Genetic and phenotypic consequences of local transitions between sexual and parthenogenetic reproduction in the wild

Transitions from sexual to asexual reproduction have occurred in numerous lineages across the tree of life, but it remains unclear why asexual populations rarely persist. In facultatively parthenogenetic animals, all-female populations can arise when males are absent or become extinct, and such populations can give rise to obligately asexual species. Facultative parthenogens could therefore shed light on the initial stages of transitions to asexuality, and the factors that determine the success or failure of asexual populations. Here, we describe a novel spatial mosaic of mixed-sex and all-female populations of the facultatively parthenogenetic Australian phasmid Megacrania batesii, and use this system to investigate the consequences of reproductive mode variation in the wild. Analysis of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) indicated multiple, independent transitions between reproductive modes. As expected, all-female populations had drastically reduced heterozygosity and genetic diversity relative to mixed-sex populations. However, we found few consistent differences in fitness-related traits between population types. All-female populations exhibited more frequent and severe (non-functional) wing deformities, but did not show higher rates of appendage loss. All-female populations also harbored more parasites, but only in certain habitats. Reproductive mode explained little variation in female body size, fecundity, or egg hatch-rate. Our results confirm that transitions to parthenogenetic reproduction can lead to dramatic reductions in genetic diversity and heterozygosity. However, our findings also suggest that asexual M. batesii populations consist of high-fitness genotypes that might be able to thrive for many generations, perhaps until they encounter a drastic environmental change to which they are unable to adapt.