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Full cost accounting for the life cycle of coal / Paul R. Epstein, et al. Annals of the New York Academy of science, Vol.1219,  Ecological Economics Reviews, pp.73–98, February 2011.http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1749-6632.2010.05890.x/pdfEach stage in the life cycle of coal — extraction, transport, processing,  and combustion — generates a waste stream and carries multiple hazards for  health and the environment. These costs are external to the coal  industry and are thus often considered “externalities.” We estimate that  the life cycle effects of coal and the waste stream generated are  costing the U.S. public a third to over one-half of a trillion dollars  annually. Many of these so-called externalities are, moreover,  cumulative. Accounting for the damages conservatively doubles to triples  the price of electricity from coal per kWh generated, making wind,  solar, and other forms of nonfossil fuel power generation, along with  investments in efficiency and electricity conservation methods,  economically competitive. We focus on Appalachia, though coal is mined  in other regions of the United States and is burned throughout the  world. (copyright © Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences)