Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) have demonstrated that therapies targeting tumor necrosis factor (TNF) and α₄β₇ integrin are effective when given as monotherapy in inducing and/or maintaining remission in patients with ulcerative colitis (UC) or Crohn's disease (CD), but data from RCTs are less clear on whether concomitant immunomodulator (IM) therapy confers additional benefit. In CD, RCT data are mixed,