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Por aliaj uzoj, vidu Istanbulo (malambiguigo).
"Lygos" resendas ĉi-tien. Por aliaj uzoj de la esprimo, vidu Lygos (malambiguigo).
Dekstrume de pinto: Vido de la Orkorno inter Karaköy kaj Sarayburnu ene de la historiaj areoj; Maiden's Tower; nostalgia tramo sur İstiklal Avenue; Levent komercdistrikto kun Dolmabahçe Palace; Ortaköy Mosque antaŭ la Bospora Ponto; kaj Hagia Sofia.
Loko en Turkio
Koordinatoj: 41°00′49″N 28°57′18″E 41.01361°N 28.95500°E 41.01361; 28.95500
Mevlut Uysal ( AKP)
Areo [1] [2] [ a ]
1,539 km2 (594 kv. mejl.)
5,343 km2 (2,063 kv. mejl.)
Populacio (31 decembro 2016) [3] [4] [5]
2,691/ km2 (6,970/kv. mejl.)
( turke: İstanbullu ) Stambouliote
FET ( UTC 3)
34000 ĝis 34990
0212 (eŭropa flanko)
(azia flanko)
301 miliardoj 6 uSD []
22,765 6 uSD []
w. ib. gubernatoro.tr
w.istanbul. gubernatoro.tr
Istanbulo ( UK: / ˌ ɪ s t da Æ n ˈ b ʊ l / , /- ˈ b uː l / aŭ Usono: /- s t ɑː n - / aŭ / ˈ ɪ s t ən ˌ b ʊ l / ; [7] [8] [9] Turko: İstanbul [isˈtɑnbuɫ] ( aŭskultu)), historie konata kiel Konstantinopolo kaj Bizanco, estas la plej popolriĉa grandurbo en Turkio kaj la ekonomia centro de la lando kultura, kaj historia. Istanbulo estas transkontinenta grandurbo en Eŭrazio, interkrurigante la Bosporo markolon (kiu apartigas Eŭropon kaj Azion) inter la Marmara Maro kaj Nigra Maro. Ĝia komerca kaj historia centro situas sur la eŭropa flanko kaj proksimume triono de sia populacio vivas sur la azia flanko. [10] La grandurbo estas la administra centro de la Istanbula Metropolitena Municipo ( interlima kun Provinco Ä°stanbul), ambaŭ gastigante populacion de proksimume 14.7 milionoj da loĝantoj. [3] Istanbulo estas unu el la plej popolriĉaj grandurboj kaj rangoj de la mondo kiel la 7-a-plej granda grandurbo de la monda mem kaj la plej granda eŭropa grandurbo.
Fondite sub la nomo de Byzantion (βυζάντιον) sur la Sarayburnu terkapo proksimume 660 a.K., la grandurbo formiĝis por iĝi unu el la plej signifaj en historio. Post ĝia restarigo kiel Konstantinopolo en 330 p.K., ĝi funkciis kiel imperia ĉefurbo dum preskaŭ 16 jarcentoj, dum la Roman / bizanca (330-1204 kaj 1261-1453), la la latina (1204-1261), kaj la otomanaj (1453-1922) imperioj. [11] Ĝi estis instrumenta en la akcelo de kristanismo dum romiaj kaj bizancaj tempoj, antaŭ ol la otomanoj konkeris la grandurbon en 1453 kaj transformis ĝin en islaman fortikejon kaj la sidejon de la Otomana Kalifujo.
La strategia pozicio de Istanbulo sur la historia Silkvojo, [13] fervojoretoj al Eŭropo kaj la Proksima Oriento, kaj la nura marvojo inter Nigra Maro kaj Mediteranea Maro produktis kosmopolitan loĝantaron, kvankam malpli ekde la establado de la turka respubliko en 1923. Preteratentite por la nova ĉefurbo Ankaro dum la intermilita periodo, la grandurbo poste reakiris multon da sia eminenteco. La populacio de la grandurbo pliiĝis dekoble ekde la 1950-aj jaroj, ĉar migrantoj de en tuta Anatolio translokiĝis enen kaj urbocentrolimoj disetendiĝis por alĝustigi ilin. [14] [15] Artoj, muziko, filmo, kaj kulturaj festivaloj estis establitaj ĉe la fino de la 20-a jarcento kaj daŭrigu esti gastigitaj fare de la grandurbo hodiaŭ. Infrastrukturplibonigoj produktis kompleksan transportadreton.
Ĉirkaŭ 12.56 milionoj kiujn eksterlandaj vizitantoj alvenis en Istanbulo en 2015, kvin jarojn laŭ ĝi estis nomita Eŭropa Kultura Ĉefurbo, igante la grandurbon la kvina plej populara turistloko de la monda. [16] La plej granda altiro de la grandurbo estas sia historia centro, parte listigita kiel Unesko Monda heredaĵo de Unesko, kaj ĝia kultura kaj distronabo povas esti trovitaj trans la natura haveno de la grandurbo, la Orkorno, en la Beyoğlu distrikto. Konsiderita mondurbo, [17] Istanbulo havas unu el la fastest-kultivaj metropolitenaj ekonomioj en la mondo. [18] Ĝi gastigas la ĉefsidejon de multaj turkaj firmaoj kaj aŭdvidaj butikoj kaj respondecas pri pli ol kvarono de la malneta enlanda produkto de la lando. [19] Esperante kapitaligi sur ĝia revivigo kaj rapida vastiĝo, Istanbulo sinanoncis por la Somerolimpikoj kvin fojojn en dudek jaroj.
2.1 Pliiĝo kaj aŭtuna de Konstantinopolo kaj la Orientromia imperio
2.2 Otomana Imperio kaj turkaj respublikepokoj
6.1 Religiemaj kaj etnoj
9.1 Libertempo kaj distro
13 Publikaj servoj
15 fratino- kaj ĝemelurboj
18.1 Bibliografio
Ĉefa artikolo: Nomoj de Istanbulo
La unua konata nomo de la grandurbo estas Bizanco ( greke: βυζάντιον, Byzántion), la nomo donita al ĝi ĉe ĝia fundamento fare de Megarean kolonianoj proksimume 660 a.K. [21] La nomo supozeble estas derivita de persona nomo, Byzas. Malnovgreka tradicio nomas legendan reĝon de tiu nomo la gvidanto de la grekaj kolonianoj. Modernaj akademiuloj ankaŭ hipotezis ke la nomo de Byzas estis de loka trakiano aŭ ilir origino kaj tial datis de antaŭ la Megarean-kompromiso.
After Constantine the Great made it the new eastern capital of the Roman Empire in 330 CE, the city became widely known as "Constantinopolis" (Constantinople), which, as the Latinized form of "Κωνσταντινούπολις" (Konstantinoúpolis), means the "City of Constantine".[21] He also attempted to promote the name "Nova Roma" and its Greek version "Νέα Ῥώμη" Nea Romē (New Rome), but this did not enter widespread usage.[23]Constantinople remained the most common name for the city in the West until the establishment of the Turkish Republic, and Kostantiniyye (Ottoman Turkish: قسطنطينيه‎) and Be Makam-e Qonstantiniyyah al-Mahmiyyah (meaning "the Protected Location of Constantinople") and İstanbul were the names used alternatively by the Ottomans during their rule.[24] The use of Constantinople to refer to the city during the Ottoman period (from the mid-15th century) is now considered politically incorrect, even if not historically inaccurate, by Turks.[25]
By the 19th century, the city had acquired other names used by either foreigners or Turks. Europeans used Constantinople to refer to the whole of the city, but used the name Stamboul - as the Turks also did - to describe the walled peninsula between the Golden Horn and the Sea of Marmara.[25]Pera (from the Greek word for "across") was used to describe the area between the Golden Horn and the Bosphorus, but Turks also used the name Beyoğlu (today the official name for one of the city's constituent districts).[26]Islambol (meaning either "City of Islam" or "Full of Islam") was sometimes colloquially used to refer to the city, and was even engraved on some Ottoman coins,[27] but the belief that it was the precursor to the present name, İstanbul, is belied by the fact that the latter existed well before the former and even predates the Ottoman conquest of the city.[21]
The history of the city proper begins around 660 BCE,[43][b] when Greek settlers from Megara established Byzantium on the European side of the Bosphorus. The settlers built an acropolis adjacent to the Golden Horn on the site of the early Thracian settlements, fueling the nascent city's economy.[49] The city experienced a brief period of Persian rule at the turn of the 5th century BCE, but the Greeks recaptured it during the Greco-Persian Wars.[50] Byzantium then continued as part of the Athenian League and its successor, the Second Athenian Empire, before gaining independence in 355 BCE.[51] Long allied with the Romans, Byzantium officially became a part of the Roman Empire in 73 CE.[52] Byzantium's decision to side with the Roman usurper Pescennius Niger against Emperor Septimius Severus cost it dearly; by the time it surrendered at the end of 195 CE, two years of siege had left the city devastated.[53] Five years later, Severus began to rebuild Byzantium, and the city regained - and, by some accounts, surpassed - its previous prosperity.[54]
In the early 20th century, the Young Turk Revolution deposed Sultan Abdul Hamid II and a series of wars plagued the ailing empire's capital.[85] The last of these, World War I, resulted in the British, French, and Italian occupation of Constantinople. The Armenian population of the city was also affected by the deportation of Armenian intellectuals on 24 April 1915, in which leaders of the Armenian community were arrested and mostly killed as part of the Armenian Genocide. To commemorate the victims of the Armenian Genocide, 24 April has now become the day of remembrance.[86] The final Ottoman sultan, Mehmed VI, was exiled in November 1922 by Atatürk; the following year, the occupation of Constantinople ended with the signing of the Treaty of Lausanne and the recognition of the Republic of Turkey, declared by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk.[87]
In the early years of the republic, Istanbul was overlooked in favor of Ankara, selected as Turkey's capital to distance the new, secular country from its Ottoman history.[88] From the late 1940s and early 1950s, Istanbul underwent great structural change, as new public squares, boulevards, and avenues were constructed throughout the city, sometimes at the expense of historical buildings.[89] The population of Istanbul began to rapidly increase in the 1970s, as people from Anatolia migrated to the city to find employment in the many new factories that were built on the outskirts of the sprawling metropolis. This sudden, sharp rise in the city's population caused a large demand for housing, and many previously outlying villages and forests became engulfed into the metropolitan area of Istanbul.[90]
Istanbul is located in north-western Turkey within the Marmara Region on a total area of 5,343 square kilometers (2,063 sq mi).[a] The Bosphorus, which connects the Sea of Marmara to the Black Sea, divides the city into a European, Thracian side - comprising the historic and economic centers - and an Asian, Anatolian side. The city is further divided by the Golden Horn, a natural harbor bounding the peninsula where the former Byzantium and Constantinople were founded. The confluence of the Sea of Marmara, the Bosphorus, and the Golden Horn at the heart of present-day Istanbul has deterred attacking forces for thousands of years and remains a prominent feature of the city's landscape.[58]
Following the model of Rome, the historic peninsula is said to be characterized by seven hills, each topped by imperial mosques. The easternmost of these hills is the site of Topkapı Palace on the Sarayburnu.[95] Rising from the opposite side of the Golden Horn is another, conical hill, where the modern Beyoğlu district is situated. Because of the topography, buildings in Beyoğlu were once constructed with the help of terraced retaining walls, and roads were laid out in the form of steps.[96]Üsküdar on the Asian side exhibits similarly hilly characteristics, with the terrain gradually extending down to the Bosphorus coast, but the landscape in Şemsipaşa and Ayazma is more abrupt, akin to a promontory. The highest point in Istanbul is Çamlıca Hill, with an altitude of 288 meters (945 ft).[96] The northern half of Istanbul has a higher mean elevation compared to the south coast, with locations surpassing 200 meters (660 ft), and some coasts with steep cliffs resembling fjords, especially around the northern end of the Bosporus, where it opens up to the Black Sea.
Winter is colder in Istanbul than in most other cities around the Mediterranean Basin, with low temperatures averaging 1-4 °C (34-39 °F).[111]Lake-effect snow from the Black Sea is common, although difficult to forecast, with the potential to be heavy and - as with the fog - disruptive to the city's infrastructure.[113] Spring and autumn are mild, but often wet and unpredictable; chilly winds from the northwest and warm gusts from the south - sometimes in the same day - tend to cause fluctuations in temperature.[110][114] Overall, Istanbul has an annual average of 130 days with significant precipitation, which amounts to 810 millimeters (31.9 in) per year.[111][115] The highest and lowest temperatures ever recorded in the city center on the Marmara coast are 40.5 °C (105 °F) and −16.1 °C (3 °F). The greatest rainfall recorded in a day is 227 millimeters (8.9 in), and the highest recorded snow cover is 80 centimeters (31 in).[116][117]
Climate data for Istanbul (Sarıyer), 1950-2015
Source: Turkish State Meteorological Service (sun, 1960-2012)[111][115][118]
Istanbul does not have a primary urban park, but it has several green areas. Gülhane Park and Yıldız Park were originally included within the grounds of two of Istanbul's palaces - Topkapı Palace and Yıldız Palace - but they were repurposed as public parks in the early decades of the Turkish Republic.[132] Another park, Fethi Paşa Korusu, is situated on a hillside adjacent to the Bosphorus Bridge in Anatolia, opposite Yıldız Palace in Europe. Along the European side, and close to the Fatih Sultan Mehmet Bridge, is Emirgan Park, which was known as the Kyparades (Cypress Forest) during the Byzantine period. In the Ottoman period, it was first granted to Nişancı Feridun Ahmed Pasha in the 16th century, before being granted by Sultan Murad IV to the Safavid Emir Gûne Han in the 17th century, hence the name Emirgan. The 47-hectare (120-acre) park was later owned by Khedive Ismail Pasha of Ottoman Egypt and Sudan in the 19th century. Emirgan Park is known for its diversity of plants and an annual tulip festival is held there since 2005.[133] The AKP government's decision to replace Taksim Gezi Park with a replica of the Ottoman era Taksim Military Barracks (which was transformed into the Taksim Stadium in 1921, before being demolished in 1940 for building Gezi Park) sparked a series of nationwide protests in 2013 covering a wide range of issues. Popular during the summer among Istanbulites is Belgrad Forest, spreading across 5,500 hectares (14,000 acres) at the northern edge of the city. The forest originally supplied water to the city and remnants of reservoirs used during Byzantine and Ottoman times survive.[134][135]
Panoramic view of Istanbul from the confluence of the Bosphorus and the Sea of Marmara. Several landmarks - including Sultan Ahmed Mosque, the Hagia Sophia, Topkapı Palace, and Dolmabahçe Palace - can be seen along their shores.
Early Byzantine architecture followed the classical Roman model of domes and arches, but improved upon these elements, as in the Church of the Saints Sergius and Bacchus. The oldest surviving Byzantine church in Istanbul - albeit in ruins - is the Monastery of Stoudios (later converted into the Imrahor Mosque), which was built in 454.[138] After the recapture of Constantinople in 1261, the Byzantines enlarged two of the most important churches extant, Chora Church and Pammakaristos Church. The pinnacle of Byzantine architecture, and one of Istanbul's most iconic structures, is the Hagia Sophia. Topped by a dome 31 meters (102 ft) in diameter,[139] the Hagia Sophia stood as the world's largest cathedral for centuries, and was later converted into a mosque and, as it stands now, a museum.[59]
Among the oldest surviving examples of Ottoman architecture in Istanbul are the Anadoluhisarı and Rumelihisarı fortresses, which assisted the Ottomans during their siege of the city.[140] Over the next four centuries, the Ottomans made an indelible impression on the skyline of Istanbul, building towering mosques and ornate palaces. The largest palace, Topkapı, includes a diverse array of architectural styles, from Baroque inside the Harem, to its Neoclassical style Enderûn Library.[141] The imperial mosques include Fatih Mosque, Bayezid Mosque, Yavuz Selim Mosque, Süleymaniye Mosque, Sultan Ahmed Mosque (the Blue Mosque), and Yeni Mosque, all of which were built at the peak of the Ottoman Empire, in the 16th and 17th centuries. In the following centuries, and especially after the Tanzimat reforms, Ottoman architecture was supplanted by European styles.[142] An example of which is the imperial Nuruosmaniye Mosque. Areas around İstiklal Avenue were filled with grand European embassies and rows of buildings in Neoclassical, Renaissance Revival and Art Nouveau styles, which went on to influence the architecture of a variety of structures in Beyoğlu - including churches, stores, and theaters - and official buildings such as Dolmabahçe Palace.[143]
Since 2004, the municipal boundaries of Istanbul have been coincident with the boundaries of its province.[144] The city, considered capital of Istanbul Province, is administered by the Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality (MMI), which oversees the 39 districts of the city-province.[a]
The current city structure can be traced back to the Tanzimat period of reform in the 19th century, before which Islamic judges and imams led the city under the auspices of the Grand Vizier. Following the model of French cities, this religious system was replaced by a mayor and a citywide council composed of representatives of the confessional groups (millet) across Istanbul. Beyoğlu was the first area of the city to have its own director and council, with members instead being longtime residents of the neighborhood.[145] Laws enacted after the Ottoman constitution of 1876 aimed to expand this structure across the city, imitating the twenty arrondissements of Paris, but they were not fully implemented until 1908, when Istanbul was declared a province with nine constituent districts.[146][147] This system continued beyond the founding of the Turkish Republic, with the province renamed a belediye (municipality), but the municipality was disbanded in 1957.[92][148]
Small settlements adjacent to major population centers in Turkey, including Istanbul, were merged into their respective primary cities during the early 1980s, resulting in metropolitan municipalities.[149][150] The main decision-making body of the Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality is the Municipal Council, with members drawn from district councils.
The Municipal Council is responsible for citywide issues, including managing the budget, maintaining civic infrastructure, and overseeing museums and major cultural centers.[151] Since the government operates under a "powerful mayor, weak council" approach, the council's leader - the metropolitan mayor - has the authority to make swift decisions, often at the expense of transparency.[152] The Municipal Council is advised by the Metropolitan Executive Committee, although the Committee also has limited power to make decisions of its own.[153] All representatives on the Committee are appointed by the metropolitan mayor and the Council, with the mayor - or someone of his or her choosing - serving as head.[153][154]
District councils are chiefly responsible for waste management and construction projects within their respective districts. They each maintain their own budgets, although the metropolitan mayor reserves the right to review district decisions. One-fifth of all district council members, including the district mayors, also represent their districts in the Municipal Council.[151] All members of the district councils and the Municipal Council, including the metropolitan mayor, are elected to five-year terms.[155] Representing the Justice and Development Party, Mevlüt Uysal has been Mayor of Istanbul since March 2004.[156]
With the Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality and Istanbul Province having equivalent jurisdictions, few responsibilities remain for the provincial government. Similar to the MMI, the Istanbul Special Provincial Administration has a governor, a democratically elected decision-making body - the Provincial Parliament - and an appointed Executive Committee. Mirroring the executive committee at the municipal level, the Provincial Executive Committee includes a secretary-general and leaders of departments that advise the Provincial Parliament.[154][157] The Provincial Administration's duties are largely limited to the building and maintenance of schools, residences, government buildings, and roads, and the promotion of arts, culture, and nature conservation.[158] Hüseyin Avni Mutlu has been Governor of Istanbul Province since May 2010.[159]
150-350,000
125-500,000
50-250,000
150-300,000
Throughout most of its history, Istanbul has ranked among the largest cities in the world. By 500 CE, Constantinople had somewhere between 400,000 and 500,000 people, edging out its predecessor, Rome, for world's largest city.[161] Constantinople jostled with other major historical cities, such as Baghdad, Chang'an, Kaifeng and Merv for the position of world's most populous city until the 12th century. It never returned to being the world's largest, but remained Europe's largest city from 1500 to 1750, when it was surpassed by London.[162]
The Turkish Statistical Institute estimates that the population of Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality was 14,377,019 at the end of 2014, hosting 19 percent of the country's population.[5] Another estimate is that at the same time the population within city limits was 14,657,434.[3] Then about 97-98% of the inhabitants of the metropolitan municipality were within city limits, up from 89% in 2007[163] and 61% in 1980.[164] 64.9% of the residents live on the European side and 35.1% on the Asian side.[165] While the city ranks as the world's 7th-largest city proper, it drops to the 24th place as an urban area and to the 18th place as a metro area because the city limits are roughly equivalent to the agglomeration. Today, it forms one of the largest urban agglomerations in Europe, alongside Moscow.[d] The city's annual population growth of 3.45 percent ranks as the highest among the seventy-eight largest metropolises in the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. The high population growth mirrors an urbanization trend across the country, as the second and third fastest-growing OECD metropolises are the Turkish cities of İzmir and Ankara.[19]
Istanbul experienced especially rapid growth during the second half of the 20th century, with its population increasing tenfold between 1950 and 2000.[14] This growth in population comes, in part, from an expansion of city limits - particularly between 1980 and 1985, when the number of Istanbulites nearly doubled.[92] The remarkable growth was, and still is, largely fueled by migrants from eastern Turkey seeking employment and improved living conditions. The number of residents of Istanbul originating from seven northern and eastern provinces is greater than the populations of their entire respective provinces; Sivas and Kastamonu each account for more than half a million residents of Istanbul.[15] Istanbul's foreign population, by comparison, is very small, 42,228 residents in 2007.[168] Only 28 percent of the city's residents are originally from Istanbul.[169] The most densely populated areas tend to lie to the northwest, west, and southwest of the city center, on the European side; the most densely populated district on the Asian side is Üsküdar.[15]
Istanbul has been a cosmopolitan city throughout much of its history, but it has become more homogenized since the end of the Ottoman Empire. Most of Turkey's religious and ethnic minorities remain concentrated in Istanbul. The vast majority of people across Turkey, and in Istanbul, are Muslim, and more specifically members of the Sunni branch of Islam. Most Sunnis follow the Hanafi school of Islamic thought, although approximately 10 percent of Sunnis follow the Shafi'i school. The largest non-Sunni Muslim sect, accounting for 4.5 million Turks, is the Alevis; a third of all Alevis in the country live in Istanbul.[169] Mystic movements, like Sufism, were officially banned after the establishment of the Turkish Republic, but they still boast numerous followers.[170]
The Patriarch of Constantinople has been designated Ecumenical Patriarch since the sixth century, and has subsequently come to be widely regarded as the leader of the world's 300 million Orthodox Christians.[171] Since 1601, the Patriarchate has been based in Istanbul's Church of St. George.[172] Into the 19th century, the Christians of Istanbul tended to be either Greek Orthodox or members of the Armenian Apostolic Church.[173] The headquarters of the Turkish Orthodox Church are located in the city. Because of events during the 20th century - including the 1923 population exchange between Greece and Turkey, a 1942 wealth tax, and the 1955 Istanbul riots - the Greek population, originally centered in Fener and Samatya, has decreased substantially. At the start of the 21st century, Istanbul's Greek population numbered 3,000 (down from 130,000 in 1923 and 260,000 according to the Ottoman Census of 1910 of 850,000 total).[174][175] There are today between 50,000 and 70,000 Armenians in Istanbul, down from 164,000 in 1913 partly due to the Armenian Genocide.[176] Christians made up half the population of the city in 1910.[177]
Completed in 1616, the Sultan Ahmed Mosque is popularly known as the Blue Mosque due to the blue İznik tiles which adorn its interior.[178]
The largest ethnic minority in Istanbul is the Kurdish community, originating from eastern and southeastern Turkey. Although the Kurdish presence in the city dates back to the early Ottoman period,[179] the influx of Kurds into the city has accelerated since the beginning of the Kurdish-Turkish conflict with the Kurdistan Workers' Party (i.e. since the late 1970s).[180] About two to three million residents of Istanbul are Kurdish, meaning there are more Kurds in Istanbul than in any other city in the world.[181][182][183][184][185] There are other significant ethnic minorities as well, the Bosniaks are the main people of an entire district - Bayrampaşa.[186] The neighborhood of Balat used to be home to a sizable Sephardi Jewish community, first formed after their expulsion from Spain in 1492.[187]Romaniotes and Ashkenazi Jews resided in Istanbul even before the Sephardim, but their proportion has since dwindled; today, 1 percent of Istanbul's Jews are Ashkenazi.[188][189] In large part due to emigration to Israel, the Jewish population nationwide dropped from 100,000 in 1950 to 18,000 in 2005, with the majority of them living in either Istanbul or İzmir.[190]Levantines, Latin Christians who settled in Galata during the Ottoman period, played a seminal role in shaping the culture and architecture of Istanbul during the 19th and early 20th centuries; their population has dwindled, but they remain in the city in small numbers.[191] From the increase in mutual cooperation between Turkey and several African States like Somalia and Djibouti, several young students and workers have been migrating to Istanbul in search of better education and employment opportunities. There is also a small Nigerian, Congolese and Cameroonian and North African community present.[192]
With a PPP-adjusted gross domestic product of US1.1 billion, Istanbul ranked 29th among the world's urban areas in 2011.[201] Since the mid-1990s, Istanbul's economy has been one of the fastest-growing among OECD metro-regions.[19] Istanbul is responsible for 27 percent of Turkey's GDP, with 20 percent of the country's industrial labor force residing in the city.[19][202] Its GDP per capita and productivity are greater than their national averages by 70 percent and 50 percent, respectively, owing in part to the focus on high-value-added activities. With its high population and significant contribution to the Turkish economy, Istanbul is responsible for two-fifths of the nation's tax revenue.[19] That includes the taxes of 37 US-dollar billionaires based in Istanbul, the fifth-highest number among cities around the world.[203]
As expected for a city of its size, Istanbul has a diverse industrial economy, producing commodities as varied as olive oil, tobacco, vehicles, and electronics.[202] Despite having a focus on high-value-added work, its low-value-added manufacturing sector is substantial, representing just 26 percent of Istanbul's GDP, but four-fifths of the city's total exports.[19] In 2005, companies based in Istanbul produced exports worth .4 billion and received imports totaling .9 billion; these figures were equivalent to 57 percent and 60 percent, respectively, of the national totals.[204]
As the only sea route between the oil-rich Black Sea and the Mediterranean, the Bosphorus is one of the busiest waterways in the world; more than 200 million tonnes of oil pass through the strait each year, and the traffic on the Bosphorus is three times that on the Suez Canal.[210] As a result, there have been proposals to build a canal, known as Canal Istanbul, parallel to the strait, on the European side of the city.[211] Istanbul has three major shipping ports - the Port of Haydarpaşa, the Port of Ambarlı, and the Port of Zeytinburnu - as well as several smaller ports and oil terminals along the Bosphorus and the Sea of Marmara.[212][213] Haydarpaşa, situated at the southeastern end of the Bosphorus, was Istanbul's largest port until the early 2000s. Shifts in operations to Ambarlı since then have left Haydarpaşa running under capacity and with plans to decommission the port.[214] In 2007, Ambarlı, on the western edge of the urban center, had an annual capacity of 1.5 million TEUs (compared to 354,000 TEUs at Haydarpaşa), making it the fourth-largest cargo terminal in the Mediterranean basin.[215][216] The Port of Zeytinburnu is advantaged by its proximity to motorways and Atatürk International Airport,[217] and long-term plans for the city call for greater connectivity between all terminals and the road and rail networks.[218]
Istanbul is an increasingly popular tourist destination; whereas just 2.4 million foreigners visited the city in 2000, it welcomed 12.56 million foreign tourists in 2015, making it the world's fifth most-visited city.[16][219] Istanbul is Turkey's second-largest international gateway, after Antalya, receiving a quarter of the nation's foreign tourists. Istanbul's tourist industry is concentrated in the European side, with 90 percent of the city's hotels located there. Low- and mid-range hotels tend to be located on the Sarayburnu; higher-end hotels are primarily located in the entertainment and financial centers north of the Golden Horn. Istanbul's seventy museums, the most visited of which are the Topkapı Palace Museum and the Hagia Sophia, bring in million in revenue each year. The city's environmental master plan also notes that there are 17 palaces, 64 mosques, and 49 churches of historical significance in Istanbul.[220]
By the end of the 19th century, Istanbul had established itself as a regional artistic center, with Turkish, European, and Middle Eastern artists flocking to the city. Despite efforts to make Ankara Turkey's cultural heart, Istanbul had the country's primary institution of art until the 1970s.[225] When additional universities and art journals were founded in Istanbul during the 1980s, artists formerly based in Ankara moved in.[226]Beyoğlu has been transformed into the artistic center of the city, with young artists and older Turkish artists formerly residing abroad finding footing there. Modern art museums, including İstanbul Modern, the Pera Museum, Sakıp Sabancı Museum and SantralIstanbul, opened in the 2000s to complement the exhibition spaces and auction houses that have already contributed to the cosmopolitan nature of the city.[227] These museums have yet to attain the popularity of older museums on the historic peninsula, including the Istanbul Archaeology Museums, which ushered in the era of modern museums in Turkey, and the Turkish and Islamic Arts Museum.[220][221]
Istanbul has numerous shopping centers, from the historic to the modern. The Grand Bazaar, in operation since 1461, is among the world's oldest and largest covered markets.[236][237]Mahmutpasha Bazaar is an open-air market extending between the Grand Bazaar and the Egyptian Bazaar, which has been Istanbul's major spice market since 1660. Galleria Ataköy ushered in the age of modern shopping malls in Turkey when it opened in 1987.[238] Since then, malls have become major shopping centers outside the historic peninsula. Akmerkez was awarded the titles of "Europe's best" and "World's best" shopping mall by the International Council of Shopping Centers in 1995 and 1996; Istanbul Cevahir has been one of the continent's largest since opening in 2005; Kanyon won the Cityscape Architectural Review Award in the Commercial Built category in 2006.[237]İstinye Park in İstinye and Zorlu Center near Levent are among the newest malls which include the stores of the world's top fashion brands. Abdi İpekçi Street in Nişantaşı and Bağdat Avenue on the Anatolian side of the city have evolved into high-end shopping districts.[239][240]
Istanbul has some of Turkey's oldest sports clubs. Beşiktaş J.K., established in 1903, is considered the oldest of these sports clubs. Due to its initial status as Turkey's only club, Beşiktaş occasionally represented the Ottoman Empire and Turkish Republic in international sports competitions, earning the right to place the Turkish flag inside its team logo.[248] Its football team has seen several periods of dominance in national competition.[248]Galatasaray S.K. and Fenerbahçe S.K. have fared better in international competition and share the honor of winning the most Süper Lig championships: 20 and 19 times, respectively.[249][250] Galatasaray and Fenerbahçe have a long-standing rivalry, with Galatasaray based in the European part and Fenerbahçe based in the Anatolian part of the city.[249] Istanbul has seven basketball teams - Anadolu Efes, Beşiktaş, Darüşşafaka, Fenerbahçe, Galatasaray, İstanbul Büyükşehir Belediyespor and Büyükçekmece - that play in the premier-level Turkish Basketball Super League.[251]
The Sinan Erdem Dome, among the largest indoor arenas in Europe, hosted the final of the 2010 FIBA World Championship, the 2012 IAAF World Indoor Championships, as well as the 2011-12 Euroleague and 2016-17 EuroLeague Final Fours.[258] Prior to the completion of the Sinan Erdem Dome in 2010, Abdi İpekçi Arena was Istanbul's primary indoor arena, having hosted the finals of EuroBasket 2001.[259] Several other indoor arenas, including the Beşiktaş Akatlar Arena, have also been inaugurated since 2000, serving as the home courts of Istanbul's sports clubs. The most recent of these is the 13,800-seat Ülker Sports Arena, which opened in 2012 as the home court of Fenerbahçe's basketball teams.[260] Despite the construction boom, five bids for the Summer Olympics - in 2000, 2004, 2008, 2012, and 2020 - and national bids for UEFA Euro 2012 and UEFA Euro 2016 have ended unsuccessfully.[261]
Between 2005 and 2011, Istanbul Park racing circuit hosted the annual Formula One Turkish Grand Prix.[262] Istanbul Park was also a venue of the World Touring Car Championship and the European Le Mans Series in 2005 and 2006, but the track has not seen either of these competitions since then.[263][264] It also hosted the Turkish Motorcycle Grand Prix between 2005 and 2007. Istanbul was occasionally a venue of the F1 Powerboat World Championship, with the last race on the Bosphorus strait on August 12-13, 2000.[265] The last race of the Powerboat P1 World Championship on the Bosphorus took place on June 19-21, 2009.[266] Istanbul Sailing Club, established in 1952, hosts races and other sailing events on the waterways in and around Istanbul each year.[267][268] Turkish Offshore Racing Club also hosts major yacht races, such as the annual Naval Forces Trophy.[269]
Today, Istanbul hosts a wide variety of periodicals. Most nationwide newspapers are based in Istanbul, with simultaneous Ankara and İzmir editions.[271]Hürriyet, Sabah, Posta and Sözcü, the country's top four papers, are all headquartered in Istanbul, boasting more than 275,000 weekly sales each.[272]Hürriyet's English-language edition, Hürriyet Daily News, has been printed since 1961, but the English-language Daily Sabah, first published by Sabah in 2014, has overtaken it in circulation. Several smaller newspapers, including popular publications like Habertürk and Milliyet, are also based in Istanbul.[271]
TRT-Children is the only TRT television station based in Istanbul.[275] Istanbul is home to the headquarters of several Turkish stations and regional headquarters of international media outlets. Istanbul-based Star TV was the first private television network to be established following the end of the TRT monopoly; Star TV and Show TV (also based in Istanbul) remain highly popular throughout the country, airing Turkish and American series.[276]Kanal D and ATV are other stations in Istanbul that offer a mix of news and series; NTV (partnered with U.S. media outlet MSNBC) and Sky Turk - both based in the city - are mainly just known for their news coverage in Turkish. The BBC has a regional office in Istanbul, assisting its Turkish-language news operations, and the American news channel CNN established the Turkish-language CNN Türk there in 1999.[277] The Istanbul-based business and entertainment channel CNBC-e began broadcasting in 2000.
Istanbul University, founded in 1453, is the oldest Turkish educational institution in the city. Although originally an Islamic school, the university established law, medicine, and science departments in the 19th century and was secularized after the founding of the Turkish Republic.[278]Istanbul Technical University, founded in 1773, is the world's third-oldest university dedicated entirely to engineering sciences.[279][280] These public universities are two of just eight across the city;[281] other prominent state universities in Istanbul include the Mimar Sinan Fine Arts University, which served as Turkey's primary institution of art until the 1970s,[225] and Marmara University, the country's third-largest institution of higher learning.[282]
In 2007, there were about 4,350 schools, about half of which were primary schools; on average, each school had 688 students. In recent years, Istanbul's educational system has expanded substantially; from 2000 to 2007, the number of classrooms and teachers nearly doubled and the number of students increased by more than 60 percent.[288]Galatasaray High School, established in 1481 as the Galata Palace Imperial School, is the oldest high school in Istanbul and the second-oldest educational institution in the city. It was built at the behest of Sultan Bayezid II, who sought to bring students with diverse backgrounds together as a means of strengthening his growing empire.[289] It is one of Turkey's Anatolian High Schools, elite public high schools that place a stronger emphasis on instruction in foreign languages. Galatasaray, for example, offers instruction in French; other Anatolian High Schools primarily teach in English or German alongside Turkish.[290][291] The city also has foreign high schools, such as Liceo Italiano, that were established in the 19th century to educate foreigners.[292]
Kuleli Military High School, along the shores of the Bosphorus in Çengelköy, and Turkish Naval High School, located on one of the Princes' Islands, are military high schools, complemented by three military academies - the Turkish Air Force, Turkish Military, and Turkish Naval Academies. Darüşşafaka High School provides free education to children across the country missing at least one parent. Darüşşafaka begins instruction with the fourth grade, providing instruction in English and, starting in sixth grade, a second foreign language - German or French.[293] Other prominent high schools in the city include Istanbul Lisesi (founded in 1884), Kabataş Erkek Lisesi (founded in 1908)[294] and Kadıköy Anadolu Lisesi (founded in 1955).[295]
The Silahtarağa Power Station, a coal-fired power plant along the Golden Horn, was the sole source of Istanbul's electricity between 1914, when its first engine room was completed, and 1952.[299] Following the founding of the Turkish Republic, the plant underwent renovations to accommodate the city's increasing demand; its capacity grew from 23 megawatts in 1923 to a peak of 120 megawatts in 1956.[299][300] Capacity declined until the power station reached the end of its economic life and shut down in 1983.[299] The state-run Turkish Electrical Authority (TEK) briefly - between its founding in 1970 and 1984 - held a monopoly on the generation and distribution of electricity, but now the authority - since split between the Turkish Electricity Generation Transmission Company (TEAŞ) and the Turkish Electricity Distribution Company (TEDAŞ) - competes with private electric utilities.[300]
The Ottoman Ministry of Post and Telegraph was established in 1840 and the first post office, the Imperial Post Office, opened near the courtyard of Yeni Mosque. By 1876, the first international mailing network between Istanbul and the lands beyond the Ottoman Empire had been established.[302] Sultan Abdülmecid I issued Samuel Morse his first official honor for the telegraph in 1847, and construction of the first telegraph line - between Istanbul and Edirne - finished in time to announce the end of the Crimean War in 1856.[303] A nascent telephone system began to emerge in Istanbul in 1881 and after the first manual telephone exchange became operational in Istanbul in 1909, the Ministry of Post and Telegraph became the Ministry of Post, Telegraph, and Telephone.[302][304]GSM cellular networks arrived in Turkey in 1994, with Istanbul among the first cities to receive the service.[305] Today, mobile and landline service is provided by private companies, after Türk Telekom, which split from the Ministry of Post, Telegraph, and Telephone in 1995, was privatized in 2005.[302][305] Postal services remain under the purview of what is now the Post and Telegraph Organization (retaining the acronym PTT).[302]
Istanbul's primary motorways are the O-1, O-2, O-3 and O-4. The O-1 forms the city's inner ring road, traversing the 15 Temmuz Şehitler (First Bosphorus) Bridge, and the O-2 is the city's outer ring road, crossing the Fatih Sultan Mehmet (Second Bosphorus) Bridge. The O-2 continues west to Edirne and the O-4 continues east to Ankara; the O-2, O-3, and O-4 are part of European route E80 (the Trans-European Motorway) between Portugal and the Turkish-Iranian border.[311] In 2011, the first and second bridges on the Bosphorus carried 400,000 vehicles each day.[312] The Yavuz Sultan Selim (Third Bosphorus) Bridge entered service on 26 August 2016.[313] Environmentalist groups worry that the third bridge will endanger the remaining green areas to the north of Istanbul.[314][315] Apart from the three Bosphorus Bridges, the dual-deck, 14.6-kilometer (9.1 mi) Eurasia Tunnel (which entered service on 20 December 2016) under the Bosphorus strait also provides road crossings for motor vehicles between the Asian and European sides of Turkey.[316]
Istanbul's local public transportation system is a complex network of trams, funiculars, metro lines, buses, bus rapid transit, and ferries. Fares across modes are integrated, using the contactless Istanbulkart, introduced in 2009, or the older Akbil electronic ticket device.[317]Trams in Istanbul date back to 1872, when they were horse-drawn, but even the first electrified trams were decommissioned in the 1960s.[318] Operated by Istanbul Electricity, Tramway, and Tunnel General Management (İETT), trams slowly returned to the city in the 1990s with the introduction of a nostalgic route and a faster modern tram line, which now carries 265,000 passengers each day.[318][319] The Tünel opened in 1875 as the world's second-oldest subterranean rail line (after London's Metropolitan Railway).[318] It still carries passengers between Karaköy and İstiklal Avenue along a steep 573-meter (1,880 ft) track; a more modern funicular between Taksim Square and Kabataş began running in 2006.[320][321]
The Istanbul Metro comprises five lines (the M1, M2, M3 and M6 on the European side, and the M4 on the Asian side) with several other lines (such as the M5, M7, and M8) and extensions under construction.[322][323] The two sides of Istanbul's metro are connected under the Bosphorus by the Marmaray tunnel, inaugurated in 2013 as the first rail connection between Thrace and Anatolia.[324] With the Marmaray's completion, rail use in the city is expected to increase to 28 percent (from 4 percent), behind only Tokyo and New York City.[325] Until then, buses provide transportation within and between the two halves of the city, accommodating 2.2 million passenger trips each day.[326] The Metrobus, a form of bus rapid transit, crosses the Bosphorus Bridge, with dedicated lanes leading to its termini.[327]İDO (Istanbul Seabuses) runs a combination of all-passenger ferries and car-and-passenger ferries to ports on both sides of the Bosphorus, as far north as the Black Sea.[328][329] With additional destinations around the Sea of Marmara, İDO runs the largest municipal ferry operation in the world.[330] The city's main cruise ship terminal is the Port of Istanbul in Karaköy, with a capacity of 10,000 passengers per hour.[331] Most visitors enter Istanbul by air, but about half a million foreign tourists enter the city by sea each year.[220]
International rail service from Istanbul launched in 1889, with a line between Bucharest and Istanbul's Sirkeci Terminal, which ultimately became famous as the eastern terminus of the Orient Express from Paris.[83] Regular service to Bucharest and Thessaloniki continued until the early 2010s, when the former was interrupted for Marmaray construction and the latter was halted due to economic problems in Greece.[332][333] After Istanbul's Haydarpaşa Terminal opened in 1908, it served as the western terminus of the Baghdad Railway and an extension of the Hejaz Railway; today, neither service is offered directly from Istanbul.[334][335][336] Service to Ankara and other points across Turkey is normally offered by Turkish State Railways, but the construction of Marmaray and the Ankara-Istanbul high-speed line forced the station to close in 2012.[337] New stations to replace both the Haydarpaşa and Sirkeci terminals, and connect the city's disjointed railway networks, are expected to open upon completion of the Marmaray project; until then, Istanbul is without intercity rail service.[337] Private bus companies operate instead. Istanbul's main bus station is the largest in Europe, with a daily capacity of 15,000 buses and 600,000 passengers, serving destinations as distant as Frankfurt.[338][339]
Istanbul has two international airports. The larger is Istanbul Atatürk, 24 kilometers (15 mi) west of the city center. It handled 61.3 million passengers in 2015, making it the third-busiest airport in Europe and the eighteenth-busiest in the world.[341]Sabiha Gökçen International, 45 kilometers (28 mi) southeast of the city center, opened in 2001 to relieve Atatürk. Dominated by low-cost carriers, Istanbul's second airport has rapidly become popular, especially since the opening of a new international terminal in 2009;[342] the airport handled 14.7 million passengers in 2012, a year after Airports Council International named it the world's fastest-growing airport.[343][344] Atatürk has also experienced rapid growth, as its 20.6 percent rise in passenger traffic between 2011 and 2012 was the highest among the world's top 30 airports.[341] Because of the traffic at Istanbul's current airports,[345] a third international airport is planned for the Black Sea coast.[346] Building a new runway at Atatürk Airport was rejected due to the cost involved;[345] environmental concerns have also been raised with respect to the new airport.[347] Currently under construction, the new international airport will become the largest airport in the world upon the completion of all four stages of the project, with a capacity to serve 150 million passengers per year.[348][349][350]
^ a b Historians disagree - sometimes substantially - on population figures of Istanbul (Constantinople), and other world cities, prior to the 20th century. A follow-up to Chandler & Fox 1974,Chandler 1987, pp. 463-505[80] examines different sources' estimates and chooses the most likely based on historical conditions; it is the source of most population figures between 100 and 1914. The ranges of values between 500 and 1000 are due to Morris 2010, which also does a comprehensive analysis of sources, including Chandler (1987); Morris notes that many of Chandler's estimates during that time seem too large for the city's size, and presents smaller estimates. Chandler disagrees with Turan 2010 on the population of the city in the mid-1920s (with the former suggesting 817,000 in 1925), but Turan, p. 224, is used as the source of population figures between 1924 and 2005. Turan's figures, as well as the 2010 figure,[160] come from the Turkish Statistical Institute. The drastic increase in population between 1980 and 1985 is largely due to an enlargement of the city's limits (see the Administration section). Explanations for population changes in pre-Republic times can be inferred from the History section.
^ The United Nations defines an urban agglomeration as "the population contained within the contours of a contiguous territory inhabited at urban density levels without regard to administrative boundaries". The agglomeration "usually incorporates the population in a city or town plus that in the suburban areas lying outside of, but being adjacent to, the city boundaries".[166] Figures dated 1 July 2011 place the populations of the agglomerations of Moscow and Istanbul at 11.62 million and 11.25 million, respectively.[167] The UN estimates that the agglomeration of Istanbul will exceed the agglomeration of Moscow in population by 2015 (with 12.46 million and 12.14 million, respectively), although extrapolation suggests that the former will not surpass the latter until the second half of 2013. A revision with 2013 data is due in the first half of 2014.[needs update][166]
^ a b "The Results of Address Based Population Registration System, 2015". Turkish Statistical Institute. 31 December 2016. Retrieved 31 January 2017.
^ a b https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/Istanbul-1.pdf
^ Algan, O.; Yalçın, M. N. K.; Özdoğan, M.; Yılmaz, Y. C.; Sarı, E.; Kırcı-Elmas, E.; Yılmaz, İ.; Bulkan, Ö.; Ongan, D.; Gazioğlu, C.; Nazik, A.; Polat, M. A.; Meriç, E. (2011). "Holocene coastal change in the ancient harbor of Yenikapı-İstanbul and its impact on cultural history". Quaternary Research. 76: 30. Bibcode:2011QuRes..76...30A. doi:10.1016/j.yqres.2011.04.002.
"On leaving the Dardanelles we come to the Bay of Casthenes, ... and the promontory of the Golden Horn, on which is the town of Byzantium, a free state, formerly called Lygos; it is 711 miles from Durazzo, ..."Archived 1 January 2017 at the Wayback Machine.
^ Traynor, Ian (9 December 2006). "A Disaster Waiting to Happen - Why a Huge Earthquake Near Istanbul Seems Inevitable". The Guardian. UK. Retrieved 13 June 2010.
^ Kottek, Markus; Grieser, Jürgen; Beck, Christoph; Rudolf, Bruno; Rube, Franz (June 2006). "World Map of the Köppen-Geiger climate classification updated" (PDF). Meteorologische Zeitschrift. 15 (3): 259-263. Bibcode:2006MetZe..15..259K. doi:10.1127/0941-2948/2006/0130. Retrieved 29 March 2013.
^ Peel, M. C.; Finlayson, B. L.; McMahon, T. A. (2007). "Updated world map of the Köppen-Geiger climate classification" (PDF). Hydrology and Earth System Sciences. 4 (2): 439-473. doi:10.5194/hessd-4-439-2007. Retrieved 29 March 2013.
^ "COMPARISONS OF ANNUAL MEANPRECIPITATION GRIDDED AND STATION DATA: AN EXAMPLE FROM ISTANBUL, TURKEY Yıllık Ortalama Gridlenmiş Yağış Verisi ve İstasyon Yağış Verisinin Karşılaştırılması, İstanbul Örneği - USTAOĞLU - Marmara Coğrafya Dergisi". marmara.edu.tr. Retrieved 2016-02-12.
^ a b "Weather - Istanbul". World Weather. BBC Weather Centre. Retrieved 15 October 2012.
^ a b c d "Resmi İstatistikler (İl ve İlçelerimize Ait İstatistiki Veriler)" [Official Statistics (Statistical Data of Provinces and Districts) - Istanbul] (in Turkish). Turkish State Meteorological Service. Retrieved 10 August 2015.
^ Kindap, Tayfin (19 January 2010). "A Severe Sea-Effect Snow Episode Over the City of Istanbul". Natural Hazards. 54 (3): 703-23. doi:10.1007/s11069-009-9496-7. ISSN 1573-0840. Retrieved 15 October 2012.
^ "Resmi İstatistikler (İl ve İlçelerimize Ait İstatistiki Veriler)" [Official Statistics (Statistical Data of Provinces and Districts) - Istanbul] (in Turkish). Turkish State Meteorological Service. Archived from the original on 17 December 2008. Retrieved 3 December 2014.
^ Rowland Atkinson; Gary Bridge (2005). Gentrification In A Global Context: The New Urban Colonialism. Routledge. pp. 123-. ISBN 978-0-415-32951-4. Retrieved 6 May 2013.
^ Necipoğlu 1991, pp. 180, 136-137
^ Taşan-Kok 2004, pp. 87-8
^ "File 11a: The 30 Largest Urban Agglomerations Ranked by Population Size at Each Point in Time, 1950-2025". World Urbanization Prospects, the 2011 Revision. The United Nations. 5 April 2012. Archived from the original (xls) on 4 July 2012. Retrieved 20 September 2012.
^ Amikam Nachmani (2003). Turkey: Facing a New Millenniium : Coping With Intertwined Conflicts. Manchester University Press. pp. 90-. ISBN 978-0-7190-6370-1. Retrieved 5 May 2013.
^ Christiane Bird (18 December 2007). A Thousand Sighs, A Thousand Revolts: Journeys in Kurdistan. Random House Publishing Group. pp. 308-. ISBN 978-0-307-43050-2. Retrieved 4 May 2013.
^ "Ruling AKP's demand for list of ballot box clerks raises election fraud concerns - POLITICS". hurriyetdailynews.com. Retrieved 12 February 2016.
^ "Turkey's AKP Accused of Systemic Election Fraud Plots for Early Presidential and National Elections". nsnbc international. Retrieved 12 February 2016.
^ "Trouble in Turkey's Elections - Erik Meyersson". Erik Meyersson. Retrieved 12 February 2016.
^ "Electoral Fraud Discovered in Sarıyer, Istanbul - Anadolu Türk Haber". anadoluturkhaber.com.
^ "İSTANBUL SEÇİM SONUÇLARI". haberler.com. Retrieved 12 February 2016.
^ Odabaşı, Attila; Aksu, Celal; Akgiray, Vedat (December 2004). "The Statistical Evolution of Prices on the Istanbul Stock Exchange". The European Journal of Finance. London: Routledge. 10 (6): 510-25. doi:10.1080/1351847032000166931.
^ Zeybek, Hülya; Kaynak, Muhtesem (27-30 May 2008). "What Role for Turkish Ports in the Regional Logistics Supply Chains?" (PDF). International Conference on Information Systems and Supply Chain. Retrieved 28 August 2012.
^ a b c "Istanbul '10" (PDF). Turkey Tourism Market Research Reports. Istanbul Valuation and Consulting. 2010. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 June 2012. Retrieved 29 March 2012. (n.b. Source indicates that the Topkapı Palace Museum and the Hagia Sophia together bring in 55 million TL, approximately million in 2010, on an annual basis.)
^ a b . Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. Retrieved 19 April 2012.
^ Hensel, Michael; Sungurogl, Defne; Ertaş, Hülya, eds. (January-February 2010). "Turkey at the Threshold". Architectural Design. London: John Wiley & Sons. 80 (1). ISBN 978-0-470-74319-5.
^ Tomasetti, Kathryn; Rutherford, Tristan (23 March 2012). "A Big Night Out in Istanbul - And a Big Breakfast the Morning After". The Guardian. Retrieved 29 April 2012.
^ "UEFA Champions League 2007/08 - History - Fenerbahçe". The Union of European Football Associations. 8 October 2011. Retrieved 10 April 2012.
^ "Puan Durumu: 2015-2016 Sezonu 30. Hafta" [League Table: 2015-16 Season, Round 30] (in Turkish). Turkish Basketball Super League. Retrieved 6 June 2016.
^ "Regulations of the UEFA European Football Championship 2010-12" (PDF). The Union of European Football Associations. p. 14. Retrieved 10 April 2012.
^ "Istanbul - Arenas". FIBA. 2010. Retrieved 29 June 2012.
^ a b "TRT - Radio". The Turkish Radio and Television Corporation. Archived from the original on 9 June 2011. Retrieved 8 May 2012.
^ "TRT - Television". The Turkish Radio and Television Corporation. Archived from the original on 14 August 2011. Retrieved 8 May 2012.
^ Tigrek & Kibaroğlu 2011, pp. 33-4
^ "T1 Bağcılar-Kabataş Tramvay Hattı" [T1 Bağcılar-Kabataş Tram Line] (in Turkish). İstanbul Ulaşım A.Ş. (Istanbul Transport Corporation). Retrieved 20 August 2012.
^ "F1 Taksim-Kabataş Füniküler Hattı" [F1 Bağcılar-Kabataş Funicular Line] (in Turkish). İstanbul Ulaşım A.Ş. (Istanbul Transport Corporation). Retrieved 20 August 2012.
^ Head, Jonathan (16 February 2010). "Iraq - Turkey railway link re-opens". BBC. Retrieved 3 April 2012.
^ "Eurolines Germany-Deutsche Touring GmbH-Europabus". Touring. Retrieved 3 April 2012.
ʻAner, Nadav (2005). Pergola, Sergio Della; Gilboa, Amos; Ṭal, Rami, eds. The Jewish People Policy Planning Institute Planning Assessment, 2004-2005: The Jewish People Between Thriving and Decline. Jerusalem: Gefen Publishing House Ltd. ISBN 978-965-229-346-6.
Rôzen, Mînnā (2002). A History of the Jewish Community in Istanbul: The Formative Years, 1453-1566 (illustrated ed.). Leiden, the Neth.: BRILL. ISBN 978-90-04-12530-8.
Province Governors (1924-1960)
Military-appointed (1960-1963)
Elected (1963-1980)
Military-appointed (1980-1984)
La ĉi-suba teksto estas la originala artikolo Istanbulo el la Esperanto-Vikipedio, prenita de GramTrans 2015-05-16 05:00:18. Eblaj ŝanĝoj en la originalo estos kaptitaj per regulaj ĝisdatigoj.
4.2 Festoj kaj festivaloj
6 Istanbulo en Esperanto
7 Esperanto en Istanbulo
Urbaj kvartaloj
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Duraso, Albania
Sankt-Peterburgo, Rusio (1990) [31]
Ĝido, Saŭda Arabio
Osh, Kirgizio
Istanbulo en Esperanto
el kiuj, luksorname, elstaras Sankta Sofia.[32] ”
Esperanto en Istanbulo
En Istanbulo Hasan Kocaman estis delegito de UEA ĝis 1975.
Vido sur la ponto de la Bosporo kaj la financaj kvartaloj de Istanbulo, Levent (meze) kaj Maslak (tute dekstre), fotita de la monteto Çamlıca ĉe la azia flanko.
↑ UNESCO | Historic Areas of Istanbul. Alirita 28-a de majo 2009.
↑ Traynor, , "A Disaster Waiting to Happen - Why a Huge Earthquake Near Istanbul Seems Inevitable, The Guardian, 9 December 2006. Kontrolita 13 June 2010.
↑ Revkin, , "Disaster Awaits Cities in Earthquake Zones, The New York Times, 24 February 2010. Kontrolita 13 June 2010.
↑ „Climate change: impact on coastal habitation“ by edited meterorologist Dr. Doeke Eisma with particular reference on the transitional climate of Istanbul Chapter 8 „Impact of Climatic Change on Coastal Cities“ by Tjeerd Deelstra on page 174
↑ 13,0 13,1 Yıllık Toplam Yağış Verileri - İstanbul (Data of the total annual precipitacion of Istanbul)
↑ Ölçülen En Düşük Sıcaklıklar (Lowest Recorded Temperatures): 30.01.2012 06:00 - 31.01.2012 06:00 (UTC) - İstanbul.
↑ Sister Cities of Istanbul. Alirita 2009-07-01.
↑ Erdem, , "İstanbul'a 49 kardeş, Radikal, 2009-07-01. Kontrolita 2009-07-22. (Turkish)
↑ Barcelona internacional - Ciutats agermanades (hispane). Alirita 2009-07-13.
↑ Berlin's international city relations. Alirita 2009-07-01.
↑ Sister cities of Budapest (hungare). Alirita 2009-07-01.
↑ www.praha-mesto.cz. Partner cities. Alirita 2008-10-09.
↑ Saint Petersburg in figures - International and Interregional Ties. Alirita 2008-11-23.
Page translated on: 2017-12-25 04:20:19