16525332
Negative online word-of-mouth: Behavioral indicator or emotional release?
The influence of negative online word-of-mouth on the behavior of those receiving it has been addressed extensively in the academic literature. Remarkably, the question whether negative online word-of-mouth should also be seen as a behavioral indicator of its sender remains unaddressed. Answering this question is relevant as it provides companies with insight into the need to engage in interaction with those who negatively express themselves online or whether these expressions should be seen as temporary emotional releases without any intended conduct. To fill the existing research gap, this research paper proposes and empirically tests a sender-oriented model, investigating the influence of emotions, negative online word-of-mouth on repatronage and switching intentions. As disclosing negative feedback online may also reflect the sender's motivation to inform the consumer community or to provide constructive feedback to the company responsible for the dissatisfying consumption, community usefulness and company usefulness are included as behavioral moderators. The results of an empirical survey conducted amongst real senders of negative information confirm that negative online word-of-mouth is directly driven by positive and negative emotions and is strongly predictive for the sender's intended conduct. The motivation to help other consumers was demonstrated to function as behavioral moderator. The paper concludes with theoretical and managerial implications, and suggests avenues for further research.
16358599
Electronic word-of-mouth via consumer-opinion platforms: What motivates consumers to articulate themselves on the Internet?
Through Web-based consumer opinion platforms (e.g., epinions.com), the Internet enables customers to share their opinions on, and experiences with, goods and services with a multitude of other consumers; that is, to engage in electronic wordof-mouth (eWOM) communication. Drawing on findings from research on virtual communities and traditional word-of-mouth literature, a typology for motives of consumer online articulation is
59144015
Angry customers don't come back, they get back: The experience and behavioral implications of anger and dissatisfaction in services
This article investigates the specific experience of anger and dissatisfaction and their effects on customers' behavioral responses to failed service encounters across industries. Study 1 demonstrates that anger and dissatisfaction are qualitatively different emotions with respect to their idiosyncratic experiential content. Study 2 builds on these findings and shows how anger and service encounter dissatisfaction differentially affect customer behavior. It provides empirical support for the contention that anger mediates the relationship between service encounter dissatisfaction and customers' behavioral responses. The findings of Study 2 diverge from previous findings in marketing on the interrelationships between customer satisfaction/dissatisfaction, related consumption emotions, and customers' behavioral responses to service failure. The implications of these findings for services marketing theory and practice are delineated.
29962296
An empirical investigation of electronic word-of-mouth: Informational motive and corporate response strategy
The proliferation of the Internet has given birth to a number of complaint web sites where dissatisfied and frustrated consumers can easily articulate their opinions and comments on products, services, or companies. Little attention, however, has been paid to the influence of online complaints on potential consumers' behaviors. This study attempts to provide the understanding of causal attribution process in the online complaining behaviors. The results showed that informational factors, such as vividness and consensus, facilitated consumers' attribution to companies' responsibility for the negative events, and subsequently led to changing their evaluation of the companies. In addition, we found that corporate response strategies to online complaints should be different from the conventional response strategies.
8531351
Self‐disclosure in computer‐mediated communication: The role of self‐awareness and visual anonymity
Three studies examined the notion that computer-mediated communication (CMC) can be characterised by high levels of self-disclosure. In Study One, significantly higher levels of spontaneous self-disclosure were found in computer-mediated compared to face-to-face discussions. Study Two examined the role of visual anonymity in encouraging self-disclosure during CMC. Visually anonymous participants disclosed significantly more information about themselves than non-visually anonymous participants. In Study Three, private and public self-awareness were independently manipulated, using video-conferencing cameras and accountability cues, to create a 2 × 2 design public self-awareness (high and low)×private self-awareness (high and low). It was found that heightened private self-awareness, when combined with reduced public self-awareness, was associated with significantly higher levels of spontaneous self-disclosure during computer-mediated communication. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
11595949
Selective Posting: Willingness to post a message online
The communication environment in CMC is particularly relevant to the discourses of the traditional communication theory, spiral of silence. This paper embarked on the task of developing an experimental research method to test willingness to speak out in the spiral of silence theory on an online forum and to test subsequent attitudinal and behavioral changes as measured in issue position, climate of opinion perception, and message posting. A 2x2 factorial design (congruent messages vs. incongruent messages and anonymity vs. nonanonymity) tested the willingness to speak out on an online discussion forum. The result of the paper suggested a new theoretical framework, selective posting, and called for the modification of the psychological explanation of spiral of silence.
167701655
Word-of-Mouth for Movies: Its Dynamics and Impact on Box Office Revenue
Abstract This article uses actual word-of-mouth (WOM) information to examine the dynamic patterns of WOM and how it helps explain box office revenue. The WOM data were collected from the Yahoo Movies Web site. The results show that WOM activities are the most active during a movie's prerelease and opening week and that movie audiences tend to hold relatively high expectations before release but become more critical in the opening week. More important, WOM information offers significant explanatory power for both aggregate and weekly box office revenue, especially in the early weeks after a movie opens. However, most of this explanatory power comes from the volume of WOM and not from its valence, as measured by the percentages of positive and negative messages.
17502373
Do online reviews matter? - An empirical investigation of panel data
This study examines the persuasive effect and awareness effect of online user reviews on movies' daily box office performance. In contrast to earlier studies that take online user reviews as an exogenous factor, we consider reviews both influencing and influenced by movie sales. The consideration of the endogenous nature of online user reviews significantly changes the analysis. Our result shows that the rating of online user reviews has no significant impact on movies' box office revenues after accounting for the endogeneity, indicating that online user reviews have little persuasive effect on consumer purchase decisions. Nevertheless, we find that box office sales are significantly influenced by the volume of online posting, suggesting the importance of awareness effect. The finding of awareness effect for online user reviews is surprising as online reviews under the analysis are posted to the same website and are not expected to increase product awareness. We attribute the effect to online user reviews as an indicator of the intensity of underlying word-of-mouth that plays a dominant role in driving box office revenues.
168094772
Born Unequal: A Study of the Helpfulness of User-Generated Product Reviews
Online user-generated product reviews have become an indispensible tool for consumers and thus for retailers who want to attract and retain consumers. Yet, relatively little is known about what causes consumers to find an online peer review helpful to their shopping tasks. Prior research examines mostly the effects of product reviews on consumer product attitude, product choice, and product sales. This paper, however, provides an analysis of the determinants of review helpfulness. In two studies, we examine the effects of review characteristics, product type, and reviewer characteristics on perceived review helpfulness. With data collected from a real online retailer, we provide empirical evidence to support our conceptual predictions. Specifically, both review valence and length have positive effects on review helpfulness, but the product type (i.e., experiential vs. utilitarian product) moderates these effects. Using content analysis of reviews, we develop a measure of expressed reviewer innovativeness (i.e., the predisposition toward new products as revealed in review content). A curvilinear relationship exists between expressed reviewer innovativeness and review helpfulness. These findings lead to pertinent managerial implications.
47819523
Why are you telling me this? An examination into negative consumer reviews on the Web
Although word-of-mouth (WOM) is recognized as a powerful force in persuasion,we know little about the new communication phenomenon known as e-WOM. One of the main forms of e-WOM is the product reviews consumers post on different Web sites, and how this form of e-WOM stands up to this claim is yet unknown. For example, do consumers trust the accuracy of these reviews posted by anonymous reviewers, and, do readers trust negative and positive reviews equally? Past research has shown that people tend to weight negative information more than positive information during evaluation. Through an observation study and two laboratory experiments, we investigate the existence of this negativity effect in e-WOM consumer reviews for utilitarian versus hedonic products, and investigate the influence of the reader's attributions regarding the reviewer's motivations on this. Both types of studies show that product type moderates the effect of review valence, and readers exhibit a negativity bias for utilitarian product reviews only. Furthermore, the lab studies show that the reader's attributions about the motivations of the reviewer mediate the effect of this moderation on their attitude about the review. We find that compared with the utilitarian case, readers of negative hedonic product reviews are more likely to attribute the negative opinions expressed, to the reviewer's internal (or non-product related) reasons; and therefore are less likely to find the negative reviews useful. However, in the utilitarian case, readers’ are more likely to attribute the reviewer's negative opinions to external (or product related) motivations, and therefore find negative reviews more useful than positive reviews on average.
145356375
Emotion Elicits the Social Sharing of Emotion: Theory and Empirical Review
This review demonstrates that an individualist view of emotion and regulation is untenable. First, I question the plausibility of a developmental shift away from social interdependency in emotion regulation. Second, I show that there are multiple reasons for emotional experiences in adults to elicit a process of social sharing of emotion, and I review the supporting evidence. Third, I look at effects that emotion sharing entails at the interpersonal and at the collective levels. Fourth, I examine the contribution of emotional sharing to emotion regulation together with the relevant empirical evidence. Finally, the various functions that the social sharing of emotion fulfills are reviewed and the relevance of the social sharing of emotion for emotion scientists is discussed.
14426590
Self-perception: An alternative interpretation of cognitive dissonance phenomena.
A theory of self-percepti on is proposed to provide an alternative interpretation for several of the major phenomena embraced by Festinger's theory of cognitive dissonance and to explicate some of the secondary patterns of data that have appeared in dissonance experiments. It is suggested that the attitude statements which comprise the major dependent variables in dissonance experiments may be regarded as interpersonal judgments in which the observer and the observed happen to be the same individual and that it is unnecessary to postulate an aversive motivational drive toward consistency to account for the attitude change phenomena observed. Supporting experiments are presented, and metatheoretical contrasts between the "radical" behavioral approach utilized and the phenomenological approach typified by dissonance theory are discussed.
206611786
The interactional effects of atmospherics and perceptual curiosity on emotions and online shopping intention
With increasing importance of online stores, a great number of studies have focused on extending our knowledge related to successful functional aspects increasing ease of use and usefulness. More recent studies have focused on identifying the effects produced by hedonic aspects of online store environment such as web atmospherics on emotional responses of customers. However, previous studies have been somewhat deficient in their investigation of studying diverse aspects of online consumer characteristics, which may have an impact on customer evaluation of atmospheric cues. Building on this research tradition, the present study addresses two critical issues. The present study adopting a well validated S-O-R framework tests the effect of atmospheric cues of online stores on the intervening affective emotional states of consumers, which have a subsequent impact on behavioral intention. Additionally, the model hypothesizes that perceptual curiosity (PC) moderates the relationships between atmospheric cues and shoppers' emotional reactions. Structure equation model confirmed that online atmospherics such as graphics, colors, and links have an impact on customer emotions such as pleasure and arousal, both of which have subsequent effects on intention. The moderating effect of perceptual curiosity has also been supported. Theoretical and practical implications, limitations, and directions for future research are discussed in conclusion.
37707729
Interface design and emotions experienced on B2C Web sites: Empirical testing of a research model
This paper examines the impact of four Web site interface features on the cognitive process that trigger online shoppers' emotions, operationalized as mental states of readiness that arise from appraisal of events and considered as direct antecedents to approach or avoidance behaviors. A research model was tested with data collected from 215 Web shopping episodes for low-touch merchandise. Results show that shoppers experienced all six emotions posited in the model. The emotions of liking and joy were experienced intensively by a substantial number of shoppers. The results also demonstrate that interface features - key components of the usability of a Web site - influenced the three cognitive appraisals illustrated in the research model. Moreover, the cognitive appraisals of situational state and control potential impacted the six emotions examined. This paper also highlights several theoretical contributions and managerial implications that should help managers and Web site managers improve the interface design of their Web sites in order to facilitate information gathering and better support online shopping processes.
144708846
Seeking something different? A model of schema typicality, consumer affect, purchase intentions and perceived shopping value
Abstract A study is presented that examines the effect of specific retail elements on deviations from the expected schema, or prototypicality, of a retail store. The results suggest that subtle differences in the store name, the location, and the appearance of its salespeople can evoke contrast in the form of variable typicality scores. A structural model is presented that shows the outcomes of this variance in a retail context involving women's apparel stores. Low typicality is associated with increased excitement and discomfort, and these emotions affect patronage intentions and perceived shopping value. This finding is counterbalanced by a direct, positive link between typicality and patronage intentions.
168131166
The relative incidence of positive and negative word of mouth: A multi-category study
Abstract In 15 studies, positive word of mouth (PWOM) is more common than negative word of mouth (NWOM) in every case. The incidence ratio averages 3 to 1. Categories with high levels of NWOM tend to have high levels of PWOM, and individuals who produce NWOM also tend to produce PWOM. In follow-up studies, using two alternative measures of WOM, we confirm that PWOM occurs approximately three times as often as NWOM. Further exploratory studies indicate that most PWOM is about a consumer's main brand; as a consequence, the incidence of PWOM in a category is distributed according to brand market share. We discuss possible explanations for these results and develop six propositions to guide further research on word of mouth.
1071693
Describing and Measuring Emotional Response to Shopping Experience
Abstract Research has shown that shopping environments can evoke emotional responses in consumers and that such emotions, in turn, influence shopping behaviors and outcomes. This article broadens our understanding of emotions within the shopping context in two ways. First, it provides a descriptive account of emotions consumers feel across a variety of shopping environments. Second, it empirically compares the three emotion measures most frequently used in marketing to determine which best captures the various emotions shoppers experience. The results indicate that the broad range of emotions felt in the shopping context vary considerably across different retail environments. They also show that the Izard (Izard, C. E.: Human Emotions, Plenum, New York. 1977) and Plutchik (Plutchik, R.: Emotion: A Psychoevolutionary Synthesis, Harper and Row, New York. 1980) measures outperform the Mehrabian and Russell (Mehrabian, A., and Russell, J. A.: An Approach to Environmental Psychology, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA. 1974) measure by offering a richer assessment of emotional responses to the shopping experience.
143578415
Effects of complaining versus negative word of mouth on subsequent changes in satisfaction: The role of public commitment
This research reviews the motivation for voice behavior by dissatisfied consumers and demonstrates that facilitating complaining behavior results in reduced levels of negative word-of-mouth activity. Support is found for the hypotheses that dissatisfied consumers who complain to the marketer will experience venting-induced reduction in dissatisfaction, and that they will engage in reduced levels of negative word of mouth. On the other hand, dissatisfied consumers who engage in the relatively public act of negative word of mouth become committed to their level of dissatisfaction and hence do not exhibit any subsequent venting-induced reduction in dissatisfaction. The role of public commitment in binding individuals to their prior evaluations is discussed, along with the managerial implications. © 2005 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
146325052
A study of the relationships between cognitive appraisals and consumption emotions
While emotions have been shown to be significant determinants of various consumer behaviors, the antecedents of these emotions have not received much attention in the marketing literature. The current research examines a cognitive model of emotion and uses an experiment to show that the appraisals of goal relevance, goal congruence, and coping potential are determinants of consumption emotions such as anger, sadness, and joy/satisfaction. These emotions are also shown to be determinants of postconsumption behaviors such as word-of-mouth intentions.
147246544
Product/Consumption-Based Affective Responses and Postpurchase Processes
The author examines consumer affective responses to product/consumption experiences and their relationship to selected aspects of postpurchase processes. In separate field studies of automobile owners and CATV subscribers, subjects reported the nature and frequency of emotional experiences in connection with product ownership and usage. Analysis confirms hypotheses about the existence of independent dimensions of positive and negative affect. Both dimensions of affective response are found directly related to the favorability of consumer satisfaction judgments, extent of seller-directed complaint behavior, and extent of word-of-mouth transmission.
8000534
What drives consumers to spread electronic word of mouth in online consumer-opinion platforms
The advance of the Internet facilitates consumers to share and exchange consumption-related advice through online consumer reviews. This relatively new form of word-of-mouth communication, electronic word-of-mouth (eWOM) communication, has only recently received significant managerial and academic attention. Many academic studies have looked at the effectiveness of positive eWOM communication, examining the process by which eWOM influences consumer purchasing decisions. eWOM behavior is primarily explained from the individual rational perspective that emphasizes a cost and benefit analysis. However, we felt there was a need for an extensive study that examines consumers' motives for eWOM. In this paper, we focus on the factors that drive consumers to spread positive eWOM in online consumer-opinion platforms. Building on the social psychology literature, we identified a number of key motives of consumers' eWOM intention and developed an associated model. We empirically tested the research model with a sample of 203 members of a consumer review community, OpenRice.com. The model explains 69% of the variance, with reputation, sense of belonging and enjoyment of helping other consumers significantly related to consumers' eWOM intention. The results of this study provide important implications for research and practice. Highlights? In this study, we developed a model examining motives of consumers' eWOM intention. ? We tested the model with a sample of 203 members of a consumer review community. ? The model explains 69 percent of the variance. ? Reputation, sense of belonging, and enjoyment of helping are significant factors.
168095136
Online damage control: the effects of proactive versus reactive webcare interventions in consumer-generated and brand-generated platforms
Web 2.0 has empowered consumers to voice complaints with reduced costs (physical and psychological), and to share these with a multitude of other consumers on the Internet. As a public phenomenon, online complaints have a negative impact on consumers' evaluations of brands that are under attack in online complaints. By means of an experiment, we study the most effective means for companies to counter complaints as expressed in negative electronic word of mouth (NWOM). The results show that negative brand evaluations engendered by NWOM can be attenuated by webcare interventions dependent on type of strategy (proactive vs. reactive) and platform used (consumer-generated vs. brand-generated blog). This effect appeared to be mediated by conversational human voice. The findings are discussed in the light of practical implications for online complaint management.
167327463
Customer Satisfaction and Word of Mouth
Do dissatisfied customers engage in more or less word of mouth than satisfied customers? There is theoretical and empirical support for both possibilities. To better understand this issue, the authors developed a utility-based model of the relationship between customer satisfaction and word of mouth. The hypothesized functional form-an asymmetric U-shape-cannot be rejected based on data from the United States and Sweden. In addition, the estimation results based on the two samples are similar, suggesting that the proposed relationship is generalizable. The findings also indicate that although dissatisfied customers do engage in greater word of mouth than satisfied ones, common suppositions concerning the size of this difference appear to be exaggerated.
36213375
Complaining: a function of attitude, personality, and situation
The random nature of situations where an acquired product or service contains a defect or deficiency means that consumers usually have no experience of seeking redress (i.e., complaining), or their experience may be from totally different situations. Because of this, most people have not formed a clear attitude about how to behave in the specific situation and they may also be uncertain about social norms for proper behavior. Hence, their behavior is guided by more general traits and dispositions as well as by situation-specific factors, which are bound to exert a relatively strong influence on behavior. This study confirms that the likelihood that consumers will complain over defects and deficiencies depends a lot on the situation and specifically on the size of the loss due to the defect and deficiency. However, some individuals refrain from complaining even in serious cases. This study shows that the propensity to complain depends on the person’s attitude toward complaining and on personality traits (inclination to become dissatisfied). The two latter variables reinforce one another.
205424377
Electronic word-of-mouth in hospitality and tourism management
Abstract Interpersonal influence and word-of-mouth (WOM) are ranked the most important information source when a consumer is making a purchase decision. These influences are especially important in the hospitality and tourism industry, whose intangible products are difficult to evaluate prior to their consumption. When WOM becomes digital, the large-scale, anonymous, ephemeral nature of the Internet induces new ways of capturing, analyzing, interpreting, and managing the influence that one consumer may have on another. This paper describes online interpersonal influence, or eWOM, as a potentially cost-effective means for marketing hospitality and tourism, and discusses some of the nascent technological and ethical issues facing marketers as they seek to harness emerging eWOM technologies.
28189919
Intentions to use social media in organizing and taking vacation trips
This work proposes a theoretical model to explain the factors determining the intentions to use social media when organizing and taking vacation trips. Understanding the antecedents of the tourists' use of these technologies is considered to be crucial for organization managers and destination policy makers. This use of social media technologies determines which elements of the trip might be used by the tourist thus having a great impact on the market. The model and its hypotheses have been tested by means of an approach based on structural equations with the PLS technique. The study was conducted on a sample of 404 individuals who normally use the Internet and had traveled on vacation in the previous 12months. The conclusions of the study reveal that the intentions to use social media are directly influenced by the perceived benefits of that use (functional, psychological and hedonic and social); however, the costs do not significantly affect the predisposition to use such technologies. It is also shown that there is a series of incentives such as altruism, availability, individual predisposition or trust in the contributions of others which facilitate and promote the use of this type of technology when organizing and taking tourist trips.
15075129
Word of mouth communication within online communities: Conceptualizing the online social network
Word of mouth (WOM) communication is a major part of online consumerinteractions, particularly within the environment of online communities.-Nevertheless, existing (offline) theory may be inappropriate to describe online WOM and its influence on evaluation and purchase. The authors report the results of a two-stage study aimed at investigating online WOM: a set of in-depth qualitative interviews followed by a social network analysis of a single online community. Combined, the results provide strong evidence that individuals behave as if Web sites themselves are primary “actors” in online social networks and that online communities can act as a social proxy for individual identification. The authors offer a conceptualization of online social networks which takes the Web site into account as an actor, an initial exploration of the concept of a consumer–Web site relationship, and a conceptual model of the online interaction and information evaluation process.
146749378
The Impact of Relationship Satisfaction on Attributions, Emotions, and Behaviors Following Service Failure
This article investigates the processes through which relationship quality influences attributional, emotional, and behavioral responses to service failures. Results indicate that relationship quality reduces the likelihood of adverse behaviors by making blame and anger less intense. Results confirm the importance of relationship building behaviors and suggest strategies for reducing vulnerability to customer defection and adverse communications. To reduce negative word-of-mouth, managers should use relationship-building efforts to augment service recovery programs. To make customer exit less likely, service managers should invest in relationship building efforts that help to differentiate their service offers and increase barriers to exit.
167770071
E‐complaining: a content analysis of an Internet complaint forum
The emergence of the Internet and its communication capabilities has given rise to a number of complaint sites that function as central forums for consumers to share their bad experiences with other consumers. Companies are reacting by adopting anti‐domain sites in an attempt to prevent the creation of such complaint forums. Data from one complaint forum are analyzed to identify the nature of the complaints, whether the complaints were initially voiced to contact personnel, what other attempts were made to resolve the problem, whether the Internet consumer complaint forum was the initial method used for complaining, the responsiveness of the company to non‐Internet complaints as well as Internet complaints, and the demographics of complainers using the Internet complaint forum. The suggestion is made that companies should embrace consumer complaints, and compete with the independent complaint forums (rather than try to block them) on the basis of ease of the complaint process and the likelihood of response. Recommendations are offered that are specific to Internet use and benefits to the company are described.
46652676
The profitable art of service recovery.
In services, mistakes are a fact of life. No matter how hard companies try, they can't prevent the occasional late flight or missed delivery. But they can learn to recover from them. Consider how Club Med-Cancun turned a service nightmare into a memorable experience. When a flight to Cancun left New York six hours late, made two unexpected stops, ran out of food, and had a rough landing, the vacationers on board were certain their holiday was ruined. But the Club Med manager greeted the travelers with food and music and chauffeured them back to the resort. In the end, the vacationers had a better time than if the flight had gone like clockwork. Service recovery starts with identifying the problem. The Bank of Maine in Portland pays customers $1 for writing a letter about the service they received. American Express uses an "800" number to solicit customer complaints. Once they've identified a problem, service companies must act fast. When Smith & Hawken realized that it was taking months to resolve customers' problems by mail, the company decided to use the phone instead. Most important, service companies should encourage frontline employees to deviate from the rules when necessary. Some companies use role playing to help employees develop the creative thinking needed to deal with unusual situations. Sonesta Hotels uses a game in which teams win points for coming up with good solutions to realistic problems. Also, employees must have the authority and responsibility to act on their beliefs-to make phone calls, credit accounts, or send flowers.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)
167562126
Service recovery: Impact on satisfaction and intentions
Examines the relative importance of service recovery in determining overall satisfaction and behavioral intentions. Recommendations include suggestions for implementing a service recovery program and for encouraging dissatisfied customers to complain.
5382483
Online Word-of-Mouth (or Mouse): An Exploration of Its Antecedents and Consequences
This study developed an integrated model to explore the antecedents and consequences of online word-of-mouth in the context of music-related communication. Based on survey data from college students, online word-of-mouth was measured with two components: online opinion leadership and online opinion seeking. The results identified innovativeness, Internet usage, and Internet social connection as significant predictors of online word-of-mouth, and online forwarding and online chatting as behavioral consequences of online word-of-mouth. Contrary to the original hypothesis, music involvement was found not to be significantly related to online word-of-mouth. Theoretical implications of the findings and future research directions are discussed.
145193373
What Drives Immediate and Ongoing Word of Mouth?
Word of mouth (WOM) affects diffusion and sales, but why are certain products talked about more than others, both right after consumers first experience them and in the months that follow? This article examines psychological drivers of immediate and ongoing WOM. The authors analyze a unique data set of everyday conversations for more than 300 products and conduct both a large field experiment across various cities and a controlled laboratory experiment with real conversations. The results indicate that more interesting products get more immediate WOM but, contrary to intuition, do not receive more ongoing WOM over multiple months or overall. In contrast, products that are cued more by the environment or are more publicly visible receive more WOM both right away and over time. Additional analyses demonstrate which promotional giveaways in WOM marketing campaigns are associated with increased WOM. overall, the findings shed light on psychological drivers of WOM and provide insight into designing more effective WOM campaigns.
54013178
The Role of Marketing in Social Media: How Online Consumer Reviews Evolve
Social media provide an unparalleled platform for consumers to publicize their personal evaluations of purchased products and thus facilitate word-of-mouth communication. This paper examines relationships between consumer posting behavior and marketing variables - such as product price and quality - and explores how these relationships evolve as the Internet and consumer review websites attract more universal acceptance. Based on automobile-model data from several leading online consumer review sources that were collected in 2001 and 2008, this study demonstrates that the relationships between marketing variables and consumer online-posting behavior are different at the early and mature stages of Internet usage. For instance, in the early stage of consumer Internet usage, price is negatively correlated with the propensity to post a review. As consumer Internet usage becomes prevalent, however, the relationship between price and the number of online consumer reviews shifts to a U-shape. In contrast, in the early years, price has a U-shaped relationship with overall consumer rating, but this correlation between price and overall rating becomes less significant in the later period. Such differences at the two different stages of Internet usage can be driven by different groups of consumers with different motivations for online review posting.
7093661
The Different Roles of Product Originality and Usefulness in Generating Word of Mouth
This paper explores how the dimensions of new products, specifically, the originality and usefulness of the products, influence word-of-mouth (WOM). In four studies, using lab and field setups, we find that originality and usefulness have different effects on WOM. We show that consumers spread more WOM about original products, but the valence of what they say depends on the usefulness of the product. Therefore, originality enhances the effect of usefulness such that consumers spread relatively more and more positively valenced WOM about original and useful products compared to less original but equally useful products. Conversely, consumers spread more and more negatively valenced WOM about original products that are not useful compared to less original products with the same level of low usefulness. The results indicate that product originality should be managed carefully when developing and positioning new products. Although originality increases buzz, it might lead to negatively valenced WOM when the usefulness of the product is perceived to be low.
9804869
Do Online Reviews Reflect a Product's True Perceived Quality? - An Investigation of Online Movie Reviews Across Cultures
When does the reported average of online ratings match perceived average assessment? We apply behavioral theory to capture intentions in rating online movie reviews in two dissimilar countries - China and the United States. We argue that consumers' rating behaviors are affected by cultural influences. Based on data collected from imdb.com and douban.com, we found significant differences across raters from these two different cultures. Additionally, we examined how cultural elements influence rating behavior for a hybrid culture - Singapore. Under-reporting bias occurs when consumers with extreme opinions are more likely to report their opinions than consumers with moderate reviews, resulting in reviews that may be biased estimators of quality and certainly have higher variance. An experimental study shows that under-reporting is more prevalent among U.S. online social network, and thus that online reviews are more reflective of a movie's true perceived quality in Chinese and Singapore than in the U.S.
144959534
Long-lasting Cognitive and Social Consequences of Emotion: Social Sharing and Rumination
It is proposed that emotion has long-lasting cognitive and social consequences as it is observed for traumatic events. Indeed, emotion, like trauma, is characterized by a sudden disruption of the normal course of events, challenging people's belief systems about themselves and the world and calling for extensive cognitive and social processing. We propose that mental rumination and social sharing constitute fundamental aspects of this processing. In this chapter, we present the results of an integrated programme of research investigating the nature and functions of mental ruminations and social sharing that follow emotional events. A number of questions are addressed, such as whether people do share their emotions, to what extent, with whom, and for which types of emotion. Culture, sex and age differences are also considered. A functional model of rumination and social sharing in emotion is proposed and tested. Finally, five theoretical arguments relate the empirical findings of our research programme to ...
154594721
Information direction, website reputation and eWOM effect: A moderating role of product type
This article examines how the electronic word of mouth (eWOM) information direction (positive vs. negative) and a website's reputation (established vs. unestablished) contribute to the eWOM effect. The article describes a study focusing on the moderating role of the product type (search vs. experience). The results of the experiment show that the eWOM effect is greater for negative eWOM than for positive eWOM, greater for established websites than for unestablished websites, and greater for experience goods than for search goods. The results support the moderating effects of product type on the eWOM information direction-website reputation-eWOM effect relationship. The impact of negative eWOM on the eWOM effect is greater for experience goods than for search goods. Similarly, the impact of website reputation on the eWOM effect is greater for experience goods than for search goods. The findings provide managerial implications for an Internet marketing strategy.
144099600
Experiential goods with network externalities effects: An empirical study of online rating system
This paper uses online users' reviews and sales information from May 2003 to March 2007 to study a new experiential product: online video game (or virtual world). The results suggest that, first of all, for a hedonic product such as an online video game, the availability of online review system could not fully transform experience attributes into search attributes. The empirical study confirms that negative word-of-mouth has more significant impact than positive reviews. The study empirically verifies that the existence of direct network externalities (i.e. a product's value increases when more consumers join the network) is crucial for a hedonic product. The size of the user base signals the quality of the game, and works like a search attribute for potential users. A large user base will reduce the negative impact from unfavorable reviews.
46452667
'Arrivederci CIAO.com, Buongiorno Bing.com' - Electronic word-of-mouth (eWOM), antecedences and consequences
The Internet facilitates access to online product reviews and comments written by consumers. This paper offers new insights on the motives and antecedents of the reading behaviour of consumer reviews in online opinion platforms. This research was carried out from 2005 to 2008 using a case study approach. The case involved working with a prominent and successful online opinion platform (CIAO.com). The company was so successful it was purchased by Microsoft for $486 million in 2008 and is now incorporated into their main search engine which is still a market leader today. The research highlights four different types of motives that drive customers to read online reviews: decision-involvement, product-involvement, social-involvement and economic-involvement motives. The outcomes also demonstrated four different new types of motives: self-involvement motives, consumer-empowerment motives, new social-involvement motives and site-administration motives. Several related themes were also investigated, such as the preference for reading or writing online reviews and the reasons for choosing one over the other. The research tested the relevance of the online reading motives and their influence on consumer buying and communication behaviour. In summary, some theoretical and practical implications are highlighted and discussed.
167854567
The Assimilative and Contrastive Effects of Word-of-Mouth Volume: An Experimental Examination of Online Consumer Ratings
The popularity of online rate-and-review websites has increased the importance of word-of-mouth (WOM) volume (number of ratings) yet the retail literature has not paid adequate attention to understanding its impact. This paper highlights WOM volume as a high-scope, decision-making cue upon which the influence of other WOM-relevant characteristics on a WOM message's persuability depends. We begin, via a pretest, by demonstrating the intuitive expectation that high volume, relative to low volume, accentuates or assimilates perceptions of positivity or negativity of WOM targets. Then, through two experimental studies, we show that depending upon how high volume interacts with WOM consensus and consumer decision precommitment, it can contrast preference away from the valence of a target also. In our third and final experimental study, we demonstrate that consumers differ in their susceptibility to the influence of high volume. Those with a higher desire to be different from others, compared to those with a higher desire to be similar, are resistant to high volume's assimilative sway and do not show the valence-accentuating effects demonstrated in the pretest. Retail managers and researchers should find these insights about the different roles of WOM volume beneficial.
143725084
Emotional expressions in online user reviews: How they influence consumers' product evaluations
This article investigates an understudied aspect of online word-of-mouth (eWOM) — the effects of emotional expressions in eWOM. Two experiments investigate how consumers interpret emotional expressions in online user reviews and the subsequent impact on their product evaluations. The findings reveal that negative emotional expressions in a single negative review tend to decrease the reviews' informative value and make consumers' product evaluations less negative because consumers attribute the negative emotions to the reviewer's irrational dispositions. However, positive emotional expressions in a single positive review do not influence consumers' product evaluations significantly even though consumers attribute the positive emotions to the product. Next, when multiple convergent emotional expressions are present in multiple user reviews, both positive and negative emotional expressions increase informative value of the reviews and polarize consumers' product evaluations in the respective direction.
145011125
How Much Can You Trust Online Information? Cues for Perceived Trustworthiness of Consumer-generated Online Information
Consumers increasingly rely on the Internet to obtain product information and advice from other consumers. However, since the information available on the Internet is easily manipulated, they have to seek cues for the trustworthiness of the online information. The present study proposes and tests the effects on perceived trust of online information and subsequent attitude of (1) perceived strong vs. weak social relationships among net pals and (2) positive vs. negative messages. The moderating effects of credence vs. experience goods are also examined in the research. Results show that, for experience goods, either positive or negative online messages will be perceived as credible as long as the messages are posted by those perceived to have close social relationships. On the other hand, for credence goods, negative online messages are perceived to be more credible than positive online messages when the messages are posted by those perceived to have close social relationships. Results also show the main effect of positive/negative messages on credibility of information, as well as that the effect of credibility of information on product attitude is weaker in the credence goods group than in the experience goods group.
143907863
A comparison of leading theories for the prediction of goal‐directed behaviours
A number of attitude theories have been proposed recently to explain behaviours subject to thwarting by internal and external impediments. The present research compares the theory of reasoned action, the theory of planned behaviour, a portion of the theory of self-regulation, and the theory of trying and performs tests of their ability to predict two actions relatively low in perceived behavioural control: exercising and dieting. Respondents were 142 students who participated in a two-wave survey over a two-week period. The results indicate that, while attitudes significantly predicted intentions in all theories, subjective norms lead to intentions only under the theory of trying. Further, the effects of past behaviour were not channelled entirely through attitudes, subjective norms, or perceived behavioural control but rather had direct effects on intentions and subsequent behaviour. When past behaviour was taken into account, it was found that the performance of the target acts were not functions of intentions, and perceived behavioural control failed to predict either intentions or behaviour. Desires had strong direct effects on intentions and mediated most of the impact of attitudes. A number of theoretical implications of the findings are discussed.
39958897
The role of desires and anticipated emotions in goal-directed behaviours: broadening and deepening the theory of planned behaviour.
Building on the theory of planned behaviour (TPB), we develop a new model of purposive behaviour which suggests that desires are the proximal causes of intentions, and the traditional antecedents in the TPB work through desires. In addition, perceived consequences of goal achievement and goal failure are modelled as anticipated emotions, which also function as determinants of desires. The new model is tested in two studies: an investigation of bodyweight regulation by 108 Italians at the University of Rome and an investigation of effort expended in studying by 122 students at the University of Rome. Frequency and recency of past behaviour are controlled for in tests of hypotheses. The findings show that desires fully mediated the effects of attitudes, subjective norms, perceived behavioural control and anticipated emotions on intentions. Significantly greater amounts of variance are explained in intentions and behaviour by the new model in comparison to the TPB and variants of the TPB that include either anticipated emotions and/or past behaviour.
143333487
An approach to environmental psychology
Environmental psychology, though a fast-growing field, is one of the most difficult to fit into the confines of scientific inquiry. Measuring such subjective data as reactions to color, heat, light, and sound would seem to be an almost impossible task; indeed, until now there has been no theory around which the research in this field could be organized. This volume represents a preliminary effort to identify the relevant variables involved and fit them into a systematic framework. Furthermore, it presents extensive sets of measures for investigating the theory and implementing it in a variety of everyday environments.Basically, the framework outlined here proposes that environmental stimuli are linked to behavioral responses by the primary emotional responses of arousal, pleasure, and dominance. By considering the impact of the environment on these basic emotional responses, the effects of diverse stimulus components within or across sense modalities can be readily compared. An additional concept, information rate, is used to compare the effects of different environments, each with stimulation in many sense modalities. In the final chapters the authors present a series of hypotheses which relate the emotional response variables to a diversity of behaviors such as physical approach, performance, affiliation, and verbally or nonverbally expressed preference.
10997707
Impulsive action and motivation
This paper explores the way in which emotions are causal determinants of action. It argues that emotional events, as appraised by the individual, elicit changes in motive states (called states of action readiness), which in turn may (or may not) cause action. Actions can be elicited automatically, without prior intention (called impulsive actions), or intentionally. Impulsive actions reflect the simplest and biologically most general form in which emotions can cause action, since they require no reflection, no foresight, and no planning. Impulsive actions are determined conjointly by the nature of action readiness, the affordances perceived in the eliciting event as appraised, and the individual's action repertoire. Those actions from one's repertoire are performed that both match the perceived affordances and the aim of the state of action readiness.
144859102
Relations among emotion, appraisal, and emotional action readiness
Deux etudes examinent les relations entre differents types d'appreciation et de disposition a l'action et des categories emotionnelles variees dans des epreuves de memorisation d'experiences d'etats emotionnels
143729012
Emotion and Adaptation
Part I: BACKGROUND: About emotion Issues of research, classification and measurements Part II: THE COGNITIVE-MOTIVATIONAL-RELATIONAL THEORY: The person-environment relationship: motivation and coping Cognition and emotion Issues of causality Part III: INDIVIDUAL EMOTIONS: Goal incongruent (negative) emotions Goal congruent (positive) and problematic emotions Part IV: EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT: Individual development Social influence Part V: PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: Emotions and health Implications for research, assessment, treatment and disease prevention References Index.
7679194
Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: the PANAS scales.
In recent studies of the structure of affect, positive and negative affect have consistently emerged as two dominant and relatively independent dimensions. A number of mood scales have been created to measure these factors; however, many existing measures are inadequate, showing low reliability or poor convergent or discriminant validity. To fill the need for reliable and valid Positive Affect and Negative Affect scales that are also brief and easy to administer, we developed two 10-item mood scales that comprise the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS). The scales are shown to be highly internally consistent, largely uncorrelated, and stable at appropriate levels over a 2-month time period. Normative data and factorial and external evidence of convergent and discriminant validity for the scales are also presented.
154415234
Exit, voice, and loyalty : responses to decline in firms, organizations, and states
1. Introduction and Doctrinal Background Enter "exit" and "voice" Latitude for deterioration, and slack in economic thought Exit and voice as impersonations of economics and politics 2. Exit How the exit option works Competition as collusive behavior 3. Voice Voice as a residual of exit Voice as an alternative to exit 4. A Special Difficulty in Combining Exit and Voice 5. How Monopoly Can be Comforted by Competition 6. On Spatial Duopoly and the Dynamics of Two-Party Systems 7. A Theory of Loyalty The activation of voice as a function of loyalty Loyalist behavior as modified by severe initiation and high penalties for exit Loyalty and the difficult exit from public goods (and evils) 8. Exit and Voice in American Ideology and Practice 9. The Elusive Optimal Mix of Exit and Voice Appendixes A. A simple diagrammatic representation of voice and exit B. The choice between voice and exit C. The reversal phenomenon D. Consumer reactions to price rise and quality decline in the case of several connoisseur goods F. The effects of severity of initiation on activism: design for an experiment (in collaboration with Philip G. Zimbardo and Mark Snyder) Index
144168190
Voice, exit, and negative word-of-mouth behaviors: An investigation across three service categories
Drawing upon Hirschman’s (1970) framework for Exit, Voice and Loyalty, a model is proposed which predicts and explains variation in voice, exit, and negative work-of-mouth behaviors. The findings from extant consumer complaining behavior (CCB) literature are also incorporated into the hypothesized model. Using data from customer dissatisfaction with three different service categories, the proposed model is subjected to empirical investigation. Despite the parsimony of Hirschman’s framework, results show that the hypothesized model provides good model-fit indices in each of the three data sets. In addition, the explanatory power of the model is encouraging, ranging from 36 percent to 50 percent variance explained. However, the support for the hypothesized pattern of CCB rates across the service categories is mixed. Specifically, while voice responses conform to the hypothesized pattern, exit responses do not. Implications stemming from a comparative analysis of the results are discussed, and directions for future research outlined.
143610515
Why don’t some people complain? A cognitive-emotive process model of consumer complaint behavior
This article reports the development of a theoretical model of consumer complaint behavior by using cognitive appraisal theory as its foundation. Because of its importance to management and lack of attention in the marketing literature, specific emphasis is placed on the phenomenon of noncomplaining and the role of consumer emotion in dissatisfying marketplace experiences. The model presents cognitive appraisal as the key element in the evaluation of consumer threat and harm, which subsequently may result in psychological stress. Stressful appraisal outcomes are suggested to elicit emotive reactions that, in conjunction with cognitive appraisal, influence the type of coping strategy used by the consumer. Three coping strategies (problem focused, emotion focused, and avoidance) are identified and discussed. Key propositions are illustrated by using in-depth interview data from a sample of older female consumers.
54634258
Inducing word-of-mouth by eliciting surprise ? a pilot investigation
This research - using the critical incident technique - brings to the fore the emotion of surprise and its (direct and indirect) influence on word-of-mouth (WOM). The results show - as expected - that the frequency and amount of WOM are larger for negatively and positively surprising consumption/purchase experiences than for non surprising experiences of the same kind and that the intensity of surprise is significantly correlated with positive and negative WOM.
143754076
Receiving word-of-mouth from the service customer: An emotion-based effectiveness assessment
Abstract This study examines how receiving negative and positive word-of-mouth from satisfied and dissatisfied customers influences the potential customer. By explicitly including responses in terms of emotions—which hitherto have been neglected in research on word-of-mouth—it was found that emotional contagion and affect infusion were involved in the response process. The net effect was that receiving positive word-of-mouth as opposed to receiving negative word-of-mouth produced more positive evaluations of the service firm in the word-of-mouth conversation and higher levels of purchase intent vis-a-vis this firm. The results are thereby consonant with implicit assumptions in existing literature that word-of-mouth from the existing customer may have a significant impact on the potential customer, and this study indicates that emotional variables play an important role in the influence process.
144155735
The effect of consumption emotions on satisfaction and word‐of‐mouth communications
This paper examines the impact of consumption emotions on consumers' satisfaction and how it affects what they tell other consumers. The conceptual model is based on the premise that pleasure and arousal influence satisfaction, word-of-mouth (WOM) communications, and the likelihood of generating WOM. A study of 470 moviegoers in a French Canadian city supports most of these relationships. The results indicate that even when the effects of satisfaction are accounted for, pleasure and arousal have significant effects on WOM. © 2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
55951464
Emotions in consumer behavior: A hierarchical approach
Abstract A growing body of consumer research studies emotions evoked by marketing stimuli, products and brands. Yet, there has been a wide divergence in the content and structure of emotions used in these studies. In this paper, we will show that the seemingly diverging research streams can be integrated in a hierarchical consumer emotions model. The superordinate level consists of the frequently encountered general dimensions positive and negative affect. The subordinate level consists of specific emotions, based on Richins' (Richins, Marsha L. Measuring Emotions in the Consumption Experience. J. Consum. Res. 24 (2) (1997) 127–146) Consumption Emotion Set (CES), and as an intermediate level, we propose four negative and four positive basic emotions. We successfully conducted a preliminary test of this second-order model, and compare the superordinate and basic level emotion means for different types of food. The results suggest that basic emotions provide more information about the feelings of the consumer over and above positive and negative affect.
55679501
Beyond valence in customer dissatisfaction: A review and new findings on behavioral responses to regret and disappointment in failed services
Abstract Dissatisfied customers may express their dissatisfaction behaviorally. These behavioral responses may impact the firms' profitability. How do we model the impact of emotions on satisfaction and subsequent customer behaviors? There are essentially two approaches: the valence-based approach and the specific emotions approach. The authors indicate theoretically and show empirically that it matters to distinguish these approaches in services research. Dissatisfaction and the specific emotions disappointment and regret were assessed and their influence on customers' behavioral responses (complaining, switching, word-of-mouth, and customer inertia) was examined, using a sample of over 900 customers. It was found that emotions have a direct impact on behavior, over and above the effects of dissatisfaction. Hence, the authors argue against incorporating emotions such as regret and disappointment into a general (dis)satisfaction measure (i.e., the valence-based approach), and in favor of a specific emotions approach to customer dissatisfaction. Implications for services marketing practice and theory are discussed.
167525289
Customer satisfaction: A meta-analysis of the empirical evidence
The growing number of academic studies on customer satisfaction and the mixed findings they report complicate efforts among managers and academics to identify the antecedents to, and outcomes of, businesses having more-versus less-satisfied customers. These mixed findings and the growing emphasis by managers on having satisfied customers point to the value of empirically synthesizing the evidence on customer satisfaction to assess current knowledge. To this end, the authors conduct a meta-analysis of the reported findings on customer satisfaction. They document that equity and disconfirmation are most strongly related to customer satisfaction on average. They also find that measurement and method factors that characterize the research often moderate relationship strength between satisfaction and its antecedents and outcomes. The authors discuss the implications surrounding these effects and offer several directions for future research.
56371906
The theory of cognitive dissonance: A marketing and management perspective
The theory of cognitive dissonance [1] concentrates on creating knowledge about important psychological processes of individuals. Specifically, it focuses on the relationships among cognitions that are elements of knowledge that people have about their behaviors, attitudes, perceptions, beliefs, feelings, or environments. Since human nature is the main subject of all social sciences, the theory has awakened interest and led to significant research in different academic domains. This study makes a thorough analysis of the theory’s application in psychology, management, and marketing fields with an aim to assess the contribution of the theory to the development of knowledge in these areas. It is observed that the theory is commonly used by marketers to explain consumer behavior while its adoption in the management field to examine human related issues is considerably underdeveloped. Accordingly, the aim of this paper is to extend the literature on cognitive dissonance by discovering the under-investigated areas and pave the way for further theoretical and empirical research. Identification of existing gaps and suggestions for further scholarly inquiries are also believed to contribute to the recent efforts to regenerate interest to topic and to boost its generalizability through its greater utilization in the development of knowledge.
15793209
Postswitching Negative Word of Mouth
Previous research has extensively studied the determinants of customer loyalty and switching behavior but has given little attention to what happens after a customer has switched away from a service provider. In this article, the perhaps most important manifestation of such postswitching behavior—namely, postswitching negative word of mouth (PNWOM)—is investigated. Drawing from dissonance theory, hypotheses are developed and tested in an empirical study. Results from the telecommunications industry indicate that PNWOM is given frequently and that product involvement, market mavenism, perceived risk, satisfaction with the new provider, and the reason for switching the provider explain PNWOM. Implications for customer management are discussed.
10950746
Customer repurchase intention: A general structural equation model
This paper develops a general service sector model of repurchase intention from the consumer theory literature. A key contribution of the structural equation model is the incorporation of customer perceptions of equity and value and customer brand preference into an integrated repurchase intention analysis. The model describes the extent to which customer repurchase intention is influenced by seven important factors – service quality, equity and value, customer satisfaction, past loyalty, expected switching cost and brand preference. The general model is applied to customers of comprehensive car insurance and personal superannuation services. The analysis finds that although perceived quality does not directly affect customer satisfaction, it does so indirectly via customer equity and value perceptions. The study also finds that past purchase loyalty is not directly related to customer satisfaction or current brand preference and that brand preference is an intervening factor between customer satisfaction and repurchase intention. The main factor influencing brand preference was perceived value with customer satisfaction and expected switching cost having less influence.
167453982
Service failure and recovery: The impact of relationship factors on customer satisfaction
This research investigated how customers' relationships with a service organization affect their reactions to service failure and recovery. Our conceptual model proposed that customer-organizational relationships help to shape customers' attributions and expectations when service failures occur. The empirical results showed that customers with higher expectations of relationship continuity had lower service recovery expectations after a service failure and also attributed that failure to a less stable cause. Both the lower recovery expectations and the lower stability attributions were associated with greater satisfaction with the service performance after the recovery. These effects appeared to be key processes by which relationships buffer service organizations when service failures occur.
168153134
Employee Satisfaction, Customer Loyalty, and Financial Performance
The service profit chain is a simple conceptual framework linking employee satisfaction and loyalty, customer satisfaction and loyalty, and financial performance. Although widely used by practitioners, the service profit chain's series of hypothesized relationships between employee, customer, and financial outcomes has not been rigorously tested using data that span all components of the model. Panel data from the branches of a large regional bank are used to test individually each of the service profit chain's constituent hypotheses. The results generally support the model, but there are some exceptions. Further work is needed to refine and simplify several critical measures and to enhance the analysis to test the service profit chain as a complete system of related hypotheses.
167443029
Customer satisfaction, customer retention, and market share
Abstract We provide a mathematical framework for assessing the value of customer satisfaction. The framework enables managers to determine which customer satisfaction elements have the greatest impact, and how much money should be spent to improve particular customer satisfaction elements. This makes it possible to hold customer satisfaction programs accountable, in the way that other business programs are held accountable, by forcing them to demonstrate their benefits with respect to bottom-line profitability. We use an individual-level model of loyalty and retention, and then build up to market share by aggregation. We demonstrate the application of our approach in a pilot study of a city's retail banking market.
54817852
'My' Brand or 'Our' Brand: The Effects of Brand Relationship Dimensions and Self-Construal on Brand Evaluations
Consumer-brand relationships can be formed based on individual- or group-level connections. For example, a consumer's relationship with a Mercedes may be based on the desire to express individual-level unique identity (e.g., self-concept connection), whereas a relationship with a local brand (e.g., Ford) may be based on a group-level patriotic national identity (e.g., country-of-origin connection). We suggest that the effects of self-concept connection and brand country-of-origin connection vary based on self-construal. Results across two studies reveal that, under independent self-construal, self-concept connection is more important. Under interdependent self-construal, brand country-of-origin connection is more important. (c) 2007 by JOURNAL OF CONSUMER RESEARCH, Inc..
167366538
A dynamic model of customer complaining behaviour from the perspective of service‐dominant logic
Purpose - The purpose of this paper is to propose a conceptual model of customer complaining behaviour as a dynamic process in accordance with the service-dominant logic perspective of marketing.De ...
144104453
When consumers love their brands: Exploring the concept and its dimensions
Consumers may develop feelings of love toward some brands, but the meaning and underlying dimensions of this construct require further development. Through an exploratory Internet study of 843 respondents in France, this research used both qualitative and quantitative approaches to explore the concept of love. Eleven dimensions emerge through a correspondence analysis and the concomitant use of a multiple correspondence analysis and cluster analysis of the wording that respondents use to describe their feeling of love and the special type of relationships they have with the brands they love. These dimensions identified in France compare to dimensions of love found in previous research conducted in the United States.
145406408
Consumer–retailer love and attachment: Antecedents and personality moderators
Abstract Because loyalty to services remains elusive and unpredictable, there is a need to study consumer relationships with firms apart from the established satisfaction–loyalty chain approach. To that end, the present paper investigates feelings of attachment and love through two empirical consumer studies of two different grocery retailer brands. The findings of the current study imply that retail store image , perceived transactional value , and corporate social responsibility (CSR) associations positively influence consumer–retailer love levels. Furthermore, we find that for consumers scoring low on the value of warm relationships with others and for consumers characterized by an avoidant attachment style , the effect of consumer–retailer love on re-patronage intentions is less salient. Interestingly, in the case of highly avoidant individuals, the effect of consumer–retailer love is negative. Managerial implications for building consumer-firm love in the context of grocery retail, as well as future research perspectives, are provided at the end of the paper.
167933256
Complaining customers, service recovery and continuous improvement
Notes the fact that dissatisfied customers may not complain to the service provider, but will tell a number of people about the bad service they have received. Looks at factors related to the development of a service recovery system to ensure that dissatisfied customers are dealt with effectively so as to ensure they receive appropriate levels of service and to maximize customer retention. Considers factors such as the reasons for customer complaints, reciprocity and complaint handling and ways to instil a service recovery strategy.
207598694
The effect of negative online consumer reviews on product attitude: An information processing view
Online consumer reviews provide product information and recommendations from the customer perspective. This study investigates the effects of negative online consumer reviews on consumer product attitude. In particular, it examines the proportion and quality of negative online consumer reviews from the perspective of information processing. The elaboration likelihood model is used to explain the persuasive effect of the proportion and quality depending on product involvement. A high proportion of negative online consumer reviews elicits a conformity effect. As the proportion of negative online consumer reviews increases, high-involvement consumers tend to conform to the perspective of reviewers, depending on the quality of the negative online consumer reviews; in contrast, low-involvement consumers tend to conform to the perspective of reviewers regardless of the quality of the negative online consumer reviews. The experiment in this study uses 248 college students in Korea. The proposed hypotheses are tested by three-way analysis of covariance.
143130001
Trend Effects and Gender Differences in Retrospective Judgments of Consumption Emotions
A field study performed at the end of multiday hospital stays investigated trend effects on retrospective global judgments of emotions. Subjects (43 women and 50 men) reported instances of their positive and negative emotions, retrospective global judgments of these emotions, and satisfaction with hospital services. Retrospective global judgments of positive and negative emotions were a positive function of the increase or decrease of the instances of emotions over time. Consistent with predictions based on the literature on gender differences in information processing, men's retrospective judgments of positive emotions were highly sensitive to trend effects but no trend effect was found for negative emotions. In contrast, women demonstrated trend effects primarily in judgments of negative emotions. Trends in positive and negative emotions, however, did not significantly contribute to satisfaction judgements for men and women. Theoretical and managerial implications of the results are discussed. Copyright 1996 by the University of Chicago.
144564628
Measuring Emotions in the Consumption Experience
Although consumption-related emotions have been studied with increasing frequency in consumer behavior, issues concerning the appropriate way to measure these emotions remain unresolved This article reviews the emotion measures currently used in consumer research and the theories on which they are based; it concludes that the existing measures are unsuited for the purpose of measuring consumption-related emotions. The article describes six empirical studies that assess the domain of consumption-related emotions, that identify an appropriate set of consumption emotion descriptors (the CES), and that compare the usefulness of this descriptor set with the usefulness of other measures in assessing consumption-related emotions. Copyright 1997 by the University of Chicago.
936285
Loneliness, Self-Disclosure, and ICQ ("I Seek You") Use
This study investigated the relationships between self-disclosure in ICQ ("I seek you") chat, level of loneliness, and ICQ usage. The Revised UCLA Loneliness Scale and the Revised Self-Disclosure Scale (RSDS) were administered to a multistaged stratified random sample of 576 college students. The results indicate that loneliness is not related to level of ICQ use, but inversely related to valence, accuracy, and the amount dimensions of self-disclosure in ICQ chat, and that ICQ usage is significantly related to control of depth and intent of disclosure. Specifically, it was found that the lonelier the student, the more dishonest, more negative, and the less revealing was the quality of the self-disclosure in their ICQ interaction. Conversely, appropriate, honest, positive, and accurate self-disclosure might lead to decreased loneliness when one feels understood, accepted, and cared about on ICQ. More important, as intimate relationships are based on high degrees of depth and intent of self-disclosure, heavy users of ICQ are usually open, personal, and consciously aware of what they are disclosing.
144336913
A Follow-up Study of the Relationships among Trust, Disclosure, and Interpersonal Solidarity
This study conceptualized perceived trustworthiness of the individual, self-disclosure to the individual, perceived trustworthiness of people in general, and disclosive tendencies to other people in general to be indicants of a broader construct of trust. Self-disclosure and perceived trustworthiness of the individual were found to be related constructs assessing differential aspects of the trust construct. Likewise, self-disclosure and perceived trustworthiness of the individual were found to be criterial attributes of interpersonal solidarity. These communication-related phenomena indicated the solidarity of interpersonal relationships. In the progress of the research, a 20-item measure of perceived interpersonal solidarity was developed as a criterion for assessing the impact of communication-related variables on interpersonal relationships. Other exploratory research issues were investigated.
167782856
Excitement at the mall: Determinants and effects on shopping response
Abstract Competition between malls and newer forms of shopping centers has led mall developers and management to consider alternative methods to build excitement with customers. In this study, we examine the relationship between three factors (tenant variety, mall environment and shopping involvement) on shoppers' excitement and desire to stay at a mall. Results show that the three factors have a differential influence on excitement and desire to stay, which in turn are found to influence repatronage intentions and outshopping.
146300503
When Does the Service Process Matter? A Test of Two Competing Theories
This article examines the interactive effect of process quality and outcome quality on service evaluation. Experiment 1 shows that the interaction between the two types of quality follows a pattern predicted by two-factor theory. In contrast, experiment 2 demonstrates that when consumers feel uncertain about the service outcome prior to consumption, they will use process quality as a heuristic substitute in their assessment of the trustworthiness of the service provider. The resulting interaction between the types of quality then follows a pattern predicted by fairness heuristic theory.
12476939
Perceived Usefulness, Perceived Ease of Use, and User Acceptance of Information Technology
Valid measurement scales for predicting user acceptance of computers are in short supply. Most subjective measures used in practice are unvalidated, and their relationship to system usage is unknown. The present research develops and validates new scales for two specific variables, perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use, which are hypothesized to be fundamental determinants of user acceptance. Definitions of these two variables were used to develop scale items that were pretested for content validity and then tested for reliability and construct validity in two studies involving a total of 152 users and four application programs. The measures were refined and streamlined, resulting in two six-item scales with reliabilities of .98 for usefulness and .94 for ease of use. The scales exhibited hgih convergent, discriminant, and factorial validity. Perceived usefulness was significnatly correlated with both self-reported current usage r = .63, Study 1) and self-predicted future usage r = .85, Study 2). Perceived ease of use was also significantly correlated with current usage r = .45, Study 1) and future usage r = .59, Study 2). In both studies, usefulness had a signficnatly greater correaltion with usage behavior than did ease of use. Regression analyses suggest that perceived ease of use may actually be a causal antecdent to perceived usefulness, as opposed to a parallel, direct determinant of system usage. Implications are drawn for future research on user acceptance.
151075248
Systems Analysis by Partial Least Squares
This Collaborative Paper is one of a series embodying the outcome of a workshop and conference on Economic Structural Change: Analytical Issues, held at IIASA in July and August 1983. The conference and workshop formed part of the continuing IIASA program on Patterns of Economic Structural Change and Industrial Adjustment. 

Structural change was interpreted very broadly: the topics covered included the nature and causes of changes in different sectors of the world economy, the relationship between international markets and national economies, and issues of organization and incentives in large economic systems. 

There is a general consensus that important economic structural changes are occurring in the world economy. There are, however, several alternative approaches to measuring these changes, to modeling the process, and to devising appropriate responses in terms of policy measures and institutional redesign. Other interesting questions concern the role of the international economic system in transmitting such changes, and the merits of alternative modes of economic organization in responding to structural change. All of these issues were addressed by participants in the workshop and conference, and will be the focus of the continuation of the research program's work.
16384423
The Use of Partial Least Squares Path Modeling in International Marketing
In order to determine the status quo of PLS path modeling in international marketing research, we conducted an exhaustive literature review. An evaluation of double-blind reviewed journals through important academic publishing databases (e.g., ABI/Inform, Elsevier ScienceDirect, Emerald Insight, Google Scholar, PsycINFO, Swetswise) revealed that more than 30 academic articles in the domain of international marketing (in a broad sense) used PLS path modeling as means of statistical analysis. We assessed what the main motivation for the use of PLS was in respect of each article. Moreover, we checked for applications of PLS in combination with one or more additional methods, and whether the main reason for conducting any additional method(s) was mentioned.
144999845
Scale Development: Theory and Applications
Chapter 1: Overview General Perspectives on Measurement Historical Origins of Measurement in Social Science Later Developments in Measurement The Role of Measurement in the Social Sciences Summary and Preview Chapter 2: Understanding the "Latent Variable" Constructs Versus Measures Latent Variable as the Presumed Cause of Item Values Path Diagrams Further Elaboration of the Measurement Model Parallel "Tests" Alternative Models Exercises Chapter 3: Reliability Continuous Versus Dichotomous Items Internal Consistency Relability Based on Correlations Between Scale Scores Generalizability Theory Summary and Exercises Chapter 4: Validity Content Validity Criterion-related Validity Construct Validity What About Face Validity? Exercises Chapter 5: Guidelines in Scale Development Step 1: Determine Clearly What it Is You Want to Measure Step 2: Generate an Item Pool Step 3: Determine the Format for Measurement Step 4: Have Initial Item Pool Reviewed by Experts Step 5: Consider Inclusion of Validation Items Step 6: Administer Items to a Development Sample Step 7: Evaluate the Items Step 8: Optimize Scale Length Exercises Chapter 6: Factor Analysis Overview of Factor Analysis Conceptual Description of Factor Analysis Interpreting Factors Principal Components vs Common Factors Confirmatory Factor Analysis Using Factor Analysis in Scale Development Sample Size Conclusion Chapter 7: An Overview of Item Response Theory Item Difficulty Item Discrimination False Positives Item Characteristic Curves Complexities of IRT When to Use IRT Conclusions Chapter 8: Measurement in the Broader Research Context Before the Scale Development After the Scale Administration Final Thoughts References Index About the Author
141571270
Scaling Procedures: Issues and Applications
About the Authors Chapter One: Introduction and Overview Purpose of the Book. Perspectives on Measurement in the Social Sciences. Latent Constructs Overview of dimensionality, reliability, and validity Overview of recommended procedures and steps in scale development. Chapter Two: Dimensionality Introduction. Dimensionality of construct, items, and a set of items. Does uni-dimensionality of a set of items imply uni-dimensionality of items or construct? Relevance of uni-dimensionality. How to assess dimensionality of constructs. Chapter Three: Reliability Introduction The true-score model Coefficient alpha Generalizability Theory Chapter Four: Validity Overview of Construct Validity Translation validity Criterion validity Convergent and discriminant validity Known-group validity Nomological validity Chapter Five: Steps 1 and 2: Construct Definition and Generating and Judging Measurement items Chapter 5: Steps 1 and 2: Construct Definition and Judging Measurement Items Introduction Step 1: Construct definition and content domain Step 2: Generating and judging measurement items Applications of Steps 1 and 2. Chapter Six: Step 3: Designing and Conducting Studies to Develop the Scale Introduction Pilot testing Conducting multiple studies for initial development and validation Initial item analyses: Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) Initial item and reliability analyses A final caveat EFA and item and reliability analyses examples from the literature Chapter 7: Step 4: Finalizing the Scale Introduction EFA and additional item analyses Confirmatory Factor Analyses (CFA) Additional evaluations of validity Establishing norms Applying generalizability theory Chapter Eight: Concluding Remarks Index
153847374
On assuring valid measures for theoretical models using survey data
Abstract This research critically reviews the process and procedures used in marketing to assure valid and reliable measures for theoretical model tests involving unobserved variables and survey data, and it selectively suggests improvements. The review and suggestions are based on reviews of articles in the marketing literature, and the recent methods literature. This research also provides several perhaps needed explanations and examples, and is aimed at continuous improvement in theoretical model tests involving unobserved variables and survey data.
5281538
Common method biases in behavioral research: a critical review of the literature and recommended remedies.
Interest in the problem of method biases has a long history in the behavioral sciences. Despite this, a comprehensive summary of the potential sources of method biases and how to control for them does not exist. Therefore, the purpose of this article is to examine the extent to which method biases influence behavioral research results, identify potential sources of method biases, discuss the cognitive processes through which method biases influence responses to measures, evaluate the many different procedural and statistical techniques that can be used to control method biases, and provide recommendations for how to select appropriate procedural and statistical remedies for different types of research settings.
145495928
Temporal Changes in Mood Repair Through Music Consumption: Effects of Mood, Mood Salience, and Individual Differences
Prior research on mood management through media consumption has encountered mixed results. This study seeks to address these discrepancies by incorporating time of measurement into the examination of regulatory outcomes and by identifying trait-like cognitive moderators that presumably are involved in the regulation of negative moods. Results showed that sad mood initially fostered longer listening to mood-compatible music but such preference decreased over time, suggesting the merits of considering temporal changes in the mood-repair process. In addition, ruminative trait was found to be a significant factor in how people cope with their sad moods, whereas mood salience was not.
20351259
Retrieving positive memories to regulate negative mood: consequences for mood-congruent memory.
Several researchers have suggested that mood-incongruency effects are due to a mood-regulatory process in which people retrieve positive memories to repair negative moods. The present studies tested this idea by manipulating mood-repair strategies and examining their impact on positive and negative memory retrieval. Mood-congruent retrieval occurred when participants stayed focused on events associated with their negative mood; mood-incongruent retrieval occurred when participants engaged in positive reappraisal (when they reinterpreted events as having positive outcomes). The effects of these strategies on memory retrieval also interacted with personality traits related to negative mood regulation. Individuals high in such traits showed stronger mood-incongruent memory than did individuals low in negative mood-regulation traits. Discussion focuses on integrating mood-regulatory variables and personality variables into existing mood-congruency theories (e.g., associative network models).
31064341
Self-Presentation in Online Personals
This study investigates self-disclosure in the novel context of online dating relationships. Using a national random sample of Match.com members (N = 349), the authors tested a model of relational goals, self-disclosure, and perceived success in online dating. The authors’ findings provide support for social penetration theory and the social information processing and hyperpersonal perspectives as well as highlight the positive effect of anticipated future face-to-face interaction on online self-disclosure. The authors find that perceived online dating success is predicted by four dimensions of self-disclosure (honesty, amount, intent, and valence), although honesty has a negative effect. Furthermore, online dating experience is a strong predictor of perceived success in online dating. Additionally, the authors identify predictors of strategic success versus self-presentation success. This research extends existing theory on computer-mediated communication, self-disclosure, and relational success to the increasingly important arena of mixed-mode relationships, in which participants move from mediated to face-to-face communication.
154601317
Consumer Power: A Comparison of the Old Economy and the Internet Economy
From the very beginning of the Internet, a decisive shift from supplier power to consumer power was predicted by several authors and is still maintained in recent literature. Although the Internet has grown rapidly within the last years and electronic markets have evolved, a theoretical framework for consumer power on the Internet still cannot be identified. Few authors have taken efforts to apply common concepts of power theory to the characteristics of the Internet. Based on the concept of French and Raven, this paper analyses consumer power in traditional markets and then compares it to the situation on the Internet. This comparison shows that the Internet enables consumers (a) to overcome most information asymmetries that characterize traditional consumer markets and thus obtain high levels of market transparency, (b) to easily band together against companies and impose sanctions via exit and voice, and (c) to take on a more active role in the value chain and influence products and prices according to individual preferences. A broad literature review reveals that empirical findings confirm these hypotheses to a great extent. The authors conclude by summarizing the results and drawing implications from two different angles, namely from a marketing and a consumer policy perspective.
12566155
The impact of electronic word-of-mouth: The adoption of online opinions in online customer communities
Purpose – Web‐based technologies have created numerous opportunities for electronic word‐of‐mouth (eWOM) communication. This phenomenon impacts online retailers as this easily accessible information could greatly affect the online consumption decision. The purpose of this paper is to examine the extent to which opinion seekers are willing to accept and adopt online consumer reviews and which factors encourage adoption.Design/methodology/approach – Using dual‐process theories, an information adoption model was developed to examine the factors affecting information adoption of online opinion seekers in online customer communities. The model was tested empirically using a sample of 154 users who had experience within the online customer community, Openrice.com. Users were required to complete a survey regarding the online consumer reviews received from the virtual sharing platform.Findings – The paper found comprehensiveness and relevance to be the most effective components of the argument quality construct ...
31337844
The Effect of On-Line Consumer Reviews on Consumer Purchasing Intention: The Moderating Role of Involvement
On-line consumer reviews, functioning both as informants and as recommenders, are important in making purchase decisions and for product sales. Their persuasive impact depends on both their quality and their quantity. This paper uses the elaboration likelihood model to explain how level of involvement with a product moderates these relationships. The study produces three major findings: (1) the quality of on-line reviews has a positive effect on consumers' purchasing intention, (2) purchasing intention increases as the number of reviews increases, and (3) low-involvement consumers are affected by the quantity rather than the quality of reviews, but high-involvement consumers are affected by review quantity mainly when the review quality is high. These findings have implications for on-line sellers in terms of how to manage on-line consumer reviews.
145801618
Gratitude, delight, or guilt: The role of consumers' emotions in predicting postconsumption behaviors
This study investigates the relationships among appraisals (goal congruence/incongruence and agency), consumption emotions (gratitude, happiness, guilt, anger, pride, and sadness), and post-consumption behaviors (positive and negative word of mouth, repurchase intention, and complaint behavior). The findings demonstrate that these emotions predict different specific types of post-consumption behaviors and that they are elicited by appraisals specified in the psychology literature. In particular, gratitude but not happiness, predicts repurchase intention and positive word of mouth. By contrast, guilt inhibits complaint behaviors and negative word of mouth. The implications of these findings for marketing practice are discussed. © 2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
154755190
Rules of engagement: Practice what you tweet
Abstract This study explored tweets that mention highly engaged companies and compared them to tweets that mention less engaged competitors. Results showed that a highly engaged company received less negative mentions in tweets, but only if the company also practiced dialogical communication. Additionally, less engaged companies received more mentions in tweets and in one instance tweets that mentioned a less engaged company shared more links with others.
6248482
Subjectivity and sentiment analysis: An overview of the current state of the area and envisaged developments
In this introduction, we present an overview of the current state of research in the Natural Language Processing tasks of subjectivity and sentiment analysis, as well as their application domains and closely-related research field of emotion detection. Although many definitions exist for these tasks and the research done within their frame spans over approaches with different objectives, we consider subjectivity analysis to deal with the detection of ''private states'' (opinions, emotions, sentiments, beliefs, speculations) and sentiment analysis as the task of detecting, extracting and classifying opinions and sentiments concerning different topics, as expressed in textual input. After describing the key concepts and research directions in these tasks, we present the main achievements obtained so far and the issues that remain to be tackled. Subsequently, we introduce each of the papers in this volume and present their contribution to the research areas of subjectivity and sentiment analysis. Finally, we conclude on the present state of work in these fields and reflect on the possible future developments.
167793823
Telecom's search for the ultimate customer loyalty platform
Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to present an up‐to‐date examination of the telecommunications industry and attempt to discover how some of the major players are engaging their customers while trying to constantly diversify their service offerings.Design/methodology/approach – The paper examines, case by case, three major telecommunications companies and identifies current and future offerings as they pertain to service initiatives and customer loyalty and retention. The paper also offers a broader overview of the telecommunications industry as a whole and identifies some major trends in the current landscape.Findings – The paper finds that companies with sound customer strategies can use this as a differentiator in an increasingly muddled market. In an increasingly competitive market, customer loyalty efforts can play a major part in the attraction of new customers and the retention of current ones. Companies must transition to offer a suite of services as “bundling” strategies proliferate and fur...