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tokens: The authors are grateful to François Mignard for his useful comments and suggestions which improve greatly the manuscript. The work of N.L. has been supported by China Scholarship Council (CSC) for the joint doctor training program at Department SYRTE (Systèmes de Référence Temps-Espace) of the Paris Observatory (File No. 201706190125). N.L. is also funded by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC) under grant No. 11833004. N.L. is grateful to Nan Jiang for her careful check of the language. This work has made use of data from the European Space Agency (ESA) mission Gaia ( https://www.cosmos.esa.int/gaia ), processed by the Gaia Data Processing and Analysis Consortium (DPAC, https://www.cosmos.esa.int/web/gaia/dpac/consortium ). Funding for the DPAC has been provided by national institutions, in particular the institutions participating in the Gaia Multilateral Agreement. This research has made use of NASA’s Astrophysics Data System. This research also made use of Matplotlib, an open-source 2D graphics package for Python ( Hunter 2007 ) and Astropy ( http://www.astropy.org ), a community-developed core Python package for Astronomy ( Astropy Collaboration 2013 , 2018 ).