|Australian Journal of Educational Technology
1989, 5(2), 132-160.
In this paper, the criteria for selecting modern learning technologies are discussed and it is suggested that four teaching/learning activities might form the basis for selection combined with a number of types of conceptual representations. The most important aspects for a designer are the match between learning task and its ability to be presented or manipulated by the learner using a decreasing range of information technologies.
Fifteenth century Europeans 'knew', that the sky was made of closed concentric crystal spheres, rotating around a central earth and carrying the stars and planets. That 'knowledge' structured everything they did and thought, because it told them the truth. Then Galileo's telescope changed the truth. (Burke, 1986, p.9)Over the past three years we have seen major changes in the information technologies. With the advent of the most recent computers such as the NeXT workstation, we are presented with a black box which enables words, numbers, visuals, sounds, dictionaries, thesauri, and external events to be controlled, manipulated and represented to the user in a variety of forms, often simultaneously, and also to other users linked into a network. Over this period, significant developments have also occurred in conceptualising research into the use of media in education and training. It is this relationship which forms the basis of this paper; the discussion will be divided into three main elements-technology, instructional design, and some ways of bridging the cultures and selecting modern media.
We live in a world where ideas and manipulations can be achieved simply with tools such as computers and computer-controlled robots, the challenge for instructional designers is to recognise the possibilities and employ technologies through which the learner can manipulate the ideas, concepts and even physical skills being taught. In the past where media have been selected for learning, the algorithms often focussed upon the simple identification of attributes, motion versus still, colour versus black and white, projected versus opaque, etc (see for example, Kemp, 1977 & Romiszowski, 1981). With the sophistication of todays learning technologies, these rather simple conceptions are no longer adequate. The choices are most often within one medium rather than between a variety of media forms. The classification schemes are difficult to use when you are looking at combinations of forms within the one lesson presentation. To achieve better use of information technologies the instructional designer needs more than a simplistic grasp of the possibilities of the technology.
The movement towards more integration of systems and technologies has provided an interesting environment for designers. It is becoming less necessary to learn about the diversity of different hardware systems as they start to adopt common user-interfaces and employ one or two formats for delivery. By way of a simple example, the new disk drives available with the latest Macintosh computers can read and write Apple II, Macintosh and IBM, high and low density formats - one drive suits all! Thus conceptualising anything in narrow hardware terms will not address the concepts to be learned and cognitive requirements of the task.
This approach has always been limited by the availability of the necessary equipment, but such a limited conception of technology should not be the driving force for developing instructional programs for the next decade. The cost of hardware is decreasing, and the number of elements required to form a useful workstation is also declining.
The workstation concept, which has grown with the advent of the word processor and the microcomputer, on which most are based, has enabled the presentation and manipulation of concepts in ways previously only possible with combination of media forms or more sophisticated computer systems. This power of manipulation and presentation of ideas has not gone unnoticed by such proponents for the use of technology in the teaching of mathematical ideas (Kaput, 1986; Papert, 1980; Pea, 1987). Foremost among these enthusiasts has been Seymour Papert, who generated some interesting challenges for educators with his book Mindstorms just over eight years ago. Since those first challenges, the technologies, which enable the manipulation and generation of ideas, have also developed. Four to five years ago the Macintosh burst onto the scene and provided the user with a graphic interface as a standard. The user was then able to manipulate concepts visually and more intuitively than had been available on mainframes or under the mnemonic operating systems of some personal computers.
The provision of these powerful tools has enabled concepts to be understood more completely and learned more efficiently. Understanding the integral calculus of LOGO can lead to complex mathematical ideas in an intuitive context well before the student has progressed to levels of formal operational thought. Dealing with pictorial representations has also enabled the designer to present complex concepts in forms that are seductively simple to the learner. Shapes can be stretched and distorted by manipulating a "mouse" attached to "handles" of the figure. The latest graphics drawing tools use tangential line "handles" to change curvature and create complex smooth figures.
Technologies, and particularly information technologies, are at a point where they can easily integrate a variety of components into one device. With increasing power of small systems there are also other trends which predict a greater integration of technologies and a corresponding reduction in the currently considered separate hardware/communications technologies. Nicholas Negroponte, Director of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology Media Lab, has described the situation as a series of overlapping circles. Using figure 1, he indicated to senior executives in the communications industries that their strategic planning for the future should take into account the convergence of technologies and that their products would increasingly become interchangeable and 'playable' on the one computer-based system.
Figure 1: Converging technology industries (Negroponte, in Brand, 1988)
An excellent example of where Negroponte's conception would lead is epitomised though recent developments in personal computers, such as Steve Job's next computer, where a number of information storage devices are combined, quite literally, into one black box. These developments can prove a boon to the designer in that more senses can be employed in the learning interaction between the learner and the technology. However, at the same time they raise instructional design challenges about the way the interaction should be developed. In studies of technology-as-hardware, student learning has not been enhanced by the hardware alone, other factors, in particular the design of the learning materials using the technology, have been more important (Clark, 1983, Johnson et al, 1988; Salomon, 1979).
During the 1970s and 1980s, numerous authors have written about the technology-as-process approach to curriculum design (Reiser, 1987; Percival and Ellington, 1988). In a recent summary, Percival and Ellington (1988) outline the changing major concerns of the approach as:
Within this context, any technology might be described as a mediator between the three human components of the interaction; the subject matter/ content expert, the instructional designer and the learner. Technology, on its own, is inanimate and lifeless; the human manipulation of the interaction creates the power of the technology for learning. The link between the original expert and the learner can be considered to be mediated through the attributes of the technology employed and the skills of the instructional designer (who incidentally may also be the teacher or instructor). The content organisation and the attributes of the technology the designer employs to present the ideas will help or hinder the learner's comprehension of them (Salomon, (1979). Learners, in turn, have their own individual understanding or conceptual sets which they apply to the presented materials to achieve mastery of the knowledge and information presented. Engelbart (1988) illustrated the concept, when he described the attributes of a hypermedia (note 1), environment (Figure 2), which augments human capabilities. His thesis is that most human capabilities are composites; any "example capability" can be thought of as a combination of the human-system and the tool-system capabilities. This process is possible, given the human skills and knowledge, to employ these systems. It is this last skill-the knowledge to employ-which is a major variable in technology adoption.
Figure 2: Extending the capabilities of the individual through technology (Engelbart, 1988)
In order to demonstrate how the instructional designer and the learner can use appropriate technology to improve skills, conceptual understanding and the process of communication of ideas, it becomes important to examine the current conceptions of how technology might be employed and what skills are required of both instructor and learner.
Many of those coming to terms with technology in higher education are representative of these groups. Greater emphasis is being placed on learner involvement in learning, and demands are being made for a broader knowledge base. Thus learners are being compelled to venture into areas which were once the realms of specialists. For example, work has been undertaken with interactive videodiscs (note 2) where students can explore databases of realistic situations in the security of the classroom, and the technology enables them to become involved and make decisions. These decisions can be about key issues, such as, chemical experimentation or future employment. This interaction can occur without fear of failure (Scriven and Adams (1988): Ambron & Hooper, 1988).
Word processing and literature searching are two common examples of increasing technology use as an extension of human capabilities. Traditionally, assignments were handwritten or an author employed a typist to create a respectable assignment presentation. The proliferation of word processors has changed that. Assignments must now be at least typewritten, preferably word processed, spellchecked and, in some instances, be presented with integrated illustrations and graphics laid out using a page layout program. Hard copies are not always required either. Some instructors request assignments to be submitted on disk, or in the case of distance education, assignments can be downloaded via a modem or placed on a bulletin board.
In the area of literature searching, the contents of the school or institution's library sufficed or, if not, a researcher made an appointment with the "on-line search" specialist librarian to conduct a (rather costly) literature search. The advent of databases on CD-ROM (note 3) has enabled a "do it yourself" approach. This easy and cheaper alternative is encouraging academia to incorporate a more comprehensive review of the literature in areas which were once the kingdom of the textbook. Realistically though, not everyone employs technology in achieving a goal and many teachers, while using a technology at a basic functional level, do not think in terms of its potential to assist human thought and concept development. (Office for Technology Assessment, 1988; Roblyer, et al, 1988).
From the work at the MIT media lab and the growing awareness of integrating technologies such as CD-ROM, CD-I (note 4), and DV-I (note 5), there are predictions that, not only will the future classroom be well equipped, but these systems will also allow home use at reasonable cost. The move over the next few years will be to publish and present knowledge in these technologies (see for example, Bitter, 1988; Hativa, 1986, Hedberg, 1989).
Information technology-based, teaching materials are often confined to the role of a sophisticated presentation devices. However, with existing applications software, there is the opportunity for the student to use applications software packages for knowledge generation as well as knowledge presentation. (See for example, Hedberg, 1988a).
Frustration and anxiety are a part of the daily life for many users of computerised information systems. They struggle to learn command language or menu selection systems that are supposed to help them to do their job. Some people encounter such serious cases of computer shock, terminal terror, or network neurosis that they avoid using computerised systems. These electronic-age maladies are growing more common; but help is on the way!While new and exciting aspects of information technology and its use are constantly being brought to the attention of the higher education community, the human-technology interface seems to have attracted attention in education only in recent years (e.g. Barrett and Hedberg, 1987; Shneiderman, 1987). This issue becomes more important when considered in the light of the problems faced by teachers as learners as they attempt to understand and use the technology as a tool. In summarising the state of technology adoption by teachers, the Office of Technology Assessment (1988) found that interactive technologies take more time and effort to learn than many other curricular innovations, and their use made teaching a bit tougher, at first. The choice of an appropriate technology for learning might focus on these issues, if more general use is to be made of the technology by teachers.
...the diverse use of computers in homes, offices, factories, hospitals, electric power control centers, hotels, banks, and so on is stimulating widespread interest in human factors issues. Human engineering, which is seen as the paint put on the end of a project, is now understood to be the steel frame on which the structure is built (Shneiderman, p. v, 1987).
Several participants had never used a computer before. Not only was the idea of a data storage on a small disc unfamiliar to them, so too was the means of accessing the disc. Some of the most prohibiting factors were the necessity of knowing specific identifying words, the need to press specific keys for the generation of particular information, and the methods of correcting errors in typing or input. At a deeper level, several participants were willing to accept the first instance of information which appeared on the screen, without checking for details or the appropriateness of the response. They firmly believed that the computer could not err - (even if the error was in human input), and therefore the information must be correct. Beside the need for keyboard skills, which created a barrier to effective use of the technology, many participants concentrated more upon following correct procedures, rather than the information being presented. Optimistic assumptions about teachers' ability to use technology frequently cause problems with the instructional strategies in which the technology is employed.
A related problem has been that some current application software appears to the novice user to have been written by those "in the know". Although most applications programs incorporate "help" mechanisms (approximately twenty-two screens of help were found in one database program), these resources are beyond the grasp of the novice user or one unfamiliar with the "language" of how to get to, and be able to read the "Help" file.
The most important catchcry of the computer-based education enthusiasts has been learner control. However, while there are numerous studies indicating its importance for motivation and efficient learning, its actual implementation in courseware is often only lip service. Learners, to take control over their learning experience with technology, still need to understand how the software they are using works and where they stand in their performance so that they can make informed decisions about where to venture next. The current enthusiasm for Hypercard (note 6) as a medium for exploration is based on the ability of the keen learner to choose a path and enjoy the options. At any moment the student can review where they have been and jump directly to a particular screen (through the "recent" review function); this degree of flexibility and graphic summary of progress has either not been possible before in courseware or simply too difficult to include. While its impact has not been fully explored, the opportunity for a "hyperview" of their learning sequence does enable greater control of what and how some things can be learned. An extensive summary of the hypermedia options becoming available has been provided by Ambron and Hooper (1988), and this challenges the developers of computer-based software to conceive of different formulations of instructional sequences in place of the routine drill and practice, tutorial, simulation, and problem solving strategies of the past.
There is a growing realisation that the forms of software presentation can now adapt to the modes of representation and learning styles preferred by individual learners. Visual learners can convert data tables into graphical forms, haptic learners can use robotics to see, touch and feel the meanings of computer commands and their effect on an object. The link between formal logic structure and physical representation can be explored in terms of a functional relationship. In the mathematical curriculum it is possible, with software such Geometric Supposer, Function Builder, to investigate and manipulate ideas in a one-to-one relationship. A change in the mathematical function will be shown by a change in its graphical representation, and modifying the graphical representation will produce a corresponding change in the function. On a more concrete level, the work by Papert and his colleagues with Lego LOGO also enables this link to be investigated (Papert in Brand, 1988).
The use of the technology is not purely a function of the availability of equipment, it is also a problem of understanding the technology as a tool for thinking. While it might never be expected that all teachers will use the technology as a tool for everyday knowledge generation and presentation, special groups such as mathematics and science teachers do have some conceptual advantages in using the technology from a discipline point of view. However, that alone is not sufficient. In describing the effectiveness of an interactive videodisc mathematics lesson, Carnine, et al (1987) emphasised the importance of instructional design in the materials which made them more effective than teachers working by themselves with a computer. These authors emphasised that instructional design skills were equally as important as the provision of the curriculum materials.
Even with less sophisticated materials, such as the production of class handouts, there are new skills involved in the preparation of printed curriculum materials using the skills of typist/graphics composer/page layout compositor. The microcomputer has required a re-working of tasks and roles. The availability and accessibility of this technology has enabled individuals to work directly with the material which is going to be used in the teaching process. The immediacy and closeness with which individual authors can work on their material has meant that high quality materials can be presented quickly and designed to improve learning and increase their effectiveness.
Taking account of students prior conceptions. One of the key elements in the materials designed was the deliberate linking of previous learning by means of the technology to scientific method and theory, so that the materials created an environment in which new data and phenomena could be transformed from naive understanding into more lasting and sophisticated ideas. In many projects technology enabled students to work with their own levels of understanding and with representations of knowledge with which they were comfortable.
Integrating directed instruction and inquiry learning. One of the concerns with instructional strategy led the team to apply a different approach to those previously advocated by the proponents of microworlds (Papers in Brand, 1988). The mix in instructional strategy was to overcome the problems of extremely open-ended environments which, they believed, rarely led to students reconstructing concepts that mathematicians had taken centuries to devise. By designing materials which employed technology in a hybrid of direct instruction and inquiry learning, teachers helped students develop and test their own ideas. Commercially available software was employed in this type of activity.
Teaching how knowledge is generated. One ETC project, the Nature of Science Project, used a variety of resources to produce an understanding of scientific thinking within the context of specific phenomenon. An interactive videodisc was used to investigate several "black box" problems. With this technology a series of conjectures could be investigated without expensive experimental equipment and the results of each manipulation of variables could be easily demonstrated. When this introduction to the experimental method was combined with real experimentation, students moved away from narrow beliefs about science to understand that it originates in the mind of the scientist and that it involves persistent examination of ideas.
These concepts about teachers and teaching strategies are not unique to this series of projects. The work at the MIT Media Lab and their associated elementary school has created similar environments for learning, with success for learners at different levels of ability. The outcome of all such activity has been to re-examine the role the teacher and technology can play, no longer can the teacher simply relinquish his/her presentation to an audiovisual presentation device, the teacher must take an active role in supporting the inquiry.
As to the other aspect of insufficient curriculum software, many writers have promoted the use of templates for applications software (Hedberg 1988a). What is more important is the structure of the exercise and the ability of the student to change elements in the model. When the choice of appropriate hardware is linked with potential software, then great advances can be made at very little cost and with little time spent in software development. Hypercard and Linkway are two programs which enable users (whether they be teachers or students) to design a series of experiences which can present ideas and manipulate them cheaply with the minimum of programming effort. Further, as it is possible to exchange software produced on these systems, the cost of running a range of curriculum materials is the cost of the disk. Recently, Club Mac released a CD-ROM of all its software. Only one would be needed at each school, as most material is in the public domain. Further, simple authoring software is becoming available in this format, allowing teachers or typists to input tests and experiences which can be quickly modified.
Compatibility issues. Over the years most educational systems, whether they be State Education Departments, universities or individual schools, have sought to simplify the process of compatibility by insisting on one or two machines. This is becoming less and less of a major problem. With bulletin boards it is a simple matter of copying files from one computer to the other. Often software is written in languages which enable transportability of software such as "C". This trend, when matched with the growing capability of reading and writing magnetic media from any of the three main systems (IBM, Apple II, or Macintosh) and the links between major mainframe and micro manufacturers (e.g. Digital and Apple), would indicate that there should be little real concern for constraining unified hardware requirements.
Laurillard (1987) has spoken of the development of multifaceted design models and Hedberg (1988a) has mentioned the use of templates as simple ways that link the use of technology to regular tools which are in common (preferably daily) use by the learner. Such a concept needs first to examine the reasons for using technology in the teaching/learning process. For example, the use of the simple device of a spreadsheet with a prepared mathematical model allows at least three levels of processing. First, a learner may type their own numbers into a prepared pro forma, the package will calculate according to the prepared algorithms and changes in different elements will show a relationship between inputs and results. Changing the inputs allows the learner to model different results based on the input assumptions. A second level might involve the translation of the numbers into another form of representation such as a chart. This second level may have been already prepared by the instructor and the links simply updated as the learner changes the numbers in their first pro forma, or the reamer might use the links between spreadsheet and charting routines to clarify or further investigate relationships (especially if they are a visual learner). A third level would enable the leaner to change the underlying assumptions on which the analysis is based - the learner might decide to investigate the algorithms devised for the relationships between inputs and results. By changing the formulae, the learner can extend beyond the interaction designed by the subject matter expert and the instructional designer. At both the second and third levels, the learner is manipulating the technology to generate knowledge rather than simply to watch its presentation. Thus the technology allows the student to extend his or her understanding beyond the original intents.
Recent work has tried to reassess the functions of technology in terms of the type of tools required for different types of learning activities. Consider Table 1, where four key activities for teaching and learning are described - knowledge generation, knowledge presentation, knowledge communication and information management. The instructional designer needs first, to focus on the underlying learning activity, then secondly, define a link between the concept presentation and how the students must work with the information to produce their own understanding of the ideas and issues. Foremost in this design concept is the idea of allowing the student to manipulate the concepts directly, and not to have the presentation totally circumscribed by the designer, who might decide to present information in a single conceptual model.
Thus the model presented here is concerned with two basic functions of a technology for learning-teaching/learning activity and form of knowledge representation. Additionally, because learning may occur at a time or distance remote from the tutor, knowledge must also be communicated with others. The communication of results, questions and corrections between tutor and learner, or amongst students, is of particular interest, and technology can influence and assist the quality of this interaction. As mentioned previously, bulletin board software can be used to generate insights beyond the prepared brief of the designed materials.
The last teaching/learning activity illustrated in the model indicates the important management function involved in all materials to be used in learning. Personal productivity software, when linked together, can provide a useful organising force for tutor, designer and student, especially for time management or idea generation.
Each of the four teaching/learning activities can use technology in a variety of forms. Each different form is appropriate or needed for the ideas or concepts to be understood by the learner. Using current information technology we are no longer constrained to the simple verbal form. Mixtures of sound, music, words, pictures or moving sequences can be integrated into each teaching/learning activity. With computer control of external devices, it is possible to manipulate objects in three dimensional space and to link them with graphical or numerical representations.
Richey (1986) emphasised that instructional design has been distanced from teachers when she opened her book:
Planning instructional programs and materials has been separated from the jobs of those who actually deliver the instruction in a growing number of situations .... The dichotomy between instruction and instructional design ... is ... influenced by different theoretical orientations and different practice histories (Richey, 1986, p.2)
Producing materials can occur through enthusiastic teachers, through teacher educators or as demonstrated by the ETC example at Harvard, through a collaborative approach of both. Models of instructional) design abound in the literature, and most of the recent attempts to link technology with practice have simplified the process and reduced the complexity of previous behavioural prescriptions. Emphasis is upon structuring the curriculum so that it can be represented by simple "epitomes" (see Reigeluth, elaboration theory, 1987) and graphical links between concepts and motivating environments (Reiser, 1987). Many organisations who must manage the production of learning resources operate on the just-in-time method for their generation. The cost of inventories, the complexity of multi-media storage, and the deterioration of electronic media with poor storage and time has meant that many curriculum packages are produced on-demand. These factors do not necessarily require a centralised production source. Most reasonably large organisations already possess the infrastructure to produce materials without the need for further bureaucratic centralisation. In fact, the notion is generally antagonistic to trends of development in information technology and the way in which people adapt and implement new technology. However, there is definite need to assist with the identification of good products which are often hidden in a growing mountain of alternatives. Instant access to information about and evaluations of packages, together with cheap copies of their associated documentation, can be made available through public bulletin boards and/or distributed through CD-ROM or other large database storing technology.
Propinquity is also a major factor in producing a product. The fact that the subject matter expertise, the design expertise and a computer are frequently within walking distance of each other will help the production of materials in ways not envisaged in the traditional bureaucracies of curriculum development centres. However, it is very unlikely that any economies can be achieved without some coordinated curriculum development of quality and with an eye to appropriate technology for the learning task.
It is difficult to predict future hardware formats and the most appropriate technology in which to develop resources. At the moment, the push is to use pre-recorded formats (usually optically encoded), such as CD-ROM, although, the recently released NeXT computer uses an optical read-write system holding about 250 megabytes. WORM technology exists to enable writing data once on optical media and then being able to read many times. Entire manufacturing plants are run on WORM technology. No paper is generated; everything is added and changed in centralised filing systems. However, most current projects have considered interactive videodisc which requires less change to existing systems of recording and distribution. Publishing companies are considering CD-I (digital, interactive, multimedia systems) as a potential device for distribution of interactive training, reference books, albums, home learning and do-it-yourself learning, either with or without the computer (in the latter case the technology would be built into the system). Some commercial companies promise DV-I with up to 75 minutes of full screen video and 3D motion pictures (see discussions in Bitter, 1988; Scriven and Adams, 1988). Whatever the final hardware choice, the growing trend toward file conversion and similar magnetic media formats will probably continue for the next few years. This development alone will enable exchange of software between the major systems.
I - drill and practice/tutorialRecent educational software has provided instruction for both student and teacher, and it supports activities which are seen as important by the instructor (see for example, Geometric Supposer [Schwartz & Yerushalmy, 1985] and The Voyage of the Mini [Gibbon in Ambron & Hooper, 1988]).
II - simulation and new forms of representation.
The design of an "intelligent" software does not necessarily mean the move to more complex artificial intelligence systems; it could mean simply using the ideas of good game design which engages students by providing fantasy, creativity and challenge (Malone, 1981). Simulations should be open-ended and allow students to generate knowledge rather than manipulate the parameters (Hedberg,1989b; Goldenberg, 1988). Extending the range of experience through the use of peripherals such as CD-ROM and videodisc should be seen as commonplace rather than special events. The work undertaken with the only Australian videodisc system produced specifically for schools (Steele, 1988) has demonstrated that the systems can work. However, it does require the vision of educational departments, intelligent interactive media design, and a small additional investment in a distribution technology which is more robust and of higher quality than anything currently available.
The move from traditional conceptions of what educational software might present with hypermedia involves greater control for teachers and modifiability of the software (Hativa, 1986). Early concepts of software saw instructional strategies being clearly defined and fixed within each software package. Recent systems have also included artificial intelligence components which enable strategies to be more closely matched to the learning style (Criswell, 1989). Even without artificial intelligence components, the move into Hypertalk language structures has enabled greater flexibility in design and the use of environments. Certainly, the addition of interactive videodisc and CD-ROM is a simple task and one that extends the capabilities of the software design (see Fielded and Steele, 1988, Ambron and Hooper, 1988, Hedberg, 1985).
Throughout the preceding discussion, there have been a number of examples which indicate that media can provide a unique and useful contribution to a concept presentation. Of particular interest are its abilities such as linking multiple representations of a concept and linking physical demonstrations through robotics or hypermedia to their theoretical counterparts.
Simplistic software design or thoughtless use of computer graphing in classrooms may further obscure some of what we already find difficult to teach. On the other hand, thoughtful design and the use of graphing software presents new opportunities to focus on challenging and important mathematical issues that were always important to our students but were never accessible before. (Goldenberg, 1988, p. 135)Many of the popular descriptions from the work of Seymour Papert have included descriptions where one student suddenly became the "expert" for some time and, for one brief shining moment, was looked up to by their fellow students (Papert, 1980; Papert in Brand, 1988). The environment provided by Lego LOGO and some multimedia software packages can provide for the social aspects of learning.
Improved student performance was experienced in a videodisc based lesson on fractions. Carnine et al (1987) put this effect down to a number of factors, especially, the carefully selected curriculum and the teaching strategies which fostered high levels of student engagement and success. The teaching strategies employed included a concern for example selection, an explicit teaching strategy and discrimination practice to reinforce the concepts. Carnine et al claimed that the instructional design of the videodisc was critical in the development of improved student learning. All too often they felt that the use of inappropriate elements of design in poorly conceived materials interfered with or contradicted the intent of the curriculum. Importantly in their study, they were concerned for the use of the technology with a group based on the research summarised by Bangert, Kulik and Kulik (1983) which found there were often stronger effects for group learning than when the same materials were used individually.
Representational correspondence can also be used to effect when dealing with difficult-to-grasp concepts such as the notion of a variable. With well designed software it is possible to create new concepts using both abstract and concrete models (Goldenberg, 1988, Janvier, 1987).
There are a number of unresolved questions about the use of windows in educational software, especially how the user comprehends how different windows relate and how consistent is the interpretation. Consider for example, overlapping windows versus tile windows (non overlapping segments of one screen) - often it is easier to understand what is happening if a number of things which are happening simultaneously occur always in the same part of the screen. This means a more expensive screen system and certainly a higher resolution system. Many of these issues have not been investigated with non-expert audiences, the research on human factors to date being largely related to business and military applications.
To improve the learning experience, software that enables the learner to have control over more than parameters is to be preferred. Students need to be able to control the underlying function as well as the parameters which might be the subject of a constrained set of experiences (Goldenberg, 1988; Kulik & Bangert-Downs, 1983-1984). A few years ago, the Curriculum Development Centre in Canberra was interested in a small package which simulated a fishing village economy of a Pacific island. The materials were designed to include a number of graphics, but the interaction was purely setting the values of three parameters and watching the wealth of the community and the size of the fishing fleet change as the parameters varied. Students were not able to examine the functions on which these relationships depended, a short-sighted design. It would have been just as easy to use a spreadsheet template and allow the students to change values, as well as the functions, and view the outcomes in a graphical or numerical form. This approach is possible using commercial spreadsheet programs at a fraction of the cost of distributing specially coded software written in BASIC and only running on the one computer. Thus designing a spreadsheet template would have taken less time, and could be more easily adapted for different packages and computers.
Other presentation factors in computer-based material, such as the speed of execution, may hide the development of the idea. The speed with which an object is drawn or an equation solved has often led to an emphasis on the Gestalt rather than the incremental development of the idea (Goldenberg, 1988, Schoenfeld, 1987). Some software packages have had to slow down the presentation of information so that the developmental steps can be shown.
Scale, another difficult concept, can be sometimes confused in poorly executed software. It can be difficult for some students to determine the difference between a change in scale, and "zooming" into a section of an object, where the scale is not changed, only its representation on the screen. This problem can be further complicated by multiple windows as mentioned above. Changes in scale are easily achieved with computers, there can be confusion between zooming-in on a scale and actually changing the scale. (ETC, 1988, Goldenberg, 1988). Scale can also be complicated with a simple change of screen size. With some computer systems, the same representations on different screen sizes will appear different sizes, and there is no continuity of experience. Some computers enable a fixed-size screen representation leading to a consistency in scale representation across different size screens.
One of the interesting concepts that computers enable learners to manipulate is the idea of the finite versus the infinite. With the technology, even the best representation is still composed of finite pixels, and there are always jumps between elements.
Consider the restructuring of knowledge which is required to develop an electronic encyclopedia (Kreitzberg & Shneiderman, 1988). The hypermedia approach to materials design that the new technology allows creates some interesting problems for someone who previously "thumbed through" a book. Electronic media require multiple indexes to point to the information. The student cannot easily browse in the traditional sense. Browsing is possible in that several of the programs now available allow a browse function which rapidly scans each "card" in a database, and the user can click to stop the process at any time. The technique is really limited to looking at some sample items and small databases, but some users not at ease with the technology have been known to sit and watch them all in order to find just one relevant item! Students require multiple point of access and tolerance of spelling mistakes to find appropriate information. The problems of information retrieval are not insignificant, but the storage cost of multiple and idiosyncratic indexes is not beyond possibility with CD-ROM and other technologies.
If the instructional designers are excited, then there is the chance some of that excitement and creative energy will be communicated to those who learn from the materials they design.
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|Author: John Hedberg was asked to prepare a paper on technology and learning
Mathematics and Science for the recently completed Discipline
Enquiry. This paper is a refocussing of the ideas to the general
problems of selecting media for instructional tasks. He can be
contacted at the Professional Development Centre, University of
NSW, PO Box 1, Kensington NSW 2033.
Please cite as: Hedberg, J. G. (1989). Rethinking the selection of learning technologies. Australian Journal of Educational Technology, 5(2), 132-160. http://www.ascilite.org.au/ajet/ajet5/hedberg2.html