108, 111, 119, 132,155, 159–71, 178–9see also National Allocation Plans(NAPs)ALTENER 4, 5, 6American Council for Capital Formation(ACCF) 150–51American Petroleum Institute (API) 150–51API, see American Petroleum InstituteAustralia 66Austria 6, 21, 89and Linking Directive 116, 117and NAPs 53, 54, 56, 57, 60, 61response to Commission Green Paper 96,98BDI (Bundesverbund Deutscher Industrie)82, 108, 120, 163, 176Belgium 6, 21and NAPs 56, 57, 60, 61response to Commission Green Paper 96Bjerregaard, Ritt 76–7, 99BP, see British PetroleumBritish Petroleum (BP) 75, 86, 88, 90, 93,100, 109
Bundesverbund Deutscher Industrie, seeBDIBurden-sharing Agreement 5–6, 42, 43, 44,51, 72–3, 77, 100, 104, 152, 155, 160France 92Denmark 165Germany 94, 165Greece 97Poland 168Portugal 97Spain 97, 166, 171UK 88, 162Bush, George W. 7, 105, 143–8 passimCanada 35, 66, 145, 147, 152carbon tax, see energy/carbon taxCCAP, see Center for Clean Air PolicyCDM, see Clean Development MechanismCDU, see Christian Democratic UnionCEECs, see Central and Eastern EuropeanCountriesCEFIC 84, 86, 121, 124–5, 157CEMBUREAU 84, 85Center for Clean Air Policy (CCAP) 78–81,86Central and Eastern European Countries(CEECs) 167–9, 179and Kyoto Protocol 168–9and NAPs 51, 54, 59CEPI 84Christian Democratic Union (CDU)(Germany) 109–10Christian Social Union (CSU) (Germany)109–10Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) 5,35, 70and EC ETS 7, 13, 31–2, 64decision-making phase 46, 47, 48, 115,128, 138–41, 152, 154
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implementation phase 52, 58–61, 163,174, 177–8, 179–80initiation phase 38, 82Climate Action Network Europe (CNE) 76,82, 84, 85, 122Clinton, Bill 143CNE, see Climate Action Network Europecompliance and enforcement 13, 194–5decision-making phase 43, 45, 48, 104–5,111, 120, 123, 129, 135, 137, 142, 155implementation phase 164initiation phase 40, 78, 79Confederation of British Industry 90Confederation of Netherlands Industry andEmployers 90–91coverage 12, 194decision-making phase 42, 44–5, 48, 108,120, 125–38 passim, 142implementation phase 161–2initiation phase 39, 78, 79CSU, see Christian Social UnionCyprusand NAPs 51Czech Republicand NAPs 54, 56, 57, 58, 60, 61da Silva, Jorge Moreira 126–30, 132, 133,134, 138de Meana, Ripa 4de Roo, Alexander 125–6, 139–41, 154decision-making phase (of EU ETS) 8,11–14, 41–9, 63, 103, 182, 185–7and ENGOs 105, 120, 122, 128, 130, 132,157, 186and EU institutions 24–6, 33, 41–9,119–42, 156–7, 186Parliament 125–38, 139–41, 142and industry 105, 120–25, 130, 132,150–51, 157, 186and international climate regime 31, 33,142–54, 157–8, 187and member states 20–21, 33, 41–2, 44,48, 103–19, 154–6, 185–6see also design elements (of EU ETS),harmonization (of EU ETS)Delbeke, Jos 74, 77, 80, 82, 83, 86, 150Denmark 6, 21, 73, 100, 144, 161, 184and Burden-sharing Agreement 165and ET Directive 113–14, 119, 131, 156
and initiation phase of EU ETS 87, 90,96, 97, 98and NAPs 53, 54, 56, 57response to Commission Green Paper 96,97, 98design elements (of EU ETS) 12–13, 194–5decision-making phase, 41–3, 44–6, 48,103–14 passim, 119, 120–25 passim,125–38 passim, 142, 149, 154–8 passimimplementation phase 161–2initiation phase 39, 70–71, 78–9, 99type of system 12decision-making phase 103–14 passim,120–25 passim, 125–38 passim,142, 145, 154–8 passiminitiation phase 39, 78, 79under Phases II & III 194–5see also allowance allocation, complianceand enforcement, coverage,harmonization, linksEastern Europe 66, 145see also Central and Eastern EuropeanCountries (CEECs)ECCP, see European Climate ChangeProgrammeECJ, see European Court of JusticeElf Aquitaine 92emissions tradingoverview of 2scheme design elements 12–13allowances, allocation of 13, 14–15compliance and enforcement 13coverage 12links 13type of system 12scheme harmonization 13–14see also EU Emissions Trading Schemeand under Kyoto ProtocolEmissions Trading Group UK 82, 88energy/carbon tax 4–5, 6, 12, 14, 74–6passim, 89, 99, 100, 101, 107energy efﬁciency programmes 4see also SAVEENGOs, see environmental non-governmentorganizationsEnvironmental Defense Fund 75environmental non-governmentorganizations (ENGOs)
Indexand ET Directive 105, 120, 122, 128, 130,132, 157and EU ETS 2, 8, 27, 29–30, 33decision-making phase 105, 120, 122,128, 130, 132, 157, 186initiation phase 76, 77, 80–81, 82,83–6, 90, 91, 92, 93, 100, 184France 92Germany 92, 93and Linking Directive 139Netherlands 91UK 90EP, see European ParliamentEstoniaand NAPs 53, 56, 57, 58EUclimate policyALTENER programme 4, 5, 6Burden-sharing Agreement see Burdensharing Agreementenergy/carbon tax 4–5, 6, 12, 14, 74–6passim, 89, 99, 100, 101, 107history of 3–8SAVE programme 4, 5, 6institutions, see EU institutionsand Kyoto Protocol 1, 5–7, 35, 65–73,143–51, 157–8, 181member states, see member statessee also EU Emissions Trading Scheme,EU institutions, European Commission,European Council, European Court ofJustice, European Parliament, memberstatesEU Emissions Trading Scheme (EU ETS) 1Emissions Trading Directive 7, 9, 14, 21,32, 35, 43–6, 48, 73, 103, 138, 142,154–8proposals for 41–3, 103–6, 148–50,152–3, 154–8responses to proposals 106–14, 119–38,145, 150–51, 154–8explanatory approaches to 1–2,8–9, 15–19, 181, 189–93, see alsointergovernmentalist approach,international regime approach, multilevel governance approachLinking Directive 13, 32, 35, 46–7, 48,103, 136, 142, 153–4, 158, 177
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responses to 115–18, 119, 138–41,153–4, 155Phase II & III 194–5phases of 2–3, 8, 11–15, 63–4, 182–9,see also decision-making phase,implementation phase, initiation phaseEU ETS, see EU Emissions Trading SchemeEU institutions 16and EU ETS 2, 8, 23–7decision-making phase 24–6, 33, 41–9,119–42, 156–7, 186harmonization 13–14, 26, 40, 41–2, 44,48, 156, 171–4, 179implementation phase 26–7, 33, 171–4,179, 188–9initiation phase 23–4, 33, 35–41,73–87, 99–100, 183–4see also European Commission, EuropeanCouncil, European Court of Justice,European ParliamentEURELECTRIC 79–80, 82, 84, 85, 100,122Greenhouse Gas and Energy TradingSimulations (GETS) 79–80, 85EUROFER 84European Chambers of Commerce 122European Chemical Industry Council 82European Climate Change Programme(ECCP) 7, 41, 69, 81, 82–6, 95, 120,121, 122European Commission 23Directorate General (DG) Competition121, 124Directorate General (DG) ECFIN 82, 122Directorate General (DG) Enterprise 82,121, 122, 123, 124, 157Directorate General (DG) Environment24, 74, 76–7, 101, 103–4, 105–6, 121,122, 124, 131, 139, 157BEST (Bureaucrats for EmissionsTrading) group 74–7, 78, 79, 80,82–6, 99, 124, 129, 131, 142,150Climate Change Unit 86, 104, 120, 146,150Directorate General (DG) Market 122,124Directorate General (DG) Trade 122Directorate General (DG) TREN 82, 122
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and EU ETS 1, 8, 63–4decision-making phase 24–5, 26, 41–3,46–9, 120–25, 130–38, 139–41,142, 146–7, 156–7, 158harmonization 26, 41–2, 44, 48, 171–4implementation phase 26–7, 171–4initiation phase 23–4, 35–41, 67–8,70, 71, 72, 74–81, 82–6, 94–8,99–100Green Paper on emissions trading 7, 11,35, 38–42, 63–4, 65, 71, 72, 78, 81,82–6member-states’ responses to 97–8, 100and history of EU climate policy 3–8passim, 11and Kyoto Protocol 67–8, 70, 71, 138–41,142, 146–7, 158European Council 20–21Environment Council 3, 89, 106–7,110–11, 113, 146, 147–8, 151and EU ETS 8decision-making phase 24, 25, 41, 43–6, 106, 130–38 passim, 139–41,142, 146–7, 155–6, 157harmonization 44, 96–8initiation phase 94–8, 100–101and history of EU climate policy 3–8passimand Kyoto Protocol 67, 68, 70, 138–41,146–7and Linking Directive 138–41European Court of Justice (ECJ) 23and EU ETS 8implementation phase 26–7, 173European Parliament (EP) 23Committee on the Environment, PublicHealth and Food Safety 25, 44, 80–81,126–8, 134–7, 140–41and ET Directive 125–38, 156–7and EU ETS 8, 83, 100decision-making phase 24, 25–6, 41,43–6, 106, 125–38, 139–41,142, 156–7, 158harmonization 26, 44implementation phase 171, 173and history of EU climate policy 3Legal Affairs Committee 126and Linking Directive 118, 138–41European Roundtable of Industrialists 122
EUROPIA 75, 84, 86, 122ExxonMobil 151FIELD, see Foundation for InternationalLaw and DevelopmentFinland 6, 21, 104, 156and ET Directive 104, 126, 127, 132, 156and Linking Directive 117and NAPs 53, 56, 57response to Commission Green Paper 96Foundation for International Law andDevelopment (FIELD) 78–81, 82, 86,90, 122France 4, 6, 21, 87and Burden-sharing Agreement 92and ET Directive 113and initiation phase of EU ETS 91–2, 96,97, 98and Linking Directive 116, 117, 118, 139,141Ministry of Economics and Finance 92Ministry of the Environment 92Ministry of Foreign Affairs 92Ministry of Industry 92and NAPs 56–63 passimNational Plan to Combat Climate Change91response to Commission Green Paper 96,97, 98Free Democratic Party (Germany) 109German Emission Trading Group 92, 105Germany 6, 21, 73, 147, 151and Burden-sharing Agreement 94, 165and ET Directive 104, 105, 107, 108–12,119, 120, 122, 126, 127, 132, 145,155–6and implementation phase of EU ETS163–5, 170and initiation phase of EU ETS 92–4, 97,173and Linking Directive 116, 118Ministry for Economics and Labour 92,109Ministry for the Environment 92, 109,164and NAPs 53–60 passim, 62, 163, 164,173, 174, 178response to Commission Green Paper 97
IndexGore, Al 144Green Party (Germany) 109–10Green Party (MEPs) 25, 125–6Greece 4, 21and Burden-sharing Agreement 97and initiation phase of EU ETS 94, 97and Linking Directive 117and NAPs 56, 57, 59, 60response to Commission Green Paper 97Hamburg Electricity Utility (HEW) 109harmonization (of EU ETS) 13–14, 194–5and ENGOs 84–5and EU institutions 13–14, 26, 40, 41–2,44, 48, 129, 136, 142, 156, 171–4, 179and industry 84–5and member states 13–14, 40, 41–2, 44,48, 86, 96–8, 108, 111Henningsen, Jørgen 74Hungaryand NAPs 54, 56, 57, 60, 61ICCF, see International Council for CapitalFormationimplementation phase (of EU ETS) 8,14–15, 49–63, 64, 159, 183, 187–9and EU institutions 26–7, 33, 171–4, 179,188–9and industry 175–6, 179, 189and international climate regime 31–2, 33,174–8, 179–80, 189and member states 21–2, 33, 49–63,159–71, 178–9, 188industryBritish 88, 90, 130, 175, 176, 179Dutch 90–91and ET Directive 105, 120–25, 130, 132,157and EU ETS 2, 8, 27–9, 33decision-making phase 105, 120–25,130, 132, 150–51, 157, 186and implementation phase 175–6, 179,189initiation phase 75–6, 79–81, 83–6, 88,90–91, 92, 93, 99–100, 184French 92German 92, 93, 108–12, 122, 130, 145,157, 163–4, 176, 179and Linking Directive 47
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Polish 169, 175, 176, 179Spanish 176, 179US 150–51initiation phase (of EU ETS) 8, 11, 35–41,63, 182, 183–5and ENGOs 76, 77, 80–81, 82, 83–6, 100,184and EU institutions 23–4, 33, 73–87,99–100, 183–4and industry 75–6, 79–81, 83–6, 99–100,184and international climate regime 30–31,33, 65–73, 98–9, 183and member-states 20, 33, 87–98,100–101, 184–5Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change(IPCC) 3, 147intergovernmentalist approach (to EU ETS)2, 8, 16–18, 65, 101, 154–6, 158,178–9, 181, 189–93international climate regimeand EU ETS 2, 8–9, 18–19, 30–32decision-making phase 31, 33, 142–54,157–8, 187implementation phase 31–2, 33, 174–8,179–80, 189initiation phase 30–31, 33, 35–41,65–73, 98–9, 183see also Kyoto Protocol, United NationsFramework Convention on ClimateChange (UNFCC)International Council for Capital Formation(ICCF) 150–51international regime approach (to EU ETS)2, 8–9, 18–19, 65, 101, 157–8, 179–80,181, 189–93IPCC, see Intergovernmental Panel onClimate ChangeIreland 4, 6, 21, 184Advisory Group on Emissions Trading 91and initial phase of EU ETS 91, 96, 97,100and Linking Directive 140and NAPs 53, 54, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 178response to Commission Green Paper 96,97Italy 6, 21and Linking Directive 117and NAPs 54, 56, 57, 58, 59, 173
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response to Commission Green Paper 96
Kasyanov, Mikhail 152Klassen, Ger 74Kyoto Protocol 11, 18and CEECs 168–9and EU 1, 5–7, 35, 65–73, 143–51,157–8, 181and EU ETS 7, 9, 30–32decision-making phase 43, 44, 45–7,48, 115, 133–6 passim, 138–41,142, 143–54, 157–8implementation phase 174–8, 179–80initiation phase 35–41, 65–73, 98–9NAPs 49–63 passim, 174–8, 179–80mechanisms of 5, 35–41, 43, 45–7, 48,133, 135, 136, 138–41, 142, 148, 149,152see also Clean DevelopmentMechanism (CDM), JointImplementation (JI)and Russia 152–4, 158and USA 5, 7, 35, 65–70, 98–9, 101, 105,120, 134, 143–8, 149, 150–51, 152,155, 157–8
Luxembourg 6, 21and NAPs 53, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60Maltaand NAPs 51, 52, 59, 60, 178member statesand Burden-sharing Agreement 6, 42, 43,44, 51, 72–3, 77, 92, 94, 97, 152, 155and ET Directive 103–14, 123, 154–6and EU ETS 2, 8, 19–22allowance allocation 21–2, 40, 41–3,44, 45, 48, 49–63, 132, 155decision-making phase 20–21, 33,41–9 passim, 103–19, 123, 132,154–6, 185–6harmonization of 13–14, 40, 41–2, 44,48, 96–8implementation phase 14–15, 21–2, 33,49–63, 159–71, 178–9, 188initiation phase 20, 33, 35–41 passim,72–3, 87–98, 100–101, 184–5and Kyoto Protocol 19, 47, 107and Linking Directive 47, 115–18, 119,138, 155National Allocation Plans (NAPs) 49–53,61–3, 131, 159–71, 171–4, 178–80NAP I 53–8, 159–71 passim, 172–3,174, 175–6, 177–8NAP II 58–61, 159–71 passim, 173–4,177–8, 179–80response to Commission Green Paper96–8monitoring 2, 4, 13–14, 39, 49, 79, 84, 96,104–5, 111, 164multi-level governance approach (to EUETS) 2, 8, 15–16, 17–18, 33, 65,156–7, 158, 179, 181, 189–93
Latviaand NAPs 53, 56, 57, 59, 60Linking Directive 13, 32, 35, 46–7, 48, 103,136, 142, 153–4, 158, 177responses to 115–18, 119, 138–41, 153–4,155links 13, 14, 195see also Linking Directive and KyotoProtocol under EU Emission TradingSchemeLithuania 188and NAPs 52, 56–60 passim
NAPs, see National Allocation PlansNational Allocation Plans (NAPs) 7, 14–15ambitiousness 51–3, 159–71 passimdecision-making phase 44, 113, 131, 151,152, 153, 156implementation phase 49–63, 159–71passim, 171–4, 175–6, 177–8, 178–80NAP I 53–8, 159–71 passim, 172–3, 174ambitiousness 54–8, 174, 175–6, 177–8timeliness 53–4NAP II 58–61, 159–71 passim, 173–4,177–8, 179–80
Japan 35, 66, 145, 147, 148, 149, 152Joint Implementation (JI) 5, 35, 70and EU ETS 7, 13, 31–2, 64decision-making phase 46, 48, 115,128, 138, 139, 152, 1