IS#IT#POSSIBLE#TO#CARE#FOR#ECOSYSTEMS?### POLICY#PARALYSIS#AND#ECOSYSTEM#MANAGEMENT# # # Robert#K.#Garcia#and#Jonathan#Newman# # Ethics,(Policy(&(Environment,(Forthcoming., , This,is,a,penultimate,draft.,,Please,cite,the,final,version., , , Author#Information:# , , Robert,K.,Garcia, Texas,A&M,University, robertkgarcia@gmail.com, www.robertkgarcia.com, , Jonathan,Newman, University,of,Guelph, jnewma01@uoguelph.ca, http://www.uoguelph.ca/~jnewma01/, , , , Request#from#the#authors:# , If,you,would,be,so,kind,,please,send,us,a,quick,email,if,..., , • you,are,reading,this,for,a,university,or,college, course,,or, • you,are,citing,this,in,your,own,work., , It,is,rewarding,to,know,how,our,work,is,being,used,, especially,if,it,has,been,adopted,as,required,or, recommended,reading.,,, , Thank,you., , , Citation#Information:# , Garcia,,R.,and,Newman,,J.,(Forthcoming).,,"Is,it,Possible,to, Care,for,Ecosystems?,Policy,Paralysis,and,Ecosystem, Management",,Ethics,(Policy(&(Environment., Garcia& &Newman-Is#It#Possible#to#Care#for#Ecosystems?&&&Page 1 of 22& IS#IT#POSSIBLE#TO#CARE#FOR#ECOSYSTEMS?### POLICY#PARALYSIS#AND#ECOSYSTEM#MANAGEMENT# # Robert'K.'Garcia'(Texas'A&M'University)'and'' Jonathan'Newman'(University'of'Guelph)' ' ' # ! Ethics,!Policy!&!Environment,!Forthcoming.! # Abstract# Conservationists' have' two' (nonGmutually' exclusive)' types' of' arguments' for' why' we' should' conserve' ecosystems,' instrumental' and' intrinsic' value' arguments.' 'Instrumental' arguments' contend' that' we' ought' to' conserve' ecosystems' because'of'the'benefits'that'humans,'or'other'morally'relevant' individuals,' derive' from' ecosystems.' 'Conservationists' are' often'loath'to'rely'too'heavily'on'the'instrumental'argument' because' it' could' potentially' force' them' to' admit' that' some' ecosystems'are'not'at'all'useful'to'humans,'or'that'if'they'are,' they' are' not'more' useful' than' alternative' configurations' of' those' ecosystems.' 'Consequently,' conservationists' often' resort' to' an' intrinsic' value' argument,' contending' that' ecosystems' are' objectively' valuable' as! ends! in! themselves,! rather! than! merely! as! means! to! an! end.' 'If' ecosystems' have' intrinsic'value,' then' they'have'moral' standing,'which'means' that' we' must' consider' their' needs' and' interests' in' any' decisions' we' make' about' them.' This' paper' concerns' the' significance'of' this'move' for' individual' and'collective'action' on' behalf' of' ecosystems.' 'We' show' that' even' if' there'were' ecosystems'that'had'moral'standing,'we'would'lack'adequate' practical'reasons'to'act'on'their'behalf.' ' Keywords:''' ' precautionary' principle,' ecosystem' management,' holism,' ecoholism' ' ' Garcia& &Newman-Is#It#Possible#to#Care#for#Ecosystems?&&&Page 2 of 22& Introduction# ' Ecosystems'are'said'to'provide'functions'and'services'for'the' wellbeing'of'humans'and'other'individuals.''However,'not'all' ecosystems'are'important'in'these'ways,'and'even'if'they'are,' they' may' not' be' more' important' than' alternative' uses' or' configurations.' 'Relying' on' such' instrumental' values' can' logically' commit' conservationists' to' policies' that' are' seemingly' at' odds' with' other' parts' of' the' conservationists'' agenda,' e.g.' species' additions,' species' removals,' and' wholesale'alterations'of'ecosystems'if'such'changes'enhanced' the' usefulness' of' those' systems' to' humans' (or' possibly' to' other'sentient'organisms).''Conservationists'might'argue'that' such' alterations' would' never' result' in' more' valuable' functioning.' 'That' is'an'empirical'argument'that' in'principle' could' be' evaluated.' 'Even' if' we' accept,' for' the' sake' of' argument,' that' such' alterations' will' rarely' result' in' higher' functioning,' if' it' were' true' in' even' one' instance,' a' conservationist'who'relied'on'the'instrumental'defense'would' be'committed'to'a'policy'of'alteration'for'that'instance.' Faced' with' the' unpalatability' of' these' commitments' and'the'realization'that'conservation'will'not'always'be'more' economically' valuable' (in' the' broadest' sense)' than' development,' most' conservationists' adopt' a' view' called' 'Ecoholism',' or' simply' 'Holism'.' ' According' to' Holism,' ecosystems' are' objectively' real' and' have' objective' intrinsic' moral' value.' ' These' two' components' of' Holism' merit' clarification.''' First,' Holism' involves' the' substantive' ontological' premise'that'ecosystems'are'objectively!real'in'that'they'"exist' as'such'in'nature"'and'must'be'"found'and'identified'instead' of' being' defined' and' delimited"' (Jax' 2006,' p.' 243).' 'This' component'of'Holism'will'be'crucial'for'our'discussion,'so'it' will'be'useful'to'give'it'a'name:' ' Independent' Existence:' ' At' least' some' things'we' call' 'ecosystems'' are' real' natural' entities' that' exist' independently' of' our' mental'conceptions.' ' In'other'words,'on'Holism,'ecosystems'are'not'mathematical' models' or' conceptual' apparatuses' for' predicting' or' understanding' what' is' going' on' in' a' given' spatiotemporal' Garcia& &Newman-Is#It#Possible#to#Care#for#Ecosystems?&&&Page 3 of 22& region.''Rather,'like'planets,'people,'and'particles,'ecosystems' exist'independently'of'whether'we'think'or'care'about'them.''' Second,' in' addition' to' taking' ecosystems' to' be' objectively' real,' Holism' takes' ecosystems' to' have' objective' intrinsic'moral' value.' 'Their'moral' value' is' 'objective'' in' the' sense' that' an' ecosystem' has' moral' value' regardless' of' whether' or' not' the' ecosystem' happens' to' be' valued' by' individual' valuers.' 'If' the' value' of' an' ecosystem' were' not' objective' in' this' sense,' then' it' would' be' dependent' on' the' tastes' and' preferences' of' individual' valuers-tastes' that' are' demonstrably' inconsistent,' and' therefore' lack' any' form' of' moral' force.' ' The'moral' value' of' an' ecosystem' is' said' to' be' 'intrinsic','or''final','in'that'an'ecosystem'has'moral'value'as'an' end' in' itself.# # And,' finally,' it' should' be' emphasized' that' on' Holism,' an' ecosystem' itself! is' among' the' bearers' of' final' value-rather'than'some'property'the'ecosystem'might'have,' such'as'health,'integrity,'etc.''In'what'follows,''intrinsic'value'' is'elliptical'for''objective'intrinsic'moral'value'.'' In' the' field'of' environmental' ethics,'Holism' is'one'of' several' competing' views' about' the' scope' of' the' moral' community,'as'shown'in'Figure'1.'' ' ' ' [Figure'1'is'displayed'on'the'next'page.]' ' ' Garcia& &Newman-Is#It#Possible#to#Care#for#Ecosystems?&&&Page 4 of 22& Figure# 1.' ' A' hierarchy' of'moral' views.' Sentient' animals' are' those' that' can' consciously' experience' pain' and' pleasure.'' Research' suggests' that' these' include' all' vertebrate' animals' and' possibly' cephalopods,' but' probably' exclude' other' invertebrates,' and' definitely' exclude' plants,' fungi,' bacteria' and' archea' (Varner' 2002).' ' NonGliving' parts' of' the' natural' world' would' include' ecosystems,' species,' populations,' habitats,'etc.''While'things'like'species'are'comprised'of'living' organisms,'the'collective,' 'species',' is'not'itself'a'living'thing,' neither'are'ecosystems.''Figure'adapted'from'Varner'(2002).' ' ' # Moral#Views# Counts# morally?# Anthropocentrism' Sentientism' Biocentric' Individualism' Holism' Humans# # # # Yes' Yes' Yes' Yes' Sentient# animals# # # No' Yes' Yes' Yes' All#living# things# # # No' No' Yes' Yes' NonK living# parts#of# the# natural# world# No' No' No' Yes' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' Garcia& &Newman-Is#It#Possible#to#Care#for#Ecosystems?&&&Page 5 of 22& If'Holists' are' right' that' ecosystems' exist' independently' and' have' objective' intrinsic' moral' value,' then' ecosystems' have' moral! standing.' 'This'would'mean'that'moral'agents'such'as' ourselves'ought'to'take' into'account'the'needs'and' interests' of' ecosystems' when' we' make' decisions' affecting' those' systems.' 'Thus,' if' there' are' good' reasons' for' thinking' that' Holism' is' true,' then' such' reasons' provide' conservationists' with' a' powerful' argument-one' that' holds' even' for' ecosystems'that'have'no'instrumental'value.'' In'this'paper'we'assess'the'Holist's'case'for'motivating' and' justifying' individual' or' collective' action' on' behalf' of' ecosystems.' # Epistemic#vs.#Pragmatic#Cases#For#Holism# ' As' noted,' in' addition' to' Independent! Existence,' Holism' is' committed' to' the' thesis' that' ecosystems' have' moral' standing.' 'Of' course,' the' question' of' standing' is' moot' if' Independent!Existence' is'false.1''Accordingly,'we'will'focus'on' Independent!Existence.''' The' traditional' distinction' between' epistemic' and' pragmatic'reasons'allows'us'to'pose'two'questions.''First,'are' &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&& 1 'A' referee' observes'that' one'might' hold' that' ecosystems' both' (i)'exist' mindGdependently'in' that' they' are' individuated' (metaphysically'and'not'merely'epistemologically-see'Lowe'(2003,' p.' 75G77))'by'our' (say)' theoretical' interests,' and' (ii)' have' intrinsic' moral'value' in' virtue' of' mindGindependent' facts' about' the' world.' 'The'conjunction'of'(i)'and'(ii)-call' it'the''hybrid'view'-is' similar' to' how' one'might' think' about' artwork.' 'For' example,'one' might'think'that'something's'being!a!sculpture'(rather'than'being'a' mere' lump'of' clay)' is' dependent'on' the'minds'of' those' in' the' art' community,' yet' one' might' also' hold' that' the' sculpture's' being! beautiful'is' an' objective' fact' about' it.''The' hybrid' view'marks' an' interesting'position'in' the' logical' space'of'views'about'ecosystems' and'merits'more'attention' that'we'can'give' it'here.' 'However,' the' hybrid' view' is' flatly' incompatible' with'Holism-at'least' the' standard' version'of'Holism'under' consideration'here.'' Indeed,'we' would'consider'this'paper'a'success'if'it'compelled'conservationists' to'retreat'from'Holism'to'the'hybrid'view.''Nevertheless,'we'doubt' that' such' a'retreat'would' be' attractive' to' conservationists.' 'For' starters,'it'is'unclear'what'sort'of'moral'obligation'we'would'have- if'any-to'conserve'or'protect'ecosystems'if'they'are'entities'whose' very'existence'depends'on'our'own' theories'or'ways'of' classifying' the' world.' 'At' the' very'least,' conservationism' would'enjoy' significantly'less'moral'force'on'the'hybrid'view'than'on'Holism.''& Garcia& &Newman-Is#It#Possible#to#Care#for#Ecosystems?&&&Page 6 of 22& there' good' reasons' to' think' that' the' Independent! Existence' thesis' is' true' or' probably' true?' In' other' words,' are' conservationists' correct' in' believing' that' there' really' are' ecosystems?' 'We' call' this' the' Epistemic' Case' for' Holism.''Second,'even'if'we'lack'convincing'reasons'to'believe' that' Independent! Existence' is' true,' are' there' compelling' reasons' to' behave! (act)' as! if' it' is' true?' ' In' other'words,' are' there'pragmatic'reasons' for'acting'as' if' there'are'ecosystems' (even'while' suspending' judgment' as' to'whether' they' exist)?'' We' call' this' the' Pragmatic' Case' for' Holism.' 'Below'we' will' suggest' that' the' Epistemic' Case' is' problematic' and' at' best' disputable.' 'Unless' the' challenges' to' the'Epistemic'Case' can' be'met,'Holism'must'rely'on'the'Pragmatic'Case.' 'We'argue,' however,' that' the' Pragmatic' Case' fails' to' be'action! guiding,' and' therefore' we' do' not' have' good' practical' reasons' to' behave'as!if'there'really'are'ecosystems.'' ' Ecosystem#Ontologies# ' In' assessing' the' Independent! Existence' claim,' we' meet' an' initial' twoGfold' complication.' 'First,' as' noted' by' Kurt' Jax,' "there!has!been!no!clear!convergence!of![ecosystem]!definitions! throughout!the!decades"'(2006,'p.'246).''Rather,'as'illustrated' in' Figure' 2,' at' present' there' is' a' rich' diversity' of' putatively' competing' ecosystem' concepts.' 'Second,' there' are' different' interpretive!stances'one'can'take'towards'any'given'ecosystem' concept.''The'farGright'column'of'Figure'2'shows'the'intended! stance'-'this'is'the'interpretive'stance'taken'by'the'author(s)' of'each'ecosystem'concept.''Frequently,'the'intended'stance'is' antiGrealist'-'the'author(s)'takes'her'ecosystem'concept'to'be' a'useful'fiction,'simply'a'way'to'divide'up'nature'into'smaller' chunks' for' the' purposes' of' study' or' description.' 'In' some' cases,'the'intended'stance'is'realist'-'the'author'takes'there' to'be'at'least'one'mindGindependent'natural'entity'answering' to' her' ecosystem' concept.' 'And,' as' noted' by' Jax' (2006),' for' many'ecosystem'concepts,'the'intended'stance'is'unclear.''Of' course,' there' is' nothing' mandatory' about' the' intended' stances.' 'Depending' on' how' you' assess' the' relevant' considerations,'you'might,'in'principle,'take'a'realist'or'antiG realist' stance' towards' any' of' these' ecosystem' concepts.' 'In' some'cases,'this'might'involve'rejecting'the'author's'intended' stance.' 'Furthermore,' one' might' take' different' interpretive' stances' to' different' ecosystem' concepts.' 'For' example,' one' Garcia& &Newman-Is#It#Possible#to#Care#for#Ecosystems?&&&Page 7 of 22& might'take'a'realist'stance'towards'Lindeman'ecosystems'and' an'antiGrealist'stance'towards'Dunbar'ecosystems.''' This' twofold' complication' -' the' diversity' of' extant' ecosystem' concepts' and' the' different' possible' interpretive' stances' -' yields' a' number' of' overall' positions' one' might' take.''Call'any'such'overall'position'an''ecosystem'ontology'.''! ' ' [Figure'2'is'displayed'on'the'next'two'pages.]' ' ' ' Garcia& &Newman-Is#It#Possible#to#Care#for#Ecosystems?&&&Page 8 of 22& ' Figure# 2.' ' Figure' and' definitions' adapted' from' Jax' (2006).' 'Boundary' criteria:' Topography' indicates' that' the' boundaries' of' the' ecosystem' should' be' drawn' by' features' more' or' less' visible' directly' in' space,' either' through' differences'in'features'like'land/water'boundaries,'or'between' more'or' less'homogeneous'patches'of'organisms'and'abiotic' variables,' and' includes' cases' where' the' boundaries' are' completely'arbitrary.'Process'indicates'that'the'boundaries'of' an'ecosystem'should'be'drawn'based'on'interactions'between' components' of' the' ecosystem.' 'Statistical' denotes' that' the' boundaries' are' determined' by' observing' the' distribution' patterns'of'the'elements'of'ecosystems.' 'Functional'denotes' that' the' boundaries' are' determined' by' observing' the' interactions' between' the' elements' of' the' ecosystems.''Functional'relationships'can'be'seen'as'necessary' to' call' an' ecological' unit' an' ecosystem.' These' relationships' can' take' different' forms' and' degrees.' 'On' the' one' extreme,' the' elements' of' a' unit' may' not' need' to' display' any' interrelations' at' all,' or' they' might' require:' selfGregulation,' equilibrium' states,' and' relative' functional' autonomy.' 'Note' that'Jax'calls'the'realist'status''ontological''and'the'antiGrealist' status' 'epistemological'.' ' What' conclusions' ought' one' draw' from' this' plethora' of' ecosystem' concepts?' ' Jax' concludes:' "Given! the! history! of! the! concept! ''ecosystem''! (Hagen! 1992;! Golley! 1993;! Jax! 1998)! and! the! epistemological! status! of! ecological! units! (Jax! 2006),! there! is! not! a! single! ''right''! definition! for! the! term! ''ecosystem''.! There! can! be! different! useful!definitions!for!different!purposes."! !(Jax'2007).''Sagoff'is' less'charitable:'"What!are! called!natural! ecosystems!...!are! so! mixed! up,! contingent,! fractious,! intractable,! unexpected,! protean,!erratic,!changeable,!unpredictable,!fickle,!variable,!and! dodgy! ...' [even' ecologists' find' them' hard' to' pin' down]."' (Sagoff'2014,'pg.'253,'James'2013,'pg.'264).' ' ' ' Garcia& &Newman-Is#It#Possible#to#Care#for#Ecosystems?&&&Page 9 of 22& ' ' # # Author' # # Boundary# Criterion,#Type' # # Degree#of# Internal# Relationships' Author's# Stated#or# Implied# Ontological# Status' Tansley'(1935)' Process,' Functional' High,'unspecific' AntiGrealist' Rowe'(1961)' Topography,' Statistical' Low' AntiGrealist' Stöcker'(1979)' Process,' Functional' Unimportant' AntiGrealist' Likens'&' Bormann'(1995)' Topography'or' interactions,' functional' Medium' AntiGrealist' Lindeman'(1942)' Topography,' Functional' Low' Unclear' Odum'(1953)' Process,' Functional' Intermediate,' low'specificity' Unclear' Klijn'&'Udo'de' Haes'(1994)' Topography,' Statistical' Low' Unclear' Dunbar'(1972)' Topography,' Functional' High' Realist' Jørgensen'et'al' (1992)' Process,' Functional'' Unclear' Realist' Odenbaugh' (2010)' Unclear' High' Realist' ' ' ' ' ' Garcia& &Newman-Is#It#Possible#to#Care#for#Ecosystems?&&&Page 10 of 22& ' One' ecosystem' ontology' is' what' we' will' call' global! antiVrealism,' which' takes' an' antiGrealist' stance' towards' all' ecosystem' concepts.' 'On' this' view,' Independent! Existence' is' false:' strictly' speaking,' there' are' no' ecosystems' of' any' kind' that' exist' mindGindependently.' 'Opposed' to' global' antiG realism' is' realism,' which' affirms' Independent! Existence' and' takes' a' realist' stance' towards' at' least' one' ecosystem' concept.''Realists'agree'that'there'is'at'least'one'kind'of'mindG independent'ecosystem.''Realists'disagree,'however,'over'how! many'kinds'of'those'ecosystems'there'are.''A'pluralist'takes'a' realist' stance' towards' two' or'more' ecosystem' concepts' and' holds' that' these' are' conceptions' of' fundamentally' different' kinds' of' ecosystems,' all' of' which' exist' mindG independently.''A'monist'holds'that'there'is'only'one'kind'of' ecosystem' that' exists' mindGindependently.' 'There' are' two' ways' to'be'a'monist.' 'An'exclusivist' is' a'monist'who' takes'a' realist' stance' towards'exactly'one'ecosystem'concept'and'an' antiGrealist'stance'towards'the'rest.''An'inclusivist'is'a'monist' who' takes' a' realist' stance' towards' two' or' more' ecosystem' concepts,'but'argues' that' these'are'different' concepts'of' the' same'kind'of'natural'entity.''For'example,'an'inclusivist'might' take' a' realist' stance' towards' both' Lindeman' and' Dunbar' ecosystems,' but' hold' that' these' are' different' ways' of' conceptualizing'the'very'same'kind'of'natural'ecological'unit.' Because'Holism' requires' some'version'of' realism,' the' Epistemic' Case' for' Independent! Existence' turns' on' this' question:' 'How' good' are' the' reasons' favoring' a' realist' ecosystem' ontology,' whether' monist' (exclusivist' or' inclusivist)'or'pluralist?' ' The#Epistemic#Case' ' Ecological'science'has'given'raise'to'the'variety'of'ecosystem' concepts,'so'it'is'important'to'ask'to'what'extent'the'scientific' considerations'favor'a'realist'ecosystem'ontology.''The' current'state'of'thinking'in'the'field'of'ecology'is'probably' best'summed'up'by'Jax'(2007):' ' Given'the'history'of'the'concept'''ecosystem''' (Hagen' 1992;' Golley' 1993;' Jax' 1998)' and' the' epistemological' [antiGrealist]' status' of' ecological' units' (Jax' 2006),' there' is' not' a' single' 'right'' definition' for' the' term' Garcia& &Newman-Is#It#Possible#to#Care#for#Ecosystems?&&&Page 11 of 22& 'ecosystem'.' There' can' be' different' useful' definitions'for'different'purposes.' ' The'different'definitions'of''ecosystem''mark'various'research' traditions' in' ecology,' each' working' with' its' own' preferred' ecosystem' concept.' 'Naturally,' those' working' within' a' particular' tradition' tend' to' prefer' their' own' ecosystem' concept' over' the' others.' 'This' preference,' however,' is' based' more'on'the'particular'research'interests'of'an'ecologist'than' on' objective' empirical' grounds' or' compelling' scientific' arguments'(de'Laplante,'pers.'com.).''For'those'interested,'we' note' that' a' similar' conceptual' equivalence' is' at' play' among' the'26+'concepts'of''species''(see'Pigliucci'2003).'''' Indeed,' the'conceptual'diversity'displayed' in'Figure'2' indicates' that' the' empirical' evidence' is' consistent' with' a' range' of' conflicting' views' about' the' ontological' status' of' ecosystems.' 'As' shown' in' Figure' 2,' with' respect' to' their' intended'stances,'most'ecosystem'concepts'are'either'unclear' or'explicitly'antiGrealist.''A'relative'minority'have'an'explicitly' realist' intended' stance,' but,' as' Jax' notes,' the' realism' overreaches' the' empirical' data' and' is' based' on' speculative' metaphysical'assumptions'(Jax,'2007,'p.'244).''Put'differently,' with' respect' to' the' successes' of' ecological' science,' the' explanatory' power' of' realism' is' at' least'matched' by' that' of' global'antiGrealism:' 'neither'ontology'has'a' reasonable'claim' to' being' the' best' explanation' of' the' successes' of' ecological' science.' ' Thus,' the' Epistemic' Case' is' unconvincing:' 'the' evidence' fails' to'make' realism'more' likely' than' global' antiG realism.' 'In' fact,' we' think' the' evidence' makes' realism' less' likely' than' global' antiGrealism.' 'But' set' that' aside.' ' For' our' purposes,'we'only'need'the'following'weaker'thesis:'' ' 1Underdetermination:' 'The' empirical' considerations' underdetermine' the' choice' between'a'realist'and'antiGrealist'ecosystem' ontology.''' ' In' other' words,' given' the' available' evidence,' realism' and' global'antiGrealism'are'equally'likely'to'be'true.2''' &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&& 2'Note'that'we'are'not'using'the'soGcalled'Principle'of'Indifference' here.' Roughly,' this' principle' says' that' in' the' total' absence' of' evidence' you' should' assign' equal' probability' to' each'mutually' exclusive' possibility.' The' argument' does' not' depend' on' this' Garcia& &Newman-Is#It#Possible#to#Care#for#Ecosystems?&&&Page 12 of 22& We' take! Underdetermination' to' be' a' relatively' uncontroversial'verdict'on'the'Epistemic'Case.3''However,'our' primary' aim' is' not' to' provide' a' comprehensive' defense' of' Underdetermination' but' to' assess' the' prospects' of' the' Pragmatic'Case.''To'this'end,'the'thesis'is'important'because' it' shows' that' the' Pragmatic' Case' is' both' necessary' and' possible.''' On' the' one' hand,' if' the' Epistemic' Case' were' convincing,' the' Pragmatic' Case' would' be' unnecessary.' ' In' other' words,' if' we' had' good' reasons' for' believing' that' ecosystems'were'real,'then'we'wouldn't'need'further'reasons' for'acting! as! if' they'were' real.' 'Thus,'because' the'Epistemic' Case'fails,'the'Holist'must'resort'to'pragmatic'considerations' to'motivate'action'on'behalf'of'ecosystems.'''' On' the' other' hand,' the' Pragmatic' Case' requires' a' context' of' epistemic' uncertainty.' 'This' is' because' the' most' natural'and'promising'way'to'construct'a'pragmatic'case' for' Holism' is' by' appealing' to' the' soGcalled' precautionary! principle.4'' In' a' catchGphrase,' the' principle' says' "better' safe' than'sorry"' (Sunstein'2003).' 'The'principle' is'applicable'only' in' a' context' of' epistemic' uncertainty,' where' "we! either! lack! probability! information,! or! have! reason! to! distrust! the! information! we! have"' (Gardiner' 2006,' p.' 49).' 'According' to' Underdetermination,' the' Holist' finds' herself' in' exactly' this' &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&& controversial'principle.'In'fact,'it'would'not'apply'here'because,'as' noted,'there!is!evidence!for!both!realism!and!global!antiVrealism.''So,' the' principle' of' indifference' does' not' apply' in' this' context.'' The' main' argument' only' requires' the' thesis' that' realism' and' global' antiGrealism'are'equally'likely'to'be'true.' 3 'Exactly' how' compelling' must' an' epistemic' case' be' for' it' to' provide' sufficient' grounds' for' accepting' realism?' ' Fortunately,' for' our' purposes'we' do' not' need' to' provide' a' specific' answer' to' this' 4'Our'working'assumption'is'that'the'strongest'and'most'promising' extant'version'of'a'pragmatic'case'for'Holism'is'one'that'appeals'to' a'precautionary'principle.''Although'space'forbids'a'comprehensive' defense'of' this' assumption'here,'perhaps'we'may'be'permitted' to' note' that' it' seems' entirely' unclear' how' a' viable' case' for' Holism' could'avoid'a'precautionary'approach'that'relies'(even'if'tacitly)'on' a'precautionary'principle.''Notwithstanding'this'point,'readers'who' think' that' there' is' a' viable' nonGprecautionary' pragmatic' case' for' Holism'are'welcome'to'see'our'aim'here'as'restricted-to'show'the' failure'of'an'important'kind!of'pragmatic'case'for'Holism.''Whether' a' viable' pragmatic' case' for' Holism' can' be' constructed' without' appealing'to'a'precautionary'principle'remains'to'be'seen.' Garcia& &Newman-Is#It#Possible#to#Care#for#Ecosystems?&&&Page 13 of 22& type' of' context.' 'The' thesis' does' not' say' that' the' Epistemic' Case' fails' so' utterly' as' to' tip' the' scales' towards' global' antiG realism.' 'Rather,' it' assigns' equal' probability' to' the' two' ontologies.' ''This'epistemic'uncertainty'makes'the'Pragmatic' Case'possible'since,'after'all,'if'we'had'good'reasons'to'think' that'ecosystems'are'not'real,'then'there'would'be'no'point'in' acting' as! if! they' might' be.' 'Thus,' although' Underdetermination'says'that'the'Epistemic'Case'fails,' it'also' indicates' that' the' Pragmatic' Case' is' both' necessary' and' possible.5' It' seems,' then,' that' the'Holist'has' a' great'deal' riding' on' the' Pragmatic'Case.6''We' take' this' up'next,' and'here'we' will'see'the'main'thesis'of'our'argument:''A!context! in!which! the! Pragmatic! Case! is! both! necessary! and! possible! is! also! a! context!in!which!the!Pragmatic!Case!cannot!succeed.! ! The#Pragmatic#Case# ' If' ecosystems' are' independently' existing' things' and' they' possess'objective'intrinsic'moral'value'(i.e.'if'Holism'is'true),' then' it'must' be'possible' to'harm'an' ecosystem' in' a'morally' &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&& 5 'Note' that' the' version' of' the' precautionary' principle' being' discussed' here' is' not' the' extreme' version' that' has' been' widely' rejected'in'the'literature.'The'implausible'version'of'the'principle'is' the'sort'that'can'be'used'to'recommend'precaution'based'on'mere' possibilities.''As'an'example,'one'might'use' the' latter'principle' to' argue'that,'for'all'we'know'(it'is'possible'that)'there'is'an'invisible' person' in' the' building,' so' we' shouldn't' demolish' it.' But' the' argument' here' is' not' deploying' this' version' of' the' principle.' The' claim' isn't' that' there' is' an'absence'of' any'evidence'or' indications' regarding' the' truth' of' realism' or' global' antiGrealism.'' Rather,' as' noted,' there' is' evidence' for' each,' but' the' evidence' is' (or,' for' the' sake' of' argument,' can' be' presumed' to' be)' counterbalanced' and' thus'underdetermining'with'respect'to'those'two'theories.''So,'the' argument' here' does' not' require' the' extreme' version' of' precautionary'principle.' 6'It' may' be' that' using' the' precautionary' principle' to' range' over' ecosystem'ontologies' is'an'unusual'application'of' it.'But' to'depict' holism' as' using' the' principle' in' this' way' is' not' to' construct' a' strawman'of'the'view.'After'all,'precautionary'principles'are'widely' used' in' environmental' arguments.' And,' if' the' holist' is' not' using' (albeit'tacitly)'a'precautionary'principle,'then'it'is'not'clear'how'the' holist'can' rely' on' the' Pragmatic' Case.' The' alternative' decisionG making' tools' are' generally' acknowledged' to' be' CostGBenefit' Analysis'or'Risk'Assessment,'and'neither'seems'applicable'here.' Garcia& &Newman-Is#It#Possible#to#Care#for#Ecosystems?&&&Page 14 of 22& significant' way.' 'In' traditional' egoGbased' normative' ethical' theories,'harm'amounts'to'failing'to'respect'the'independent' interests' of' the' individual' who' possesses' the' intrinsic' value.' 'Identifying'the'independent'interests'of'an'ecosystem' is'a'philosophically'difficult'task.7''Anthropomorphisms'aside,' there'is'certainly'nothing'that'an'ecosystem'cares'about,'and' even'taking'the'broader'view'of'interests'as''welfare'interests',' it'is'difficult'to'identify'what'it'means'for'an'ecosystem'to'fair' ill' or' well' that' is' independent' of' the' welfare' (or' conscious)' interests' of' the' individual' plants' and' animals' that' comprise' the' ecosystem.' 'If' it' is' not' possible' to' morally' harm' an' ecosystem,'then'ecosystems'do'not'possess'intrinsic'value'and' we'moral'agents'are'not'obligated'to'consider'ecosystems' in' our' decisions,' except' insofar' as' they' affect' other' moral' patients.' But' the' latter' consequent' is' flatly' at' odds' with' Holism.''As'we'said'in'the''Epistemic'vs.'Pragmatic'Cases'For' Holism'' section,'Holism' requires' both' that' ecosystems' have' intrinsic' value,' and' that' Independent! Existence! is' true.' 'We' said' that' if' the' latter! is' false,' then' the' question' of' intrinsic' value'is'moot.''Let'us'assume,'for'the'sake'of'argument,'that'it' is' possible' to' identify' the' independent' interests' of' an' ecosystem.' 'Whatever' those' interests' are,' it' seems' unlikely' that'they'will'be' identical' for'all'ecosystems.' 'For'example,'a' prairie' ecosystem' is' unlikely' to' have' the' same' welfare' interests' as' a' pond' ecosystem.' 'To' anticipate' what' we' say' below,' it' also' seems' unlikely' that' fundamentally' different' kinds' of' ecosystems-such' as' Dunbar' and' Lindeman' ecosystems-will' have' the' same' welfare' interests.' 'For' our' purposes,' however,' we' do' not' need' the' thesis' that' it' is' unlikely'that'different'kinds'of'ecosystems'will'have'different' welfare'interests.''Rather,'we'only'need'the'following'weaker' thesis:' ' Varied1 Interests:' 'For' all' we' know,' if' there' are' ecosystems,'then'it'is'false'that'all'ecosystems'share'all' and'only'the'same'welfare'interests.' ' In' effect,'Varied! Interests' says' that'we' are' in' no' position' to' rule'out' the'possibility' that' fundamentally'different'kinds'of' ecosystems' will' have' (perhaps' fundamentally)' different' welfare'interests.' &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&& 7'See'the'discussion'in'Varner'(1991).' Garcia& &Newman-Is#It#Possible#to#Care#for#Ecosystems?&&&Page 15 of 22& In' many' situations' where' the' epistemic' case' is' uncertain,' there'will'be'a'moral' argument' for'behaving'as! if' the'epistemic'case'were'certain.''For'example,'the'problem'of' animal' sentience' is' epistemically' uncertain.' 'We' can' never' know' with' certainty' that,' for' example,' dogs' are' capable' of' consciously'experiencing'pain.''The'best'we'can'do'is'make'a' weightGofGevidence'argument'that'they'can'and'that'they'do.' If'a'dog'can'consciously'experience'pain,'then'it'would' be'morally'wrong'to'cause'a'dog'pain'for'no'good'reason.''As' an' ethical' position,' we' apply' a' form' of' the' Precautionary' Principle'and'take'the'pragmatic'position'that'we'ought'to'act' as!if'dogs'can'consciously'feel'pain,'because'of'what'is'at'stake' if' we' demand' epistemic' certainty' before' we' extend' moral' consideration' to' dogs.' 'In' this' case' the' pragmatic' argument' has'the'following'form:' ' With' respect' to' animal' sentience,' it' doesn't' matter' whether' the' evidence' makes' it' more' likely' than' not' that' dogs' are' sentient.' 'For' all' we' know,' dogs' are' sentient.''And,'if'dogs'are'actually'sentient'and'we'fail' to' treat' them' as' such,' then' they' will' suffer' significantly.''Thus,'we'should'treat'dogs'as'if'they'are' sentient'because'of'what's'at'stake.''' ' In' what' follows,' we' ask' whether' we' can' extend' the' same'kind'of'precautionary'approach'to'the'case'of'ecosystem' existence.''In'other'words,'even'if'we'lack'convincing'reasons' to'believe' that' there'are'ecosystems,' should'we'behave' (act)' as' if' there' are' ecosystems?'Before'moving' on' to' this' case,' a' few'general'comments'about' the'Precautionary'Principle'are' in'order.''' ' 'The'#Precautionary#Principle# # The' plausibility' and'exact' formulation' of' the' precautionary' principle' is' the'subject' of'considerable' debate,' including' recent'articles'in'this'journal.8''Our'aim'is'not'to'settle'these' debates,' but'to'consider' whether' and' how' precaution'might' motivate' action' on' behalf' of' ecosystems.' 9 ''As' it' is' often' &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&& 8'HartzellGNichols'(2013)'and'Steel'(2013).' 9'Precautionary'approaches'to'ecosystem'conservation'are'alive'and' well.''To'cite'but'one'example,'witness'this'recent'remark'in'Trends! Garcia& &Newman-Is#It#Possible#to#Care#for#Ecosystems?&&&Page 16 of 22& noted,' there' is' no' single' Precautionary' Principle,' but' many' closely' related' ideas. 10 ''Sandin' (1999)' counts' 19' different' statements' of' the' Precautionary' Principle,' but' perhaps' the' most'wellGknown' is' the' one' used' in' the' 1990'UN'Economic' Conference'on'Europe'(later'adopted'verbatim'as'Principle'15' of'the'Rio'Declaration'in'1992):'' ' "Where' there' are' threats' of' serious' or' irreversible' damage,' lack' of' full' scientific' certainty' shall' not' be' used' as' a' reason' for' postponing' costGeffective' measures' to' prevent' environmental'degradation."' ' This' statement' is' sometimes' known' as' 'the' weak' precautionary' principle.'' 'It' is' occasionally' phrased' more' generally' as:' "lack' of' full' certainty' is' not' a' justification' for' preventing'an'action'that'might'be'harmful."''' This'more'general'form'of'the'Precautionary'Principle' has' been' deployed' in' environmental' ethical' arguments' for' decades. 11 ''For' example,' Precautionary' Principle' arguments' were' deployed' from' the' earliest' days' of' arguments' about' anthropogenic'climate'change.''The'arguments'took'the'form:' ' With'respect'to'policy'P,'it'doesn't'matter'whether'the' evidence' makes' it' more' likely' than' not' that' climate' change' is' anthropogenic.' 'For' all' we' know,' climate' change' is' anthropogenic.' 'And,' if' climate' change' is' actually' anthropogenic' and' we' fail' to' enact' P,' then' many'will'suffer'significantly.''Thus,'we'should'enact'P' because'of'what's'at'stake.''' ' &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&& in! Ecology! &! Evolution:' '"These' facts' argue' for' a' precautionary' principle'of' conservation' and' restoration.' 'Rather' than'embracing' invasionGdriven''novel'ecosystems''as'a''new'normal''[...],'we'should' seek'to'reestablish-or'emulate,' insofar'as'possible-the'historical' trajectory' of' ecosystems,' before' they' were' deflected' by' human' activity,'and'to'allow'the'restored'system'to'continue'responding'to' various'environmental'changes."'(Murcia'et!al.,'2014,'p.'549).' 10'See,'for'example,'Ahteensuu,'M.'&'Sandin,'P.'(2012).& 11'Indeed,' the' precautionary' principle' has' been' heralded' as' "the' fundamental'principle'of'environmental'protection'policy"'(Jordan' &'O'Riordan'1999,'p.'22).' Garcia& &Newman-Is#It#Possible#to#Care#for#Ecosystems?&&&Page 17 of 22& The'uncertainty'here'is'around'the'question'of'whether'or'not' changes' in' our' climate' are' caused' in' part' by' our' own' actions.''' In' the' absence' of' a' convincing' Epistemic' Case' for' Holism,' it' is' natural' to' consider' whether' a' precautionary' argument' might' justify' individual' or' collective' action' on' behalf' of' ecosystems.' 'In' schematic' form,' such' a' precautionary'argument'might'go'as'follows:''' ' ACT:' 'With' respect' to' acting' on' behalf' of' some' putative' ecosystem' e,' it' doesn't' matter'whether'the'evidence'makes'it'more' likely' than' not' that' e' exists.' 'For' all' we' know,'e'exists.''And,'if'e'actually'exists'and' we' fail' to' act' on' behalf' of' e,' then' e' will' suffer' significant' harm.' 'Thus,' we' should' act' on' behalf' of' e! because' of' what's' at' stake.''' ' Unfortunately,' in' attempting' to' motivate' action' on' behalf'of'an'ecosystem,'any'such'appeal'to'the'precautionary' principle'will'fail'in'virtue'of'two'further'theses'which'we'will' now' defend:' Plenitude! and'Disparity.' 'As' we' will' see,' these' theses'vex'the'Pragmatic'Case'with'paralysis.' The#Plenitude#Thesis# ' Our'first'thesis'involves'the'notion'of''plenitude.'''We'will'say' that'there'is'a'plenitude'of'ecosystems'if'for'each'ecosystem'X,' there' is' a' great' number' of' other' ecosystems-the' Ys,' such' that'X' and' the'Ys' form'a' set' of' ecosystems'whose'members' are' variously' overlapping' and' nested,' both' spatially' and' temporally.' 'As' noted' by' Jax' (2006)' and' Odenbaugh' (2010:' 245,'248),'ecologists'typically'conceive'of'ecosystems'in'such'a' way' that,' on' a' realist' interpretation,' there' would! be' a' plenitude'of'ecosystems.''For'example,'if'there'are'watershed' ecosystems,' there' is' almost' certainly' a' plentitude' of' them.''This'is'illustrated'in'Figure'3.' ' [Figure'3'is'attached'to'the'end'of'this'document.]' ' More' generally,' for' each' ecosystem' concept' listed' in' Figure' 2,' it' is' reasonable' to' think' that' if' there' are' any' real' ecosystems' answering' to' that' concept,' then' there' is' a' Garcia& &Newman-Is#It#Possible#to#Care#for#Ecosystems?&&&Page 18 of 22& plentitude'of'them.''For'our'purposes,'however,'we'only'need' a'weaker'thesis:'' ' Plenitude:' 'For' all' we' know,' if' there' are' ecosystems,' then' for' each' kind' of' real' ecosystem,' there' is' a' plenitude' of' ecosystems'of'that'kind.'' ' In' effect,'Plenitude' says' there' is' a' realist! presumption! for! plenitude.! ' The#Disparity#Thesis# ' Above' we' granted' that' although' the' Empirical' Case' fails' to' convince,' it' doesn't' fail' so' utterly' as' to' justify' global' antiG realism.' 'So' in' this' section,' for' the'sake'of'argument'we'will' assume' that' there'are' ecosystems'and'will' consider'how' the' pragmatic'case'fares'on'this'assumption.''' As' shown' in' Figure' 2,' there' are' numerous' ecosystem' concepts'currently'employed'by'ecologists.' 'Moreover,'as'the' discussion' in' Jax' (2007)' makes' clear,' although' certain' ecosystem'concepts'may'have'been' superseded'or' fallen'out' of' favor,' there' is' no' single' ecosystem' concept' that' is' significantly' more' empirically' adequate' than' all' the' others.' 'Thus,' given' the' ambiguity' of' the' evidence,' if' one' is' going' to' be' a' realist,' one' should'not' be' an' exclusivist.' ' Put' differently,' even' assuming' that' there' are' ecosystems,' one' would' not' be' justified' in' taking' a' realist' stance' towards' a' single' ecosystem' concept' while' taking' an' antiGrealist' stance' towards' the' rest.' 'Instead,' it' would' be' more' reasonable' to' take'a' realist' stance' towards'several' ecosystem'concepts'and' thus'be'either'an'inclusivist'or'a'pluralist.''However,'although' the' evidence' rules' out' exclusivism,' it' also' underdetermines' the' choice' between' inclusivism' and' pluralism.' 'Thus,' the' assumption' that' there' are' ecosystems' together' with' the' evidence' fails' to' settle' the' question' of' how' many' kinds' of' ecosystems' there' are.' 'Even' if' we' assume' that' there' are' ecosystems,' the' evidence' doesn't' make' inclusivism' more' likely'than'pluralism,'much'less'rule'out'pluralism.''We'thus' arrive'at'our'second'thesis:'' ' Disparity:' 'For' all' we' know,' if' there' are' ecosystems,' then' (pluralism)' there' is' a' Garcia& &Newman-Is#It#Possible#to#Care#for#Ecosystems?&&&Page 19 of 22& disparate' group' of' fundamentally' different' kinds'of'ecosystems.'' ' In' effect,'Disparity' says' there' is' no' realist' presumption' for' monism.' The#Paralysis#Problem# ' In' recent' discussions' of' the' precautionary' principle,' it' has' been'shown'that'in'some'contexts'the'precautionary'principle' recommends'both'action'and'abstention.' 'In' such'a'context,' efforts' to' be' precautionary' will' be' paralyzing' (Sunstein' 2002).' 'Unfortunately,' Varied! Interests,! Disparity,' and' Plenitude'together'create'a'paralyzing'context'for'Holism.''In' such' a' context,' efforts' to' be' precautionary' on' behalf' of' ecosystems'will'be'paralyzing.''To'see'the'problem,'reconsider' the' above' argument' from' precaution,' ACT.' 'Paralysis' vexes' ACT'in'light'of'the'following'counterGargument:' ' ABSTAIN:''If'we'act'on'behalf'of'ecosystem' e,' then' a' realistic' outcome' could' be' that' some'other'intrinsically'valuable'ecosystem' e*'will'suffer'significant'moral'harm.''Thus,' we'should'not'act'on'behalf'of'e.'' ' The'paralysis'stems'from'this.''According'to'Disparity,'for'all' we' know,' if' there' are' ecosystems,' then' there' are' several' fundamentally' different' kinds' of' ecosystems.' 'According' to' Plenitude,' for' all' we' know,' if' there' are' ecosystems,' then' for' each'kind'of'ecosystem,'there'is'a'plenitude'of'ecosystems'of' that'kind.''And,'according'to'Varied!Interests,'for'all'we'know,' if' there' are' ecosystems,' then' it' is' false' that' all' ecosystems' have' all' and' only' the' same'welfare' interests.' ' Putting' these' together,'we'see'that,'for'all'we'know,'if'there'are'ecosystems,' then' there' are' many' fundamentally' different' kinds' of' ecosystems,' and' a' great' number' of' each' kind,' variously' overlapping'and'nested,'both'spatially'and'temporally,'where' these' different' kinds' of' ecosystems' have' different' welfare' interests.' ' In' such'a' context,' it' seems' impossible' to' rule'out' that' acting'on'behalf' of' one' ecosystem'will' not' come'at' the' expense' of' another.' 'In' other' words,' given'Varied! Interests,! Disparity,' and' Plenitude,! the' Holist' cannot' rule' out! ABSTAIN.''Hence'the'paralysis:''precaution'recommends'both' Garcia& &Newman-Is#It#Possible#to#Care#for#Ecosystems?&&&Page 20 of 22& acting' on' behalf' of' e' and' not' acting' on' behalf' of' e.' 'In' this' context,'the'precautionary'principle'fails'to'be'action'guiding.' ' Conclusion# ' Conservationists' would' like' to' argue' that' ecosystems' have' intrinsic'moral'value,'a'position'called'Holism,'because'it'is'a' more' powerful' argument' than' one' that' appeals' to' the' instrumental' value' of' ecosystems.' 'Holism' requires' Independent!Existence,'the'ontological'thesis'that'ecosystems' exist'as'natural,'mindGindependent'entities.' 'We'suggest'that' the'Epistemic'Case' for' Independent! Existence,' and'hence' for' Holism,' is'unconvincing.' 'This'places'particular'weight'upon' the' Pragmatic' Case' for'Holism,' i.e.' that'we' should' act' as! if' ecosystems'are' real'objects,' even' though'we'might'not'have' good' epistemic' reasons' to' think' so.' 'Unfortunately,' such' pragmatism' is' problematic' in' light' of' the' very' reasonable' arguments' that' for' all' we' know,' if' Independent! Existence' is' true,' then' the' following' three' theses' are' also' true:' ' all' ecosystems' do' not' share' all' and' only' the' same' welfare' interests' (Varied! Interests);' there' are' several' fundamentally' different' kinds' of' real' ecosystems' (Disparity);' and' there' is' a' great'number'of' such' ecosystems,' variously' overlapping' and' nested,' both' temporally' and' spatially' (Plentitude).' 'Varied! Interests,! Disparity,! and' Plentitude' together' imply' that' any' action'we'undertake'to'benefit'one'ecosystem'might'morally' harm' any' number' of' other' ecosystems' of' the' same' or' different' kind.' 'Thus,' the' Pragmatic' Case' is' vexed' with' paralysis:''we'cannot'act'on'pragmatic'grounds.''In'sum,'even' if' there' are' ecosystems' that' have' moral' standing,' we' lack' adequate'practical'reasons'to'act'on'their'behalf.' Where'does'all'of'this'leave'the'conservationist?''If'our' argument' is' correct,' then' conservationists' should' abandon' their' Holist' position,' at' least' insofar' as' it' applies' to' ecosystems.' Conservationists' should' stick' to' instrumental' arguments'to'motivate'ecosystem'management,'even'if'doing' so'(occasionally)'entails'actions'that'at'first'blush'might'seem' unpalatable,' such' as' species' additions' or' deletions' that' improve' ecosystem' function,' or' the'wholesale' conversion' of' one' type' of' ecosystem' into' another' type' if' the' alternative' would' be' more' valuable' to' us.' ' On' the' other' hand,' if' conservations' remain' committed' to' Holism,' then' resolving' the'epistemic'uncertainty'around'Independent!Existence'must' Garcia& &Newman-Is#It#Possible#to#Care#for#Ecosystems?&&&Page 21 of 22& become' an' absolute' research' priority.' ' Without' such' a' resolution,' ecosystem' management' is' a' moral' quagmire,' vexed' with' paralysis' in' that' every' proposed' action' may' be' simultaneously' helpful' and' harmful' to' different' ecosystems,' for'reasons'discussed'above.' 'With'the'choice'of' the'morally' right' action' out' of' reach,' inaction' seems' to' be' the' only' morally'safe'decision.' Acknowledgements## ' The'authors'thank'...' ' References# Ahteensuu,' M.' &' Sandin,' P.' (2012),' The' precautionary' principle,' in' Handbook! of! Risk! Theory:! Epistemology,! Decision! Theory,! Ethics! and! Social! Implications! of! Risk,' Hillerbrand,'R.,'Sandin,'P.,'Roeser,'S.'&'Peterson,'M.,'eds.'' Springer:'961G978.' Gardiner,'S.'M.''2006.'A'core'Precautionary'Principle.''Journal! of!Political!Philosophy,'14:'33G60.' HartzellGNichols,' L.' 2013.' From' 'the'' precautionary' principle' to' precautionary' principles.' Ethics,' Policy' &' Environment,'16:'308–320.''' James,' S.' P.' ' 2013.' Cherished' places' and' ecosystem' services.' Ethics,!Policy!&!Environment,'16:'264G266.' Jax,'K.''2006.'Ecological'units:'definitions'and'application.'The! Quarterly!Review!of!Biology,'81:'237G258.' Jax,' K.' ' 2007.' Can' we' define' ecosystems?'On' the' confusion' between' definition' and' description' of' ecological' concepts.'Acta!biotheoretica,'55:'341G355.'' Jordan,' A.' and' O'Riordan,' T.' 1999.' The' precautionary' principle' in' contemporary' environmental' policy' and' politics,'in'Protecting!Public!Health!and!the!Environment:! Implementing! the! Precautionary! Principle,'Raffensberger,' C.'and'Tickner,'J.'eds.,'Washington,'D.C.:'Island'Press:'15G 35.' Lowe,'E.' J.' '2003.' Individuation.'In:'The!Oxford!Handbook!of! Metaphysics,' Loux,'M.' and' Zimmerman,' D.' eds.'Oxford' University'Press.' Garcia& &Newman-Is#It#Possible#to#Care#for#Ecosystems?&&&Page 22 of 22& Murcia,' C.,' Aronson,' J.,' Kattan,' G.H.,' MorenoGMateos,' D.,' Dixon,'K.,'and'Simberloff,'D.'2014.'A'critique'of'the''novel' ecosystem'' concept.' Trends! in! Ecology! &! Evolution,' 29:' 548G553.' Odenbaugh,' J.' ' 2010.'On' the'Very' Idea' of' an'Ecosystem.' In:' New!Waves!in!Metaphysics!(ed.'A.'Hazlett),'pp.'240G58.' Pigliucci,'M.' ' 2003.' Species' as' family' resemblance' concepts:' The'(disG)'solution'of'the'species'problem?'BioEssays'25:' 596G602.' Sagoff,' M.' ' 2013.' What' does' environmental' protection' protect?'Ethics,!Policy!&!Environment,'16:'239G257.'' Steel,'D.' 2013.' The' precautionary' principle' and' the' dilemma' objection.'Ethics,!Policy!&!Environment,'16:'321–340.' Sunstein,'C.R.' ' 2002.' 'Risk! and! Reason:! Safety,! Law,! and! the! Environment.''Cambridge'University'Press.'' Varner,' G.E.' 1991.' No' holism' without' pluralism.' Environmental!Ethics,'13,'175G179.' Varner,' G.E.' ' 2002.' ' In! Nature's! Interests?! Interests,! Animal! Rights! and! Environmental! Ethics.' ' Oxford' University' Press.' Wingspread' Statement.' 1998.' The' precautionary' principle.' February' 19,' 586;' available'at:' http://www.psrast.org/precaut.htm' (accessed'October' 11,' 2014).' ' Garcia& &Newman-Is#It#Possible#to#Care#for#Ecosystems?&&&Page&23& Figure' 3." Shown" are" three" (of" many)" ecosystems" that" might" reasonably" be" of" management"and/or"scientific"interest."The"Kirkland"Creek"watershed"(lower"left"insert)," which"is"a"part"of"the"Conestoga"River"watershed"(lower"right"insert),"which"itself"is"a"part" of"the"Grand"River"watershed"(shown"in"brown"on"the"main"map)."The"figure"illustrates" that" ecosystems"may"be" variously" overlapping" and"nested."This" is" an" illustration"of" the" Plentitude"thesis." & & & &