{"word_count": 3133, "character_count": 21905}
Introduction        Bog bodies are true windows to the past due to        their exceptional preservation, which enable them to retain their        human appearance even after being in the bog for several millennia        (Glob, 965; Ilkjær, 2000; Van der Sanden, 1996). These unusual human        remains have been found across north-western Europe. The majority of        them have been unearthed in Scandinavia and date to the Pre-Roman Iron        Age. The bog bodies represent individuals that were buried and/or        sacrificed in the bogs in contrast to the customary traditions where        the deceased were cremated and their ashes buried in urns (Becker,        1961). The excellent preservation of these bodies, combined with new        developments in methods of isotopic tracing techniques, offers unique        possibilities to learn hitherto unknown aspects        of their life and mobility through different life stages ( Bergfjord        et al., 2012; Font et        al., 2012; Frei et al., 2009a; Frei et al., 2015; Frei et al.,        2010; Lynnerup, 2007).        Here we focus on investigating the human and        textile remains of the bog body referred to as the “Haraldskær Woman”        (figure 1), also known as “Queen Gunhild”, with the overall aim of        gaining information on her provenance.        Figure 1: The bog body of the Haraldskær Woman        as it is preserved today.Figure 1 : Le corps        de la femme de Haraldskær trouvé dans la tourbière tel qu'il est        conservé aujourd'hui.                Photo by courtesy of The Vejle        MuseumsPhoto avec la        permission des Musées de Vejle        The Haraldskær Woman was unearthed by peat-cutters        in the autumn of 1835 in the Haraldskær bog near Vejle, Jutland,        Denmark (Figure 2). The woman was probably strangled and died at an        age of c. 40 years. Inspired by the Islandic Sagas, it was suggested        immediately after the recovery that this bog body belonged to the        Viking queen Gunhild from Norway, who was to marry the Viking king of        Denmark, Harald Bluetooth, but who instead was killed and cast into a        bog. Her Viking origin was later refuted, but the name persisted        through time (Worsaae, 1842). Recent 14C analyses        resulting in 2110 ±41 14C cal. BP (Mannring et al., 2010) have now securely placed the find in        the Danish Pre-Roman Iron Age (500-1 BC). Like many other bog bodies,        the Haraldskær Woman was found with a rich set of wool textiles, a        wool sprang cap (sprang being an ancient needlework technique),        several wool cords and a skin cape (Hald, 1980) (Figures 3 and 4).        Moreover, her long hair (&#62; 50 cm, figure 4) as well as some of her        teeth are also preserved, thereby providing a unique opportunity to        study mobility during different life stages through recently developed        strontium isotope tracing methods (Frei et al.,        2015). We conducted a total of 27 strontium isotope analyses in order        to investigate the provenance and mobility pattern of the Haraldskær        Woman (Table I).        Table I : Strontium isotopic compositions of        the Haraldskær woman and her textiles as well as baseline        materialsTableau 1 : Compositions isotopiques        du strontium de la femme de Haraldskær et ses textiles ainsi que des        matériaux de référence.                Figure 2: Map indicating the location of the        Haraldskær bog (red star).Figure 2 : Carte indiquant l'emplacement de la tourbière de        Haraldskær (étoile rouge).                The red spots mark areas characterized by        isotope ratios of bioavailable strontium with values of 87Sr/86Sr &#60; 0.707 which could        match the strontium isotopic composition measured in one of the scalp        hair segments of the Haraldskær Woman (segment 1)Les taches rouges marquent les zones caractérisées par        des rapports de strontium biodisponible isotopiques avec des valeurs        de 87Sr / 86Sr &#60;0,707 qui pourrait        correspondre à la composition isotopique de strontium mesurée dans        l'un des segments de cheveux du cuir chevelu de la femme de Haraldskær        (segment 1).        Map by Christian Schmidt Carte de Christian Schmidt        Figure 3: Textile remains from the Haraldskær        Woman.Figure 3 : Restes        de textile de la femme de Haraldskær.                a) NM 3706 which measures 64 x 49 cm and was        sampled in both thread directions, b) NM 3707 C1 which measures 30 x        24 cm and has fringes in one end and narrow stripes in both thread        directions, and c) NM 3707 C2 measures 76 x 26 cm and has a chequered        pattern. Black bars indicate 10 cm scale. The chequered textile is        made of wool characterized by a strontium isotopic ratio that is too        radiogenic to be of local provenance a) NM        3706 qui mesure 64 x 49 cm et a été échantillonné dans les deux        directions du fil, b) NM 3707 C1 qui mesure 30 x 24 cm et a des        franges dans une extrémité et des bandes étroites à rayures dans les        deux directions de fil, et c) NM 3707 mesures C2 76 x 26 cm et dispose        d'un motif en damier. Des barres noires indiquent 10 cm en échelle. Le        textile en damier est fait de laine caractérisée par un rapport        isotopique du strontium qui est trop radiogenique pour être de        provenance locale        Photos by the National Museum of        Denmark Photos du Musée national du        Danemark        Figure 4: a) Sample NM C 37143, a wool sprang        cap or hairnet which was sampled at the edge (cord) and in the middle        part. b) Detached scalp hair from the Haraldskær Woman measuring over        50 cm in length. The hair was sampled at both ends. Black bars        indicate 10 cm scale. The wool accessory samples all have strontium        isotope ratios that fall within the Danish bio-available isoscape.        However, one of the Haraldskær Woman’s scalp hair segments is of        non-local provenance, indicating mobility outside Denmark.Figure 4 : a) échantillon NM C        37143, un fichu de laine fait de la méthode « sprang » ou un bonnet        qui a été échantillonné au bord (cordon) et dans la partie médiane. b)        Une partie de la chevelure de la femme de Haraldskær mesure du cuir        chevelu plus de 50 cm de longueur. Les cheveux ont été échantillonnés        aux deux extrémités. Des barres noires indiquent 10 cm d´échelle. Les        échantillons d'accessoires de laine ont tous les rations des isotopes        du strontium qui relèvent du isoscape biodisponible danois. Cependant,        l'un des segments de cuir chevelu des cheveux        de la femme de Haraldskær n'est pas de provenance locale, indiquant la        mobilité en dehors du Danemark.                Photos by the National Museum of        DenmarkPhotos par le musée National du        Danemark              Methods        Recent advances in methodological strontium        isotopic tracing techniques in keratin-rich animal and human tissues,        provide us with new possibilities to investigate both archaeological        textiles as well as ancient human hair (Frei et        al., 2015 ; Frei et al., 2009a ; Frei et al., 2010). These studies focus on developing        pre-cleaning procedures that enable the recovery of the nutritional        strontium fraction in hair (Font et al., 2012;        Frei et al., 2015; Frei, 2014; Lynnerup, 2007).        The present study applies these chemical protocols. Our sampling        strategy included threads from the wool textile remains, scalp hair of        the Haraldskær Woman (sampled at both ends), tooth enamel, as well as        archaeological fauna, soil extracts and water samples in order to        create a local reference map/isoscape.                  Pre-cleaning/decontamination of wool and hair          samples          Wool and human scalp hair samples were washed in          1M hydrochloric (HCl) acid and subsequently in 20% dilute cold          hydrofluoric (HF) acid under ultrasonic treatment for 1 hour in a 7          ml Teflon beaker (Savillex™). The samples were rinsed twice with 1          ml of deionized water (MilliQ™) in an ultrasonic bath between the          acid washes. The respective acid washes were subsequently pipetted          off from the wool samples and the remaining wool samples were          thereafter deeply rinsed (several times) with 1 ml of deionized          water (MilliQ™) and dried off.          In order to remove traces of dyestuff in the          textiles, the rinsed wool samples were immersed in 3 ml of 0.2M          ammonium peroxodisulfate (NH4)2 S2O8 (a          strong oxidant, abbreviated as “APDS”) on a hotplate (preferably at          130ºC) for c. 30 minutes. The residual wool sample was once again          deeply rinsed with 1 ml of deionized water (MilliQ™) several times          and subsequently dried off.          The final residual wool/hair portions were          dissolved in a 1:1 mixture of 30% HNO3          (Seastar™) and 30% H2O2          (Seastar™). The samples tended to decompose within 30 minutes. After          decomposition the solutions were dried off on a hotplate at c.          80ºC.          Samples were taken up in a few drops of 3M HNO3 and loaded on especially prepared, disposable          pipette-tip columns containing 0.2 ml intensively pre-cleaned mesh          50-100 SrSpec™ (Eichrome Inc./Tristchem) ion chromatographic resin.          The elution recipe essentially followed that of (Horwitz et al., 1992).          Strontium from enamel-, bone-, soil extract- and          water samples was separated according to the analytical procedures          and protocols described by Frei and Frei (2010), and Montgomery          (2010) and Sr fractions from these samples, analogues for wool          textile and hair samples were measured on the same facility          described below.                          Thermal ionization mass spectrometry          The samples were dissolved in 2.5 µl of a          Ta2O5-H3PO4-HF activator and subsequently loaded onto outgassed          99.98% single rhenium filaments. Samples were measured in a dynamic          mode on a VG 54 Sector IT mass spectrometer (at the Danish Center          for Isotope Geology, University of Copenhagen), at temperatures          between 1300 and 1450°C. The mass 88 ion beam was kept above 300 mV          during an analytical run which consisted of over a minimum of 6          blocks with 10 mass scan cycles each.                      Results and materials        New achievements in the field of ancient wool        textile and human hair analyses (Font et al.,        2012, Frei et al., 2015; Frei 2014, Frei et al., 2009a, Frei et al.,        2010; Lynnerup, 2007), have for the first time made it possible to        conduct a complete provenance investigation of a bog body (including        teeth, scalp hair and garments) using the strontium isotope tracing        system. The exceptional preservation of the Haraldskær find provides a        unique opportunity to build a sequence of time-snapshots indicating        where the woman lived and where her garments were produced (Table        I).                  Local baseline          The isotopic range of bioavailable strontium for          Denmark has recently been defined by surface waters and soil          extracts (Frei and Frei, 2011; Frei and Frei 2013) and by modern and          archaeological fauna samples (Frei and Price, 2012). This baseline          characterization resulted in a range of 87Sr/86Sr values between ~ 0.708-0.711 (island of          Bornholm excluded). In addition to this, we measured 87Sr/86Sr ratios in a variety of          materials from the Haraldskær site where the body was discovered and          hence further narrowed down the isotopic range of local bioavailable          strontium (Table I) to 87Sr/86Sr = 0.7089-0.7097.                          Teeth and hair          Most bog bodies (not to be confused with bog          skeletons), unlike most other ancient human remains, have preserved          parts of their soft tissues, such as skin, and in some cases, even          internal organs. This is due to the bio- and geochemical conditions          in ombrotrophic bogs developing an acidic, anoxic and nitrogen-rich          environment (Verhoeven et al., 1990) which          enables protein-based tissues to be preserved. Hair is a unique          archive of, e.g. diet which can be traced by stable isotopes (Wilson          et al., 2012), or of movement, potentially          traceable by strontium isotopes (Frei et al.,          2015). The scalp hair of the Haraldskær Woman measures over 50 cm in          length and represents approximately 50 months of hair growth prior          to death. We analyzed both ends of the scalp hair: segment 1 (near          the scalp) represents the final 4-5 months of her life and yields          87Sr/86Sr = 0.70687; segment          2 represents a period approximately four years prior her death for 3          to 4 months time, and yields 87Sr/86Sr = 0.70856. Finally, the tooth enamel sample          from one of her incisors yields a 87Sr/86Sr ratio of 0.70847 (Table I).                          Textiles          The Haraldskær Woman was recovered together with          three wool textiles, two wool accessories and a skin cape (figures 3          and 4). The textiles were severely damaged during the recovery and          the largest textile (NM 3706) now measures 64 x 49 cm. It is woven          in 2/2 twill with z-twisted yarn in both directions (Hald, 1980).          The weft sample yields a 87Sr/86Sr ratio of 0.70946 and the warp yields a 87Sr/86Sr ratio 0.70993. The          second textile (NM 3707 C2), measuring 76 x 26 cm and woven in 2/2          twill in s-twisted yarn, has a large chequered pattern. This textile          has recently been shown to contain trace amounts of organic          dyestuffs (luteolin and quercetin) (Vanden Berghe et al., 2009). Hence, all the textiles were          analyzed following a new methodology developed for ancient textiles          dyed with organic dyes (Frei et al., 2010).          The thread sample from this textile yields a 87Sr/86Sr ratio of 0.71283. The          third textile (NM 3707 C1) has a fringe and is woven in 2/2 twill in          z-twisted yarn in both directions. It measures 30 x 24 cm. A thread          sample from this textile was analyzed in an earlier investigation,          and yielded a 87Sr/86Sr          ratio of 0.70924 (Frei et al., 2009a). The          accessories consist of a wool sprang cap (NM C 37143) and several          wool cords. Finally, we analyzed two samples from the cap, which          yield a 87Sr/86Sr ratio of          0.70839 and a 87Sr/86Sr          ratio of 0.70982.                      Discussion and conclusion        The remarkable preservation of bog bodies provides        an immense research potential for multidisciplinary investigations,        however, key questions related to their identity and provenance still        remain unanswered. In this study we have investigated the provenance        of the bog body of the Haraldskær Woman dated to 2110 ±41 14C cal. BP (Mannering et al.,        2010).        The strontium isotope analyses of the Haraldskær        Woman’s tooth representing the period of childhood, fall within the        isotopic range of Danish bioavailable strontium, indicating that the        Haraldskær Woman probably spent her childhood in the present Danish        area (excluding Bornholm). The strontium isotope composition of hair        segment 2 (representing a period of approximately four years prior to        her death) is similar to that of the tooth enamel. This can be        interpreted in several ways. The woman either lived in a place with a        similar bioavailable strontium signature or she spent most of her life        in the Haraldskær area. However, hair segment 1 near the scalp        (representing a few months prior to her death) has a strontium        isotopic composition that lies significantly below (87Sr/86Sr ratio of 0.70687) the        range of bioavailable strontium typical of present day Denmark. Such        low strontium isotope values are not found in areas adjacent to        Denmark and therefore this value could indicate long distance movement        shortly before her death. Figure 2 shows areas with such low        bioavailable strontium isotope values (Frei and Frei, 2011; Heidal et al., 2007; Löfvendahl et        al., 1990; Maurer et al., 2012; Montgomery        et al., 2006; Voerkelius et        al., 2010; Aarberg and Wickman, 1987).        Furthermore, the analyses of two of the three        textiles as well as the accessories have primarily yielded strontium        isotope values which are indicative of a raw material of local        provenance. However, the chequered textile is characterized by a        strontium isotope value implying a non-local provenance. Altogether,        the strontium isotopic evidence presented via the human remains and        the textiles shows an unexpected complexity in the mobility of the        Haraldskær Woman, and challenges previous held assumptions on why        these people ended in the bogs as well as hypotheses about their        status in Early Iron Age society. For example, the high quality of the        textiles of the Haraldskær Woman indicates that she was of high        status, and the strontium isotope analyses reveal that she had access        to wool or textiles produced outside the present Danish area        (excluding Bornholm). Additionally, she had been on a long journey        probably to more southern parts of Europe, shortly before her return        to Denmark where she died soon after.        The Danish Pre-Roman Iron Age has often been        characterized by scholars as a period where Scandinavia became        marginal in relation to other European areas, as the development that        Central and especially Southern Europe went through bypassed it        (Jensen, 2003). In contrast to the preceding Bronze Age society, the        Early Iron Age society was characterized by a much lower import of        high value goods, representing a less stratified society and possibly        a higher sense of communal feeling. However, there is still some        evidence of contact between southern Scandinavia and Central Europe in        the centuries before the Common Era, and an indirect influence from        the Celtic areas may still be observed in the practice of sacrificing        weapons in lakes and bogs as known from the Danish Hjortspring and        Krogbølle finds, dated between 350-250 BC. Furthermore, it is likely        that some of the old exchange and trading networks were maintained,        and the Haraldskær Woman and her textiles definitely support this        assumption (Bergfjord et al., 2012; Frei et al., 2015). The unusual manner and environment        in which bog bodies from this period were buried/placed instead of        being cremated and buried in local communal cemeteries indicate that        the bog people had a special social position. The trauma observed,        sometimes leading to death, that some of the bog bodies were exposed        to, has often been interpreted as a kind of social punishment (Van er        Sanden, 1996). Yet, a recent study of the bog bodies indicates that        violence, and especially post-mortem violence, could have been an        integral part of sacrificial rituals, similar to those observed on        sacrificed weapons (Möller-Wiering, 2011; Ravn, 2010). Moreover, it is        important to be aware that some earlier observed evidence of violence        and traumas could have occurred subsequent to death, e.g. by the turf        diggers when the bodies were discovered (Lynnerup, 2007).        Nevertheless, their unusual location in the bog makes a sacrificial        nature most likely, especially when the large number of other        artefacts unearthed from the Danish bogs is taken into consideration        (Jansen, 2003). Yet, it cannot be excluded that other bog bodies        should be interpreted as burials, and the relative large number of the        Danish bog bodies (34 %) wearing or wrapped in textiles and different        skin materials that could be interpreted as grave goods definitely        support this interpretation (Hald, 1980; Ravn, 2010).        The new information about the Haraldskær Woman that        can be extracted on the basis of the strontium isotope analyses of        human remains and textiles thus amplify our knowledge of the bog        bodies, their social status and way of living. Furthermore, the        analysis supports the results from earlier strontium isotope analyses        of other Pre-Roman Iron Age textiles, like those found in the        Huldremose bog in Denmark, revealing that, in this period, wool of        both local and non-local provenance was used in textile production        (Frei, 2009b). At present it is difficult to assess where exactly the        Haraldskær Woman stayed shortly before her death, as this requires the        establishment of broader and more detailed European strontium isotope        isoscapes. In the future, continued investigations will hopefully        provide better and more detailed databases that permit us to re-assess        this question. Until then, the interdisciplinary study of the        Haraldskær Woman and her textiles can be used to demonstrate the        complexity and mobility in prehistoric human life and sheds new light        on the choices and rituals that led to the depositions of human        remains in the North European bogs.