text:
General Article

International Journal of Sustainable Building Technology and Urban Development. June 2020. 94-111
https://doi.org/10.22712/susb.20200008

# MAIN

• Introduction

• Literature Review

•   Influencing factors of students’ performance in school

•   Sustainable strategies and energy-saved technologies for public school

• Case descriptions and research methods

•   Overview of Isaac Dickson Elementary School

•   Sustainable strategies and energy saving technologies of Isaac Dickson Elementary School Sustainable sites

•   Water efficiency: rainwater harvesting system

•   Energy efficiency and saving

•   Sustainable materials

•   Indoor air quality

•   Experiential learning

•   Detailed case study: energy saving & solar PV

• Conclusion

Introduction

Under the limited resources and energy, the first primary approach of sustainable building is to save energy consumption in the building. In order to reduce energy use in the building sector, it is necessary to adopt green (sustainable) building technologies and strategies to save energy consumption in the building and minimize any negative environmental and social problems in the built environment. It is an inevitable trend for the energy-saving transformation and sustainability in the built environment. The current situation of traditional campus architecture is high consumption of resources and energy, and the phenomenon of waste is common. Thus, this study addresses on energy saving strategies and technologies on educational facilities. The sustainable design and construction and good operation of a large number of sustainable schools show that sustainable schools can significantly reduce the consumption of energy and improve the learning environment that can enhance students’ health and wellbeing. In addition, it will educate students to learn the importance of sustainable development and environment.

This study aims to identify main strategies and technologies for a sustainable school. Also, the case study research method is adopted to explore the effective energy saving technologies and sustainable strategies of the sustainable school. The reminder of the study is organized as follows; First, extensive literature reviews are conducted to examine the existing energy saving strategies. Second, limitations of the existing strategies are identified based on the reviews. Then, a case study is carried out to understand the effect of energy saving strategies and sustainable design on energy reduction and human safety. Finally, sustainable strategies and applicable technologies are proposed. This study is expected to support decision-makings by building managers in determining effective strategies and technologies to reduce energy consumption in buildings.

Literature Review

The literature review is derived condition of school facilities and indoor environmental factors affecting students’ health and performance and identified sustainable school design strategies and building energy-saved technologies.

Influencing factors of students’ performance in school

Sustainable strategies and energy-saved technologies for public school

#### Solar PV energy generation projection

 Month Solar Thermal Btu PV kWh Btu 1 2,795,349 37,803 128,983,836 2 3,309,440 42,874 146,286,088 3 4,777,708 63,299 215,976,188 4 5,776,791 70,895 241,893,740 5 6,437,098 75,793 258,605,716 6 6,498,890 76,498 261,011,176 7 6,425,961 73,919 252,211,628 8 5,869,119 69,735 237,935,820 9 4,806,807 56,466 192,661,992 10 4,198,592 54,350 185,442,200 11 2,920,728 38,647 131,863,564 12 2,483,517 32,756 111,763,472 Sum 56,300,000 693,035 2,364,635,420

Conclusion

Based on the comprehensive understanding of building sustainability, this study mainly discussed the sustainable strategies and energy-saving technologies applicable to school buildings. In this study, the actual project Isaac Dickson Elementary School（IDES）was used as an example to discuss the economy of sustainable primary school from the perspective of energy consumption. As a result, case study showed that sustainable schools not only can save costs as much as possible but also provide healthy learning and teaching environment for students and staff.

In the future study, additional experiments should be conducted based on various types of buildings in order to validate the economic benefit analysis of the buildings. This study contributes to the literatures on building energy saving and strategy by presenting the life-cycle cost depending on the energy consumption of educational facility. Also, it is expected that this study can be used as a basis of selecting energy strategies and technologies for reducing energy consumption. However, this study only analyzes the energy cost-effectiveness of the case building’s sustainable energy-saving technology, which is a small part of the sustainable building economic benefit analysis. The environmental and social benefits of sustainable building are still worth exploring.

## Acknowledgements

This work was supported by the Korea Institute of Energy Technology Evaluation and Planning (KETEP) and the Ministry of Trade, Industry & Energy (MOTIE) of the Republic of Korea (No. 20172010000370).

## References

1

Earthman, Glen I. "School facility conditions and student academic achievement." (2002).

2

K. G. Rosén and G. Richardson, Would removing indoor air particulates in children's environments reduce rate of absenteeism-a hypothesis, Science of the total environment. 234(1-3) (1999), pp. 87-93.

10.1016/S0048-9697(99)00266-1
3

Y. H. Ahn, Y. O. Choi, B. W. Koh, and A. R. Pearce, Designing sustainable learning environments: Lowering energy consumption in a K-12 facility, College Publishing. 6(4) (2011), pp. 112-137.

10.3992/jgb.6.4.112
4

R. Küller and C. Lindsten, Health and behavior of children in classrooms with and without windows, Journal of Environmental Psychology. 12(4) (1992), pp. 305-317.

10.1016/S0272-4944(05)80079-9
5

P. Wargocki and D. P. Wyon, The effects of moderately raised classroom temperatures and classroom ventilation rate on the performance of schoolwork by children (RP-1257), Hvac&R Research. 13(2) (2007), pp. 193-220.

10.1080/10789669.2007.10390951
6

V. Durán-Narucki, School building condition, school attendance, and academic achievement in New York City public schools: A mediation model, Journal of environmental psychology. 28(3) (2008), pp. 278-286.

10.1016/j.jenvp.2008.02.008
7

E. Simons, S. A. Hwang, E. F. Fitzgerald, C. Kielb, and S. Lin, The impact of school building conditions on student absenteeism in upstate New York, American journal of public health. 100(9) (2010), pp. 1679-1686.

10.2105/AJPH.2009.16532420634471PMC2920982
8

Berman, Jesse D., et al. "School environmental conditions and links to academic performance and absenteeism in urban, mid-Atlantic public schools." International journal of hygiene and environmental health 221.5 (2018): 800-808.

10.1016/j.ijheh.2018.04.01529784550PMC6334301
9

P. Wargocki and D. P. Wyon, Providing better thermal and air quality conditions in school classrooms would be cost-effective, Building and Environment. 59 (2013), pp. 581-589.

10.1016/j.buildenv.2012.10.007
10

Z. Bakó-Biró, D. J. Clements-Croome, N. Kochhar, H. B. Awbi, and M. J. Williams, Ventilation rates in schools and pupils' performance, Building and environment. 48 (2012), pp. 215-223.

10.1016/j.buildenv.2011.08.018
11

M. Turunen, O. Toyinbo, T. Putus, A. Nevalainen, R. Shaughnessy, & U. Haverinen-Shaughnessy, Indoor environmental quality in school buildings, and the health and wellbeing of students, International journal of hygiene and environmental health. 217(7) (2014), pp. 733-739.

10.1016/j.ijheh.2014.03.00224709335
12

L. Xiong, X. Huang, J. Li, P. Mao, X. Wang, R. Wang, & M. Tang, Impact of Indoor Physical Environment on Learning Efficiency in Different Types of Tasks: A 3× 4× 3 Full Factorial Design Analysis, International journal of environmental research and public health, 15(6) (2018), pp. 1256.

10.3390/ijerph1506125629899260PMC6025257
13

USEPA, Energy Efficiency and Indoor Air Quality in Schools. Department of Energy US, advanced energy retrofit guide - K 12 schools Guide; 2013, (2003).

14

[14]Department of Energy US, Advanced energy retrofit guide - K 12 schools. Guide; 2013

15

[15]S. Olson, & J. Carney, Sustainable K-12 Schools, (2006).


text:
How to find the number of homomorphisms of $\mathbb{Z}$ into $\mathbb{Z}$?

Consider the maps $\mu:\mathbb{Z}→\mathbb{Z}$ and $\mu:\mathbb{Z}→\mathbb{Z}_2$. For example if I am asked to find the number of homomorphisms of $\mathbb{Z}$ into $\mathbb{Z}$, and of $\mathbb{Z}$ onto $\mathbb{Z}_2$, what do I have to do? I don't have idea here. Thanks.

-
What kind of homomorphisms? Group homomorphisms and ring homomorphisms, for example, satisfy different conditions, so there are maps that are one but not the other. – Henning Makholm Dec 28 '11 at 15:54
@Junior: Presumably you meant $\mathbb{Z}_2$, not $\mathbb{Z}^2$, since you used the word "onto". Am I correct? – Zev Chonoles Dec 28 '11 at 15:55
A homomorphism $\mu: \mathbb{Z} \to G$ (where $G$ is a group) is uniquely determined by $\mu(1)$ (can you see why?). – Pedro M. Dec 28 '11 at 15:57
@Henning Makholm:group homomorphisms – Junior II Dec 28 '11 at 15:58
@Zev:yes correct – Junior II Dec 28 '11 at 16:02

This question isn't very well-posed, but luckily there's a general answer to your question. The following identities are easily verified

1) $$\text{Hom}(\mathbb{Z},\mathbb{Z})\cong\mathbb{Z}$$

2) When $n\geqslant2$ $$\text{Hom}(\mathbb{Z},\mathbb{Z}_n)\cong\mathbb{Z}_n$$

3) When $n\geqslant 2$ $$\text{Hom}(\mathbb{Z}_n,\mathbb{Z})\cong0$$

4) When $n,m\geqslant2$ $$\text{Hom}(\mathbb{Z}_n,\mathbb{Z}_m)\cong\mathbb{Z}_{(n,m)}$$

With this all in mind, and using the fact that $\text{Hom}$ and $\oplus$ (for finitely many groups) commute in both variables one can deduce that

$$\text{Hom}\left(\mathbb{Z}^r\times\mathbb{Z}_{\ell_1}\times\cdots\times\mathbb{Z}_{\ell_n},\mathbb{Z}^s\times\mathbb{Z}_{k_1}\times\cdots\times\mathbb{Z}_{k_m}\right)\cong\mathbb{Z}^{rs}\times\prod_{j=1}^{m}\mathbb{Z}_{k_j}^m\times\prod_{i=1}^{n}\prod_{j=1}^m\mathbb{Z}_{(\ell_i,k_j)}$$

Of course, this gives you a theoretical way to find the Hom group between any two finitely generated abelian groups, as well.

-

A group homomorphism $f:\mathbb{Z}\to R$ from $\mathbb{Z}$ to any commutative ring $R$ is determined by the image of $1$ since $f(n)=n f(1)$. If $f$ is required to be a ring homomorphism, we know $f(1)=1$, so there is only one homomorphism at all. This property means that $\mathbb{Z}$ is the "initial object" in the category of rings.

-
Dear rattle: I think that $$\sum_{i=1}^{-1}\ f(1)$$ is equal to $0$, not to $-f(1)$. – Pierre-Yves Gaillard Dec 28 '11 at 16:12
what to do if it is a group homomorphism? – Junior II Dec 28 '11 at 16:21
@Pierre-Yves : I believe somehow rattle meant $nf(1)$ but just didn't state his point right. – Patrick Da Silva Dec 28 '11 at 17:02
Dear @PatrickDaSilva: Thanks for your comment! It looks quite convincing to me. – Pierre-Yves Gaillard Dec 28 '11 at 17:44
You guys were right of course. Sorry for the confusion there. Fixed it. – Jesko Hüttenhain Dec 28 '11 at 20:07

format: plain


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298 articles – 2328 Notices  [english version]
 HAL : in2p3-00025549, version 1
 arXiv : astro-ph/0601575
 Astronomy and Astrophysics 448 (2006) L43-L47
 First detection of a VHE gamma-ray spectral maximum from a Cosmic source: H.E.S.S. discovery of the Vela X nebula
 HESS Collaboration(s)
 (2006)
 The Vela supernova remnant (SNR) is a complex region containing a number of sources of non-thermal radiation. The inner section of this SNR, within 2 degrees of the pulsar PSR B0833-45, has been observed by the H.E.S.S. gamma-ray atmospheric Cherenkov detector in 2004 and 2005. A strong signal is seen from an extended region to the south of the pulsar, within an integration region of radius 0.8 deg. around the position (RA = 08h 35m 00s, dec = -45 deg. 36' J2000.0). The excess coincides with a region of hard X-ray emission seen by the ROSAT and ASCA satellites. The observed energy spectrum of the source between 550 GeV and 65 TeV is well fit by a power law function with photon index = 1.45 +/- 0.09(stat) +/- 0.2(sys) and an exponential cutoff at an energy of 13.8 +/- 2.3(stat) +/- 4.1(sys) TeV. The integral flux above 1 TeV is (1.28 +/- 0.17 (stat) +/- 0.38(sys)) x 10^{-11} cm^{-2} s^{-1}. This result is the first clear measurement of a peak in the spectral energy distribution from a VHE gamma-ray source, likely related to inverse Compton emission. A fit of an Inverse Compton model to the H.E.S.S. spectral energy distribution gives a total energy in non-thermal electrons of ~2 x 10^{45} erg between 5 TeV and 100 TeV, assuming a distance of 290 parsec to the pulsar. The best fit electron power law index is 2.0, with a spectral break at 67 TeV.
 Thème(s) : Physique/Astrophysique/Cosmologie et astrophysique extra-galactiquePlanète et Univers/Astrophysique
 Lien vers le texte intégral : http://fr.arXiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0601575
 in2p3-00025549, version 1 http://hal.in2p3.fr/in2p3-00025549 oai:hal.in2p3.fr:in2p3-00025549 Contributeur : Simone Lantz <> Soumis le : Mardi 14 Août 2007, 10:00:36 Dernière modification le : Mardi 14 Août 2007, 10:04:07


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# Compound Interest Questions

Q:

A sum of money lent at compound interest for 2 years at 20% per annum would fetch Rs.482 more, if the interest was payable half yearly than if it was payable annually . The sum is

 A) 10000 B) 20000 C) 40000 D) 50000

Explanation:

Let sum=Rs.x

C.I. when compounded half yearly = $\inline \fn_jvn \left [ x(1+\frac{10}{100})^{4}-x \right ]=\frac{4641}{10000}x$

C.I. when compounded annually =$\inline \fn_jvn \left [ x(\frac{20}{100})^{2}-x \right ]=\frac{11}{25}x$

$\inline \fn_jvn \therefore \frac{4641}{10000}x-\frac{11}{25}x=482$

=> x=20000

60 12991
Q:

A sum of money amounts to Rs.6690 after 3 years and to Rs.10,035 after 6 years on compound interest.find the sum.

 A) 4360 B) 4460 C) 4560 D) 4660

Explanation:

Let the sum be Rs.P.then
P(1+R/100)^3=6690…(i) and P(1+R/100)^6=10035…(ii)
On dividing,we get (1+R/100)^3=10025/6690=3/2.
Substituting this value in (i),we get:
P*(3/2)=6690 or P=(6690*2/3)=4460
Hence,the sum is rs.4460.

28 9550
Q:

What is the rate of interest p.c.p.a.?

I. An amount doubles itself in 5 years on simple interest.

II. Difference between the compound interest and the simple interest earned on a certain amount in 2 years is Rs. 400.

III. Simple interest earned per annum is Rs. 2000

 A) I only B) II and III only C) All I, II and III D) I only or II and III only

Answer & Explanation Answer: D) I only or II and III only

Explanation:

$\inline \fn_jvn I. \frac{P\times R\times 5}{100}=P\Rightarrow R=20$

$\inline \fn_jvn II.P\left ( 1+\frac{R}{100} \right )^2-P-\frac{P\times R\times 2}{100}=400\Rightarrow pR^{2}=4000000$

$\inline \fn_jvn III.\frac{P\times R\times 1}{100}=2000\Rightarrow PR=200000$

$\inline \fn_jvn \therefore \frac{PR^{2}}{PR}=\frac{4000000}{200000}\Rightarrow R=20$

Thus I only or (II and III) give answer.

$\inline \fn_jvn \therefore$ Correct answer is (D)

21 8773
Q:

Find compound interest on Rs. 8000 at 15% per annum for 2 years 4 months, compounded annually

 A) 2109 B) 3109 C) 4109 D) 6109

Explanation:

Time = 2 years 4 months = 2(4/12) years = 2(1/3) years.
Amount = Rs'. [8000 X (1+(15/100))^2 X (1+((1/3)*15)/100)]
=Rs. [8000 * (23/20) * (23/20) * (21/20)]
= Rs. 11109. .
:. C.I. = Rs. (11109 - 8000) = Rs. 3109.

19 8093
Q:

What annual payment will discharge a debt of Rs.7620 due in 3years at$\inline 16\frac{2}{3}$ % per annum interest?

 A) 5430 B) 4430 C) 3430 D) 2430

Explanation:

Let each installment be Rs.x. Then,

(P.W. of Rs.x due 1 year hence) + (P.W of Rs.x due 2 years hence) + (P.W of Rs. X due 3 years hence) = 7620.$\inline \left [ \frac{x}{1+(\frac{50}{3\times 100})} \right ]+\left [ \frac{x}{1+(\frac{50}{3\times 100})^2} \right ]+\left [ \frac{x}{1+(\frac{50}{3\times 100})^3} \right ]=7620$

$\inline \frac{6x}{7}+\frac{36x}{49}+\frac{216x}{343}=7620$

$\inline 294x+252x+216x=7620\times 343$

$\inline \fn_jvn \Rightarrow x=3430$

Amount of each installment = Rs.3430


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# Ship: Map

### Map showing all locations mentioned on Wikipedia article:

A ship ( ) is a large vessel that floats on water. Ships are generally distinguished from boats based on size and cargo or passenger capacity. In traditional terms, ships were considered to be vessels which had at least one continuous water-tight deck extending from bow to stern. However, some modern designs for ships, and boats, have made that particular definition less accurate. Ships may be found on lakes, seas, and rivers and they allow for a variety of activities, such as the transport of people or good, fishing, entertainment, public safety, and warfare.

Ships and boats have developed alongside mankind. In major wars, and in day to day life, they have become an integral part of modern commercial and military systems. Fishing boats are used by millions of fishermen throughout the world. Military forces operate highly sophisticated vessels to transport and support forces ashore. Commercial vessels, nearly 35,000 in number, carried 7.4 billion tons of cargo in 2007.

These vessels were also key in history's great explorations and scientific and technological development. Navigators such as Zheng He spread such inventions as the compass and gunpowder. Ships have been used for such purposes as colonization and the slave trade, and have served scientific, cultural, and humanitarian needs.

As Thor Heyerdahl demonstrated with his tiny craft the Kon-Tiki, it is possible to navigate long distances upon a simple log raft. From Mesolithic canoes to today's powerful nuclear-powered aircraft carriers, ships tell the history of human technological development.

## Nomenclature

Ships can usually be distinguished from boats based on size and the ship's ability to operate independently for extended periods. A commonly used rule of thumb is that if one vessel can carry another, the larger of the two is a ship. As dinghies are common on sailing yachts as small as , this rule of thumb is not foolproof. In a more technical and now rare sense, the term ship refers to a sailing ship with at least 3 square-rigged masts and a full bowsprit.

A number of large vessels are traditionally referred to as boats. Submarines are a prime example. Other types of large vessels which are traditionally called boats are the Great Lakes freighter, the riverboat, and the ferryboat. Though large enough to carry their own boats and heavy cargoes, these vessels are designed for operation on inland or protected coastal waters.

## History

### Prehistory and antiquity

The history of boats parallels the human adventure. The first known boats date back to the Neolithic Period, about 10,000 years ago. These early vessels had limited function: they could move on water, but that was it. They were used mainly for hunting and fishing. The oldest dugout canoes found by archaeologists were often cut from coniferous tree logs, using simple stone tools.

By around 3000 BC, Ancient Egyptians already knew how to assemble planks of wood into a ship hull. They used woven straps to lash the planks together, and reeds or grass stuffed between the planks helped to seal the seams. The Greek historian and geographer Agatharchides had documented ship-faring among the early Egyptians: "During the prosperous period of the Old Kingdom, between the 30th and 25th centuries B. C., the river-routes were kept in order, and Egyptian ships sailed the Red Sea as far as the myrrh-country." Sneferu's ancient cedar wood ship Praise of the Two Lands is the first reference recorded (2613 BCE) to a ship being referred to by name. Anzovin, item # 5393, page 385 Reference to a ship with a name appears in an inscription of 2613 BCE that recounts the shipbuilding achievements of the fourth-dynasty Egyptian pharaoh Sneferu. He was recorded as the builder of a cedarwood vessel called "Praise of the Two Lands."

By about 2000 BC, Minoan civilization in Crete had evolved into a naval power exercising effective control of the sea in the eastern Mediterranean. It is known that ancient Nubia/Axum traded with India, and there is evidence that ships from Northeast Africa may have sailed back and forth between India/Sri Lanka and Nubia trading goods and even to Persia, Himyar and Rome. Aksum was known by the Greeks for having seaports for ships from Greece and Yemen. Elsewhere in Northeast Africa, the Periplus of the Red Sea reports that Somalis, through their northern ports such as Zeila and Berbera, were trading frankincense and other items with the inhabitants of the Arabian Peninsula well before the arrival of Islam as well as with then Roman-controlled Egypt.
The Swahili people had various extensive trading ports dotting the cost of medieval East Africa and Great Zimbabwe had extensive trading contacts with Central Africa, and likely also imported goods brought to Africa through the Southeast African shore trade of Kilwa in modern-day Tanzania.

At about the same time, people living near Kongens Lyngby in Denmark invented the segregated hull, which allowed the size of boats to gradually be increased. Boats soon developed into keel boats similar to today's wooden pleasure craft.

The first navigators began to use animal skins or woven fabrics as sails. Affixed to the top of a pole set upright in a boat, these sails gave early ships range. This allowed men to explore widely, allowing, for example the settlement of Oceania about 3,000 years ago.

The ancient Egyptians were perfectly at ease building sailboats. A remarkable example of their shipbuilding skills was the Khufu ship, a vessel in length entombed at the foot of the Great Pyramid of Giza around 2,500 BC and found intact in 1954. According to Herodotus, the Egyptians made the first circumnavigation of Africa around 600 BC.

The Phoenicians and Greeks gradually mastered navigation at sea aboard triremes, exploring and colonizing the Mediterranean via ship. Around 340 BC, the Greek navigator Pytheas of Massalia ventured from Greece to Western Europe and Great Britain. In the course of the 2nd century BC, Rome went on to destroy Carthage and subdue the Hellenistic kingdoms of the eastern Mediterranean, achieving complete mastery of the inland sea, that they called Mare Nostrum.

Before the introduction of the compass, celestial navigation was the main method for navigation at sea. In China, early versions of the magnetic compass were being developed and used in navigation between 1040 and 1117. The true mariner's compass, using a pivoting needle in a dry box, was invented in Europe no later than 1300.

### Renaissance

Until the Renaissance, navigational technology remained comparatively primitive. This absence of technology didn't prevent some civilizations from becoming sea powers. Examples include the maritime republics of Genoa and Venice, Hanseatic League, and the Byzantine navy. The Vikings used their knarrs to explore North America, trade in the Baltic Sea and plunder many of the coastal regions of Western Europe.
Towards the end of the fourteenth century, ships like the carrack began to develop towers on the bow and stern. These towers decreased the vessel's stability, and in the fifteenth century, the caravel, a descendent of the Arabic qarib which could sail closer to the wind, became more widely used. The towers were gradually replaced by the forecastle and sterncastle, as in the carrack Santa María of Christopher Columbus. This increased freeboard allowed another innovation: the freeing port, and the artillery associated with it.
In the sixteenth century, the use of freeboard and freeing ports become widespread on galleons. The English modified their vessels to maximize their firepower and demonstrated the effectiveness of their doctrine, in 1588, by defeating the Spanish Armada.

At this time, ships were developing in Asia in much the same way as Europe. Japan used defensive naval techniques in the Mongol invasions of Japan in 1281. It is likely that the Mongols of the time took advantage of both European and Asian shipbuilding techniques. In Japan, during the Sengoku era from the fifteenth to seventeenth century, the great struggle for feudal supremacy was fought, in part, by coastal fleets of several hundred boats, including the atakebune.

During the Age of the Ajuuraan, the Somali sultanates and republics of Merca, Mogadishu, Barawa, Hobyo and their respective ports flourished, enjoying a lucrative foreign commerce with ships sailing to and coming from Arabia, India, Venetia, Persia, Egypt, Portugal and as far away as China. In the 1500s, Duarte Barbosa noted that many ships from the Kingdom of Cambaya in what is modern-day India sailed to Mogadishu with cloths and spices, for which they in return received gold, wax and ivory. Barbosa also highlighted the abundance of meat, wheat, barley, horses, and fruit on the coastal markets, which generated enormous wealth for the merchants.

Middle Age Swahili Kingdoms are known to have had trade port islands and trade routes with the Islamic world and Asia and were described by Greek historians are "metropolises". Famous African trade ports such as Mombasa, Zanzibar, and Kilwa were known to Chinese sailors such as Zheng He and medieval Islamic historians such as the Berber Islamic voyager Abu Abdullah ibn Battua. In the 14th century CE King Abubakari I, the brother of King Mansa Musa of the Mali Empire is thought to have had a great armada of ships sitting on the coast of West Africa. This is corroborated by ibn Battuta himself who recalls several hundred Malian ships off the coast. This has lead to great speculation, with historical evidence, that it is possible that Malian sailors may have reached the coast of Pre-Columbian America under the rule of Abubakari II, nearly two hundred years before Christopher Columbus and that black traders may have been in the Americas before Columbus.
Fifty years before Christopher Columbus, Chinese navigator Zheng He traveled the world at the head of what was for the time a huge armada. The largest of his ships had nine masts, were long and had a beam of . His fleet carried 30,000 men aboard 70 vessels, with the goal of bringing glory to the Chinese emperor.

The carrack and then the caravel were developed in Iberia. After Columbus, European exploration rapidly accelerated, and many new trade routes were established. In 1498, by reaching India, Vasco da Gama proved that the access to the Indian Ocean from the Atlantic was possible. These explorations in the Atlantic and Indian Oceans were soon followed by France, England and the Netherlands, who explored the Portuguese and Spanish trade routes into the Pacific Ocean, reaching Australia in 1606 and New Zealand in 1642. A major sea power, the Dutch in 1650 owned 16,000 merchant ships. In the 17th century Dutch explorers such as Abel Tasman explored the coasts of Australia, while in the 18th century it was British explorer James Cook who mapped much of Polynesia.

### Specialization and modernization

Parallel to the development of warships, ships in service of marine fishery and trade also developed in the period between antiquity and the Renaissance. Still primarily a coastal endeavor, fishing is largely practiced by individuals with little other money using small boats.

Maritime trade was driven by the development of shipping companies with significant financial resources. Canal barges, towed by draft animals on an adjacent towpath, contended with the railway up to and past the early days of the industrial revolution. Flat-bottomed and flexible scow boats also became widely used for transporting small cargoes. Mercantile trade went hand-in-hand with exploration, self-financed by the commercial benefits of exploration.

During the first half of the eighteenth century, the French Navy began to develop a new type of vessel known as a ship of the line, featuring seventy-four guns. This type of ship became the backbone of all European fighting fleets. These ships were long and their construction required 2,800 oak trees and of rope; they carried a crew of about 800 sailors and soldiers.

RMS Olympic arrives in New York on her maiden voyage
During the 19th century the Royal Navy enforced a ban on the slave trade, acted to suppress piracy, and continued to map the world. A clipper was a very fast sailing ship of the 19th century. The clipper route fell into commercial disuse with the introduction of steam ships, and the opening of the Suez and Panama Canals.

Ship designs stayed fairly unchanged until the late nineteenth century. The industrial revolution, new mechanical methods of propulsion, and the ability to construct ships from metal triggered an explosion in ship design. Factors including the quest for more efficient ships, the end of long running and wasteful maritime conflicts, and the increased financial capacity of industrial powers created an avalanche of more specialized boats and ships. Ships built for entirely new functions, such as firefighting, rescue, and research, also began to appear.

In light of this, classification of vessels by type or function can be difficult. Even using very broad functional classifications such as fishery, trade, military, and exploration fails to classify most of the old ships. This difficulty is increased by the fact that the terms such as sloop and frigate are used by old and new ships alike, and often the modern vessels sometimes have little in common with their predecessors.

### Today

In 2007, the world's fleet included 34,882 commercial vessels with gross tonnage of more than 1,000 tons, totaling 1.04 billion tons. These ships carried 7.4 billion tons of cargo in 2006, a sum that grew by 8% over the previous year. In terms of tonnage, 39% of these ships are tanker, 26% are bulk carriers, 17% container ships and 15% were other types.

In 2002, there were 1,240 warships operating in the world, not counting small vessels such as patrol boats. The United States accounted for 3 million tons worth of these vessels, Russia 1.35 million tons, the United Kingdom 504,660 tons and China 402,830 tons. The twentieth century saw many naval engagements during the two world wars, the Cold War, and the rise to power of naval forces of the two blocs. The world's major powers have recently used their naval power in cases such as the United Kingdom in the Falkland Islands and the United States in Iraq.

The size of the world's fishing fleet is more difficult to estimate. The largest of these are counted as commercial vessels, but the smallest are legion. Fishing vessels can be found in most seaside villages in the world. As of 2004, the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization estimated 4 million fishing vessels were operating worldwide. The same study estimated that the world's 29 million fishermen caught 85.8 million metric tons of fish and shellfish that year.

## Types of ships

Ships are difficult to classify, mainly because there are so many criteria to base classification on. One classification is based on propulsion; with ships categorised as either a sailing ship or a motorship. Sailing ships are ships which are propelled solely by means of sails. Motorships are ships which are propelled by mechanical means to propel itself. Motorships include ships that propel itself through the use of both sail and mechanical means.

Other classification systems exist that use criteria such as:

• The number of hulls, giving categories like monohull, catamaran, trimaran.
• The shape and size, giving categories like dinghy, keelboat, and icebreaker.
• The building materials used, giving steel, aluminum, wood, fiberglass, and plastic.
• The type of propulsion system used, giving human-propelled, mechanical, and sails.
• The epoch in which the vessel was used, triremes of Ancient Greece, man' o' wars, eighteenth century.
• The geographic origin of the vessel, many vessels are associated with a particular region, such as the pinnace of Northern Europe, the gondolas of Venice, and the junks of China.
• The manufacturer, series, or class.

Another way to categorize ships and boats is based on their use, as described by Paulet and Presles. This system includes military ships, commercial vessels, fishing boats, pleasure craft and competitive boats. In this section, ships are classified using the first four of those categories, and adding a section for lake and river boats, and one for vessels which fall outside these categories.

### Commercial vessels

Commercial vessels or merchant ships can be divided into three broad categories: cargo ships, passenger ships, and special-purpose ships. Cargo ships transport dry and liquid cargo. Dry cargo can be transported in bulk by bulk carriers, packed directly onto a general cargo ship in break-bulk, packed in intermodal containers as aboard a container ship, or driven aboard as in roll-on roll-off ships. Liquid cargo is generally carried in bulk aboard tankers, such as oil tankers, chemical tankers and LNG tankers.

Passenger ships range in size from small river ferries to giant cruise ships. This type of vessel includes ferries, which move passengers and vehicles on short trips; ocean liners, which carry passengers on one-way trips; and cruise ships, which typically transport passengers on round-trip voyages promoting leisure activities onboard and in the ports they visit.

Special-purpose vessels are not used for transport but are designed to perform other specific tasks. Examples include tugboats, pilot boats, rescue boats, cable ships, research vessels, survey vessels, and ice breakers.

Most commercial vessels have full hull-forms to maximize cargo capacity. Hulls are usually made of steel, although aluminum can be used on faster craft, and fiberglass on the smallest service vessels. Commercial vessels generally have a crew headed by a captain, with deck officers and marine engineers on larger vessels. Special-purpose vessels often have specialized crew if necessary, for example scientists aboard research vessels. Commercial vessels are typically powered by a single propeller driven by a diesel engine. Vessels which operate at the higher end of the speed spectrum may use pump-jet engines or sometimes gas turbine engines.

### Naval vessels

There are many types of naval vessels currently and through history. Modern naval vessels can be broken down into three categories: warships, submarines, and support and auxiliary vessels.

Modern warships are generally divided into seven main categories, which are: aircraft carriers, cruisers, destroyers, frigates, corvettes, submarines and amphibious assault ships. Battleships encompass an eighth category, but are not in current service with any navy in the world.

Most military submarines are either attack submarines or ballistic missile submarines. Until World War II , the primary role of the diesel/electric submarine was anti-ship warfare, inserting and removing covert agents and military forces, and intelligence-gathering. With the development of the homing torpedo, better sonar systems, and nuclear propulsion, submarines also became able to effectively hunt each other. The development of submarine-launched nuclear missiles and submarine-launched cruise missiles gave submarines a substantial and long-ranged ability to attack both land and sea targets with a variety of weapons ranging from cluster bombs to nuclear weapons.

Most navies also include many types of support and auxiliary vessels, such as minesweeper, patrol boats, offshore patrol vessels, replenishment ships, and hospital ships which are designated medical treatment facilities.

Combat vessels like cruisers and destroyers usually have fine hulls to maximize speed and maneuverability. They also usually have advanced electronics and communication systems, as well as weapons.

### Fishing vessels

Fishing vessels are a subset of commercial vessels, but generally small in size and often subject to different regulations and classification. They can be categorized by several criteria: architecture, the type of fish they catch, the fishing method used, geographical origin, and technical features such as rigging. As of 2004, the world's fishing fleet consisted of some 4 million vessels. Of these, 1.3 million were decked vessels with enclosed areas and the rest were open vessels. Most decked vessels were mechanized, but two-thirds of the open vessels were traditional craft propelled by sails and oars. More than 60% of all existing large fishing vessels were built in Japan, Peru, the Russian Federation, Spain or the United States of America.

Fishing boats are generally small, often little more than but up to for a large tuna or whaling ship. Aboard a fish processing vessel, the catch can be made ready for market and sold more quickly once the ship makes port. Special purpose vessels have special gear. For example, trawlers have winches and arms, stern-trawlers have a rear ramp, and tuna seiners have skiffs.

In 2004, 85.8 million metric tons of fish were caught in the marine capture fishery. Anchoveta represented the largest single catch at 10.7 million metric tons. That year, the top ten marine capture species also included Alaska pollock, Blue whiting, Skipjack tuna, Atlantic herring, Chub mackerel, Japanese anchovy, Chilean jack mackerel, Largehead hairtail, and Yellowfin tuna. Other species including salmon, shrimp, lobster, clams, squid and crab, are also commercially fished.

Modern commercial fishermen use many methods. One is fishing by nets, such as purse seine, beach seine, lift nets, gillnets, or entangling nets. Another is trawling, including bottom trawl. Hooks and lines are used in methods like long-line fishing and hand-line fishing). Another method is the use of fishing trap.

### Inland and coastal boats

Many types of boats and ships are designed for inland and coastal waterways. These are the vessels that trade upon the lakes, rivers and canals.

Barges are a prime example of inland vessels. Flat-bottomed boats built to transport heavy goods, most barges are not self-propelled and need to be moved by tugboats towing or towboats pushing them. Barges towed along canals by draft animals on an adjacent towpath contended with the railway in the early industrial revolution but were out competed in the carriage of high value items because of the higher speed, falling costs, and route flexibility of rail transport.

Riverboats and inland ferries are specially designed to carry passengers, cargo, or both in the challenging river environment. Rivers present special hazards to vessels. They usually have varying water flows that alternately lead to high speed water flows or protruding rock hazards. Changing siltation patterns may cause the sudden appearance of shoal waters, and often floating or sunken logs and trees (called snags) can endanger the hulls and propulsion of riverboats. Riverboats are generally of shallow draft, being broad of beam and rather square in plan, with a low freeboard and high topsides. Riverboats can survive with this type of configuration as they do not have to withstand the high winds or large waves that are seen on large lakes, seas, or oceans.

Lake freighters, also called lakers, are cargo vessels that ply the Great Lakes. The most well-known is the , the latest major vessel to be wrecked on the Lakes. These vessels are traditionally called boats, not ships. Visiting ocean-going vessels are called "salties." Because of their additional beam, very large salties are never seen inland of the Saint Lawrence Seaway. Because the largest of the Soo Locks is larger than any Seaway lock, salties that can pass through the Seaway may travel anywhere in the Great Lakes. Because of their deeper draft, salties may accept partial loads on the Great Lakes, "topping off" when they have exited the Seaway. Similarly, the largest lakers are confined to the Upper Lakes (Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie) because they are too large to use the Seaway locks, beginning at the Welland Canal that bypasses the Niagara River.

Since the freshwater lakes are less corrosive to ships than the salt water of the oceans, lakers tend to last much longer than ocean freighters. Lakers older than 50 years are not unusual, and as of 2005, all were over 20 years of age.

The St. Mary's Challenger, built in 1906 as the William P Snyder, is the oldest laker still working on the Lakes. Similarly, the E.M. Ford, built in 1898 as the Presque Isle, was sailing the lakes 98 years later in 1996. As of 2007 the Ford was still afloat as a stationary transfer vessel at a riverside cement silo in Saginaw, Michigan.

## Architecture

Some components exist in vessels of any size and purpose. Every vessel has a hull of sorts. Every vessel has some sort of propulsion, whether it's a pole, an ox, or a nuclear reactor. Most vessels have some sort of steering system. Other characteristics are common, but not as universal, such as compartments, holds, a superstructure, and equipment such as anchors and winches.

### The hull

For a ship to float, its weight must be less than that of the water displaced by the ship's hull. There are many types of hulls, from logs lashed together to form a raft to the advanced hulls of America's Cup sailboats. A vessel may have a single hull (called a monohull design), two in the case of catamarans, or three in the case of trimarans. Vessels with more than three hulls are rare, but some experiments have been conducted with designs such as pentamarans. Multiple hulls are generally parallel to each other and connected by rigid arms.

Hulls have several elements. The bow is the foremost part of the hull. Many ships feature a bulbous bow. The keel is at the very bottom of the hull, extending the entire length of the ship. The rear part of the hull is known as the stern, and many hulls have a flat back known as a transom. Common hull appendages include propellers for propulsion, rudders for steering, and stabilizers to quell a ship's rolling motion. Other hull features can be related to the vessel's work, such as fishing gear and sonar dome.

Hulls are subject to various hydrostatic and hydrodynamic constraints. The key hydrostatic constraint is that it must be able to support the entire weight of the boat, and maintain stability even with often unevenly distributed weight. Hydrodynamic constraints include the ability to withstand shock waves, weather collisions and groundings.

Older ships and pleasure craft often have or had wooden hulls. Steel is used for most commercial vessels. Aluminium is frequently used for fast vessels, and composite materials are often found in sailboats and pleasure craft. Some ships have been made with concrete hulls.

### Propulsion systems

A bird's eye view of a ship's engineroom

Propulsion systems for ships fall into three categories: human propulsion, sailing, and mechanical propulsion. Human propulsion includes rowing, which was used even on large galleys. Propulsion by sail generally consists of a sail hoisted on an erect mast, supported by stays and spars and controlled by ropes. Sail systems were the dominant form of propulsion until the nineteenth century. They are now generally used for recreation and competition, although experimental sail systems, such as the turbosails, rotorsails, and wingsails have been used on larger modern vessels for fuel savings.

Mechanical propulsion systems generally consist of a motor or engine turning a propeller, or less frequently, an impeller. Steam engines were first used for this purpose, but have mostly been replaced by two-stroke or four-stroke diesel engines, outboard motors, and gas turbine engines on faster ships. Nuclear reactors producing steam are used to propel warships and icebreakers, and there have been attempts to utilize them to power commercial vessels.

There are many variations of propeller systems, including twin, contra-rotating, controllable-pitch, and nozzle-style propellers. Smaller vessels tend to have a single propeller. Large vessels use multiple propellers, supplemented with bow- and stern-thrusters. Power is transmitted from the engine to the propeller by way of a propeller shaft, which may or may not be connected to a gearbox. Some modern vessels use electric motors connected directly to the propeller shaft, usually powered by generators. These electric systems are often more energy efficient than other systems where the engine is mechanically connected to the propeller.

### Steering systems

On boats with simple propulsion systems, such as paddles, steering systems may not be necessary. In more advanced designs, such as boats propelled by engines or sails, a steering system becomes more necessary. The most common is a rudder, a submerged plane located at the rear of the hull. Rudders are rotated to generate a lateral force which turns the boat. Rudders can be rotated by a tiller, manual wheels, or electro-hydraulic systems. Autopilot systems combine mechanical rudders with navigation systems. Ducted propellers are sometimes used for steering.

Some propulsion systems are inherently steering systems. Examples include the outboard motor, the bow thruster, and the Z-drive. Some sails, such as jibs and the mizzen sail on a ketch rig, are used more for steering than propulsion.

### Holds, compartments, and the superstructure

Larger boats and ships generally have multiple decks and compartments. Separate berthings and head are found on sailboats over about . Fishing boats and cargo ships typically have one or more cargo holds. Most larger vessels have an engine room, a galley, and various compartments for work. Tanks are used to store fuel, engine oil, and fresh water. Ballast tanks are equipped to change a ship's trim and modify its stability.

Superstructures are found above the main deck. On sailboats, these are usually very low. On modern cargo ships, they are almost always located near the ship's stern. On passenger ships and warships, the superstructure generally extends far forward.

### Equipment

Shipboard equipment varies from ship to ship depending on such factors as the ship's era, design, area of operation, and purpose. Some types of equipment that are widely found include:

• Mast can be the home of antennas, navigation lights, radar transponders, fog signals, and similar devices often required by law.
• Ground tackle includes equipment such as mooring winches, windlasses, and anchors. Anchors are used to moor ships in shallow water. They are connected to the ship by a rope or chain. On larger vessels, the chain runs through a hawsepipe.
• Cargo equipment such as cranes and cargo booms are used to load and unload cargo and ship's stores.
• Safety equipment such as lifeboat, liferafts, fire extinguishers, and survival suits are carried aboard many vessels for emergency use.

## Design considerations

### Hydrostatics

Boats and ships are kept on (or slightly above) the water in three ways:

• For most vessels, known as displacement vessels, the vessel's weight is offset by that of the water displaced by the hull.
• For planing ships and boats, such as the hydrofoil, the lift developed by the movement of the foil through the water increases with the vessel's speed, until the vessel is foilborne.
• For non-displacement craft such as hovercraft and air-cushion vehicles, the vessel is suspended over the water by a cushion of high-pressure air it projects downwards against the surface of the water.

A vessel is in equilibrium when the upwards and downwards forces are of equal magnitude. As a vessel is lowered into the water its weight remains constant but the corresponding weight of water displaced by its hull increases. When the two forces are equal, the boat floats. If weight is evenly distributed throughout the vessel, it floats without trim or heel.

A vessel's stability is considered in both this hydrostatic sense as well as a hydrodynamic sense, when subjected to movement, rolling and pitching, and the action of waves and wind. Stability problems can lead to excessive pitching and rolling, and eventually capsizing and sinking.

### Hydrodynamics

A system of waves forms as Dona Delfina gains speed and begins to plane.
The advance of a vessel through water is resisted by the water. This resistance can be broken down into several components, the main ones being the friction of the water on the hull and wave making resistance. To reduce resistance and therefore increase the speed for a given power, it is necessary to reduce the wetted surface and use submerged hull shapes that produce low amplitude waves. To do so, high-speed vessels are often more slender, with fewer or smaller appendages. The friction of the water is also reduced by regular maintenance of the hull to remove the sea creatures and algae that accumulate there. Antifouling paint is commonly used to assist in this. Advanced designs such as the bulbous bow assist in decreasing wave resistance.

A simple way of considering wave-making resistance is to look at the hull in relation to its wake. At speeds lower than the wave propagation speed, the wave rapidly dissipates to the sides. As the hull approaches the wave propagation speed, however, the wake at the bow begins to build up faster than it can dissipate, and so it grows in amplitude. Since the water is not able to "get out of the way of the hull fast enough", the hull, in essence, has to climb over or push through the bow wave. This results in an exponential increase in resistance with increasing speed.

This hull speed is found by the formula:

\mbox{knots} \approx 1.34 \times \sqrt{L \mbox{ft}}

or, in metric units:

\mbox{knots} \approx 2.5 \times \sqrt{L \mbox{m}}

where L is the length of the waterline in feet or meters.

When the vessel exceeds a speed/length ratio of 0.94, it starts to outrun most of its bow wave, and the hull actually settles slightly in the water as it is now only supported by two wave peaks. As the vessel exceeds a speed/length ratio of 1.34, the hull speed, the wavelength is now longer than the hull, and the stern is no longer supported by the wake, causing the stern to squat, and the bow rise. The hull is now starting to climb its own bow wave, and resistance begins to increase at a very high rate. While it is possible to drive a displacement hull faster than a speed/length ratio of 1.34, it is prohibitively expensive to do so. Most large vessels operate at speed/length ratios well below that level, at speed/length ratios of under 1.0.

For large projects with adequate funding, hydrodynamic resistance can be tested experimentally in a hull testing pool or using tools of computational fluid dynamics.

Vessels are also subject to ocean surface waves and sea swell as well as effects of wind and weather. These movements can be stressful for passengers and equipment, and must be controlled if possible. The rolling movement can be controlled, to an extent, by ballasting or by devices such as fin stabilizers. Pitching movement is more difficult to limit and can be dangerous if the bow submerges in the waves, a phenomenon called pounding. Sometimes, ships must change course or speed to stop violent rolling or pitching.

## Lifecycle

A ship will pass through several stages during its career. The first is usually an initial contract to build the ship, the details of which can vary widely based on relationships between the shipowners, operators, designers and the shipyard. Then, the design phase carried out by a naval architect. Then the ship is constructed in a shipyard. After construction, the vessel is launched and goes into service. Ships end their careers in a number of ways, ranging from shipwrecks to service as a museum ship to the scrapyard.

### Design

A vessel's design starts with a specification, which a naval architect uses to create a project outline, assess required dimensions, and create a basic layout of spaces and a rough displacement. After this initial rough draft, the architect can create an initial hull design, a general profile and an initial overview of the ship's propulsion. At this stage, the designer can iterate on the ship's design, adding detail and refining the design at each stage.

The designer will typically produce an overall plan, a general specification describing the peculiarities of the vessel, and construction blueprints to be used at the building site. Designs for larger or more complex vessels may also include sail plans, electrical schematics, and plumbing and ventilation plans.

As environmental laws are strictening, ship designers need to create their design in such a way that the ship -when it nears its end-of-term- can be disassmbled or disposed easily and that waste is reduced to a minimum.

### Construction

Ship construction takes place in a shipyard, and can last from a few months for a unit produced in series, to several years to reconstruct a wooden boat like the frigate Hermione, to more than 10 years for an aircraft carrier. Hull materials and vessel size play a large part in determining the method of construction. The hull of a mass-produced fiberglass sailboat is constructed from a mold, while the steel hull of a cargo ship is made from large sections welded together as they are built.

Generally, construction starts with the hull, and on vessels over about 30 meters, by the laying of the keel. This is done in a drydock or on land. Once the hull is assembled and painted, it is launched. The last stages, such as raising the superstructure and adding equipment and accommodation, can be done after the vessel is afloat.

Once completed, the vessel is delivered to the customer. Ship launching is often a ceremony of some significance, and is usually when the vessel is formally named. A typical small rowboat can cost under US$100,$1,000 for a small speedboat, tens of thousands of dollars for a cruising sailboat, and about $2,000,000 for a Vendée Globe class sailboat. A trawler may cost$2.5 million, and a 1,000-person-capacity high-speed passenger ferry can cost in the neighborhood of $50 million. A ship's cost partly depends on its complexity: a small, general cargo ship will cost$20 million, a Panamax-sized bulk carrier around $35 million, a supertanker around$105 million and a large LNG carrier nearly $200 million. The most expensive ships generally are so because of the cost of embedded electronics: a Seawolf class submarine costs around$2 billion, and an aircraft carrier goes for about \$3.5 billion.

### Repair and conversion

Ships undergo nearly constant maintenance during their career, whether they be underway, pierside, or in some cases, in periods of reduced operating status between charters or shipping seasons.

Most ships, however, require trips to special facilities such as a drydock at regular intervals. Tasks often done at drydock include removing biological growths on the hull, sandblasting and repainting the hull, and replacing sacrificial anodes used to protect submerged equipment from corrosion. Major repairs to the propulsion and steering systems as well as major electrical systems are also often performed at dry dock.

Vessels that sustain major damage at sea may be repaired at a facility equipped for major repairs, such as a shipyard. Ships may also be converted for a new purpose: oil tankers are often converted into floating production storage and offloading units.

Ship graveyard in France

### End of service

Most ocean-going cargo ships have a life expectancy of between 20 and 30 years. A sailboat made of plywood or fiberglass can last between 30 and 40 years. Solid wooden ships can last much longer but require regular maintenance. Carefully maintained steel-hulled yachts can have a lifespan of over 100 years.

As ships age, forces such as corrosion, osmosis, and rotting compromise hull strength, and a vessel becomes too dangerous to sail. At this point, it can be scuttled at sea or scrapped by shipbreakers. Ships can also be used as museum ships, or expended to construct breakwaters or artificial reefs.

Many ships do not make it to the scrapyard, and are lost in fires, collisions, grounding, or sinking at sea.

## Measuring ships

One can measure ships in terms of overall length, length of the ship at the waterline, beam (breadth), depth (distance between the crown of the weather deck and the top of the keelson), draft (distance between the highest waterline and the bottom of the ship) and tonnage. A number of different tonnage definitions exist and are used when describing merchant ships for the purpose of tolls, taxation, etc.

In Britain until Samuel Plimsoll's Merchant Shipping Act of 1876, ship-owners could load their vessels until their decks were almost awash, resulting in a dangerously unstable condition. Anyone who signed on to such a ship for a voyage and, upon realizing the danger, chose to leave the ship, could end up in jail. Plimsoll, a Member of Parliament, realised the problem and engaged some engineers to derive a fairly simple formula to determine the position of a line on the side of any specific ship's hull which, when it reached the surface of the water during loading of cargo, meant the ship had reached its maximum safe loading level. To this day, that mark, called the "Plimsoll Line", exists on ships' sides, and consists of a circle with a horizontal line through the centre. On the Great Lakes of North America the circle is replaced with a diamond. Because different types of water (summer, fresh, tropical fresh, winter north Atlantic) have different densities, subsequent regulations required painting a group of lines forward of the Plimsoll mark to indicate the safe depth (or freeboard above the surface) to which a specific ship could load in water of various densities. Hence the "ladder" of lines seen forward of the Plimsoll mark to this day. This is called the "freeboard mark" or "load line mark" in the marine industry.

## Ship pollution

Ship pollution is the pollution of air and water by shipping. It is a problem that has been accelerating as trade has become increasingly globalized, posing an increasing threat to the world’s oceans and waterways as globalization continues. It is expected that, “…shipping traffic to and from the USA is projected to double by 2020." Because of increased traffic in ocean ports, pollution from ships also directly affects coastal areas. The pollution produced affects biodiversity, climate, food, and human health. However, the degree to which humans are polluting and how it affects the world is highly debated and has been a hot international topic for the past 30 years.

### Oil spills

Oil spills have devastating effects on the environment. Crude oil contains polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) which are very difficult to clean up, and last for years in the sediment and marine environment. Marine species constantly exposed to PAHs can exhibit developmental problems, susceptibility to disease, and abnormal reproductive cycles.

By the sheer amount of oil carried, modern oil tankers must be considered something of a threat to the environment. An oil tanker can carry of crude oil, or 62,000,000 gallons. This is more than six times the amount spilled in the widely known Exxon Valdez incident. In this spill, the ship ran aground and dumped 10.8 million gallons of oil into the ocean in March 1989. Despite efforts of scientists, managers, and volunteers, over 400,000 seabirds, about 1,000 sea otters, and immense numbers of fish were killed.

The International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation has researched 9,351 accidental spills since 1974. According to this study, most spills result from routine operations such as loading cargo, discharging cargo, and taking on fuel oil. 91% of the operational oil spills were small, resulting in less than 7 tons per spill. Spills resulting from accidents like collisions, groundings, hull failures, and explosions are much larger, with 84% of these involving losses of over 700 tons.

Following the Exxon Valdez spill, the United States passed the Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (OPA-90), which included a stipulation that all tankers entering its waters be double-hulled by 2015. Following the sinkings of the Erika (1999) and Prestige (2002), the European Union passed its own stringent anti-pollution packages (known as Erika I, II, and III), which require all tankers entering its waters to be double-hulled by 2010. The Erika packages are controversial because they introduced the new legal concept of "serious negligence".

### Ballast water

A cargo ship pumps ballast water over the side
When a large vessel such as a container ship or an oil tanker unloads cargo, seawater is pumped into compartments in the hull to help stabilize and balance the ship. During loading, this ballast water is pumped out from these compartments.

One of the problems with ballast water transfer is the transport of harmful organisms. Meinesz believes that one of the worst cases of a single invasive species causing harm to an ecosystem can be attributed to a seemingly harmless jellyfish. Mnemiopsis leidyi, a species of comb jellyfish that inhabits estuaries from the United States to the Valdés peninsula in Argentina along the Atlantic coast, has caused notable damage in the Black Sea. It was first introduced in 1982, and thought to have been transported to the Black Sea in a ship’s ballast water. The population of the jellyfish shot up exponentially and, by 1988, it was wreaking havoc upon the local fishing industry. "The anchovy catch fell from 204,000 tons in 1984 to 200 tons in 1993; sprat from 24,600 tons in 1984 to 12,000 tons in 1993; horse mackerel from 4,000 tons in 1984 to zero in 1993." Now that the jellyfish have exhausted the zooplankton, including fish larvae, their numbers have fallen dramatically, yet they continue to maintain a stranglehold on the ecosystem. Recently the jellyfish have been discovered in the Caspian Sea. Invasive species can take over once occupied areas, facilitate the spread of new diseases, introduce new genetic material, alter landscapes and jeopardize the ability of native species to obtain food. "On land and in the sea, invasive species are responsible for about 137 billion dollars in lost revenue and management costs in the U.S. each year."

Ballast and bilge discharge from ships can also spread human pathogens and other harmful diseases and toxins potentially causing health issues for humans and marine life alike. Discharges into coastal waters, along with other sources of marine pollution, have the potential to be toxic to marine plants, animals, and microorganisms, causing alterations such as changes in growth, disruption of hormone cycles, birth defects, suppression of the immune system, and disorders resulting in cancer, tumors, and genetic abnormalities or even death.

### Exhaust emissions

Exhaust stack on a container ship.
Exhaust emissions from ships are considered to be a significant source of air pollution. “Seagoing vessels are responsible for an estimated 14 percent of emissions of nitrogen from fossil fuels and 16 percent of the emissions of sulfur from petroleum uses into the atmosphere.” In Europe ships make up a large percentage of the sulfur introduced to the air, “…as much sulfur as all the cars, lorries and factories in Europe put together.” “By 2010, up to 40% of air pollution over land could come from ships.” Sulfur in the air creates acid rain which damages crops and buildings. When inhaled sulfur is known to cause respiratory problems and increase the risk of a heart attack.

### Ship breaking

Ship breaking or ship demolition is a type of ship disposal involving the breaking up of ships for scrap recycling, with the hulls being discarded in ship graveyards. Most ships have a lifespan of a few decades before there is so much wear that refitting and repair becomes uneconomical. Ship breaking allows materials from the ship, especially steel, to be reused.

In addition to steel and other useful materials, however, ships (particularly older vessels) can contain many substances that are banned or considered dangerous in developed countries. Asbestos and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are typical examples. Asbestos was used heavily in ship construction until it was finally banned in most of the developed world in the mid 1980s. Currently, the costs associated with removing asbestos, along with the potentially expensive insurance and health risks, have meant that ship-breaking in most developed countries is no longer economically viable. Removing the metal for scrap can potentially cost more than the scrap value of the metal itself. In the developing world, however, shipyards can operate without the risk of personal injury lawsuits or workers' health claims, meaning many of these shipyards may operate with high health risks. Protective equipment is sometimes absent or inadequate. Dangerous vapors and fumes from burning materials can be inhaled, and dusty asbestos-laden areas are commonplace.

Aside from the health of the yard workers, in recent years, ship breaking has also become an issue of major environmental concern. Many ship breaking yards in developing nations have lax or no environmental law, enabling large quantities of highly toxic materials to escape into the environment and causing serious health problems among ship breakers, the local population and wildlife. Environmental campaign groups such as Greenpeace have made the issue a high priority for their campaigns.

Model ships

Lists

## Notes

1. UNCTAD 2007, p. x and p. 32.
2. Cutler 1999, p. 620.
3. Cutler 1999, p. 611.
4. Ward, Cheryl. "World's Oldest Planked Boats," in Archaeology (Volume 54, Number 3, May/June 2001). Archaeological Institute of America, [1].
5. The earliest known Egyptian boats date to 3000 B.C. and were found in Abydos in 1991. They consisted of planks joined by ropes passing through mortises. Similar boats dating to 2600 B.C. were found in 1954 and 1987 in pits at the Great Pyramid of Khufu in Giza. In 1894, Egyptian boats composed of planks joined by mortises and tenons were found in Dashur. See: http://www.abc.se/~m10354/uwa/wreckmed.htm#Khufu .
6. Agatharchides, in Wilfred Harvey Schoff (Secretary of the Commercial Museum of Philadelphia) with a foreword by W. P. Wilson, Sc. Director, The Philadelphia Museums. Periplus of the Erythraean Sea: Travel and Trade in the Indian Ocean by a Merchant of the First Century, Translated from the Greek and Annotated (1912). New York, New York: Longmans, Green, and Co., pages 50 (for attribution) and 57 (for quote).
7. " Minoan civilization". Encyclopædia Britannica.
8. Aksum An African Civilization of Late Antiquity by Stuart Munro-Hay
9. Chisholm, 1911:703.
10. Li Shu-hua, “Origine de la Boussole 11. Aimant et Boussole,” Isis, Vol. 45, No. 2. (Jul., 1954), p.181
11. Frederic C. Lane, “The Economic Meaning of the Invention of the Compass,” The American Historical Review, Vol. 68, No. 3. (Apr., 1963), p.615ff.
12. Chisholm, 1911:284.
13. Journal of African History pg.50 by John Donnelly Fage and Roland Anthony Oliver
14. East Africa and its Invaders pg.38
15. Africa's Part in the Discovery of America by the New York Times
16. " The European Golden Age of Shipping". Discovery Channel.
17. Love, Ronald S., "Maritime exploration in the age of discovery, 1415-1800", Greenwood guides to historic events, 1500-1900, Greenwood Publishing Group, 2006, ISBN 0313320438
18. " The Middle Colonies: New York ". Digital History.
21. UNFAO 2005, p.6.
22. UNFAO 2005, p.9.
23. UNCTAD 2007, p. xii uses a similar, but slightly more detailed classification system.
24. With the addition of corvettes, this is the categorization used at
25. Hospital Ship (definition via WordNet, Princeton University)
26. Cutter, 1999, p. 224.
27. UNFAO, 2007, p. 25.
28. UNFAO defines a large fishing vessel as one with gross tonnage over 100 GT.
29. UNFAO, 2007, p. 28.
30. UNFAO, 2007, p. 11.
31. Office of Data and Economic Analysis, 2006, p. 2.
32. Watson, T. (2004, August 30). Ship pollution clouds USA's skies. USA Today. Retrieved November 1, 2006, from http://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2004-08-30-ship-pollution_x.htm
33. Meinesz, A. (2003). Deep Sea Invasion. The Impact of Invasive Species. PBS: NOVA. Retrieved November 26, 2006, from http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/algae/impact.html
34. Panetta, L. E. (Chair) (2003). America's living oceans: charting a course for sea change [Electronic Version, CD] Pew Oceans Commission.
35. National Research Council, Committee on the Ocean's Role in Human Health, Ocean Studies Board, Commission on Geosciences, Environment, and Resources. (1999). From monsoons to microbes: understanding the ocean's role in human health. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press
36. Harrabin, R. (2003, June 25). EU faces ship clean-up call. BBC News. Retrieved November 1, 2006, from http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3019686.stm

## References

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Use this URL to cite or link to this record in EThOS: http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.541216
Title: A stably finite analogue of the Cuntz algebra O2
Author: Jacelon, Bhishan
Awarding Body: University of Glasgow
Current Institution: University of Glasgow
Date of Award: 2011
Availability of Full Text:
 Access from EThOS: Access from Institution:
Abstract:
The Elliott Programme seeks classification of simple, separable, nuclear $C^*$-algebras via a functor based on $K$-theory. There are a handful of $C^*$-algebras, including the Cuntz algebras $\mathcal{O}_2$ and $\mathcal{O}_\infty$, that play particularly important roles in the programme. It is principally in this context that the Jiang-Su algebra $\mathcal{Z}$ is regarded as an analogue of $\mathcal{O}_\infty$, and this thesis proposes an analogue of $\mathcal{O}_2$ in a similar fashion. More specifically, we construct a simple, nuclear, stably projectionless $C^*$-algebra $W$ which has trivial $K$-theory and a unique tracial state, and we prove that $W$ shares some of the properties of the $C^*$-algebras named above. In particular, we show that every trace-preserving endomorphism of $W$ is approximately inner, and that $W$ admits a trace-preserving embedding into the central sequences algebra $M(W)\cap W'$. While we do not quite prove that $W\otimes W \cong W$, we show how this can be deduced from a conjectured generalization of an existing classification theorem. Assuming this conjecture, we also show that $W$ is absorbed tensorially by a large class of $C^*$-algebras with trivial $K$-theory. Finally, we provide presentations of both $\mathcal{Z}$ and $W$ as universal $C^*$-algebras, leading us to suggest that, in addition to its position as a stably finite analogue of $\mathcal{O}_2$, $W$ may be also thought of, both intrinsically and extrinsically, as a stably projectionless analogue of $\mathcal{Z}$.
Supervisor: Not available Sponsor: Not available
Qualification Name: Thesis (Ph.D.) Qualification Level: Doctoral
EThOS ID: uk.bl.ethos.541216  DOI: Not available
Keywords: QA Mathematics
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Finding the volume of solid bounded by planes $x-2y+z=12$, $z=0$, $x=0$, and $y=x$. Trouble setting up double integral.

I want to find the volume of the solid bounded by the planes $x-2y+z=12$, $z=0$, $x=0$, and $y=x$, but I'm having a hard time setting up the double integral that will be evaluated to find the volume. I'll show my work up until I get stuck.

Step #1) Describe what is known:

• $x-2y+z=12 \rightarrow z=-x+2y+12$ which is what the solid is "under."
• $z=0$ is the $xy$-plane, meaning the solid will not go past/below that.
• $x=0$ is the $yz$-plane, meaning the solid will stop there/not go past that.
• $y=x$ is a line in $2D$ but this will be a plane in $3D$, obviously, it also bounds the solid.

Step #2) Graph everything to get an idea of what is going on (sorry for non-digital):

Graph of $z=0,\;\;\;x=0,\;\;\;y=x$ all together

The one above is of the plane $x-2y+z=12$.

This is about where I get stuck. I don't know how to get my region $D$, but I do know what I will be integrating just not the limits of it: $$V=\iint_D(12-x+2y)\,dA$$ where the stuff being integrated is the equation/plane that the solid is under. This might be too abstract, but when I set the $-x+2y+12$ equal to zero and solve for $y$, and then graph both that and $y=x$ they intersect in a different quadrant than the one that I drew $x-2y+z=12$ in.

I wish I could show more work, but this is where I'm stuck. I'm sure that when I figure out how to get the limits I will be able to integrate it easily.

Thanks for any help!

EDIT: Will this be my region D? [$y={x\over 2}-6$ and $y=x$] The whole thing? Nothing intersects it so I would assume so.

First of all, your depiction of the plane $x=0$ is wrong. In the two-dimensional $xy$-plane, $x=0$ is the equation of the $y$-axis, not the $x$-axis. So in the three-dimensional space, $x=0$ is the vertical plane containing the $y$-axis, not the $x$-axis. Because of that, the correct region $D$ will be the third-quadrant part of what's on your last picture (in the edit).
• Great catch! Thank you! That means my dy limits will be from $y={x\over 2}-6$ to $y=x$. My dx limits will be from $x={x\over 2}-6 \rightarrow 2x=x-12 \rightarrow x=-12$ to $x=0$. – JustHeavy Mar 20 '18 at 19:26


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# How would one construct a 3D model of a molecule based on the crystal structure of its salts?

Often crystal structures found online from past published crystallography experiments are of the salt of a molecule of biologic interest, as opposed to the freebase form of the molecule itself. For example, I have a CIF file for mescaline hydrobromide (CCDC 1211316) at the moment that I would like to create a 3D model of mescaline from. Would removing the extra hydrogen atom on the amine group (i.e., changing the $\ce{NH_{3}^+}$ to $\ce{NH_2}$) and the free bromide ion suffice or will I also have to optimize the structure's geometry? If I do need to optimize it, or otherwise modify it beyond the procedure I just pointed out, please tell me how to do it with free software (Avogadro, for instance).

In general, the crystal structure of a molecule is a highly accurate geometry. So yes, you can take a salt and modify as needed. (The caveat in the comment is useful - keep in mind that different groups may be protonated or deprotonated depending on solvent and pH.)

There are two other caveats:

1) The conformation in the crystal structure is not necessarily the lowest energy conformer in solution or the gas phase. You may wish to perform a conformer search to find a low-energy minima.

2) If you are performing further calculations (e.g., DFT for electronic structure, force fields for MD, etc.) the geometry of the crystal structure will not likely be a minima of the computational method, so geometry optimization or equilibration (for MD) is needed before further simulation.

That said, the crystal geometry is a good place to start for many uses. Certainly if a crystal structure is available, I'd suggest you use it rather than build a geometry by hand.

• How would I do a conformer search for a low-energy minima & those further calculations in Avogadro? I'm a newbie when it comes to Avogadro, so step-by-step instructions in Avogadro would be much appreciated. – BH2017 May 28 '15 at 11:15
• avogadro.cc/wiki/Extensions_Menu - There's Extensions > Molecular Mechanics > Conformer Search – Geoff Hutchison May 28 '15 at 11:47
• So which type of conformer search should I use? Systematic rotor, random rotor, weighted rotor or genetic algorithm? What parameters should I use? Like I realize some of these parameters will be up to myself to decide but which ones would likely give the best results? How do I do DFT for electronic structure and MD? It might help if you could give their full names too so I might look them up for myself. Thanks for your time, though, I do appreciate it. – BH2017 May 28 '15 at 12:10


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## Probability ,, urgent plz =(

The outcome ofa particular game of chance is an integer from 1 to 5. Integers 1,2and 3 are equally likely to occur. and integers 4 and 5 are equallylikely to occur. The probability that outcome is greater than 2 is1/2 . Find the probability of each possible outcome.


text:
Want to share your content on R-bloggers? click here if you have a blog, or here if you don't.

The R package seasonal makes it easy to use X-13ARIMA-SEATS, the seasonal adjustment software by the United States Census Bureau. Thanks to the x13binary package, installing it from CRAN is now as easy as installing any other R package:

install.packages("seasonal")

The latest version 1.3 comes with a new udg function and a customizable summary method, which give power users of X-13 a convenient way to check the statistics that are of their interest. For a full list of changes, see the package NEWS.

### A generalized way to access diagnostics

Version 1.3 offers a generalized way to access diagnostic statistics. In seasonal, it was always possible to use all options of X-13 and access all output series. Now it is easy to access all diagnostics as well.

The main new function is udg, named after the X-13 output file which it is reading. Consider a simple call to seas (the main function of the seasonal package) that uses the X-11 seasonal adjustment method:

m <- seas(AirPassengers, x11 = "")
udg(m)

The udg function returns a list containing 357 named diagnostics. They are properly type-converted, so they can be directly used for further analysis within R.

If we ask for a specific statistic, such as the popular X-11 M statistics, the result will be simplified to a numeric vector (see ?udg for additional options):

udg(m, c("f3.m01", "f3.m02", "f3.m03", "f3.m04"))

## f3.m01 f3.m02 f3.m03 f3.m04
##  0.041  0.042  0.000  0.283

There are also some new wrappers for commonly used statistics, such as AICBIC, logLik or qs, which use the udg function.

### A customizable summary

The new functionality paves the way for a customizable summary method for seas objects. For example, if we want to add the M statistics for X-11 adjustments to the summary, we can write:

summary(m, stats = c("f3.m01", "f3.m02", "f3.m03", "f3.m04"))

## Call:
## seas(x = AirPassengers, x11 = "")
##
## Coefficients:
##                     Estimate Std. Error z value Pr(>|z|)
## Weekday           -0.0029497  0.0005232  -5.638 1.72e-08 ***
## Easter[1]          0.0177674  0.0071580   2.482   0.0131 *
## AO1951.May         0.1001558  0.0204387   4.900 9.57e-07 ***
## MA-Nonseasonal-01  0.1156204  0.0858588   1.347   0.1781
## MA-Seasonal-12     0.4973600  0.0774677   6.420 1.36e-10 ***
## ---
## Signif. codes:  0 ‘***’ 0.001 ‘**’ 0.01 ‘*’ 0.05 ‘.’ 0.1 ‘ ’ 1
##
## X11 adj.  ARIMA: (0 1 1)(0 1 1)  Obs.: 144  Transform: log
## AICc: 947.3, BIC: 963.9  QS (no seasonality in final):    0
## Box-Ljung (no autocorr.): 26.65   Shapiro (normality): 0.9908
## f3.m01: 0.041  f3.m02: 0.042  f3.m03: 0  f3.m04: 0.283

Note the new line at the end, which shows the M statistics.

If we want to routinely consider these statistics in our summary, we can set the seas.stats option accordingly:

options(seas.stats = c("f3.m01", "f3.m02", "f3.m03", "f3.m04"))

This will change the default behavior, and

summary(m)

will return the same output as above. To restore the default behavior, set the option back to NULL.

options(seas.stats = NULL)


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### Fundamentals Of Physics

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# In Fig.${\mathbf{7}}{\mathbf{}}{\mathbf{-}}{\mathbf{}}{\mathbf{30}}$, a block of ice slides down a frictionless ramp at angle ${\mathbit{\theta }}{\mathbf{=}}{{\mathbf{50}}}^{{\mathbf{\circ }}}$while an ice worker pulls on the block (via a rope) with a force $\stackrel{\mathbf{\to }}{\mathbf{F}}$that has a magnitude of ${\mathbf{50}}{\mathbf{}}{\mathbf{}}{\mathbit{N}}{\mathbf{}}$and is directed up the ramp. As the block slides through distance ${\mathbit{d}}{\mathbf{=}}{\mathbf{0}}{\mathbf{.}}{\mathbf{50}}{\mathbf{}}{\mathbit{m}}$along the ramp, its kinetic energy increases by . How much greater would its kinetic energy have been if the rope had not been attached to the block?

Kinetic Energywould begreater by $25\text{J}$ ifthe rope had not been attached to the block.

See the step by step solution

## Step 1: Given data

1. The angle of the ramp from the ground is, $\theta ={50}^{\circ }$.
2. Applied force by rope, ${F}_{\text{r}}=50\text{N}$.
3. Sliding distance, $d=0.50\text{m}$.

## Step 2: Understanding the concept

From the figure, we can say thatthe block is moving inadownward direction. If the rope is attached, the kinetic energy will decrease by some amount. We have to find this kinetic energy.

Formula:

Work done$W=Fd$

## Step 3: Calculate how much greater would the kinetic energy have been if the rope had not been attached to the block

We know that the work done can be calculated as,

$W={F}_{r}d$

Substitute the values in the above expression, and we get,

$W=-\left(50×0.50\right)\phantom{\rule{0ex}{0ex}}W=-25\text{J}\phantom{\rule{0ex}{0ex}}$

The negative sign says thatthe work done is along the opposite direction of motion of the block, which means the motion of the block and the pull from the rope are in opposite directions.

If there is no rope attached to the system, the block will move freely downward. Hence, kinetic energy will increase by $25\text{J}$as comparedto when a rope is attached to the system.

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