Springer Series on Cultural Computing Editor-in-Chief Ernest Edmonds, Institute for Creative Technologies, De Montfort University, Leicester, UK Editorial Board Bronaċ Ferran, Birkbeck, University of London, London, UK Nick Bryan-Kinns, Queen Mary University of London, London, UK Linda Candy, University of Technology, Ultimo, NSW, Australia David England, School of Computing and Mathematical Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, UK Andrew Hugill, De Montfort University, Leicester, Leicestershire, UK Nicholas Lambert, Ravensbourne, London, UK Paul Brown, University of Sussex, Ocean Shores, Australia Jonas Lowgren, Linköping University, Malmo, Sweden Ellen Yi-Luen Do, Atlas Institute, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, USA Craig Vear, De Montfort University, Leicester, UK Sam Ferguson, University of Technology, Sydney, Australia More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/10481 Tula Giannini • Jonathan P. Bowen Editors Museums and Digital Culture New Perspectives and Research 123 Editors Tula Giannini Professor School of Information Pratt Institute New York, USA Jonathan P. Bowen School of Engineering London South Bank University London, UK Southwest University Chongqing, China ISSN 2195-9056 ISSN 2195-9064 (electronic) Springer Series on Cultural Computing ISBN 978-3-319-97456-9 ISBN 978-3-319-97457-6 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-97457-6 Library of Congress Control Number: 2019935154 © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland Enquire Within by Jill Lauriston (2017), a mixed media work exhibited at the Weston Library, Bodleian Library, Oxford, "From King Alfred to Chaucer: First graphic designers of English texts". (© Jill Lauriston) Foreword Understanding digital culture is critical to the success of a museum professional in the 21st century. The digitization of the world has created a paradigm shift for museums: It is challenging our models of thinking and working. If museums are to retain their relevance, we will need to adapt museum strategies, planning processes, workflows, practices and programs to align with the expectations and behaviors of our digitally enabled audiences. For our audiences, a digital experience is not inferior, less authentic or a substitute to a physical experience. It is simply a different experience. It is the responsibility of museum professionals to study, analyze, test that difference and determine how best to leverage the opportunities it provides to more impactfully fulfill our institutions' goals. Whether those goals are to scale the museum's mission globally or design a more multisensory exhibition experience or develop a networked collection management practice, there is no one size fits all. Our success in guiding our institutions through the transformative and complex impacts of digitization requires that we continue to cultivate what is unique about our institutions: their collections, audiences, remits and identities. To achieve this, we need to be thinking about digitization on several different levels, and through a depth of different perspectives: This is what this book does. By exploring digital culture and museums through nine different lenses, this book provides the reader with a foundational framework around which to develop our understanding of digital culture. It looks at the topic from the perspective of educators, curators, artists and audiences, through the lens of history and the future, and from operational and creative perspectives. In so doing, ideas are introduced, explored, re-explored and developed throughout the book, enabling the reader to build a richer understanding of the key issues at hand. vii By virtue of living in the 21st century, we are all students of digitization. The next generation of technologies that are reaching mass-markets-artificial intelligence, augmented realities, virtual realities and machine vision-will only accelerate the rate of digitization of our world. Now is the time to ensure we have the tools necessary to make sense of that future. New York, USA 2019 Loïc Tallon Chief Digital Officer The Metropolitan Museum of Art viii Foreword Preface This richly illustrated book offers new perspectives and research on how digital culture is transforming museums in the 21st century, as they strive to keep pace with emerging technologies driving cultural and social change, played out not only in today's pervasive networked environment of the Internet and Web, but in everyday life, from home to work and on city streets. In a world where digital culture has redefined human information behavior as life in code and digits, increasingly it dominates human activity and communication. These developments have radically changed the expectations of the museum visitor, real and virtual, the work of museum professionals and, most prominently, the nature of museum exhibitions, while digital art and life in a digitally saturated world is changing our ways of seeing, doing, our senses and aesthetics. Overall, this book creates a new picture of the 21st-century museum field. As museums become shared spaces with their communities, local, national and global and move from collection-centered to user-/visitor-centered institutions, they are assuming new roles and responsibilities tied to new goals for engaging their audience, conveying meaning through collections, creating learning experiences and importantly, connecting to daily digital life and culture integral to the museum ecosystem. Our studies of recent exhibitions at museums leading change are used to exemplify new directions, while they point to a reimagined vision for museums of the future at the heart of which is the integration of digital culture and visitor experience and participation in real and virtual space. This volume builds upon the work of the editors, Giannini and Bowen, including co-authored articles published over the past few years, lectures and research-based teaching related to museums and digital culture. Considered holistically, these research forays into museum life and exhibitions shed new light on museums during a period of digital transformation in the context of emerging technologies and dramatic social change both local and global. Increasingly, museums are reaching beyond their walls to engage with their communities and audiences, onsite and online. Through conversations mediated by Web sites, social media and online collections, museums are listening to public voices fostering greater diversity and ix inclusion. Using this as a starting point, the editors have organized the discussion broadly, while contributors speak from their own experiences and expertise that taken together creates a new view of the field. Recent exhibitions at museums that are leading change are used to exemplify new directions and new vision for museums of the future. Having surveyed recent books on museums, this book is distinguished by its focus on how museums are interacting with their external environment and the people they serve, set in a digital moment of rapid social and cultural change. We look at how museums are transforming from their 19th century past to reinvent their identity, and the look and feel of museum galleries, seeking new ways of conveying meaningful narratives and messages. So, while other books are considering museums from the inside-administration, management, process and collections- our book considers museums from the vantage point of inside/outside interaction, participation and collaboration. This porous, flexible model enables new ideas and change-breaking out of the established silos of past practice. We feature case studies through the lens of digital artists, exhibitions, gallery design and architecture, both physical and virtual. The book aims to create a body of new evidence that inspires the reader to consider the new evolving museum landscape and its diverse communities. We show how the digital ecosystem, to which we are all connected and which is spawning the Internet of Things, has laid the foundations of the postdigital world we are now entering, in which physical and digital aspects are integrated seamlessly. In Part I of the book, we introduce the digital culture background of the book beginning in the 1940s, with the work of Alan Turing, inventor of computer science, and Claude Shannon, inventor of information theory and digital communication, a moment in time which marked the dawn of the digital revolution, one that links to the popular cultural revolution of the 1960s to 1980s. These breakthroughs set the stage for the introduction and development of the Internet, and the defining moment in 1989 when Tim Berners-Lee brought us the World Wide Web. Acting as a catalyst for growing participation online, the Web turned the digital tide toward visual interface, smartphones and personal digital devices that sparked the rapid rise of digital culture. Through observations over time, we document how these developments have touched every aspect of human life. As the space between digital and physical, real and virtual blurs, recasting art, cultural, social life and human behavior into new digital forms, places and spaces, digital life and culture are merging and redefining the way we live, while more and more we think and see digitally. From a foundational view, we look at how museums living in a digital culture are changing and adopting to the digital behavior of visitors who enter the museum with smartphones in hand, looking at a small screen, as the focus of life and their lens on the world. From observations in museums and online, we discuss how museum/audience interaction is altering the expectations of visitors and their sense of what the museum experience should be. At the same time, we explore how digital art shifts our ways of seeing, our senses and aesthetics to the digital realm, while the ubiquitous presence of digital is blurring the lines between pop art and x Preface high art, real and virtual, as we enter a postdigital world merging physical and digital reality. Part II considers philosophical and theoretical aspects of how technology is affecting the artist's sense of being and experience, questioning what in art changes and what is lasting, whether we see through our sense of poetry and nature, or through the lens of a camera that can distance the artist from the thinking and feeling about art. From the vantage point of the 19th and 20th centuries, we look at the question of how technology might change the artist's sensibilities, juxtaposing the theories of art from Hegel, Goethe, Barfield and McLuhan, and moving from past to present, to observe the nature of digital change. Part III covers digital aspects of art and museum-related temporary exhibitions. We present evidence drawn from experience and data gathered, as well as the literature-books and articles-over the past few years. Exhibitions, considered the centerpiece of the life of the museum, are increasingly tied to the museum's digital life where most of museum work and activities are carried out and where art and information come together to convey content, meaning and narrative. We present a survey of exhibitions over the past few years by leading museums in New York and London to show new trends, innovative use of digital media technology, and an increasing presence of digital, installation and mixed media art. We juxtapose digital works exhibited inside and outside the museum and explore how the use of digital displays across most sectors of society is influencing how the public views art which in turn questions its very nature and meaning. In Part IV, we consider some digital aspects of museum collections, which may themselves now be digital in nature. An important current issue is how permanent exhibitions in museums are being updated to meet audience expectations. To accomplish these goals, museums are developing a digital strategy applied across the entire museum. Generally, museums in 19thand early 20th-century buildings are being challenged to find innovative ways to re-conceptualize their galleries and public space for the 21st century. Part V presents issues with museum audiences and visitors in a digital and virtual context. Real and digital interaction and participation are all important aspects to be considered by museums. Visitors/users empowered by digital technology, especially smartphones, have new expectations for engagement. There is a need for museums to convey meaning, engage visitors and reflect social consciousness and awareness. Museums of any size must have programs for outreach, diversity, inclusion and community interaction. Digital states of being and identity are changing visitor behavior and recasting museums' identity to aid visitors in new ways of thinking about the world, as well as their evolving social and cultural consciousness. As museums build relationships through social media, they can find themselves more vulnerable to audience opinion and its relationship to art on display. Preface xi Part VI presents the ideas and work of several digital artists, mostly in the form of interviews with selected digital artists. Digital aesthetics and senses, installation, mixed media, interactive and participatory art, virtual reality, augmented reality, robots and robotics, and the presence of digital artists on the Web, in their own voices, all impact on museums, and especially on art galleries. Increasingly, people are seeing digital as the world they inhabit is saturated with digital media. This immersion in digital media is affecting the human sense of color, light, space and time. In Part VII, educational aspects are considered. For example, Tula Giannini designed and introduced to Pratt School of Information three museum-related programs, the first of their kind: fall 2015, a new museum master's program, Master of Science in Museums & Digital Culture, that newly defines the knowledge and skill sets for 21st-century museum professionals through its cutting-edge curriculum; fall 2016, a new Advanced Certificate in Digital Curation and Preservation; fall 2016, a dual-master's degree, MS Library & Information Science and MFA Digital Arts, and an Advanced Certificate in Museum Libraries. We address the need to diversify the museum profession, but not only in terms of staff, but equally the knowledge and skills that students acquire, moving from a laser focus on curatorial skills and art history, to an amalgamation of content, curation and communication in the context of the digital ecosystem of 21st-century culture moving to an education that is relevant and speaks to contemporary narratives and values. Part VIII presents some issues for museum libraries and archives. Among the world's finest libraries are those housed in museums and universities. Examples include the Frick Art Reference Library, part of the Frick Museum, and the Bodleian Library at Oxford University, as covered in this part. Such libraries including special and archival collections, rare books and ephemera constitute a treasure trove of materials on art, design and architecture, and importantly, their collections in general have been developed around subject areas of the museum's object collections. Further, such libraries have conservation laboratories, provide public access and services and support scholarly research on topics relevant to the collections. Part IX of the book covers aspects of the future of museums with respect to developments in digital culture. We consider the growing forces competing with museums for audience including entertainment, and the many hours people spend each day with digital media. Museums have long identified with their physical space as a specific place in time and space, have now expanded to cyberspace and have a digital identity on the Web. Developments such as smart cities will further affect how museums fit into the digital culture overall. In summary, we have entered the next wave of the digital revolution as all media has gone digital, a state of being that closely aligns with human creativity and innovation-mainly, art, culture and the humanities, the lifeblood of the museum. The convergence of media as digital, which makes all media equally usable, is fueling the rise of human expression through visual and sound media, as we shift to a post-text-dominated era to life on the Internet, while new technology is introduced xii Preface regularly such as visual recognition using AI. This trend reveals the power of visual and sound media as digital media language that enables museums to reach larger more diverse audiences. We hope that readers will enjoy this selection of viewpoints on the relationship of museums and the rapidly evolving digital culture in which they find themselves. New York, USA Tula Giannini London/Oxford, UK Jonathan P. Bowen 2019 Preface xiii Acknowledgements The annual EVA London Conference on Electronic Visualisation and the Arts has been influential on the contents and selection of authors in this volume. Thank you to Jim Hemsley for initiating the EVA conferences in London in 1990, now continuing in several cities around the world. Some of the material in chapters by the editors has been adapted and updated from recent papers in the EVA London Conference. Thank you to all individual photographers who have allowed their work to appear in this book, especially Jill Lauriston for the frontispiece and George Mallen, Co-Founder of the UK Computer Arts Society in 1968. All such photographers are acknowledged individually in figure captions in the book. Organizations that have allowed photographs to be included are also acknowledged in individual figure captions within the book, and we thank these institutions for their generosity, especially the Bodleian Libraries (University of Oxford), InvisibleStudio and Tate Modern. Some photographs and images are from Wikimedia Commons (http:// commons.wikimedia.org), and we thank the contributors to this wonderful altruistic facility. Again, such images are individually acknowledged in figure captions. We thank Pratt Institute for their research support of Pratt Professor, Tula Giannini, Co-Editor of this book, during her sabbatical for the academic year 2017–2018. Jonathan Bowen thanks Museophile Limited for financial support. xv Contents Part I Introduction 1 Digital Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Tula Giannini and Jonathan P. Bowen 2 Museums and Digitalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Tula Giannini and Jonathan P. Bowen Part II Philosophy and Theory 3 Historical Questions on Being and Digital Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Gareth Polmeer 4 Museums, Art, Identity, and the Digital Ecosystem: A Paradigm Shift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 Tula Giannini and Jonathan P. Bowen 5 Contested Space: Activism and Protest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 Tula Giannini Part III Exhibitions 6 Past the Museum Floor: Criteria for Curating Experience . . . . . . . 115 Deborah Turnbull Tillman 7 Digital Road Trips: The Shifting Landscape of Digital Art Shows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 Nick Lambert 8 Rethinking Museum Exhibitions: Merging Physical and Digital Culture-Past to Present . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 Tula Giannini and Jonathan P. Bowen xvii 9 Rethinking Museum Exhibitions: Merging Physical and Digital Culture-Present to Future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 Tula Giannini and Jonathan P. Bowen Part IV Collections 10 Collecting, Documenting, and Exhibiting the Histories of Digital Art: A V&A Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 Douglas Dodds 11 Conserving Digital Art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231 Patrícia Falcão and Tom Ensom 12 Spatial Narratives in Museums and Online: The Birth of the Digital Object Itinerary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253 Stuart Dunn, Graeme Earl, Anna Foka and Will Wootton Part V Audiences 13 How Museums Made (and Re-made) Their Digital User . . . . . . . . . 275 Ross Parry 14 The Digital Layer in the Museum Experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295 Catherine Devine and Matt Tarr 15 Engaging Museum Visitors with AI: The Case of Chatbots . . . . . . 309 Giuliano Gaia, Stefania Boiano and Ann Borda 16 Engagement at the Brooklyn Museum: A Case Study of Use Rate and Lessons Learned . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331 Sara Devine Part VI Digital Artists 17 Morphogenetic Creations: Exhibiting and Collecting Digital Art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353 Andy Lomas 18 Evolving Installations: "Shaping Space" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367 Ernest Edmonds and Francesca Franco 19 Art, Life, and Technology, Through Time and Space . . . . . . . . . . . 381 Carla Gannis and Tula Giannini 20 A Conceptual Artist Programming for Social Change . . . . . . . . . . 399 Rachel Ara and Tula Giannini xviii Contents Part VII Education 21 The Education of a Digital Fine Artist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417 Bruce Wands 22 Breaking Silos: New Modes of Art, Education, and Technology Training in Museums . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435 Rosanna Flouty 23 Transforming Education for Museum Professionals in the Digital Age . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457 Tula Giannini and Jonathan P. Bowen Part VIII Libraries and Archives 24 Museum Libraries and Archives in the Digital 21st Century . . . . . 483 Stephen J. Bury 25 Democratizing Discovery: The Impact of Digital Culture on the Research Library . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491 Judith Siefring Part IX Digital Future 26 Digital Culture Leaders Visioning the Postdigital Museum . . . . . . . 509 Seb Chan, Courtney Johnston and Tula Giannini 27 Smart Cities and Digital Culture: Models of Innovation . . . . . . . . . 523 Ann Borda and Jonathan P. Bowen 28 The Digital Future for Museums . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 551 Jonathan P. Bowen and Tula Giannini Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579 Contents xix Editors and Contributors About the Editors Tula Giannini Ph.D., MLS, MM is tenured full Professor in the School of Information at the Pratt Institute, New York, USA, serving as Dean of the School from 2014 to 2017. At Pratt, she has initiated and managed several collaborative digitization projects with leading New York City museums and libraries, supported by the Institute of Museum and Library Services (IMLS), and in 2015 obtained a Master of Science (MS) in museums and digital culture. Since 2016, she has co-organized the EVALondon Symposium, associated with the annual EVA London Conference on Electronic Visualisation & the Arts. An interdisciplinary scholar also working in musicology, she served as Curator of Musical Instruments at the Library of Congress. Her publications include 25 entries to The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, Oxford University Press and the book, Great Flute Makers of France: the Lot and Godfroy Families, published by Tony Bingham, London. Jonathan P. Bowen FBCS FRSA is Emeritus Professor of Computing at London South Bank University in London, UK; Adjunct Professor at Southwest University in Chongqing, China; and Chairman of Museophile Limited, a consultancy company in the area of museums and IT. In 1994, he founded the Virtual Library museums pages (VLmp), part of the WWW Virtual Library, later adopted by the International Council of Museums (ICOM). He was invited to be the Honorary Chair of the first Museums and the Web conference in 1997 and was a regular contributor subsequently. More recently, he has been Co-Chair of the annual EVA London Conference on Electronic Visualisation and the Arts. In 2013, he was Co-Editor of Electronic Visualisation in Arts and Culture, published in the Springer Series on Cultural Computing. In 2017, he co-authored The Turing Guide, on the life and work of the computing pioneer Alan Turing, published by Oxford University Press. He is Life Fellow of the British Computer Society, Life Fellow of the Royal Society of Arts and Liveryman of the Worshipful Company of Information Technologists. xxi Contributors Rachel Ara London, UK Stefania Boiano InvisibleStudio, London, UK Ann Borda The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia Jonathan P. Bowen School of Engineering, London South Bank University, London, UK; Southwest University, Chongqing, China Stephen J. Bury The Frick Collection, New York, USA Seb Chan Australian Centre for the Moving Image, Melbourne, Australia Catherine Devine Microsoft, Seattle, USA Sara Devine Brooklyn Museum, New York, USA Douglas Dodds Victoria and Albert Museum, London, UK Stuart Dunn King's College London, London, UK Graeme Earl King's College London, London, UK Ernest Edmonds De Montfort University, Leicester, UK Tom Ensom Tate Gallery, London, UK Patrícia Falcão Tate Gallery, London, UK Rosanna Flouty New York University, New York, USA Anna Foka DH Uppsala, Department of Archives, Museums and Libraries, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden; Humlab, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden Francesca Franco University of Exeter, Exeter, UK Giuliano Gaia InvisibleStudio, London, UK Carla Gannis Pratt Institute, New York, USA Tula Giannini School of Information, Pratt Institute, New York, USA Courtney Johnston Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa, Wellington, New Zealand Nick Lambert Research Office, Ravensbourne University London, London, UK Andy Lomas Goldsmiths, University of London, London, UK Ross Parry University of Leicester, Leicester, UK Gareth Polmeer Royal College of Art, London, UK xxii Editors and Contributors Judith Siefring Bodleian Libraries, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK Matt Tarr American Museum of Natural History, New York, USA Deborah Turnbull Tillman University of New South Wales & New Media Curation, Sydney, Australia Bruce Wands MFA Computer Arts, School of Visual Arts, New York, USA Will Wootton King's College London, London, UK Editors and Contributors xxiii Abbreviations 3D Three-dimensional ACM Association for Computing Machinery ACMI Australian Centre for the Moving Image ACT UP AIDS Coalition To Unleash Power AHRC Arts and Humanities Research Council AI Artificial Intelligence AIDS Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome AIML Artificial Intelligence Markup Language AMNH American Museum of Natural History ANSI American National Standards Institute API Application Programming Interface AR Augmented Reality ARIES ARt Image Exploration Space BBC British Broadcasting Corporation BCE Before Common Era BCS British Computer Society BFA Bachelor of Fine Arts BLE Bluetooth Low Energy Bodleian Bodleian Libraries CAD Computer-Aided Design CAS Computer Arts Society CC Creative Commons CDP Canadiana Discovery Portal CMS Collection Management System COBOL COmmon Business Oriented Language CTG Computer Technique Group DAH Digital Art History DAHL Digital Art History Lab DCMS Department for Digital, Culture, Media & Sport DMA Dallas Museum of Art xxv DMT Digital Manuscripts Toolkit E.A.T. Experiments in Art and Technology EC European Commission ENoLL European Network of Living Labs ERASMUS EuRopean Community Action Scheme for the Mobility of University Students EU European Union EVA Electronic Visualisation and the Arts Fab Lab Fabrication Laboratory FBI Federal Bureau of Investigation FGM Female Genital Mutilation Frick The Frick Collection GDPR General Data Protection Regulation GIS Geographic Information System GLAM Galleries, Libraries, Archives and Museums HCI Human–Computer Interaction HIV Human Immunodeficiency Virus IBM International Business Machines Corporation ICA Institute of Contemporary Arts ICT Information and Communications Technology IEC International Electrotechnical Commission IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers IIIF International Image Interoperability Framework ILS Integrated Library System IMLS Institute of Museum and Library Services IoL Internet of Life IoT Internet of Things ISEA International Symposium on Electronic Art ISO International Organization for Standardization IT Information Technology JPEG Joint Photographic Experts Group JPL Jet Propulsion Laboratory LACMA Los Angeles County Museum of Art LGBT Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender LMS Learning Management System LOD Linked Open Data LOTI London Office of Technology and Innovation MARC MAchine-Readable Cataloging MDC Museums and Digital Culture Met Metropolitan Museum of Art MFA Master of Fine Arts MI Machine Intelligence MIT Massachusetts Institute of Technology MoMA Museum of Modern Art xxvi Abbreviations MOOC Massive Open Online Course MPEG Moving Picture Experts Group MR Mixed Reality MRes Master of Research MS Master of Science Mu.SA Museum Sector Alliance MVP Minimum Viable Product MW Museums and the Web NAL National Art Library NFC Near-Field Communication NLA National Library of Australia NLP Natural Language Processing NMC New Media Curation NYARC New York Art Resources Consortium NYC New York City OCLC Online Computer Library Center OCR Optical Character Recognition Pratt Pratt Institute QA Question Answering RA Royal Academy of Arts RCA Royal College of Art RFID Radio-Frequency Identification RRC Rapid Response Collecting SAT Society for Arts and Technology SIGGRAPH Special Interest Group on Computer GRAPHics SOAS School of Oriental and African Studies SVA School of Visual Arts TEI Text Encoding Initiative TIFF Tag Image File Format TMS The Museum System UCD User-Centered Design UN United Nations UNSW University of New South Wales URL Uniform Resource Locator USB Universal Serial Bus UX User eXperience V&A Victoria and Albert Museum VR Virtual Reality VSA Visitor Service Associate W3C World Wide Web Consortium Watermans Watermans Art Centre WAV WAVeform Audio File Format Whitney Whitney Museum of American Art Wi-Fi Wireless Networking Technology Abbreviations xxvii WSN Wireless Sensor Network WWW World Wide Web XML eXtensible Markup Language ZKM Zentrum für Kunst und Medien xxviii Abbreviations