{"word_count": 5016, "character_count": 35693}
1. Introduction        In Archaeology, the use of geophysical techniques        is increasingly more common in preliminary delimitation studies; this        is because of their non-destructive nature and the short data        collection periods at sites with a large surface area. This means a        significant reduction in the costs of such studies. The lateral extent        and depth of buried archaeological features can be detected,        electrical surveying being one of the most widely used in archaeology        as such features tend to present different electrical properties from        those in the surrounding environment. However, it is important to note        that the effectiveness of the method is dependent on the technological        advances of data collection devices (multi-electrode systems) and the        development of computational programs for inverse problem solving in        two or three dimensions. The application of such methods in the        Americas has played an important role in the detection and        parameterization of Pre-Columbian and Hispanic archaeological features        (Osella et al., 2005; Wake et        al., 2012; Minelli et al., 2012).        The aim of this study was to perform 3D electrical        resistivity tomography in an open space located inside the ruins of        Santo Domingo Convent (Panamá Viejo Historical Monument Complex) in        order to detect possible archaeological structures that could be        linked to the characteristic structures of a cloister and additional        features linked to the origins of the construction of this building.        Based on this 3D (three-dimensional) tomography geophysical survey,        horizontal sections were drafted to provide a better interpretation of        the areas of high electrical resistivity, thereby permitting an        understanding of the spatial and temporal organization of the        occupation of the convent during the period of Spanish colonization of        the American continent.              2. Geographical and geological setting        The ancient Hispanic city of Panamá Viejo was the        first and most important European settlement on the American Pacific        coast during the Spanish conquest and colonization. Its ruins are        located close to the modern city of Panama, on the widest part of the        Isthmus as shown in Figure 1a, and Santo Domingo Convent is located in        the central sector of the archaeological site (Figure 1b).        The site stands on three geologic formations: the        Panamá Formation (volcanic and marine phases) and Las Lajas Formation.        The volcanic phase is the most predominant, while Las Lajas Formation,        located in the northeastern vicinity of the area of interest (Figure        1c), has a lesser extent.        Figure 1: a) Geographic location of the area of        interest on the Isthmus of Panama, b) overhead view of Santo Domingo        Convent and c) geological description of the area and surroundings        (Stewart et al., 1980) / a)        Localisation géographique du site étudié sur l'isthme de Panama, b)        vue aérienne du Couvent de Santo Domingo et c) description géologique        de la zone et environs (Stewart et al.,        1980)                      3. Historical context        The Santo Domingo Convent in Panama was initially        founded in 1519 in the city of Nombre de Dios on the Caribbean coast        and was later transferred to Panama City, where it started operating        in 1571. After that, the convent underwent numerous transformations        through a construction process using non-perishable materials, until        it was abandoned along with the rest of the city as a consequence of        the attack of the city by the pirate Henry Morgan in 1671.        The characteristics of the convent’s initial phase        are described in a report to the King by Doctor Alonso Criado de        Castilla, dated on April 30, 1577 which mentions the use of wood and        tiles to build the convent, the use of cane to mark the boundaries of        the property and the existence of an adjacent house that was used as a        church.        In terms of construction, that wooden house can be        interpreted on the basis of the description by Bishop Juan de Fonseca        of the technique used for wooden homes in the old city of Panama,        which also describes the use of wood with stone bases. From this        information, we can infer that although historical records indicate        that the convent was made of wood in its initial phase, its        foundations would have been laid with stone materials in accordance        with building traditions in the city (Mena García, 1992).        The convent maintained these initial        characteristics until early seventeenth century (1610 description).        Although there is no direct historical reference to the exact date        when building with masonry, stones and bricks began, this could have        occurred between 1610 and 1614 (Arosemena &#38; Durán, 2014) because        the Royal Chapter of December 15, 1614, addressed to the Provincial        Prior of Peru mentions the application for a tabernacle and an        altarpiece for the new church in 1614.        From that moment, the convent continued to be built        using masonry over various periods of the seventeenth century, as        evidenced by several wall joints (Linero &#38; Muñíz, 2013). Finally,        the convent was abandoned in 1671, following the pirate Morgan’s        attack on Panama City. Later, during more than 300 years of abandon,        the convent’s structures and walls have deteriorated. The ruins are        still visible today, in testimony to the building’s past before being        abandoned in 1671 (Figure 2).        Figure 2: Panoramic interior view of Santo        Domingo Convent, Panamá Viejo Archaeological Site / Vue panoramique intérieure du Couvent de Santo Domingo,        site archéologique de Panamá Viejo                Photo by G. ArosemenaPhoto par G. Arosemena                  The convent in colonial cartography          The known cartographic references to the old city          of Panama are two maps produced at two historic moments. The first          was produced in 1586 by Bautista Antonelli, and the second by          Cristóbal de Roda in 1609. Both maps show the location of Santo          Domingo Convent, and a description from 1607 confirms the existence          of Santo Domingo Convent and a street of the same name to the west.          The description also reveals that the street to the north of the          convent was called Calle de la Puentezuela. No name is known for the          streets to the east and south. Regarding the characteristics of the          convent, there are differences between the representations on the          maps by Antonelli and Roda. The central part of Antonelli’s map          (Figure 3) shows a different layout of the convent from that of the          present-day ruins, which not only features an irregular perimeter,          but also fewer signs of occupation.          Figure 3: Santo Domingo Convent in 1586, from          a map of Panama produced by Bautista Antonelli / Couvent de Santo Domingo en 1586, carte de Panama par          Bautista Antonelli                    The Calle de Santo Domingo, to the west of the          convent, was already laid out and the convent’s northeastern          boundary was presumably well defined; the street running parallel to          Santo Domingo also seems to have been laid out, and so the eastern          boundary of the convent was also defined. However, both Calle de la          Puentezuela, on the northern boundary of the convent, and the street          to the south, were undefined in 1586; this probably reflects how the          block on which the convent stood was not well-delimited.          This map of the convent by Bautista Antonelli          probably represents the primitive Santo Domingo Convent mentioned in          the chronicles as the wooden house. By 1609, the map of Panama City          produced by Cristóbal de Roda, despite not detailing the convent          buildings, shows substantial changes to the Santo Domingo block.          It is shown in a more defined, regular and broad          manner, with a similar perimeter to that seen in the block of the          present-day ruin; the boundaries of the convent block had thus          probably been defined by this date (1609), as shown by the defined          routes of the streets around it. However, according to the 1610          description, the convent was still known as a wooden house. This          presumably means that despite the consolidation of the block, no          masonry work had yet been done, and the convent probably had the          same constructed outline as that shown on the 1586 map. When the          convent was abandoned in 1671, the block probably had the same          boundaries as those observed in the present-day ruins, which had          probably been defined as of 1609.          By comparing the block shown in Antonelli’s map          with the map of the block of the present-day ruin (Figure 4), not          only is an irregular perimeter noted, but it can also be clearly          seen that the northeast section of the convent in Antonelli’s map          was unbuilt, and in that sector, the northern limit of the convent          building would have been located in the middle of the current          convent.          Figure 4: Comparison of the outline of the          convent in its wooden phase, according to Antonelli’s map (dashed          lines), with the map of the convent at its most advanced stage,          corresponding to the present-day ruins. A white arrow shows the          northern boundary of the convent / Comparaison du          contour du couvent dans sa phase de bois, d’après la carte          d'Antonelli (lignes pointillées), avec la carte du couvent à son          stade le plus avancé, correspondant aux ruines actuelles. Une flèche          blanche montre la limite nord du couvent                    Source: G. Arosemena          This northern space was presumably added to the          convent block during its consolidation process, but it does not seem          to have been built upon, which is why it is hypothesized that the          convent was not completed before Morgan’s arrival (Arosemena &#38;          Durán, 2014).                          Description of the cloister at Santo Domingo          Convent          Most of the walls and wall foundations of the          convent site, which were abandoned in 1671 and are now in ruins, are          of legible masonry. This means that the architectural layout is          still comprehensible. In general, colonial convent sites like Santo          Domingo followed the medieval tradition of Benedictine convents,          which defined the characteristics of the architectural typology in          Europe. And because the religious functions and activities,          including evangelical and educational functions, of convent          buildings in the Americas remained similar to those of convents in          Spain and the rest of Europe, they maintained the same inherent          types of convent buildings and spaces: the cloister, consisting of a          patio surrounded by four arcades, the Church and the convent          outbuildings.          Following this pattern, in the space          corresponding to the cloister, neither the galleries nor the          elements constituting its porticos, i.e., the pillars, are visible          in the present-day ruins. However, it is possible to make out the          open space of the patio, which is contained within the visible walls          of the nave of the Church and the outbuildings to the south and          east.                      4. Survey methodology                  Delimitation of the survey area          The geological characteristics of the Panamá          Viejo Historical Monument Complex permitted electrical surveying in          the space occupied by Santo Domingo Convent. In a 923 m2 polygon, a total of 24 parallel electrical          profiles were set from southeast to northwest, with a 1 m separation          between them. The definition of this polygon was determined by the          presence of obstacles on the edges of the survey area (accumulation          of rubble, remains of fallen walls and trees). In the aforementioned          polygon, the first 5 profiles were established in the western part          of the convent area, the following 17 profiles in the central zone          and the last 2 profiles in the eastern area, with lengths of 25, 47          and 23 m, respectively. Figure 5 shows a map of the area of the          convent and Santo Domingo Church, along with the boundaries of the          archaeological interventions, the surveyed area and the positions of          the 24 profiles.                          Geometric and acquisition parameters          In each set profile, the apparent electrical          resistivity values were obtained using a multielectrode system          consisting of a Syscal R1 switch 48 resistivity meter (by Iris          Instruments) and two multicable devices with 24 outputs each.          The system permits a linear arrangement with a          maximum total of 48 electrodes, with an electrode separation of no          more than 5 m. Prior to surveying, two types of parameters were          configured: (i) geometric – the number of electrodes (which varies          depending on profile length) and the separation between them, which          is constant (1 m for this study), the electrode configuration          (dipole-dipole) and the total number of depth levels (n = 7); and (ii) acquisition levels – the maximum          permitted standard deviation value of the field data (1% for this          study), minimum and maximum number of stacks per measurement (3 and          6), the time cycle (500 ms) and the type of signal. The          dipole-dipole electrode configuration typically offers high          resolution, but it is highly sensitive to geological noise and          shallow exploration depths (Barker, 2001). The acquisition          parameters chosen for this study guarantee good quality data.                          Inversion model          The 5950 apparent electrical resistivity values          collected for the 24 profiles were processed using the EarthImager          3D program by AGI Advanced; this program constructs an initial          resistivity model based on the apparent electrical resistivity          values and then iterates direct 3D modeling in order to predict the          synthetic values of apparent electrical resistivity in accordance to          the experimental data. In order to resolve the direct model, the          finite difference method is used, in which the medium is discretized          and the partial differential equation is solved:                    In this equation Φ corresponds to the scalar          electric potential, i is the intensity of the          electric current, σ is the distribution of electrical conductivity          at a running point r,                    δ is Dirac’s Delta function and rS is the location of          the source (Dey &#38; Morrison, 1979). This study used the smoothest          inversion or Occam method (Constable et al.,          1987; deGroot-Hedlin &#38; Constable, 1990) which seeks the best          possible smoothing method whose response fits the data measured          using a Chi-square cost function. Once the inverse problem has been          solved, calculated electrical resistivity data corresponding to a          certain depth are interpolated and presented in a horizontal map for          clear display of the results.                          Archaeological excavations          Following the geophysical survey and based on the          results obtained from it, a visual survey was conducted in the area          of interest; then a total of 7 archaeological interventions were          performed, from which 5 were located inside the surveyed area. A          total of 2 trenches and one sounding were specifically selected          using consecutive stripping of stratigraphic layers as the          archaeological survey method. These archaeological excavations were          directed by Mirta Linero from the Patronato Panamá Viejo.          The first trench (TR1) was defined in an          east-west direction, with a width of 2 m and length of 28 m; while          the second trench (TR2) was defined perpendicularly to the previous          trench (in a north-south direction). However, because of the length          of that trench, three sectors of varying dimensions of the same were          explored (north, center and south), represented by notations          TR2-north (4.8 x 2.0) m2, TR2-center and          TR2-south (4.0 x 2.0) m2. Meanwhile, in the          northwest sector of the convent, an archaeological sounding was          performed with notation S1 of (2.0 x 3.0) m2.          Figure 5 shows the layout of these archaeological interventions          superimposed over the geophysical surveyed zone.          Figure 5: Map of Santo Domingo Church and          convent, distribution of the 24 profiles for 3D electrical          resistivity tomography and areas of the archaeological excavations          performed at this site / Carte de l'église et du          couvent de Santo Domingo, position des 24 profils de la tomographie          de résistivité électrique 3D (en gris clair) et délimitations des          fouilles archéologiques réalisées sur ce site (en gris          foncé)                                5. Results and discussion                  3D Electrical resistivity tomography          The quality of the field data can be classed as          reliable due to the low percentage error obtained during the          acquisition process; on the other hand, the inverse problem was          resolved after a total of 3 iterations, obtaining a low RMS error          (6.0 %). From this analysis, three horizontal maps could be          extracted at different depths (z = 0,29 m,          0,90 m and 1,60 m) as shown in Figure 6. This representation can be          used to reveal the lateral extension of the electrical anomalies          associated with possible buried archaeological structures.          Figure 6: Presentation of the horizontal maps          at different depths (z), as a result of the          3D inversion of the apparent electrical resistivity data obtained          inside Santo Domingo Convent / Présentation des          sections horizontales à différentes profondeurs (z), résultant de l'inversion 3D des données de          résistivité électrique apparentes obtenues dans le Couvent de Santo          Domingo                    In the first horizontal map (z = 0,29 m), a long electrical anomaly in red was          identified with intermediate calculated electrical resistivity          values in parallel to the North wall of the convent, which contains          two isolated anomalies (brown tonality) that as a whole present a          range of calculated electrical resistivity values varying between          23.4 and 50.0 Ω.m, this same alignment appears in the second          horizontal map (z = 0,90 m), but with a          greater spatial extent of the isolated anomalies. In the third          horizontal map (z = 1,60 m), this series          becomes weaker, conserving the position of the isolated anomalies          (in red tonality), with the remainder represented in yellow          tonality, with calculated electrical resistivity values varying          between 7.5 and 23.4 Ω.m.          In the Southern part of the convent, 3D          electrical surveying was able to reveal the existence of a series of          isolated electrical anomalies (in red and brown tonalities) in the          first and second horizontal maps, with calculated electrical          resistivity values varying between 23.4 and 50.0 Ω.m. In the upper          map, it was possible to weakly identify a total of three (red)          electrical anomalies, with a range of calculated electrical          resistivity values that varied between 23.5 and 34.2 Ω.m. In the          second map, these isolated electrical anomalies were more defined          and intense, reaching calculated electrical resistivity values of up          to 50.0 Ω.m. In the third horizontal map, these isolated electrical          anomalies are rather weak. However, one (yellow and orange) anomaly          could be clearly identified in parallel to the South wall of the          convent, with calculated electrical resistivity values ranging          between 7.5 and 16.1 Ω.m.          The results also show a third linear electrical          anomaly parallel to the west wall of the convent that is only          visible in the first and second maps. In the first, this anomaly is          not completely clear, but it is possible to identify a series of          (red) anomalies whose range of calculated electrical resistivity          values varies between 23.4 and 34.2 Ω.m. At a greater depth, the          anomaly becomes clearer in the second map (in yellow and orange),          with a wider range of calculated electrical resistivity values          (7.5-23.4 Ω.m). This electrical anomaly could not be identified in          the third map.          In the east sector of the surveyed area, a series          of isolated anomalies could be identified that are more pronounced          in the second map. In the two first maps, a total of six isolated          anomalies aligned parallel to the East wall of the convent can be          identified (characterized by red and brown tonalities) having          calculated electrical resistivity values that range between 23.4 and          50.0 Ω.m, although in the first horizontal map, some of these tend          to be confused with the series of strong electrical anomalies found          in the central part of the surveyed area. In turn, the third          horizontal map only presents four of these electrical anomalies,          situated in the central part of this alignment.          In the second horizontal map, another series of          strong isolated anomalies is visualized between 33 and 35 m along          the x axis and extending along the y axis; however these cannot be seen clearly in          either the upper or the lower horizontal maps. In the upper map only          one of these strong anomalies can be identified, which is situated          at the western end of the convent. This anomaly is characterized by          (red and brown tonalities) a range of calculated electrical          resistivity values that vary between 23.4 and 50.0 Ω.m. This becomes          more spatially extensive in the second map and less intense in the          final horizontal map. Of this series, only three of these anomalies          can be identified on the lower horizontal map.          Meanwhile, in the first two horizontal maps, an          (red) electrical anomaly can be visualized that extends to the          eastern end of the convent, with calculated electrical resistivity          values that vary between 23.4 and 34.2 Ω.m. In the third horizontal          map, the electrical anomaly becomes weak (shown in yellow). Finally,          between positions 10 and 15 m along the x          axis and 10 m along the y axis an orange and red circular electrical          anomaly with a diameter of approximately 3,5 m can be identified,          whose electrical resistivity values range from 16.1 to 23.4 Ω.m. The          same appears in the 2 final horizontal maps.                          Interpretation of the geophysical results and          archeological exploration          The interpretation of the horizontal maps in          Figure 6 as a product of the 3D inversion of the apparent electrical          resistivity data is shown in Figure 7. The series of anomalies that          have high or intermediate calculated electrical resistivity values          parallel to the north wall of the convent is limited by rectangle          A in horizontal maps (a), (b) and (c) in Figure          7. According to the results of the archaeological interventions          obtained from the North trench of the convent (see TR2-north in          Figure 8a), this first series is found to be associated to the ruins          of a 0,90 m-thick wall.          Figure 7: Interpretation of the main          electrical anomalies reflected in horizontal maps obtained at depths          of a) 0,29 m, b) 0,90 m and c) 1,60 m, and d) result of the          excavations performed inside Santo Domingo Convent / Interprétation des anomalies électriques principales          dans les cartes horizontales aux profondeurs de a) 0,29 m, b) 0,90 m          et c) 1,60 m, et d) résultats des fouilles effectuées à l'intérieur          du Couvent de Santo Domingo                    Figure 8: Relationship between electrical          anomalies and the results of the archaeological excavations          (directed by M. Linero of the Patronato de Panamá Viejo) in: a)          TR2-north, b) TR2-south, c) TR1-west sector, d) TR1-east sector, e)          the pillar and f) S1 / Rapport entre les anomalies          électriques et les résultats des fouilles archéologiques (dirigée          par M. Linero du Patronato de Panamá Viejo) dans: a) TR2-nord, b)          TR2-sud, c) TR1-secteur ouest, d) TR1-secteur est, e) le pilier et          f) S1.                    This boundary is found to consist of a stone base          that was dry-stacked without mortar, i.e., processed from natural          clay with mortarless stone on top. At some point, the boundary of          the convent may have stretched a little further to the north,          whereby the wall found there would have been part of the foundations          of the convent in its perishable material phase. Figure 8a shows a          photograph of the results of this excavation.          Anomaly B1, identified in          the horizontal maps in Figure 7a, b and c, forms part of the second          series of three anomalies with high electrical resistivity values,          located in the south part of the convent (see series B in Figure 7); this anomaly is found to be          associated with the base of an adjacent 1.3 m-pillar.          According to the excavation performed in the          south trench (TR2-South in Figure 7d), that base formed part of the          portico of the south gallery of the cloister. Figure 8b) presents          the result of the archaeological excavation performed in this sector          of the site, where the use of stones to build that base can be          observed. This discovery suggests that the other isolated anomalies          correspond to the series of pillar bases that make up this part of          the cloister.          Meanwhile, the electrical resistivity anomaly          with intermediate values and linear geometry that appears on the          west side of the surveyed area is represented by the rectangle shown          in dashed lines, or anomaly C. According to the          results of the archaeological excavations performed in the east-west          trench (see Figure 7d called TR1), anomaly C is          associated with a wall base that separates the western corridor of          the cloister from the central patio, which is found to have been          built using pebbles. This foundation is 1 m thick and is made of          sandstone, which is a characteristic element of the site. Figure 8c          shows a photograph of the western part of trench TR1.          By interpreting the results obtained in the east          sector of the convent, the isolated anomalies revealed by the first          two horizontal maps of calculated electrical resistivity (called          series D) approximately follow a parallel          alignment to the east wall of the convent. Electrical anomaly D1 is found to be associated with the base of a          pillar, according to the excavation performed in the eastern part of          excavation TR1 (see Figure 7d); in this same context, the pillar          that is visually identified in the southeastern part of the convent          (Figures 7d and 8e) generates a clear isolated anomaly in the first          two horizontal maps only; this indicates that there is no vertical          or deep extension of the aforesaid structure that is greater than          1 m; this is anomaly D2 identified in Figures          7a and b. This indicates that the other isolated electrical          anomalies in series D could be associated with          a series of pillar footings in the east gallery of the convent.          Anomaly E1, located at the          eastern end of the convent, appears in the three horizontal maps          (Figures 7a, b and c) and could be associated with a highly          superficial structure; this might be related somehow to series E of isolated anomalies that can be clearly          identified in Figure 7b. This latter set of high calculated          electrical resistivity features probably corresponds to the first          stone foundations of the convent, dating back to its initial phase          when it was known as the wooden house, as stated earlier. As for          Anomaly E2, this could either be associated          with the foundations of the primitive convent or with one of the          pillar footings of a probable north gallery that would be never          completed.          Meanwhile, the (red) electrical anomaly that          extends across a large part of the central and north sector of the          convent is found to be associated with an accumulation of tile          fragments that were part of the convent’s construction materials.          This is possibly why it is hard to associate any one anomaly with          any of the ends of the conduit system identified by sounding S1          (Figure 8f). Finally, the circular electrical feature that is          observed in the southwest part of the convent and that is visible in          the second and third horizontal maps of calculated electrical          resistivity (Anomaly F) could be associated          with the remains of the roots of an old tree.          It is important to stress that of the three          horizontal maps obtained in this study, it is the second, at a depth          of 0,90 m, which produced the best results.          From the results obtained, a cloister surrounded          by three galleries could be identified; one in the west, separated          from the patio by an adjacent wall in the form of a sill and out of          which the pillars projected; and those in the south and east, formed          by pillars exposed to light of approximately one lumen (4,2 m). To          date, it is not clear whether the north gallery was actually          built.          Meanwhile, the archaeological and historical          evidence, from a study of the pieces of tile found in the          archaeological excavations, confirm the existence of pillars in the          cloister. A comparison of the tile pieces found in these excavations          with the tile-based ornamental models from the cloister at Santo          Domingo Convent, Lima (Peru) shows that they are the same (Arosemena          &#38; Durán, 2014). There is evidence that the tiles in the cloister          at Santo Domingo, Lima were imported directly from potteries in          Triana, Seville (Pita, 1991), which very possibly came from the          Hernando de Valladares factory (Pleguezuelo, 2013).          From the use of such ornamentation in Lima to          cover the cloister walls and pillars, it is inferred that the tiles          were used in Panama in the same way as they were in Lima, as wall          and pillar covering, thereby suggesting the existence of cloister          pillars, the bases of which were identified in the geophysical and          archaeological study.                      6. Conclusions        The horizontal maps that show the spatial        distribution of the calculated electrical resistivity values obtained        from 3D inversion of the field data from Santo Domingo Convent have        revealed a series of electrical anomalies linked to buried        archaeological features, with characteristics in terms of size, form        and depth that are typical of the period of Spanish colonization of        the Americas. The vast majority of these anomalies with high and        intermediate calculated electrical resistivity values have been        interpreted as Hispanic structures associated with a typical cloister        in convents of that period. The use of interpolation algorithms and        representation of the contours of calculated electrical resistivity        iso-values (at different depths) was the key factor for establishing a        connection between the information obtained from electrical surveying        and the results of the archaeological intervention performed at the        convent, which permitted a better interpretation of the work done. Of        the three horizontal maps obtained, the second provided the most        information about the site. The electrical anomalies with high        electrical resistivity values that presented a pattern of approximate        alignment are associated with a series of stone pillars and footings        that were used to support a second gallery, in accordance with the        historic information about the building. Meanwhile, the electrical        anomalies with linear geometries and calculated electrical resistivity        values in the intermediate range are associated with walls that served        as a boundary between the perimeter corridor of the cloister and one        of the streets on the perimeter of the convent. The accumulation of        materials from the period (tiles and ceramics) in the central part of        the convent as a result of the structure collapsing generated an        anomaly with intermediate electrical resistivity values. The circular        anomaly with intermediate calculated electrical resistivity values        situated in the southwest section of the convent and located in the        second and third horizontal maps might be associated with the        existence of an area of characteristic roots of a possible tree, which        suggests the need for a future exploration of this part of the        convent. The information found in the geophysical survey and        archaeological excavations provides evidence of Hispanic richness in        the Isthmus of Panama; this study has provided a better understanding        of aspects of the historic evolution of the cloister and of Santo        Domingo Convent in Panama, in particular due to the anomalies that        were interpreted as probable footings of the convent in its initial        wooden period, which should continue to be explored by means of        archaeological excavation in order to corroborate this hypothesis. In        parallel, geophysical survey with archeological excavations have        helped to identify the probable layout of the pillars and galleries in        the cloister that were linked to the most advanced phase of the        convent, shortly before it was abandoned.