) and high tumor grade (p = 0.02). A staging classification incorporating these prognostic factors of significance was evaluated using a TGM system: T1 (less than 5 cm), T2 (greater than or equal to 5 cm), T3 (contiguous organ invasion or peritoneal implants), T4 (tumor rupture); G: G1 (low grade), G2 (high grade); M: M0 (no metastases), M1 (metastases present). The corresponding 5-year overall survivals for stages I, II, III, IVA, and IVB were 75%, 52%, 28%, 12%, and 7%. Disease-free survival at 2 years after surgery was 89%, 57%, and 47% for stages I, II, and III, respectively. In conclusion, surgery remains the primary modality of treatment for patients with gastrointestinal leiomyosarcomas, and complete resection of all disease without tumor rupture, even of locally advanced disease, improves overall and disease-free survival. A staging classification appears feasible and is recommended to determine outcome in patients with leiomyosarcomas arising from the gastrointestinal tract.
29651095
Clinical management of gastrointestinal stromal tumors: before and after STI-571.
Gastrointestinal stromal tumor (GIST) is the most common mesenchymal neoplasm of the gastrointestinal tract. Until recently, surgery has been the only effective therapy for GIST. However, even after complete resection of tumor, many patients still eventually die of disease recurrence. Conventional chemotherapy and radiation therapy have been of limited value. Within the last few years, it was discovered that most GISTs have a gain-of-function mutation in the c-kit proto-oncogene. This results in ligand-independent activation of the KIT receptor tyrosine kinase and an unopposed stimulus for cell growth. STI-571 is a small molecule that selectively inhibits the enzymatic activity of the ABL, platelet-derived growth factor receptor, and KIT tyrosine kinases and the BCR-ABL fusion protein and is a landmark development in cancer therapy. Its clinical development marks a new era of rational and targeted molecular inhibition of cancer that emanates from direct collaborations between scientists and clinicians. It provides proof of the principle that a specific molecular inhibitor can drastically and selectively alter the survival of a neoplastic cell with a particular genetic aberration. The advent of STI-571 has markedly altered the clinical approach to GIST. It has proven to be effective in metastatic GIST and is also under investigation as a neoadjuvant and adjuvant therapy.
36309563
Two hundred gastrointestinal stromal tumors: recurrence patterns and prognostic factors for survival.
OBJECTIVE
To analyze the outcome of 200 patients with gastrointestinal stromal tumor (GIST) who were treated at a single institution and followed up prospectively.


SUMMARY BACKGROUND DATA
A GIST is a visceral sarcoma that arises from the gastrointestinal tract. Surgical resection is the mainstay of treatment because adjuvant therapy is unproven.


METHODS
Two hundred patients with malignant GIST were admitted and treated at Memorial Hospital during the past 16 years. Patient, tumor, and treatment variables were analyzed to identify patterns of tumor recurrence and factors that predict survival.


RESULTS
Of the 200 patients, 46% had primary disease without metastasis, 47% had metastasis, and 7% had isolated local recurrence. In patients with primary disease who underwent complete resection of gross disease (n = 80), the 5-year actuarial survival rate was 54%, and survival was predicted by tumor size but not microscopic margins of resection. Recurrence of disease after resection was predominantly intraabdominal and involved the original tumor site, peritoneum, and liver.


CONCLUSIONS
GISTs are uncommon sarcomas. Tumor size predicts disease-specific survival in patients with primary disease who undergo complete gross resection. Tumor recurrence tends to be intraabdominal. Investigational protocols are indicated to reduce the rate of recurrence after resection and to improve the outcome for patients with GIST.
39856972
Prognostic implications of patterns of failure for gastrointestinal leiomyosarcomas
One hundred ninety‐one patients with gastrointestinal leiomyosarcomas were analyzed to determine the prevalence in patterns of failure and the factors predicting those at higher risk of relapse at specific sites. Of 100 assessable patients who died of disease, 89% were found to have peritoneal tumor, 78% had liver metastases, and 32% had extraabdominal metastases. Of 132 patients (69%) with initial complete resection of the primary tumor, only 10% (n = 13) remained free of disease as of the last follow‐up. The median interval to recurrence was 18 months; 60% of all recurrences occurred within 2 years after surgery. Half of these patients (n = 61) had metastases (predominantly in the liver) as the initial recurrence. Factors significantly associated with improved survival after relapse were initial disease‐free interval of 18 months or more, recurrences either isolated to the peritoneal cavity or within the liver, or complete resection of peritoneal recurrences or liver metastases. In contrast, those patients with recurrences at multiple sites or unresectable disease had significantly shorter survival times. The presence of extraabdominal metastases also heralded an equally poor outcome. In conclusion, a multi‐modality approach is necessary to improve outcome from this disease because the liver and peritoneal cavity represent predominant sites of failure. Complete resection of isolated peritoneal or hepatic metastases improves survival and should be attempted when feasible. Cancer 1992; 69:1334‐1341.
21313351
Myosarcomas of the stomach: Natural history, prognostic factors and management
A retrospective study was made of 41 patients treated for gastric myosarcoma to identify prognostic factors that influence results. The adjusted five‐ and ten‐year survival rates were 56% and 43% respectively, with no significant difference between leiomyosarcoma and malignant leiomyoblastoma. A histopathologic grade of malignancy could be assigned to each tumor according to the degree of hypercellularity, nuclear abnormality, mitotic rate and other characteristics. High histopathologic grade, large tumor size (<5 cm diameter) and invasion of adjacent organs adversely affected prognosis. Five‐year survival after curative treatment was: 100% (9/9) for small tumors, of which six were treated by wedge gastric resection; 67% (8/12) for large tumors, mostly after subtotal gastrectomy; and 0% for tumors that invaded adjacent organs, despite extended resections. It is concluded that the management of gastric myosarcomas can be planned according to these prognostic factors and that multimodal therapy of tumors with adverse factors warrants consideration.
2095684
Protein tyrosine kinase structure and function.
Tyrosine phosphorylation is one of the key covalent modifications that occurs in multicellular organisms as a result of intercellular communication during embryogenesis and maintenance of adult tissues. The enzymes that carry out this modification are the protein tyrosine kinases (PTKs), which catalyze the transfer of the phosphate of ATP to tyrosine residues on protein substrates. Phosphorylation of tyrosine residues modulates enzymatic activity and creates binding sites for the recruitment of downstream signaling proteins. Two classes of PTKs are present in cells: the transmembrane receptor PTKs and the nonreceptor PTKs. Because PTKs are critical components of cellular signaling pathways, their catalytic activity is strictly regulated. Over the past several years, high-resolution structural studies of PTKs have provided a molecular basis for understanding the mechanisms by which receptor and nonreceptor PTKs are regulated. This review will highlight the important results that have emerged from these structural studies.
4428819
Oncogenic kinase signalling
Protein-tyrosine kinases (PTKs) are important regulators of intracellular signal-transduction pathways mediating development and multicellular communication in metazoans. Their activity is normally tightly controlled and regulated. Perturbation of PTK signalling by mutations and other genetic alterations results in deregulated kinase activity and malignant transformation. The lipid kinase phosphoinositide 3-OH kinase (PI(3)K) and some of its downstream targets, such as the protein-serine/threonine kinases Akt and p70 S6 kinase (p70S6K), are crucial effectors in oncogenic PTK signalling. This review emphasizes how oncogenic conversion of protein kinases results from perturbation of the normal autoinhibitory constraints on kinase activity and provides an update on our knowledge about the role of deregulated PI(3)K/Akt and mammalian target of rapamycin/p70S6K signalling in human malignancies.
3626512
ErbB receptors: new insights on mechanisms and biology.
The ErbB family of four receptor tyrosine kinases occupies a central role in a wide variety of biological processes from neuronal development to breast cancer. New information continues to expand their biologic significance and to unravel the molecular mechanisms that underlie the signaling capacity of these receptors. Here, we review several aspects of ErbB receptor physiology for which new and significant information is available. These include ligand-dependent receptor dimerization and kinase activation, which is a prerequisite for all subsequent growth factor-dependent cell responses. We also address novel roles of receptor fragments in signaling, trafficking to intracellular sites, such as the nucleus, and ErbB roles in non-cancer disease processes, including schizophrenia, chronic renal disease, hypertension, and the cellular entry of infectious pathogens.
25238457
Nonhematopoietic tumor cell lines express stem cell factor and display c-kit receptors.
Human stem cell factor (SCF) acts in the presence of other growth factors to stimulate the growth of primitive hematopoietic progenitor cells. These effects are performed by activation of the SCF receptor, c-kit. Because of the potential use of SCF in patients undergoing chemotherapy and bone marrow transplantation, the effect of SCF on nonhematopoietic tumors requires investigation. To determine whether human tumor cell lines display c-kit receptors, we performed binding experiments with 125I-SCF on a breast carcinoma cell line (Du4475), a gastric carcinoma cell line (KATO III), a melanoma cell line (HTT144), as well as two small cell lung carcinoma cell lines (H69 and H128). The biologic effect of SCF on tumor cell lines was assessed by its ability to stimulate tritiated thymidine uptake and to enhance colony growth in methylcellulose. The breast carcinoma cell line, Du4475, as well as two small cell lung carcinoma cell lines, H69 and H128, exhibit high-affinity c-kit receptors with approximate binding affinities of 40, 100, and 90 pmol/L, respectively. The number of high-affinity receptors per cell ranged from 700 to 9,500. The gastric carcinoma cell line, as well as the melanoma cell line, showed trace binding of 125I-SCF. In the presence of SCF alone, or in combination with granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor or interleukin-3, there was less than a 17% increase in the colony growth of Du4475, H69, or H128 cell lines. Postulating that the lack of growth response could be secondary to endogenous SCF production by the tumor cell lines, we used an RNAse protection assay to determine whether the tumor cell lines contain SCF messenger RNA (mRNA). In addition, we tested tumor cell line supernatants for the presence of secreted SCF protein by enzyme immunoassay, and analyzed the tumor cell lines for membrane-bound SCF by indirect immunofluorescence. Our results show that the Du4475, H69, and H128 cell lines, as well as a melanoma cell line (HTT144), have multiple copies of SCF mRNA. Soluble SCF protein was detected in the cell supernatants in the Du4475 and H69 cell lines and SCF was found on the surface of all four cell lines. These data show that some human solid tumor cell lines display high-affinity c-kit receptors and produce SCF, which can be detected on the cell surface. These results suggest the possibility that autocrine production of SCF by c-kit receptor-bearing tumor cells may enhance cell growth in tumor cell lines.
25069206
The hematopoietic growth factor KL is encoded by the SI locus and is the ligand of the c-kit receptor, the gene product of the W locus
Mutations at the steel locus (Sl) of the mouse affect the same cellular targets as mutations at the white spotting locus (W), which is allelic with the c-kit proto-oncogene. We show that KL, a hematopoietic growth factor obtained from conditioned medium of BALB/c 3T3 fibroblasts that stimulates the proliferation of mast cells and early erythroid progenitors, specifically binds to the c-kit receptor. The predicted amino acid sequence of isolated KL-specific cDNA clones suggests that KL is synthesized as an integral transmembrane protein. Linkage analysis maps the KL gene to the Sl locus on mouse chromosome 10, and KL sequences are deleted in the genome of the Sl mouse. These results indicate that the Sl locus encodes the ligand of the c-kit receptor, KL.
33190135
Inhibition of parietal cell H+ secretion by transforming growth factor alpha: a possible autocrine regulatory mechanism.
Transforming growth factor-alpha (TGF alpha) and TGF alpha/epidermal growth factor receptor messenger ribonucleic acid have recently been demonstrated in isolated parietal cells. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of TGF alpha on basal and stimulated secretion in vitro with the isolated rabbit parietal cell model. Acid secretion was assessed indirectly with cell uptake of carbon 14-labeled aminopyrine [( 14C]AP). TGF alpha (10(-11) to 10(-7) mol/L) had no effect on unstimulated [14C]AP uptake. TGF alpha dose dependently inhibited histamine (10(-5) to 10(-6) mol/L)-stimulated but not forskolin (10(-5) to 10(-7) mol/L)-stimulated [14C]AP uptake. This effect on histamine-stimulated activation was reversed by pertussis toxin (200 ng/ml) before incubation. TGF alpha had no effect on carbachol (10(-5) to 10(-6) mol/L)-stimulated [14C]AP uptake. Specific HCO3-buffer studies demonstrated that these observations were independent of extracellular buffer and possible TGF alpha effects on intracellular pH. Our data indicate that TGF alpha inhibits acid secretion by specifically uncoupling histamine/cyclic adenosine monophosphate transduction at the guanosine triphosphate-binding protein. TGF alpha, unlike epidermal growth factor, has no effect on carbachol stimulation, which suggests a qualitative difference between the biologic actions of TGF alpha and epidermal growth factor. Possible autocrine-paracrine modulation of histamine stimulation by TGF alpha invokes a novel regulatory mechanism of parietal cell secretion.
247912
TGF-alpha is a potent mitogen for primary cultures of guinea pig gastric mucous epithelial cells.
Transforming growth factor-alpha (TGF-alpha) and epidermal growth factor (EGF) are thought to be important in gastric epithelial proliferation and repair. It was therefore of interest to determine if TGF-alpha and EGF promoted the growth of an in vitro primary culture system of guinea pig gastric mucous epithelial cells (MEC). MEC were isolated from guinea pig stomachs and cultured in 24-well Primaria plates with DMEM with or without 10% fetal calf serum (FCS). Growth of MEC was determined by changes in [3H]thymidine uptake, cell counts, protein, and DNA. The sources of peptides were human recombinant TGF-alpha (recTGF-alpha) and human recombinant EGF (recEGF). Both recTGF-alpha and recEGF were used at equipotent doses as determined by competing activity in a 125I-labeled TGF-alpha radioreceptor binding assay using A-431 cells. Basal growth (no peptides) of MEC in 10% FCS was dependent on the initial plating density. Under serum-free conditions, [3H]thymidine uptake increased up to 17-fold at 24 h with recTGF-alpha (0.1-10.0 nM) compared with only a 4-fold increase using rec-EGF (0.1-10.0 nM) at this same time period. Under serum-free conditions, recTGF-alpha (0.01-10.0 nM) increased cell counts up to 4.9-fold over control cultures, whereas similar does of recEGF produced a 2.5-fold increase in cell counts. Administration of recEGF 1 ng/ml) resulted in a 1.9-fold increase in the 4.8-kb TGF-alpha mRNA transcript, and TGF-alpha protein immunoreactivity was found in both 24-h conditioned media and cell lysates.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)
1819397
Mitogenic response of canine fundic epithelial cells in short-term culture to transforming growth factor alpha and insulinlike growth factor I.
We report methods allowing the culture of rapidly dividing gastric epithelial cells to investigate the regulation of mucosal cell replication. Cells from canine fundic mucosa were dispersed by enzyme treatment, enriched by filtration and elutriation, and cultured on collagen gel in DMEM/F12 medium. After 48 h, greater than 95% of the cells displayed immunoreactivity with antibody to cytokeratin, an epithelial marker. The cells formed confluent monolayers by 72 h with a transmembrane resistance of 1,600 ohm.cm2 when mounted in a Ussing chamber indicating retention of epithelial cell characteristics. Calf serum (0.1-2%) produced a dose-dependent mitogenic effect evident by increases in [3H]-thymidine incorporation into acid-precipitated material and in cell number. After an 18-24-h incubation with [3H]-thymidine, approximately 55% of the cells cultured in 2% serum showed evidence of DNA synthesis by autoradiography and all of the replicating cells were cytokeratin positive. Using comparable culture conditions, a similar proportion of cells incubated for 18-24 h with bromodeoxyuridine displayed nuclear anti-bromodeoxyuridine immunoreactivity, thus indicating that over half of the cells in these cultures synthesized DNA during this period. As with serum, epidermal growth factor and transforming growth factor alpha (TGF alpha) (10 pM to 1 nM), insulin (10 nM to 1 microM) and insulinlike growth factor-I (IGF-I, 1-100 nM) increased [3H]-thymidine uptake. The greater potency of IGF-I, compared to insulin, suggests the presence of IGF-I receptors. We conclude that this culture preparation is composed of fundic mucosal epithelial cells and contains a predominance of dividing epithelial cells. EGF/TGF alpha and IGF-I are potential factors directly regulating proliferation of fundic mucosal cells.
25118253
Acceleration of mammary neoplasia in transforming growth factor alpha transgenic mice by 7,12-dimethylbenzanthracene.
A mouse mammary tumor virus enhancer/promoter-transforming growth factor alpha transgenic mouse model has been described in which mammary tumors develop (Y. Matsui et al., Cell, 61: 1147-1155, 1990). In Line 29, spontaneous mammary tumors do not develop before 300 days of age in virgin females. Herein, Line 29 virgin females and their nontransgenic littermates have been treated with 7,12-dimethylbenzanthracene (DMBA) at varying dosages and times. Orogastric instillation of a single dose of DMBA (0.5 mg) dramatically accelerates mammary tumor formation when administered to 21- and 56-day-old virgin transgenic females compared to their nontransgenic littermates. The latency period for tumor formation is significantly shorter in transgenic mice treated with DMBA at 56 days compared to transgenic mice treated with DMBA at 21 days when results are analyzed by time from DMBA administration. To determine whether differences in the proliferative state of the mammary gland may contribute to these findings, bromodeoxyuridine incorporation was examined in the mammary glands of untreated 21- and 56-day-old mice. No differences in bromodeoxyuridine incorporation were detected between 21-day-old transgenic and nontransgenic mice. However, there was a marked increase in bromodeoxyuridine incorporation in the epithelial cells comprising the smaller ducts of 56-day-old transgenic mice compared to their nontransgenic littermates. These data indicate an enhancing interaction between a growth factor and a genotoxic carcinogen in mammary tumorigenesis and provide evidence that the transforming growth factor alpha transgene acts as a tumor promoter in this experimental model.
11100989
Development of mammary hyperplasia and neoplasia in MMTV-TGF alpha transgenic mice.
To study the role of transforming growth factor alpha (TGF alpha) in normal mammary development and mammary neoplasia in vivo, we have generated transgenic mice in which a human TGF alpha cDNA is expressed under the control of the MMTV enhancer/promoter. Overexpression of TGF alpha in the mammary epithelium, as confirmed by in situ hybridization and immunohistochemistry, is associated with hyperplasia of alveoli and terminal ducts in virgin female and pregnant transgenic mice. A range of morphologic abnormalities including lobular hyperplasia, cystic hyperplasia, adenoma, and adenocarcinoma is seen in mammary tissue of transgenic females. In contrast, no morphologic abnormalities are seen in transgenic males in spite of TGF alpha overexpression in salivary glands and reproductive organs. TGF alpha can therefore act as an oncogene in vivo and appears to predispose mammary epithelium to neoplasia and carcinoma.
25848488
Immunolocalization of transforming growth factor-alpha in normal and diseased human gastric mucosa.
Roles for transforming growth factor-alpha (TGF alpha) in the stomach include cell migration and proliferation, inhibition of acid secretion, and cytoprotection. The authors have previously shown increased TGF alpha expression in rat gastric mucosa in response to acute gastric injury. They also have shown that TGF alpha immunoreactivity is increased in the gastric mucosa of four patients with Ménétrier's disease. To further characterize TGF alpha immunoreactivity in human gastric mucosa, the authors have performed immunohistochemical analysis with an anti-TGF alpha monoclonal antibody on human gastric biopsies (n = 25) showing either normal (n = 8), mild reactive/reparative change in common conditions with or without associated gastritis (n = 13), and exaggerated mucosal change in proliferative conditions (Ménétrier's disease, hypertrophic lymphocytic gastritis, and hyperplastic polyps) (n = 17). All normal biopsies showed a predictable pattern of TGF alpha immunostaining, with significant positivity found only in foveolar cells at the luminal surface and parietal cells, sparing foveolar cells in the gastric pits, mucous neck cells and chief cells of the gastric glands. Three patients with mild foveolar hyperplasia without associated inflammation did not deviate from the normal pattern except in foci of reactive epithelial change. Ten of 11 patients with chronic active gastritis, in addition to this normal staining pattern, demonstrated significant immunoreactivity in deeper foveolar cells and mucous neck cells showing reactive epithelial changes, defined as the presence of nuclear enlargement and nucleolar prominence with or without mucin depletion. Three cases of ulceration with associated reactive epithelial changes also showed increased immunoreactivity. Furthermore, five cases of Ménétrier's disease with massive foveolar hyperplasia and minimal inflammation (MFH) and six cases with hypertrophic lymphocytic gastritis (HLG) have been studied, and both show full-thickness TGF alpha immunoreactivity restricted to the gastric epithelium. This pattern of staining is indistinguishable from that observed in two cases of hyperplastic polyps but differs significantly from that observed in cases of mild foveolar hyperplasia. These results further define patterns of TGF alpha immunostaining in normal, reactive/reparative and exaggerated proliferative human gastric biopsies, confirm participation of TGF alpha in the response to gastric mucosal injury, and provide additional support for a possible role for TGF alpha in the pathogenesis of proliferative gastric disorders including Ménétrier's disease, hypertrophic lymphocytic gastritis, and hyperplastic gastric polyps.
34566121
Regulation of terminal differentiation of zymogenic cells by transforming growth factor alpha in transgenic mice.
BACKGROUND/AIMS
Transforming growth factor (TGF) alpha affects the growth of gastric mucosa. Its overexpression alters the mucosa. The aim of this study was to test the possibility that it regulates differentiation of gland cells.


METHODS
Transgenic mice that overexpress TGF-alpha were used to detect its effect on zymogenic (chief) cells in the stomach. To test for a general regulatory role of TGF-alpha in differentiation of zymogen-producing cells, salivary glands from transgenic mice were studied.


RESULTS
In these mice, messenger RNA for pepsinogen C is present in the stomach at normal levels during the neonatal period and then decreases markedly. Zymogenic cells are present in the stomach during the neonatal period but are missing in transgenic adults. The bases of gastric glands, normally rich in zymogenic cells, are occupied by undifferentiated cells and mucous neck cells, the precursors of zymogenic cells. Zymogen granules in submandibular glands of transgenic female mice are reduced in number. Zymogen granule-containing cells in the parotid gland undergo redifferentiation to form tubular complexes, collections of ductularlike structures like those formed in the transgenic pancreas.


CONCLUSIONS
TGF-alpha is a major participant in the regulation of terminal differentiation of zymogenic cells in the stomach and salivary glands.
15358427
Integrative roles of transforming growth factor-α in the cytoprotection mechanisms of gastric mucosal injury
BackgroundTransforming growth factor α (TGFα) protects against gastric mucosal injury and facilitates wound healing. However, its overexpression is known to induce hypertrophic gastropathy resembling Menetrier's disease in transgenic (TG) mice on an FVB background, as one of the authors reported previously. We studied another TGFα-expressing mouse line on a CD1 background, whose gastric mucosa appears normal. Since this TG mouse had a strong resistance to ethanol-induced gastric injury, we considered the long-term effect of TGFα on several gastric protection mechanisms.MethodsTGFα-expressing transgenic (TG) mouse lines bearing human TGFα cDNA under the control of the mouse metallothionein gene I promoter were generated on a CD1 mouse background, and analyzed their ethanol injury-resistant phenotypes produced by TGFα.ResultsIn the TG mucosa, blood flow was well maintained after ethanol injury. Further, neural and inducible types of NO synthases were consistently and widely expressed in the TG mucosa, compared with the limited distribution of neural type NO synthase in the luminal pit region of the wild-type (WT) mucosa. COX-2 and its upstream transcription factor NfkB were constitutively elevated in the TG mucosa even before ethanol administration, whereas they were induced in the same region of the WT mucosa only after ethanol injury. Two anti-apoptotic proteins, HSP70 and Bcl-2, were upregulated in the TG mucosa even before ethanol administration, while they were not expressed in the WT mucosa before the injury. Furthermore, pro-caspase 3 activation was inhibited in the TG mucosa, while it was converted to the active form in the WT mucosa following ethanol administration.ConclusionWe conclude that TGFα maintains the gastric mucosal defense against gastric injury by integrating other cytoprotective mechanisms.
7399961
Ménétrier disease of childhood: role of cytomegalovirus and transforming growth factor alpha.
OBJECTIVE
Because the role of cytomegalovirus in Ménétrier disease in children remains unclear and recent studies have implicated transforming growth factor alpha in the pathogenesis of this disease in adults, we investigated the possibilities that (1) cytomegalovirus is etiologic in Ménétrier disease in children and (2) transforming growth factor alpha mediates its development.


METHODS
The presence of a cytomegaloviral infection and the pattern of transforming growth factor alpha immunolocalization were determined in the gastric mucosa of four pediatric patients with Ménétrier disease, in control subjects (children with normal gastric mucosa, gastritis, or prostaglandin E1-induced antral hyperplasia), and in adults with Ménétrier disease.


RESULTS
Evidence of a cytomegaloviral infection was present only in the four children with Ménétrier disease. The pattern of transforming growth factor alpha immunostaining was identical in the specimens from pediatric and adult patients with Ménétrier disease. This pattern was distinct from that found in the pediatric control specimens.


CONCLUSIONS
These data strengthen the possibilities that cytomegalovirus is etiologic in children and that transforming growth factor alpha is involved in the pathogenesis of Ménétrier disease in both children and adults.
4339957
Epidermal growth factor receptor is a cellular receptor for human cytomegalovirus
Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) is a widespread opportunistic herpesvirus that causes severe and fatal diseases in immune-compromised individuals, including organ transplant recipients and individuals with AIDS. It is also a leading cause of virus-associated birth defects and is associated with atherosclerosis and coronary restenosis. HCMV initiates infection and intracellular signalling by binding to its cognate cellular receptors and by activating several signalling pathways including those mediated by mitogen-activated protein kinase, phosphatidylinositol-3-OH kinase, interferons, and G proteins. But a cellular receptor responsible for viral entry and HCMV-induced signalling has yet to be identified. Here we show that HCMV infects cells by interacting with epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) and inducing signalling. Transfecting EGFR-negative cells with an EGFR complementary DNA renders non-susceptible cells susceptible to HCMV. Ligand displacement and crosslinking analyses show that HCMV interacts with EGFR through gB, its principal envelope glycoprotein. gB preferentially binds EGFR and EGFR–ErbB3 oligomeric molecules in Chinese hamster ovary cells transfected with erbB family cDNAs. Taken together, these data indicate that EGFR is a necessary component for HCMV-triggered signalling and viral entry.
5100637
Progress toward an elusive goal: current status of cytomegalovirus vaccines
Although infection with human cytomegalovirus (CMV) is ubiquitous and generally asymptomatic in most individuals, certain patient populations are at high risk for CMV-associated disease. These include HIV-infected individuals with AIDS, transplant patients, and newborn infants with congenital CMV infection. Immunity to CMV infection, both in the transplant setting and among women of childbearing age, plays a vital role in the control of CMV-induced injury and disease. Although immunity induced by CMV infection is not completely protective against reinfection, there is nevertheless a sound basis on which to believe that vaccination could help control CMV disease in high-risk patient populations. Evidence from several animal models of CMV infection indicates that a variety of vaccine strategies are capable of inducing immune responses sufficient to protect against CMV-associated illness following viral challenge. Vaccination has also proven effective in improving pregnancy outcomes following CMV challenge of pregnant guinea pigs, providing a ‘proof-of-principle’ relevant to human clinical trials of CMV vaccines. Although there are no licensed vaccines currently available for human CMV, progress toward this goal has been made, as evidenced by ongoing clinical trial testing of a number of immunization strategies. CMV vaccines currently in various stages of preclinical and clinical testing include: protein subunit vaccines; DNA vaccines; vectored vaccines using viral vectors, such as attenuated pox- and alphaviruses; peptide vaccines; and live attenuated vaccines. This review summarizes some of the obstacles that must be overcome in development of a CMV vaccine, and provides an overview of the current state of preclinical and clinical trial evaluation of vaccines for this important public health problem.
22848284
Gain-of-function mutations of c-kit in human gastrointestinal stromal tumors.
Gastrointestinal stromal tumors (GISTs) are the most common mesenchymal tumors in the human digestive tract, but their molecular etiology and cellular origin are unknown. Sequencing of c-kit complementary DNA, which encodes a proto-oncogenic receptor tyrosine kinase (KIT), from five GISTs revealed mutations in the region between the transmembrane and tyrosine kinase domains. All of the corresponding mutant KIT proteins were constitutively activated without the KIT ligand, stem cell factor (SCF). Stable transfection of the mutant c-kit complementary DNAs induced malignant transformation of Ba/F3 murine lymphoid cells, suggesting that the mutations contribute to tumor development. GISTs may originate from the interstitial cells of Cajal (ICCs) because the development of ICCs is dependent on the SCF-KIT interaction and because, like GISTs, these cells express both KIT and CD34.
20295477
KIT mutations are common in incidental gastrointestinal stromal tumors one centimeter or less in size.
Gastrointestinal stromal tumors (GISTs) are mesenchymal neoplasms of the gut wall that express the receptor tyrosine kinase KIT. Somatic mutations that result in constitutive activation of KIT kinase have been identified in a number of studies of GISTs, although the reported frequency of these mutations has varied over a wide range (20 to 92%). Several reports have suggested that KIT gene mutations are more common in malignant GISTs than in benign lesions, and it has been proposed that mutations in exon 11 of KIT are a negative prognostic factor. To maximize sensitivity for KIT mutations we have adapted denaturing high-pressure liquid chromatography as a method for screening polymerase chain reaction amplimers of exons 9, 11, 13, and 17 from GIST genomic DNA. This approach was used to assess the frequency of KIT mutations in 13 morphologically benign, incidentally discovered, GISTs identified at autopsy, endoscopy, or laparotomy for unrelated disease. Representing the smallest pathologically recognizable GISTs, these lesions ranged in size from 4 to 10 mm in diameter and were all immunohistochemically positive for KIT. Eleven of the 13 tumors had sequence-confirmed mutations in KIT, including 10 mutations in exon 11 (77%) and one mutation in exon 9 (7.7%). The remaining two tumors were wild type for exons 9, 11, and 17; one of these was also analyzed for exon 13 and was wild type in this exon as well. The mutations found in the incidental GISTs were identical to those that have been documented in larger GISTs. In addition, the overall frequency of mutations in the incidental tumors (85%) did not differ significantly from that we previously reported in a series of 72 advanced/metastatic GISTs (86%), strongly supporting the view that activating mutations in KIT are acquired very early in the development of most GISTs. The findings suggest that KIT mutations per se are of little prognostic importance in GISTs.
20564358
Biology and genetic aspects of gastrointestinal stromal tumors: KIT activation and cytogenetic alterations.
Recent studies have done much to reveal the biological and genetic underpinnings of gastrointestinal stromal tumors (GISTs). Constitutive activation of the KIT receptor tyrosine kinase is a central pathogenetic event in most GISTs and generally results from oncogenic point mutations which can involve either extracellular or cytoplasmic domains of the receptor. Oncogenic mutations enable the KIT receptor to phosphorylate various substrate proteins, leading to activation of signal transduction cascades which regulate cell proliferation, apoptosis, chemotaxis, and adhesion. KIT mutations can be broadly assigned to 2 groups, those that involve the "regulatory" regions responsible for modulating KIT enzymatic activity and those that involve the enzymatic region itself. In vitro studies suggest that GISTs with regulatory-region KIT mutations are more likely to respond to STI-571 than are GISTs with enzymatic-region mutations. A minority of GISTs lack demonstrable KIT mutations, but KIT is nonetheless strongly activated. Such GISTs might contain KIT mutations which are not readily detected by conventional screening methods, or alternately, KIT might be activated by nonmutational mechanisms. Most GISTs have noncomplex cytogenetic profiles, often featuring deletions of chromosomes 14 and 22. Additional chromosomal aberrations are acquired as the GISTs progress to higher histologic grade. These cytogenetic aberrations are undoubtedly important in GIST pathogenesis, but currently they do not play a key role as diagnostic adjuncts.
15772942
Familial gastrointestinal stromal tumor syndrome: phenotypic and molecular features in a kindred.
PURPOSE
Members of a family with hereditary gastrointestinal stromal tumors (GISTs) and a germline KIT oncogene mutation were evaluated for other potential syndrome manifestations. A tumor from the proband was analyzed to compare features with sporadic GISTs.


PATIENTS AND METHODS
Members of a kindred in which six relatives in four consecutive generations comprised an autosomal dominant pattern of documented GISTs and cutaneous lesions underwent physical examination, imaging studies, and germline KIT analysis. A recurrent GIST from the proband was studied using microarray, karyotypic, immunohistochemical, and immunoblotting techniques.


RESULTS
In addition to evidence of multiple GISTs, lentigines, malignant melanoma, and an angioleiomyoma were identified in relatives. A previously reported gain-of-function missense mutation in KIT exon 11 (T --> C) that results in a V559A substitution within the juxtamembrane domain was identified in three family members. The proband's recurrent gastric GIST had a 44,XY-14,-22 karyotype and immunohistochemical evidence of strong diffuse cytoplasmic KIT expression without expression of actin, desmin, or S-100. Immunoblotting showed strong expression of phosphorylated KIT and downstream signaling intermediates (AKT and MAPK) at levels comparable with those reported in sporadic GISTs. cDNA array profiling demonstrated clustering with sporadic GISTs, and expression of GIST markers comparable to sporadic GISTs.


CONCLUSION
These studies provide the first evidence that gene expression and mechanisms of cytogenetic progression and cell signaling are indistinguishable in familial and sporadic GISTs. Current investigations of molecularly targeted therapies in GIST patients provide opportunities to increase the understanding of features of the hereditary syndrome, and risk factors and molecular pathways of the neoplastic phenotypes.
18060664
A knock-in mouse model of gastrointestinal stromal tumor harboring kit K641E.
A mouse model of gastrointestinal stromal tumor (GIST) has been developed by a knock-in gene targeting strategy, which introduced a Kit gene K641E mutation, originally identified in sporadic human GISTs and in the germ line of familial GIST syndrome patients. Homozygous and heterozygous Kit K641E mice develop gastrointestinal pathology with complete penetrance and all Kit K641E homozygotes die by age 30 weeks due to gastrointestinal obstruction by hyperplastic interstitial cells of Cajal (ICC) or GISTs. Heterozygous mice have less extensive ICC hyperplasia and smaller GISTs, suggesting a dose-response relationship between oncogenically activated Kit and ICC proliferation. Immunoprecipitation and Western blotting reveal GISTs to contain abundant phosphorylated/activated Kit. In addition to ICC hyperplasia and GISTs, homozygous Kit K641E mice exhibit loss-of-function Kit phenotypes, including white coat color, decreased numbers of dermal mast cells, and sterility, indicating that despite its oncogenic activity the mutant form cannot accomplish many activities of the wild-type gene. Kit K641E reproduces the pathology associated with the familial GIST syndrome and thus is an excellent model to study Kit pathway activation, ICC biology, GIST pathogenesis, and preclinical validations of GIST therapies and mechanisms of drug resistance.
26060053
PDGFRA mutations in gastrointestinal stromal tumors: frequency, spectrum and in vitro sensitivity to imatinib.
PURPOSE
Gastrointestinal stromal tumors (GISTs) commonly harbor oncogenic mutations of the KIT tyrosine kinase, which is a target for the kinase inhibitor imatinib. A subset of GISTs, however, contains mutations in the homologous kinase platelet derived growth factor receptor alpha (PDGFRA), and the most common of these mutations is resistant to imatinib in vitro. Little is known of the other types of PDGFRA mutations that occur in GISTs.


MATERIALS AND METHODS
We determined the KIT and PDGFRA mutation status of 1,105 unique GISTs using a combination of denaturing high-performance liquid chromatography and direct sequencing.


RESULTS
66 in exon 18, 11 in exon 12, and three in exon 14. Transient expression of representative PDGFRA isoforms in CHO cells revealed imatinib sensitivity of exon 12 mutations (SPDHE566-571R and insertion ER561-562) and an exon 14 substitution (N659K). However, most isoforms with a substitution involving codon D842 in exon 18 (D842V, RD841-842KI, DI842-843IM) were resistant to the drug, with the exception of D842Y. Interestingly, other mutations in exon 18 (D846Y, N848K, Y849K and HDSN845-848P) were all imatinib sensitive. Proliferation studies with BA/F3 cell lines stably expressing selected PDGFRA mutant isoforms supported these findings.


CONCLUSION
Including our cases, there are 289 reported PDGFRA-mutant GISTs, of which 181 (62.6%) had the imatinib-resistant substitution D842V. However, our findings suggest that more than one third of GISTs with PDGFRA mutations may respond to imatinib and that mutation screening may be helpful in the management of these tumors.
11725958
PDGFRA Activating Mutations in Gastrointestinal Stromal Tumors
Most gastrointestinal stromal tumors (GISTs) have activating mutations in the KIT receptor tyrosine kinase, and most patients with GISTs respond well to Gleevec, which inhibits KIT kinase activity. Here we show that ∼35% (14 of 40) of GISTs lacking KITmutations have intragenic activation mutations in the related receptor tyrosine kinase, platelet-derived growth factor receptor α (PDGFRA). Tumors expressing KIT or PDGFRA oncoproteins were indistinguishable with respect to activation of downstream signaling intermediates and cytogenetic changes associated with tumor progression. Thus, KIT and PDGFRA mutations appear to be alternative and mutually exclusive oncogenic mechanisms in GISTs.
23314486
Gain-of-function mutations of platelet-derived growth factor receptor alpha gene in gastrointestinal stromal tumors.
BACKGROUND & AIMS
Most gastrointestinal stromal tumors (GISTs) have gain-of-function mutations of c-kit receptor tyrosine kinase (KIT) gene, but some GISTs do not. We investigated the cause of GISTs without KIT mutations. Because GISTs apparently expressed platelet-derived growth factor receptor (PDGFR) alpha, we examined whether GISTs without KIT mutations had a mutation of PDGFR alpha.


METHODS
Whole coding region of PDGFR alpha complementary DNA (cDNA) was sequenced in GISTs with or without KIT mutations. Mutant PDGFR alpha cDNA was transfected into 293T human embryonic kidney cells, and autophosphorylation of PDGFR alpha was examined. Proliferation of Ba/F3 murine lymphoid cells stably transfected with mutant PDGFR alpha cDNA was estimated by tritium thymidine incorporation. Wild-type KIT cDNA was cotransfected with mutant PDGFR alpha cDNA, and immunoprecipitation by anti-KIT antibody was performed. Inhibitory effect of Imatinib mesylate on activated PDGFR alpha was examined.


RESULTS
We found 2 types of constitutively activated mutations of PDGFR alpha, Val-561 to Asp or Asp-842 to Val, in 5 of 8 GISTs without KIT mutations but not in 10 GISTs with KIT mutations. Stable transfection of each mutation induced autonomous proliferation of Ba/F3 cells. Constitutively activated mutant PDGFR alpha bound and activated the cotransfected wild-type KIT. The constitutive activation of PDGFR alpha with Val-561 to Asp was inhibited effectively by Imatinib mesylate but that of PDGFR alpha with Asp-842 to Val was inhibited only weakly, even at the concentration of 10 micromol/L.


CONCLUSIONS
The gain-of-function mutations of PDGFR alpha appear to play an important role in development of GISTs without KIT mutations.
26845819
KIT extracellular and kinase domain mutations in gastrointestinal stromal tumors.
Gastrointestinal stromal tumors (GISTs) are the most common mesenchymal neoplasms arising in the gastrointestinal tract. GISTs express the KIT receptor tyrosine kinase, and many cases have activating mutations in the KIT juxtamembrane region. We now report an analysis of KIT cDNA and genomic sequences in eight GISTs that lack juxtamembrane region mutations. Six cases contained heterozygous exon 9 mutations in which six nucleotides, encoding Ala-Tyr, were duplicated. The other two cases contained homozygous exon 13 missense mutations, resulting in substitution of Glu for Lys(642), that were associated with constitutive KIT tyrosine phosphorylation. Sequence analysis of DNAs from nonneoplastic companion tissues revealed that both the exon 9 and exon 13 mutations were somatic. These are the first descriptions, in any tumor, of mutations in KIT exons encoding the C-terminal end of the extracellular domain and the first part of the split kinase domain. These findings indicate that KIT may be activated by mutations in at least three domains-extracellular, juxtamembrane, and kinase-in GISTs.
15961531
KIT activation is a ubiquitous feature of gastrointestinal stromal tumors.
Gastrointestinal stromal tumors (GISTs) are the most common mesenchymal tumors of the gastrointestinal tract, and they are generally resistant to chemotherapy and radiation therapy. Most GISTs express the KIT receptor tyrosine kinase protein, and a subset of GISTs contain activating mutations within the KIT juxtamembrane region. We evaluated 48 GISTs, including 10 benign, 10 borderline, and 28 malignant cases, to determine whether KIT expression and activation are general properties of these tumors. Immunohistochemical KIT expression was demonstrated in each case. Somatic KIT mutations were found in 44 tumors (92%), of which 34 (71%) had juxtamembrane region mutations. Other GISTs had KIT mutations in the extracellular region (n = 6) and in two different regions in the tyrosine kinase domain (n = 4). Contrary to previous reports, KIT mutations were not identified preferentially in higher-grade tumors: indeed, they were found in each of 10 histologically benign GISTs. Notably, mutations in all KIT domains were associated with high-level KIT activation/phosphorylation, and KIT activation was also demonstrated in the four GISTs that lacked detectable KIT genomic and cDNA mutations. These studies underscore the role of KIT activation in GIST pathogenesis, and they suggest that activated KIT might represent a universal therapeutic target in GISTs.
153446
Gastrointestinal Stromal Tumors of the Stomach in Children and Young Adults: A Clinicopathologic, Immunohistochemical, and Molecular Genetic Study of 44 Cases With Long-Term Follow-Up and Review of the Literature
Gastrointestinal stromal tumors (GISTs), specific KIT- or PDFGRA-signaling driven mesenchymal tumors, are rare in children and young adults, and their clinicopathologic and molecular genetic profile is incompletely understood. In this study, we analyzed 44 gastric GISTs occurring by the age of 21 years. There were 32 females and 12 males, youngest of whom were a 5-year-old boy and an 8-year-old girl. All but 1 of 25 patients under the age of 16 were girls. The patients most commonly received medical attention because of chronic, insidious gastrointestinal bleeding with anemia, less commonly with acute GI bleeding. Only 1 patient had Carney triad with pulmonary chondroma. None of the patients had family members with GIST. The tumors measured from 1.5 to 24 cm (median, 5.6 cm). A total of 21 tumors with specified location were in the antrum and 8 were in the gastric body. Histologically, 26 tumors were composed of epithelioid cells, 12 of spindle cells, and 6 of combination thereof. Mitotic activity varied form 0 to 65/50 HPF (median, 5/50). All but one of the 24 tumors tested were KIT-positive, and 20 were CD34-positive. Eleven patients developed liver or abdominal metastases, and 6 of them died of tumor surviving 5.5 to 35.5 years (median, 16 years) after the first surgery; three of these tumors had a low mitotic activity and size <10 cm. Twenty-one patients were alive with no evidence for disease 7 to 41 years (median, 17 years) after the first surgery. None of the 13 tumors examined (7 of them 8- to 16-year-old females) had KIT exon 9, 11, 13, or 17 or PDGFRA exon 12 or 18 mutation as typically seen in adult GISTs. Gastric GISTs in children have mainly epithelioid morphology, often occur in antrum, and have a somewhat unpredictable but slow course of disease. Their pathogenesis may differ from that of adult GISTs because no KIT or PDGFRA mutations were found; connection with Carney triad seems infrequent despite demographic and histologic similarities.
27477906
KIT mutations and dose selection for imatinib in patients with advanced gastrointestinal stromal tumours.
A recent randomized EORTC phase III trial, comparing two doses of imatinib in patients with advanced gastrointestinal stromal tumours (GISTs), reported dose dependency for progression-free survival. The current analysis of that study aimed to assess if tumour mutational status correlates with clinical response to imatinib. Pre-treatment samples of GISTs from 377 patients enrolled in phase III study were analyzed for mutations of KIT or PDGFRA by combination of D-HPLC and direct sequencing of tumour genomic DNA. Mutation types were correlated with patients' survival data. The presence of exon 9-activating mutations in KIT was the strongest adverse prognostic factor for response to imatinib, increasing the relative risk of progression by 171% (P<0.0001) and the relative risk of death by 190% (P<0.0001) when compared with KIT exon 11 mutants. Similarly, the relative risk of progression was increased by 108% (P<0.0001) and the relative risk of death by 76% (P=0.028) in patients without detectable KIT or PDGFRA mutations. In patients whose tumours expressed an exon 9 KIT oncoprotein, treatment with the high-dose regimen resulted in a significantly superior progression-free survival (P=0.0013), with a reduction of the relative risk of 61%. We conclude that tumour genotype is of major prognostic significance for progression-free survival and overall survival in patients treated with imatinib for advanced GISTs. Our findings suggest the need for differential treatment of patients with GISTs, with KIT exon 9 mutant patients benefiting the most from the 800 mg daily dose of the drug.
7614006
Kinase mutations and imatinib response in patients with metastatic gastrointestinal stromal tumor.
PURPOSE
Most gastrointestinal stromal tumors (GISTs) express constitutively activated mutant isoforms of KIT or kinase platelet-derived growth factor receptor alpha (PDGFRA) that are potential therapeutic targets for imatinib mesylate. The relationship between mutations in these kinases and clinical response to imatinib was examined in a group of patients with advanced GIST.


PATIENTS AND METHODS
GISTs from 127 patients enrolled onto a phase II clinical study of imatinib were examined for mutations of KIT or PDGFRA. Mutation types were correlated with clinical outcome.


RESULTS
Activating mutations of KIT or PDGFRA were found in 112 (88.2%) and six (4.7%) GISTs, respectively. Most KIT mutations involved exon 9 (n = 23) or exon 11 (n = 85). All KIT mutant isoforms, but only a subset of PDGFRA mutant isoforms, were sensitive to imatinib, in vitro. In patients with GISTs harboring exon 11 KIT mutations, the partial response rate (PR) was 83.5%, whereas patients with tumors containing an exon 9 KIT mutation or no detectable mutation of KIT or PDGFRA had PR rates of 47.8% (P =.0006) and 0.0% (P <.0001), respectively. Patients whose tumors contained exon 11 KIT mutations had a longer event-free and overall survival than those whose tumors expressed either exon 9 KIT mutations or had no detectable kinase mutation.


CONCLUSION
Activating mutations of KIT or PDGFRA are found in the vast majority of GISTs, and the mutational status of these oncoproteins is predictive of clinical response to imatinib. PDGFRA mutations can explain response and sensitivity to imatinib in some GISTs lacking KIT mutations.
8512333
Differentiation and self-renewal in the mouse gastrointestinal epithelium.
The mouse gut epithelium represents a dynamic, geographically well organized, developmental system for examining self-renewal and differentiation. Reagents are now available for identifying the molecular mechanisms that regulate cell fate in the gut, the migration-associated differentiation programs of its component cell lineages, and its axial patterning. Considerable attention needs to be paid to two variables when studying gastrointestinal epithelial cell biology: space and time. This has necessitated the use of normal, chimeric, and transgenic animals as experimental models.
24244689
Dynamics of epithelial cells in the corpus of the mouse stomach. IV. Bidirectional migration of parietal cells ending in their gradual degeneration and loss
The life story of parietal cells has been investigated in the corpus of the mouse stomach using electron microscopy and 3H‐thymidine radioautography. Parietal cells are scattered in the four regions of the unit. On the average 3.6 cells are in the pit, 6.2 in the isthmus, 5.6 in the neck, and 10.6 in the base. Parietal cells do not divide. They arise from partially differentiated pre‐parietal cells, which are believed to be derived in the isthmus from the three subtypes of granule‐free cells: undifferentiated cells, pre‐pit cell precursors, and pre‐neck cell precursors. Radioautography indicates that the transformation of granule‐free cells into pre‐parietal cells takes at least one day. The pre‐parietal cells, of which there are 0.6 per unit on the average, develop into parietal cells through three successive stages. Stage 1 is characterized by small immature cells that are identified by long apical microvilli. Stage 2 is characterized by larger cells, about one‐third the size of parietal cells, and by an incipient canaliculus and a few apical tubulovesicles. Stage 3 is characterized by the expansion of the canalicular and tubulovesicular systems as well as mitochondrial enlargement, which cause the pre‐parietal cell to gradually approach the size of, and eventually become, a parietal cell. This cell sequence mainly takes place in the isthmus, but may extend to the neck region.
25059568
Dynamics of epithelial cells in the corpus of the mouse stomach. II. Outward migration of pit cells
The pit cells (or surface mucous cells) present along pit walls and gastric surface have been investigated by electron microscopy and radioautography after a pulse or continuous infusion of 3H‐thymidine. For these studies, the pit region has been subdivided into four segments: three of equal length along the pit wall, respectively named low pit, mid pit and high pit, and a last one at the surface named pit top.
45069183
Dynamics of epithelial cells in the corpus of the mouse stomach. III. Inward migration of neck cells followed by progressive transformation into zymogenic cells
The neck cells (or mucous neck cells) present in the neck region and the zymogenic cells (or chief cells) present in the base region of the units in the mouse corpus were examined in the electron microscope (EM) and in radioautographs prepared after administration of 3H‐thymidine by single or multiple injections or by continuous infusion for 1–52 days. For these studies, the neck region of the units has been subdivided into three equal segments, respectively named high neck, mid neck, and low neck, while the base region has been similarly subdivided into high base, mid base, and low base.
22478770
Dynamics of epithelial cells in the corpus of the mouse stomach. V. Behavior of entero‐endocrine and caveolated cells: General conclusions on cell kinetics in the oxyntic epithelium
Entero‐endocrine cells and the rare cells named caveolated or brush cells have been examined in light microscopic radioautographs of the mouse corpus after various periods of continuous 3H‐thymidine infusion. Moreover a search for immature forms and mitoses of these cells was undertaken in the electron microscope.
42708234
Overexpression of transforming growth factor-alpha alters differentiation of gastric cell lineages.
Overexpression of transforming growth factor-alpha (TGF-alpha) in the gastric fundic mucosa of metallothionein promoter/enhancer-TGF-alpha(MT-TGF-alpha) transgenic mice produces a phenotype of foveolar hyperplasia similar to that observed in Ménétrier's disease. We have investigated the dynamics involved in the alterations of gastric mucosal morphology in the MT-TGF-alpha mouse model. The fundic mucosa of MT-TGF-alpha mice and nontransgenic littermates was evaluated in animals treated with cadmium sulfate. To mark the mucosal proliferative zone, 8-bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU) was administered 2 hr prior to killing. Gastric mucosa was examined by diastase-resistant, periodic acid-Schiff-positive (DR-PAS) staining and immunohistochemistry for H/K-ATPase an BrdU. MT-TGF-alpha mice demonstrated increased numbers of DR-PAS-staining mucous cells and lower parietal cell numbers per gland unit. While the proliferative zone in nontransgenic mice was located in the upper half of the gland, the zone in MT-TGF-alpha mice was located in the basal region. Overexpression of TGF-alpha in MT-TGF-alpha mice leads to an alteration in the development of mucosal lineages from the fundic progenitor zone, which is biased towards the predominant differentiation of foveolar mucous cells.
24720077
Evidence for repatterning of the gastric fundic epithelium associated with Ménétrier's disease and TGFalpha overexpression.
BACKGROUND & AIMS
Increase of intramucosal transforming growth factor alpha (TGFalpha) levels in the gastric fundus leads to oxyntic atrophy and massive foveolar hyperplasia in both metallothionein (MT)-TGFalpha mice and patients with Ménétrier's disease. We have evaluated the hypothesis that increased levels of TGFalpha in the fundus induces an antral pattern of cell differentiation in fundic glands by studying Pdx1, a transcription factor whose expression normally is confined to the gastric antrum.


METHODS
Induction of Pdx1 expression was evaluated in Pdx1(lacZ/+)/MT-TGFalpha bigenic mice treated with zinc. The distribution of Pdx1 in MT-TGFalpha mice and Ménétrier's disease patients was evaluated with anti-Pdx1 antibodies. Transcript levels were evaluated by quantitative polymerase chain reaction in mouse and human tissues and AGS cells.


RESULTS
In Pdx1(lacZ/+) mice, Pdx1 was expressed in antral mucosal cells including gastrin cells and TFF2-expressing deep glandular mucous cells. Zinc treatment for 2 to 8 weeks in Pdx1(lacZ/+)/MT-TGFalpha transgenic mice resulted in expression of Pdx1 throughout the fundus. No ectopic fundic Pdx1 expression was observed in either H. felis-infected or DMP777-treated mice. In MT-TGFalpha mice, 8 weeks of zinc treatment elicited nuclear Pdx1 staining throughout the fundic mucosa. TGFalpha treatment in AGS cells led to increases in Pdx1 and gastrin messenger RNA expression. Fundic sections from Ménétrier's disease patients showed nuclear Pdx1 staining throughout the fundic glands. Treatment of a Ménétrier's disease patient with an anti-epidermal growth factor receptor monoclonal antibody reduced fundic expression of both Pdx1 and gastrin.


CONCLUSIONS
Overexpression of TGFalpha in MT-TGFalpha mice and Ménétrier's disease patients elicits ectopic expression in the fundus of Pdx1, consistent with the phenotype of antralization.
100449
Protein kinases expressed by interstitial cells of Cajal
Interstitial cells of Cajal (ICC) are involved in the generation of electrical rhythmicity of intestinal muscle and in the transduction of neural inputs in the gut. Although the expression of receptors for neurotransmitters and hormones and some second messengers have been investigated in ICC, the protein kinases present in these cells have not been well documented. This study has demonstrated the immunohistochemical localisation of PKA, PKC γ and PKC θ in ICC that were identified by the known ICC marker, c-Kit, in the guinea-pig gut. Other PKCs, PKC α, β, δ, ε, η, ι and λ, and Ca2+-calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II were not localised in ICC. Double labelling studies were conducted on longitudinal muscle–myenteric plexus and external muscle–myenteric plexus preparations of the oesophagus, stomach (fundus, corpus and antrum), duodenum, distal ileum, caecum, proximal and distal colon, and rectum. The three protein kinases were detected in c-Kit-immunoreactive ICC at the level of the myenteric plexus (IC-MY), in the muscle (IC-IM) and at the level of the deep muscular plexus (IC-DMP) in the small intestine. PKA was found in over 90% of IC-IM in all regions examined, and in over 90% of IC-MY in the gastric body and antrum and throughout the small and large intestines. PKC γ was in the majority of ICC in the gastric body and antrum and in the small intestine, but was largely absent from ICC in the oesophagus, proximal stomach and large intestine. PKC θ occurred in the majority of ICC in all regions except the rectum. The intensity of staining was greatest for PKA, with PKC γ giving comparatively weak labelling of ICC. PKA was also detected in myenteric neurons, smooth muscle, macrophages and fibroblast-like cells. PKC γ labelling occurred in large, multipolar neurons throughout the small and large intestine, as well as in lymph vessels and in capillaries. It is concluded that PKA, PKC γ and PKC θ are all present in ICC, with the differences in their localisations suggesting specific roles for each in ICC function.
27282635
Embryonic form of smooth muscle myosin heavy chain (SMemb/MHC-B) in gastrointestinal stromal tumor and interstitial cells of Cajal.
Myosin heavy chain (MHC) isoform expression was evaluated by immunohistochemistry and reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) to clarify a possible link between gastrointestinal stromal tumor (GIST) and interstitial cells of Cajal (ICCs) in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. Using monoclonal antibodies against MHC isoforms, 18 of 27 GISTs (67%) showed immunoreactivity for non-smooth-muscle myosin or the embryonic form of MHC (SMemb), but only one tumor showed immunoreactivity for smooth muscle cell (SMC)-specific isoforms (SM1 and SM2). Co-expression of KIT or CD34, which is also expressed in GIST and ICCs, was demonstrated in 18 (100%) and 16 SMemb-positive tumors (89%), respectively. Otherwise, the expression of SMemb in GIST was not correlated with the patient's age or sex, tumor size, histological grade of GIST, or expression of mesenchymal cell markers, such as alpha-smooth muscle actin (alpha-SMA) or S100 protein. By double-fluorescence immunostaining of the tunica muscularis of the GI tract wall, co-expression of KIT, CD34, and SMemb was demonstrated in ICCs, which were negative for SM1 and SM2. RT-PCR analysis confirmed that GIST expressed SMemb-mRNA, which lacked neuronal cell-specific inserts of 30 bp. These facts further strengthen the current hypothesis that GIST is a tumor of ICCs.
887259
Patterns of nestin and other intermediate filament expression distinguish between gastrointestinal stromal tumors, leiomyomas and schwannomas *
The KIT‐positive specific gastrointestinal stromal tumors (GISTs), leiomyomas, and schwannomas are the three most common types of primary mesenchymal tumors of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. The intermediate filaments are abundant cytoskeletal proteins commonly used as cell differentiation markers in diagnostic immunohistochemistry. Their patterns have not been fully characterized in GI mesenchymal tumors, and could offer differential diagnostically useful parameters. Very recently, nestin, a class VI intermediate filament expressed in neuroectodermal stem cells and skeletal muscle progenitor cells, has been shown in GISTs and suggested as a marker for these tumors. In this study we immunohistochemically examined the expression of nestin and other intermediate filament proteins, including desmin, keratins (Ks), glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), neurofilament, and vimentin in GISTs of different sites, esophageal leiomyomas and GI schwannomas. Nestin was nearly consistently present in GISTs of different locations whether spindle cell or epithelioid, and benign or malignant. It was also detected in 23 of 24 (96%) GI schwannomas, whereas leiomyomas were uniformly negative. Vimentin was present in both GISTs and schwannomas, whereas it was typically absent in leiomyomas (25% positive, usually focally). Desmin was present in all leiomyomas, whereas only 3% of GISTs (4 of 140) were positive, and all schwannomas were negative. K18 was detected in a minority of GISTs, leiomyomas, and schwannomas. Malignant GISTs were more commonly keratin positive than the benign ones; there was 18% K18 positivity in malignant gastric and small intestinal GISTs, but 9% K18 positivity in benign gastric and small intestinal GISTs. Moreover, K8, albeit to a lesser degree, was detected in a minority of GISTs, but K7, K14, K19 and K20 were not detected. GFAP was present in the majority of schwannomas, whereas all GISTs were negative; some leiomyomas had weak cytoplasmic positivity. These results document distinctive patterns of intermediate filament proteins in GI mesenchymal tumors. Nestin is confirmed to be consistently expressed in GISTs but it is also present in most GI schwannomas; GFAP is helpful when separating GISTs and schwannomas, since only the latter are positive. The potential presence of K8 and K18 in GISTs should not lead to the misdiagnosis of carcinoma on biopsy.
32033693
Localization of protein kinase C theta immunoreactivity to interstitial cells of Cajal in guinea‐pig gastrointestinal tract
Abstract  In the gastrointestinal tract, interstitial cells of Cajal (ICC) are located between nerve fibres and muscle cells and have a role in neuromuscular transmission and muscle contractility. Protein kinase C (PKC) is involved in modulation of muscle contractility by neurotransmitters, but it is not known if PKC has a role in ICC. There are 11 different PKC isoforms. The presence of PKC isoforms in ICC in guinea‐pig gastrointestinal tract was examined using fluorescence immunohistochemistry and confocal microscopy. Segments of guinea‐pig stomach, duodenum, ileum, proximal and distal colon were fixed in zambonis fixative. Frozen sections and wholemounts were incubated with anti‐PKC antibodies (α, β, δ, ε, γ, ι, λ, μ, θ) followed by fluorescent secondary antibody. Only PKC theta (θ) immunoreactivity was found in ICC. None of the other PKC isoforms (α, β, δ, ε, γ, ι, λ, μ) localized to the ICC. PKC θ immunoreactivity was prominent in ICC located between the circular and longitudinal muscle layers (ICC‐MY) in all regions except stomach and within the circular muscle (ICC‐IM) in the large intestine. PKC θ was not present in ICC in the deep muscular plexus in either duodenum or ileum. PKC θ immunoreactivity was present in the cell body and proximal processes of the ICC. The cells containing PKC θ also contained cKit confirming the cells were ICC. ICC‐MY in the ileum also contained the neurokinin (NK) 1 receptor. In conclusion, PKC θ is present in pacemaker ICC, but its function is not yet known. Functional studies will be needed to determine the role of this kinase in ICC. Knowing the second messenger cascades and being able to manipulate subpopulations of ICC will add to our understanding of the molecular and cell biology of ICC networks within the gastrointestinal tract and may ultimately help in understanding the aetiology of some gastrointestinal motor pathologies.
35731451
Impaired development of interstitial cells and intestinal electrical rhythmicity in steel mutants.
Electrical rhythmicity in the gastrointestinal tract may originate in interstitial cells of Cajal (IC). Development of IC in the small intestine is linked to signaling via the tyrosine kinase receptor, c-kit. IC express c-kit protein, and disruption of c-kit signaling causes breakdown in IC networks and loss of slow waves. We tested whether mutations in steel factor, the ligand for c-kit, affect the development of IC networks. IC were found in the region of the myenteric plexus (IC-MY) in mice with steel mutations (i.e., Sl/Sld) at 5-10 days postpartum, but these cells formed an abnormal network. IC-MY were not observed in adult Sl/Sld animals. IC in the deep muscular plexus (IC-DMP) appeared normal in Sl/Sld animals. Electrical slow waves, normally present in the small intestine, were absent in Sl/Sld animals (10-30 days postpartum). Neural inputs were intact in Sl/Sld animals. Steel factor appears important for the development of certain classes of IC, and IC-MY appear to be involved in the generation of electrical rhythmicity in the small intestine.
16201355
Polyclonal nature of diffuse proliferation of interstitial cells of Cajal in patients with familial and multiple gastrointestinal stromal tumours
Background: Diffuse proliferation of interstitial cells of Cajal (ICCs) in the myenteric plexus layer of the intestine has been described in patients with familial and multiple gastrointestinal stromal tumours (GISTs). However, it is not fully understood whether proliferation is polyclonal or monoclonal. Aims: To evaluate the clonal nature of diffuse ICC proliferation in familial and multiple GIST cases, we carried out clonal analysis using inactivation at the human androgen receptor (HUMARA) locus. Materials and methods: Diffuse ICC proliferation tissues from three female patients were microdissected using a laser capture microdissection (LCM) system. Normal intestinal mucosal tissues were also microdissected for polyclonal controls and GIST tissues for monoclonal controls from the same patients, and genomic DNA was extracted. After digestion by restriction enzyme HhaI, the HUMARA locus was amplified by a fluorescent polymerase chain reaction (PCR) procedure and the PCR products were analysed. Results: One case was uninformative because it was homozygous at the HUMARA locus. In the two other cases, PCR products from the diffuse ICC proliferation showed two alleles as well as those from normal intestinal mucosal tissues, indicating that ICC proliferation was polyclonal. In contrast, PCR products from associated GIST tissues showed only one allele, indicating that GISTs were monoclonal. Conclusion: The results suggested that diffuse ICC proliferation in familial and multiple GIST cases was non-neoplastic hyperplasia.
7679681
Gene Expression in Gastrointestinal Stromal Tumors Is Distinguished by KIT Genotype and Anatomic Site
Purpose: Gastrointestinal stromal tumors (GISTs) are specific KIT expressing and KIT-signaling driven mesenchymal tumors of the human digestive tract, many of which have KIT-activating mutations. Previous studies have found a relatively homogeneous gene expression profile in GIST, as compared with other histological types of sarcomas. Transcriptional heterogeneity within clinically or molecularly defined subsets of GISTs has not been previously reported. We tested the hypothesis that the gene expression profile in GISTs might be related to KIT genotype and possibly to other clinicopathological factors. Experimental Design: An HG-U133A Affymetrix chip (22,000 genes) platform was used to determine the variability of gene expression in 28 KIT-expressing GIST samples from 24 patients. A control group of six intra-abdominal leiomyosarcomas was also included for comparison. Statistical analyses (t tests) were performed to identify discriminatory gene lists among various GIST subgroups. The levels of expression of various GIST subsets were also linked to a modified version of the growth factor/KIT signaling pathway to analyze differences at various steps in signal transduction. Results: Genes involved in KIT signaling were differentially expressed among wild-type and mutant GISTs. High gene expression of potential drug targets, such as VEGF, MCSF, and BCL2 in the wild-type group, and Mesothelin in exon 9 GISTs were found. There was a striking difference in gene expression between stomach and small bowel GISTs. This finding was validated in four separate tumors, two gastric and two intestinal, from a patient with familial GIST with a germ-line KIT W557R substitution. Conclusions: GISTs have heterogeneous gene expression depending on KIT genotype and tumor location, which is seen at both the genomic level and the KIT signaling pathway in particular. These findings may explain their variable clinical behavior and response to therapy.
31159797
Treatment of Ménétrier's disease with a monoclonal antibody against the epidermal growth factor receptor.
MEnEtrier's disease (hypoproteinemic hypertrophic gastropathy) is a rare, acquired, premalignant disorder of the stomach.1–4 It is characterized by giant hypertrophic folds that most often involve the fundus, excess mucus secretion, decreased acid secretion (hypochlorhydria), and hypoproteinemia due to selective loss of serum proteins across the gastric mucosa.5,6 The cause of Menetrier's disease is unknown, although infection with cytomegalovirus (CMV) in children and infection with Helicobacter pylori have been implicated.7,8 Symptoms include epigastric pain, vomiting, edema, anorexia, and weight loss. Gastric cancer has been reported at diagnosis or during follow-up in patients with hypertrophic gastropathy. Evidence of the . . .
29947898
Chronic treatment of Ménétrier's disease with Erbitux: clinical efficacy and insight into pathophysiology.
BACKGROUND & AIMS
Ménétrier's disease is a rare premalignant hypertrophic gastropathy characterized by large rugal folds, foveolar hyperplasia with glandular atrophy, hypochlorhydria, and hypoalbuminemia. Patients with severe disease often exhibit refractory nausea and vomiting and require gastrectomy. Evidence from both mice and human beings suggests a critical role for epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) signaling in the pathogenesis of this disease. We previously reported significant clinical and biochemical improvement of a single patient treated for 1 month with Erbitux, a monoclonal antibody that blocks ligand binding to EGFR.


METHODS/RESULTS
We describe 2 patients who were given longer-term treatment with Erbitux as an alternative to gastrectomy. The first patient presented with nausea, hypoalbuminemia, and peripheral edema that required total parenteral nutrition (TPN) and infusions of albumin. On institution of Erbitux, there was rapid improvement in nausea and vomiting and stabilization of serum albumin with discontinuation of TPN and albumin infusions. Serum albumin remained stable during a 1-year course of Erbitux without supplemental protein. Application before and after Erbitux of the radiopaque dye ruthenium red to biopsies of the gastric oxyntic gland mucosa demonstrated prompt and persistent closure of tight junctions by electron microscopy. The second patient presented with chronic gastric bleeding that required bimonthly blood transfusions. During a 4-month course of Erbitux, his hematocrit stabilized, and transfusion requirements were eliminated.


CONCLUSIONS
The present report demonstrates the efficacy of prolonged Erbitux therapy in patients with different presentations of severe Ménétrier's disease and also provides insight into the pathophysiology of the protein-losing gastropathy.
198766
STI571 inactivation of the gastrointestinal stromal tumor c-KIT oncoprotein: biological and clinical implications
Mutations in the c-KIT receptor occur somatically in many sporadic Gastrointestinal Stromal Tumors (GIST), and similar mutations have been identified at the germline level in kindreds with multiple GISTs. These mutations activate the tyrosine kinase activity of c-KIT and induce constitutive signaling. To investigate the function of activated c-KIT in GIST, we established a human GIST cell line, GIST882, which expresses an activating KIT mutation (K642E) in the first part of the cytoplasmic split tyrosine kinase domain. Notably, the K642E substitution is encoded by a homozygous exon 13 missense mutation, and, therefore, GIST882 cells do not express native KIT. GIST882 c-KIT protein is constitutively tyrosine phosphorylated, but tyrosine phosphorylation was rapidly and completely abolished after incubating the cells with the selective tyrosine kinase inhibitor STI571. Furthermore, GIST882 cells evidenced decreased proliferation and the onset of apoptotic cell death after prolonged incubation with STI571. Similar results were obtained after administering STI571 to a primary GIST cell culture that expressed a c-KIT exon 11 juxtamembrane mutation (K558NP). These cell-culture-based studies support an important role for c-KIT signaling in GIST and suggest therapeutic potential for STI571 in patients afflicted by this chemoresistant tumor.
8296044
Targeting the molecular pathophysiology of gastrointestinal stromal tumors with imatinib. Mechanisms, successes, and challenges to rational drug development.
The development of imatinib as molecularly targeted therapy for GIST represents an important case study of rational drug development. It is a paradigm of how the molecular understanding of a cancer has resulted in a new effective therapy that targets the critical pathway upon which the GIST cells were dependent: the uncontrollably active KIT signaling pathway. Unresectable or metastatic GISTs have traditionally exhibited a rapid and fatal clinical course, with no evidence of benefit from any standard cytotoxic chemotherapy. The identification of KIT activation as a critical factor in the pathogenesis of GIST led to the search for a new type of therapeutic compound to serve as a KIT inhibitor and to interfere with the constitutive phosphorylation of the KIT kinase in GIST cells. Clarification of the molecular genetic pathophysiology of GIST and the role of KIT activation in this disease, therefore, has not only enabled improved diagnosis and differentiation of GIST from other mesenchymal neoplasms but has also been key in identifying new targeted strategies for therapeutic intervention. The improved understanding of the molecular pathophysiology of GIST, a disease that was previously untreatable with any available systemic therapy, has led to the development of imatinib, a well-tolerated agent that can inhibit the dysregulated KIT signaling pathways in GIST. Imatinib represents the first (and currently the only) effective systemic therapy for patients with unresectable GIST. Imatinib therapy can induce objective responses and stabilization of disease and can provide clinical benefit in the majority of GIST patients treated with the drug. Other strategies are beginning to be explored, such as the use of imatinib earlier the in course of GIST (e.g., as adjuvant therapy after definitive surgical resection of early-stage disease). Integration of signal transduction inhibitors into the armamentarium of cancer therapeutics will undoubtedly continue based on this important paradigm of GIST.
35143512
Management of malignant gastrointestinal stromal tumours.
Gastrointestinal stromal tumours (GISTs) are the most common form of mesenchymal tumour of the gastrointestinal tract. Clinically, they range from small indolent tumours curable with surgery alone to aggressive cancers. Making a distinction between an indolent and a malignant GIST is unreliable with conventional histopathological techniques. The presence of metastases at the time of diagnosis confirms malignancy, but all GISTs should be regarded as having malignant potential. GISTs characteristically express the KIT protein, a transmembrane tyrosine kinase receptor for stem-cell factor. Most GISTs have a mutation in the KIT proto-oncogene that translates into a gain-of-function constitutive activation of the KIT kinase. KIT activation seems to be an early tumour-promoting event in pathogenesis. Commonly, malignant GISTs show high-level primary resistance to conventional chemotherapy. Imatinib mesylate is an orally administered selective inhibitor of certain tyrosine kinases including KIT. Most patients with advanced malignant GISTs achieve clinical benefit and significant antitumour responses with imatinib mesylate. Responses have been durable, and most patients tolerate the drug well at clinically effective doses. Imatinib mesylate is the first effective systemic therapy for advanced GIST.
46080526
Imatinib mesylate--a new oral targeted therapy.
This review discusses the development and uses of imatinib mesylate, a protein tyrosine kinase inhibitor useful in the treatment of chronic myelogenous leukemia and gastrointestinal stromal tumors that was recently approved by the Food and Drug Administration. Imatinib targets platelet-derived growth factor receptor, inhibits the fusion product of the Philadelphia chromosome, and targets c-kit, a protein tyrosine kinase. The drug may also be effective in the treatment of other tumors that express platelet-derived growth factor receptor or c-kit.
20066615
Update of phase I study of imatinib (STI571) in advanced soft tissue sarcomas and gastrointestinal stromal tumors: a report of the EORTC Soft Tissue and Bone Sarcoma Group.
In a phase I study conducted by the EORTC Soft Tissue and Bone Sarcoma Group, 40 patients with advanced soft tissue sarcomas, most of whom had gastrointestinal stromal tumors (GISTs), received imatinib at doses of 400 mg q.d., 300 mg b.i.d., 400 mg b.i.d., or 500 mg b.i.d. Dose-limiting toxicities, including severe nausea, vomiting, edema and rash, were seen at the highest dose level; the maximum tolerated dose was therefore 400 mg b.i.d. Imatinib was active in the group of 35 patients with GISTs, producing partial responses in 19 (54%) patients and stable disease in 13 patients (37%). Responding patients have now been followed for a minimum of 10 months. The most common side effects seen in patients continuing on therapy have been periorbital edema (40%), peripheral edema (37.5%), fatigue (30%), skin rash (30%) and nausea/vomiting (25%). Severe late myelosuppression has also been seen occasionally. Eighteen (51%) GIST patients continue to have partial responses and 11 (31%) continue with stable disease. Thus, 82% of patients with GISTs are still obtaining clinically important benefits with continued imatinib therapy. Some patients showed accelerated progressive disease shortly after starting imatinib. On the other hand, following drug withdrawal, 2 patients had reductions in tumor burden and remain alive without drug therapy. In summary, imatinib is generally well tolerated and has significant activity during long-term treatment of patients with advanced GISTs.
45866
Use of c-KIT/PDGFRA mutational analysis to predict the clinical response to imatinib in patients with advanced gastrointestinal stromal tumours entered on phase I and II studies of the EORTC Soft Tissue and Bone Sarcoma Group.
Previous studies have shown that activating mutations of c-KIT/PDGFRA, potential therapeutic targets for imatinib mesylate, are implicated in the pathophysiology of gastrointestinal stromal tumours (GISTs). In this study, GISTs from 37 patients enrolled in an European Organisation for Research and Treatment of Cancer (EORTC) phase I/II clinical study of imatinib were examined for mutations of c-KIT/PDGFRA in order to explore whether the mutational status of the tumour predicts the clinical response to therapy. Mutations were screened by denaturing high-pressure liquid chromatography (DHPLC) and characterised by bi-directional DNA sequencing. Activating mutations of c-KIT or PDGFRA were found in 29 (78%) and 2 (6%) GISTs, respectively. Most c-KIT mutations involved exon 11 (n=24; 83%), all but one being an in-frame deletion; no isolated point mutations were found. The other c-KIT mutations included exon 9 AY 502-503 duplication (n=4; 14%) and exon 13 Lys-->Glu(642) missense mutation (n=1; 3%). Two tumours with no detectable c-KIT mutations demonstrated PDGFRA Asp-->Glu(842) amino acid substitutions. Patients with GISTs harbouring exon 11 mutations were more likely to achieve a partial response (PR) on imatinib therapy (83%) than all of the others (23%). The overall survival and progression-free survival rates for the entire group at 106 weeks were 78.3% and 46.9%, respectively. Based on a Kaplan-Meier analysis, patients with GISTs harbouring c-KIT mutations had longer median survival times and were less likely to progress than the other patients. These findings indicate that the mutational status of the c-KIT/PDGFRA oncoproteins could be useful to predict the clinical response of patients imatinib therapy.
30445487
Molecular correlates of imatinib resistance in gastrointestinal stromal tumors.
PURPOSE
Gastrointestinal stromal tumors (GISTs) commonly harbor oncogenic mutations of the KIT or platelet-derived growth factor alpha (PDGFRA) kinases, which are targets for imatinib. In clinical studies, 75% to 90% of patients with advanced GISTs experience clinical benefit from imatinib. However, imatinib resistance is an increasing clinical problem.


PATIENTS AND METHODS
One hundred forty-seven patients with advanced, unresectable GISTs were enrolled onto a randomized, phase II clinical study of imatinib. Specimens from pretreatment and/or imatinib-resistant tumors were analyzed to identify molecular correlates of imatinib resistance. Secondary kinase mutations of KIT or PDGFRA that were identified in imatinib-resistant GISTs were biochemically profiled for imatinib sensitivity.


RESULTS
Molecular studies were performed using specimens from 10 patients with primary and 33 patients with secondary resistance. Imatinib-resistant tumors had levels of activated KIT that were similar to or greater than those typically found in untreated GISTs. Secondary kinase mutations were rare in GISTs with primary resistance but frequently found in GISTs with secondary resistance (10% v 67%; P = .002). Evidence for clonal evolution and/or polyclonal secondary kinase mutations was seen in three (18.8%) of 16 patients. Secondary kinase mutations were nonrandomly distributed and were associated with decreased imatinib sensitivity compared with typical KIT exon 11 mutations. Using RNAi technology, we demonstrated that imatinib-resistant GIST cells remain dependent on KIT kinase activity for activation of critical downstream signaling pathways.


CONCLUSION
Different molecular mechanisms are responsible for primary and secondary imatinib resistance in GISTs. These findings have implications for future approaches to the growing problem of imatinib resistance in patients with advanced GISTs.
2612910
Acquired Resistance to Imatinib in Gastrointestinal Stromal Tumor Occurs Through Secondary Gene Mutation
Most gastrointestinal stromal tumors (GIST) have an activating mutation in either KIT or PDGFRA. Imatinib is a selective tyrosine kinase inhibitor and achieves a partial response or stable disease in about 80% of patients with metastatic GIST. It is now clear that some patients with GIST develop resistance to imatinib during chronic therapy. To identify the mechanism of resistance, we studied 31 patients with GIST who were treated with imatinib and then underwent surgical resection. There were 13 patients who were nonresistant to imatinib, 3 with primary resistance, and 15 with acquired resistance after initial benefit from the drug. There were no secondary mutations in KIT or PDGFRA in the nonresistant or primary resistance groups. In contrast, secondary mutations were found in 7 of 15 (46%) patients with acquired resistance, each of whom had a primary mutation in KIT exon 11. Most secondary mutations were located in KIT exon 17. KIT phosphorylation was heterogeneous and did not correlate with clinical response to imatinib or mutation status. That acquired resistance to imatinib in GIST commonly occurs via secondary gene mutation in the KIT kinase domain has implications for strategies to delay or prevent imatinib resistance and to employ newer targeted therapies.
22955115
Polyclonal Evolution of Multiple Secondary KIT Mutations in Gastrointestinal Stromal Tumors under Treatment with Imatinib Mesylate
Gastrointestinal stromal tumors (GIST) are characterized by a strong KIT receptor activation most often resulting from KIT mutations. In a smaller subgroup of tumors without KIT mutations, analogous activating mutations are found in the platelet-derived growth factor receptor α (PDGFRα) gene. Both PDGFRα and KIT receptors are targets of the tyrosine kinase inhibitor imatinib (Glivec) which has improved the treatment of advanced GISTs significantly. However, a subgroup of tumors show a secondary progress under therapy with imatinib after initial response. One possible mechanism of secondary resistance is the development of newly acquired KIT mutations. In the present study, we evaluated the frequency of such secondary KIT mutations in a series of GIST patients in which tumor tissue was resected under treatment. We examined one to seven different tumor areas in 32 cases (total of 104 samples) and found up to four newly acquired KIT mutations in 14 patients (43.8%). These were always located in exons encoding the first or second tyrosine kinase domain (exon 13, 14, or 17). Mutations were found only in a subset of samples analyzed from each case whereas others retained the wild-type sequence in the same region. There was never more than one new mutation in the same sample. Consistent with a secondary clonal evolution, the primary mutation was always detectable in all samples from each tumor. According to our results, the identification of newly acquired KIT mutations in addition to the primary mutation is dependent on the number of tissue samples analyzed and has high implications for further therapeutic strategies.
11962723
Heat shock protein 90 inhibition in imatinib-resistant gastrointestinal stromal tumor.
Inhibition of KIT oncoproteins by imatinib induces clinical responses in most gastrointestinal stromal tumor (GIST) patients. However, many patients develop imatinib resistance due to secondary KIT mutations. Heat shock protein 90 (HSP90) protects KIT oncoproteins from proteasome-mediated degradation, and we therefore did preclinical validations of the HSP90 inhibitor, 17-allylamino-18-demethoxy-geldanamycin (17-AAG), in an imatinib-sensitive GIST cell line (GIST882) and in novel imatinib-resistant GIST lines that are either dependent on (GIST430 and GIST48) or independent of (GIST62) KIT oncoproteins. 17AAG (>100 nmol/L) inhibited imatinib-sensitive and imatinib-resistant KIT oncoproteins, with substantially reduced phospho-KIT and total KIT expression after 30 minutes and 6 hours, respectively. KIT signaling intermediates, including AKT and mitogen-activated protein kinase, were inactivated by 17-AAG in the KIT-positive GIST lines, but not in the KIT-negative GIST62. Likewise, cell proliferation and survival were inhibited in the KIT-positive GISTs but not in GIST62. These findings suggest that 17-AAG biological effects in KIT-positive GISTs result mainly from KIT oncoprotein inhibition. The dramatic inactivation of imatinib-resistant KIT oncoproteins suggests that HSP90 inhibition provides a therapeutic solution to the challenge of heterogeneous imatinib resistance mutations in GIST patients.
30527013
Production and auto-induction of transforming growth factor-alpha in human keratinocytes.
Transforming growth factor-alpha (TGF-alpha) is a polypeptide which is structurally related to epidermal growth factor (EGF) and binds to the EGF receptor. TGF-alpha synthesis occurs in a variety of neoplastic cells and during early fetal development but has not been reported in normal cells of the adult organisms. TGF-alpha has therefore been regarded as an embryonic growth factor which is inappropriately expressed during neoplasia. Here we report that primary cultures of normal human keratinocytes synthesize TGF-alpha. Furthermore, we show that addition of EGF or TGF-alpha to these cultures induces TGF-alpha gene expression, suggesting that a mechanism of auto-induction exists. Analysis of normal skin biopsies using in situ hybridization and immunohistochemistry demonstrates the in vivo presence of TGF-alpha messenger RNA and protein in the stratified epidermis.
33775018
Auto- and cross-induction within the mammalian epidermal growth factor-related peptide family.
Several polypeptide growth factors related to epidermal growth factor (EGF) have been identified recently, including transforming growth factor-alpha (TGF-alpha), amphiregulin (AR), heparin-binding EGF-like growth factor (HB-EGF), and betacellulin (BTC). These peptides all bind to the EGF receptor (EGFr). In an effort to understand redundancy within this peptide family and interactions among these related peptides, we compared the biological activities of EGF, TGF-alpha, AR, and HB-EGF in an EGF-responsive, nontransformed intestinal epithelial line (RIE-1) and also determined the effect of individual EGF-related peptides on the expression of related family members in these cells. TGF-alpha, AR, HB-EGF, and EGF were equipotent in stimulating [3H]thymidine incorporation by RIE-1 cells and bound the EGFr with equivalent affinity. Each EGF-related peptide induced the mRNA expression of the remaining family members, including BTC. HB-EGF and AR mRNAs were induced rapidly (within 30 min) and to a greater extent than TGF-alpha and BTC mRNAs, suggesting heterogeneity in the molecular mechanisms for induction. This same pattern was observed for all EGF-related peptides tested. A similar pattern of mRNA induction was observed in secondary cultures of human keratinocytes and in LIM1215 colon adenocarcinoma cells. Nuclear run-on analysis showed that induction of AR and HB-EGF is, at least in part, regulated at the level of gene transcription. Concurrent treatment with HB-EGF and cycloheximide resulted in superinduction of HB-EGF and AR, suggesting that these peptides are immediate early genes in RIE-1 cells. Our results demonstrate an equivalent biological response to EGF-related peptides in RIE-1 cells and further indicate that extensive auto-induction and cross-induction occur within the EGF-related peptide family in several EGF-responsive epithelial cell types.