Overview on the sensors for direct electrochemical detection of illicit drugs in sports

Abuse of illicit drugs seriously undermines the principle of fair and equitable competition in sports and has serious consequences for the health of athletes. Thus, it is highly desired to develop rapid, sensitive, portable and easy-to-operate methods for the detection of a variety of illicit drugs in sports. Electrochemical technique is a promising substitute for chromatographic and spectral analysis. In the past decades, the direct electrochemical detection of illicit drugs has experienced great growth due to the discovery of novel electrode materials, such as carbon materials, metal/metal oxide and polymers. In this view, the progress in electrochemical detection of illicit drugs in sports was summarized, including dopes (caffeine, (meth) amphetamine, ephedrine and strychnine), sedatives (acebutolol, propranolol and betaxolol), anesthetic (morphine, codeine, methadone and cocaine), diuretics (hydrochlorothiazide, bumetanide and mannitol), anabolic hormone nandrolone and masking agent theophylline. The work should be valuable for the development of novel electrochemical sensors for drug analysis.