European Journal of Japanese Philosophy 2 • 2017, pp. 199–208 Watsuji's Ethics from the Perspective of Kata as a Technology of the Self This paper investigates the history of systems of thought different from those of the West. A closer look at Japan's long philosophical tradition draws attention to the presence of uniquely designed acculturation and training techniques designed as kata or shikata (型 or 仕形), shedding light on kata as a generic technique of self-perfection and self-transformation. By seeing kata as foundational to the Japanese mind and comparing it to Michel Foucault's research on technologies of the self, the groundwork is laid for a comparative analysis in terms of the principle of ἐπιμελείσθαι σαυτού (taking care of oneself ), an ethical and aesthetic paradigm dating back to European antiquity. Not only does this bring to light their similarities as techniques of individuation, it also reinforces the importance of Watsuji's relational understanding of human being. keywords: kata-Watsuji Tetsurō-Michel Foucault-technologies of the self-aidagara-rinrigaku-interrelation-in-betweenness Jordančo Sekulovski Temple University, Japan 200 The word kata is used in Japanese to refer to a set of uniquely designed acculturation and training techniques and practices known as shikata or kata. Contemporary research has neglected the importance of kata, whose various expressions developed over centuries, in favor of notions like ambiguity (曖昧さ), dependency (甘え), the Japanese sense of beauty (美学) and even bushidō (武士道, the way of the samurai). In so doing, a fundamental pillar of the Japanese pursuit of self-transformation and a potential key to a more comprehensive understanding of the Japanese mind has fallen by the wayside. Admittedly the idea of kata is as elusive to scholars at home as it has been to their counterparts in the West. This is not to say that we lack resources on the subject but only that the notion of kata itself does not seem to have received the fuller attention it deserves.1 Kata or shikata refers to a particular way of doing things that puts the emphasis on the form and order of an actual process. Analyzing the etymology of the compound term shikata, we see that shi 仕 has the double sense of support and serve, while kata 型 or 形 commonly translates as form or pattern. Boyé De Mente has defined kata as a relationship between an inner order (the individual heart) and a natural order (the cosmos), and these two were linked together by form-by kata. It was kata that linked the individual and society.2 In his view, kata is to be seen as a sort of repetitive self-actualizing process or action, while at the same time it serves the formal function of unifying the 1. One notable scholar known for his extensive research on the topic of kata is Minamoto Ryōen. Unfortunately, none of his works have been translated into English and the only available reference to his comprehensive work on this subject remains the excerpt in Heisig, Kasulis, Maraldo 2011, 930–5. 2. DeMente 2003, 15. jordančo Sekulovski: watsuji's ethics and kata | 201 physical and the spiritual aspects of the human existence. It is not a question of embodying or harmonizing with any universal, metaphysical principles. Kata is not a vehicle for conveying hidden truths or uncovering the inner nature of things, rather it is simply a model for shaping interrelational experience. De Mente further argues the institutional and ritual characteristics of kata suggest a connection with morality in the sense that one's actions can be said to be "in kata" or "out of kata" (型にはまる・はまらない). To be "out of kata" is to oppose reason or the will of society, and in this sense, as we shall see, puts us in touch with the foundations of ethics in Japan. Watsuji's rinri and aidagara in relation to kata Watsuji Tetsurō's major work Rinrigaku (Ethics)3 offers an original and critical perspective on modern attempts to ground ethics solely on the actions and decisions of the conscious individual subject. Watsuji argues against western conceptions of human being that put the individual at the center of all modes of existence and then substitute it for the totality of all human existence . This view of the world, Watsuji claims, can be traced back to the assumption that the isolated ego is the proper starting point for modern philosophy.4 When this approach is applied to the field of ethics and the existential problems that face us as human beings, it ends up with a flawed account of human agency for the simple reason that the solitary, isolated subject is merely an abstraction from a wider complex of interpersonal relationships. Consequently, this fixation on the isolated ego as a conceptual pivot distracts attention from what Watsuji sees as the true starting point for ethics: concrete human existence with an emphasis on human beings as contemplating subjects. This is why he insists that ethical problems cannot properly be framed without reliance on ideas such as social happiness or human welfare, therefore ethics cannot rely on individual consciousness 3. This paper is a result of multiple presentations aimed at expanding my earlier research by encompassing Watsuji's use of the notion of rin as an expression of kata. In my doctoral thesis (Sekulovski 2013) I argue that François Laruelle's non-standard philosophy, as an all-encompassing posture and practice of Man, has similarities to the notion of kata and can therefore help generate new forms of what Laruelle calls generic knowledge. 4. Watsuji, 1996, 11. 202 | European Journal of Japanese Philosophy 2 • 2017 alone and needs to give way to a more relational and interdependent understanding of human being. Kata and the Grand "rin" of human beings While Watsuji acknowledges that the notion of rinri (倫理 the Sino-Japanese term for ethics) is rooted in ancient Chinese thought, he makes it clear that he does not intend to argue for a revival or modern reconstruction of the Chinese classics in order to restore the significance of ethics as a Way. Rather, he attempts to situate ethics firmly and irrevocably within human relationships, and to center its attention on what goes on in the "in-between," on the actions and consequences that arise in interactions among individuals. Watsuji understands the glyph rin to carry the sense of nakama (なかま) or "fellowship," that is to say, a system of relationships among a given group of individuals that determines their mode of human existence. Nakama is thus intended not as an abstract logical principle but as a concrete point of reference to the interactions that bring people into contact with one another. At the same time, Watsuji continues, rin includes the dimension of kimari (決まり) agreement) or kata (form) as the basis of bringing order (秩序) to human relationships. In a word, rin is the Way of human beings. Watsuji understands the second glyph, ri, to connote a general sense of rationality. It refers to the patterns of activity or relationship that can be seen to take place in the fellowship of rin: Therefore, rinri, that is, ethics, is the order or the pattern through which the communal existence of human beings is rendered possible. In other words, ethics consists of the laws of social existence.5 The significance of rin, as nakama, kimari, and therefore also kata, constitutes the order among human beings, in this manner, rin, kata, and, aidagara are correlated in such a manner that the latter empowers the rin (as a form) rendering it possible and empowering its continuity. What lies in-between? On this basis, Watsuji postulates: 5. Watsuji 1996, 11. jordančo Sekulovski: watsuji's ethics and kata | 203 The locus of ethical problems lies not in the consciousness of the isolated individual, but precisely in the in-betweenness of person and person. Because of this, ethics is the study of ningen.6 It is precisely the emphasis of this "in-betweenness" among individuals that allows Watsuji to rethink the concept of ethics and move away from the kind of individual-centered ethics that runs deep in the philosophical traditions of the West. There is no way to get at the heart of ethical problems solely in reliance on the experiences and contemplative efforts of individuals. Attention to the in-betweenness of person and person is crucial if we are to shift ethics away from regulative principles and the clarification of moral responsibilities towards our fellow human beings and towards the study of the human. The Japanese word Watsuji uses for "human" is composed of two characters: nin or hito (人), meaning person or human being, and gen or aida (間) meaning space or between. Watsuji insists that a human being is not simply an individual but a member of various social groupings, and as such should be defined fundamentally as a "we" rather than as an "I." Accordingly, "to be an I" means "to be a part of a correlative we," that is, a "we" composed of multiple "I"s. This in turn implies that for a human individual to "exist" means to "be among" one's fellow human beings. This essential correlatedness is what Watsuji calls aidagara or betweenness. The term aidagara is composed of two glyphs: aida or gen, referred to in the previous paragraph, and gara (柄), which can mean nature or-more in keeping with Watsuji's usage-pattern. Putting the two together, then, aidagara translates literally as a "between pattern" or more simply, a relationship. The appearance of the same glyph 間 in both ningen and aidagara has nothing to do with the physical distance between individuals. If Watsuji's notion of "in-betweeness" were basically spatial, it might easily be dismissed as a kind of naïve realism. Avoiding that sense complicates our efforts to translate the word in the various contexts in which it is used. At times, among helps elucidate its intended meaning, as in the phrase among one's fellow human beings. In any case, the "space" that gara refers to is a mid-place in-between individuals, not a place that exists prior their interaction. This mid-place is defined, in turn, by an all-encompassing form or rin of human 6. Ibid., 10. 204 | European Journal of Japanese Philosophy 2 • 2017 relationships that are individuated among and within the interrelational pattern. To capture this all-inclusive interrelationality in which individuals are wrapped up, we might better render the word aidagara "with-in" instead of the usual "in-between." Foucault's technologies of the self in late antiquity Michel Foucault argued that the pursuit of ethical and aesthetical ideals in European antiquity stressed the importance of a unified practice and theory to empower a particular aesthetic of existence. The ancient principle of ἐπιμελεῖσθαι σεαυτόν or taking care of oneself stands behind the time-worn idea of caring not only for one's body but also and primarily for one's mind or soul. This ideal flourished at a time in European history when the view of the human being as an individual agent was taking shape and thus enabled the emergence of a specific set of what Foucault liked to call "technologies of self-creation."7 These acculturation and training techniques allowed individuals to pursue, alone or with help of others, a course of disciplined practice for body, soul, thought, conduct, and overall state of being. The aim was a self-transformation that would usher in a state of happiness, purity, wisdom, perfection, or even immortality. As a result, the guiding principle of taking care of oneself was replaced with the principle γνῶθι σεαυτόν, know thyself. This shift of direction in intellectual practice affected the subsequent orientation of European civilization, accentuating the place of reason and the role of the contemplating subject while at the same time sidelining technologies of the self nurtured under the earlier ideal of taking care of oneself. To this day, Foucault argues, western culture is guided by the principle of knowing thyself, effectively enshrining the individualist spirit as the very epitome of what it means to be human. Numerous ancient cultures, like the Greeks, fostered an interest at various times throughout their history in techniques and aesthetic practices aimed at enhancing existence, in modes of individuation and forms of self-discipline carried out through observation and experimentation whose only goal was to transform and better one7. For further details, see Foucault 1984. jordančo Sekulovski: watsuji's ethics and kata | 205 self. In the case of Japan, the same kata that played a role in morality was also employed to facilitate and mediate one's pursuit of a certain aesthetics of existence. As was the case with the ancient Greeks, kata was also equated with beauty. Kata as a technology of the self As disciplines for body, mind, and conduct aimed at achieving purity, wisdom, and perfection, kata and the ancient principle of taking care of oneself appear to be interchangeable. A consideration of the Tea Ceremony, one of the most emblematic of the traditional arts of Japan, bears this out. Chadō (茶道), the Way of Tea, is based on the use of kata and its principles reflect the will to master oneself through various disciplines of body, mind, and conduct. Precepts of chadō like harmony (和), respect (敬), purity (清) and tranquility (寂) show striking similarities to precepts articulated in European antiquity. The influence of Zen Buddhism on chadō and other traditional arts has carried over to Japanese modes of living and ways of thinking in general. In the same way, the use of kata came to serve as a generic technique for the self-creation and self-transformation of individuals, thus expanding its impact on Japanese society as a whole. The shift in paradigms that Foucault points out in Europe does not directly apply to Japan, where the old paradigm has survived down the centuries. Simply put, we may say that kata serves as a means of practical connection or fellowship, and that these specific forms or patterns circumscribe the topology of human interaction within which human relationships take place. Kata as a dynamic principle Watsuji defines these kata of practical interaction as something that cannot itself exist apart from these connections. As specific forms in which human beings act, they exist only together with these practical connections. But when dynamic human existence is actualized repeatedly, in a definite manner, we can grasp this pattern that constantly makes its appearance in separation from the basis of this dynamic sort of existence. 8 8. Watsuji 1996, 11. 206 | European Journal of Japanese Philosophy 2 • 2017 The repetition of kata in a defined manner discloses the pattern of relationships within which human beings define themselves. John Maraldo points out that Watsuji's conception of ningen represents a dynamic concept of the self in which identity is not fixed or determined but shaped interrelationally, in-between person and person, and thus subject to continual change. For Watsuji, to be human is also to be ethical, and one cannot be either unless one is both an individual and at the same time correlated to others. Watsuji, we recall, defined ethical conduct as the order or the pattern through which the communal existence of human beings is rendered possible; in other words, to be ningen means to navigate freely between the social and the individual. Maraldo goes on so say that ningen, although being subjective communal existence as the interconnection of acts, at the same time, is an individual that acts through these connections. This subjective and dynamic structure does not allow us to account for ningen as a 'thing' or 'substance.'9 To be ningen is to stand in a dynamic relationship-between the individual and the social, never just one or the other-and therefore cannot be conceived of in terms of a stable or complete structure or mode of being. Watsuji conceives ningen both as an individual and at the same time as a subjective communal existence, pointing at the non-dualist character of ningen seen as a totality of human beings established through the negation of individuality and expressed through the relational existence or pattern inbetween person and person. In this vein, Watsuji remarks of human existence that it infinitely aims at the realization of communal existence by virtue that human beings are ningen. Because of this, the pattern of practical connections already realized serves, at the same time, as a pattern yet to be achieved.10 This pattern of connections and its resultant ethic are regarded not as a goal to be reached but as something that needs to be achieved infinitely. It is, we may say, a kata that allows human existence to be realized as com9. Maraldo 2002, 185. 10. Watsuji 1996, 12. jordančo Sekulovski: watsuji's ethics and kata | 207 munal existence. Its inclusive character provides for the emergence of the in-between or aidagara as an essential dimension of existence for ningen, a dimension in which the in-between is not an empty void but a form with an individuating function. The elusive character of this kata of interconnectedness accounts for its role as a pillar of the nondual, communal existence of ningen in-between the social and individual. As such, kata is not metaphysical in nature but relational. It presents as a model that give shape to aida, the with-in. For these reasons, I am persuaded that kata is the most fundamental constituent in the makeup of the Japanese mind in the sense that it defines the respective roles and forms that constitute the actual relational matrix of each individual rin in relation to the totality of ningen. Concluding remarks The foregoing has tried to present a rationale for comparative research on the notion of kata in relation to Foucault's research on the technologies of the self in the ancient Greco-Roman world, and to suggest further examination of the role of kata as a fundamental pillar and technique for individual self-creation and self-transformation in Japan. My aim was to highlight possible commonalities between alternative systems of thought that appear at first to be closed in on themselves and inaccessible to one another. There is no doubt that common practices are a way to enhance mutual understanding. Further attention to the role played by kata in shaping the aesthetics of existence in Japan can make a contribution in the same direction. References De Mente, Boyé Lafayette 2003 Kata: The Key to Understanding and Dealing with the Japanese. Rutland, vt: Tuttle Publishing. Foucault, Michel 1984 Histoire de la sexualité iii. Le souci de soi. Paris: Gallimard. Heisig, James W., Thomas P. Kasulis, and John C. Maraldo 2011 Japanese Philosophy: A Sourcebook. Honolulu: University of Hawai'I Press. 208 | European Journal of Japanese Philosophy 2 • 2017 Maraldo, John 2002 "Watsuji Tetsuro's Ethics: Totalitarian or Communitarian?" in Rolf Elberfeld and Günter Wohlfart, eds., Komparative Ethik. Das gute Leben zwischen den Kulturen. Köln: Edition Chora. Sekulovski, Jordančo 2013 Postures et pratiques de l'Homme. Libéralisme, philosophie non-standard et pensée japonaise. Paris: L'Harmattan. Soshitsu Sen 1994 Vie du thé, esprit du thé. Paris: Jean-Cyrille Godefroy. Watsuji Tetsurō 1996 Wastuji Tetsuro's Rinrigaku: Ethics in Japan. Translated by Yamamoto Seisaku and Robert E. Carter. Albany, ny: suny Press.