From Defiance to Civilizationalism


 Russia’s complex relationship with the West is the result of a long history of frustration and a perception of humiliation. The Russian empire, Soviet Union and the Russian Federation all have perceived the West alternately as a touchstone and a threat. This article assesses how discourses of humiliation and historical greatness intersect in Russian foreign policy. A first section explains how the discourse of humiliation has always been present Russia’s discourse on East-West relations. The second part of the article discusses how critical junctures in its relations with the west affected Russia’s foreign policy since 1991. As a consequence, Russia’s reactive frustration turned into defiance and a proactive discourse of humiliation, which became strongly intertwined with the legitimation for its attacks on the territorial integrity of sovereign states like Ukraine. Countries warning not to further antagonize or humiliate Russia with an eye on diplomacy and negotiations risk to mainstream this Russian discourse. This would enable Russia to successfully “securitize” humiliation by making the narrative of humiliation an object of security through discursive actions. It is therefore crucial not to perceive Russia’s humiliation rhetoric apart from the internal legitimation of its military invasion of Ukraine.