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International Journal of
Sports and Exercise Medicine
ISSN: 2469-5718

Within - and between - Session Reliability of the Spider Drill Test to Assess Change of Direction Speed in Youth Tennis Athletes

Jessica Huggins1, Paul Jarvis1, Jon Brazier2, Yianni Kyriacou1 and Chris Bishop1

1London Sport Institute, Middlesex University, UK

2Department of Sport and Exercise Science, City and Islington College, UK

*Corresponding author: Chris Bishop, London Sport Institute, Middlesex University, Allianz Park, Greenlands Lane, NW4 1RL, UK, E-mail: C.Bishop@mdx.ac.uk

Received: May 25, 2017 | Accepted: September 18, 2017 | Published: September 20, 2017

Citation: Huggins J, Jarvis P, Brazier J, Kyriacou Y, Bishop C (2017) Within - and between - Session Reliability of the Spider Drill Test to Assess Change of Direction Speed in Youth Tennis Athletes. Int J Sports Exerc Med 3:074. doi.org/10.23937/2469-5718/1510074

Copyright: © 2017 Huggins J, et al. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Abstract

Agility or Change of Direction Speed (CODS) is a critical physical attribute in a sport such as tennis, which is categorised by frequent and multiple changes of direction. Recently, a CODS test called the 'spider drill' has been used to assess tennis athletes' ability to change direction. To the authors' knowledge, no study has solely assessed its reliability and compared this with other commonly-used CODS tests; thus, this was the aim of the study. Ten nationally ranked youth tennis athletes (age: 15.1 ± 2.6; mass: 66.4 + 17.2 kg; height: 163.0 + 16.2 cm) completed three trials of the spider drill, modified t-test and pro-agility test on two separate testing occasions. All CODS tests had low typical percentage error, both within-sessions (CV = 1.8 - 4.1%), and between session (CV = 1.2 - 3.7%). The SEM was also consistent within tests both within- and between- testing sessions. Within-session test-retest consistency illustrates strong reliability for the spider drill (ICC = 0.93, 0.95), modified t-test (ICC = 0.79, 0.83), however for pro-agility session 2 fell outside of the accepted threshold (ICC = 0.88, 0.69). These trends were similar when assessing between-session consistency, with both the spider drill and modified t-test providing high levels of reliability (ICC = 0.95 and 0.97 respectively). However, the pro-agility fell outside of the accepted threshold (ICC = 0.66), with 95% confidence intervals wide-ranging in nature (95% CI: 0.11 - 0.9). These results suggest that the spider drill and modified t-test are both reliable tests when measuring CODS within youth tennis athletes. Strength and conditioning practitioners could consider changes in excess of ± 1.1% as meaningful (based off the SDD) when assessing CODS through the spider drill or modified t-test within youth tennis athletes.

Keywords

CODS, Change of direction, Reliability, Spider drill, Modified t-test, Pro-agility

Introduction

Agility has been identified as key to athletic success within numerous intermittent sports [1-5], with tennis being a prime example [6-8]. Within typical tennis match play, literature reports the average point length to last less than 10 seconds, with an average of 4 changes of direction per point [9,10]. Proficient movement in multiple directions, especially the lateral plane of motion is required [7,11], and this is supported by time motion analysis data which has shown elite players average four changes in direction per point and approximately 1000 changes in direction per match [7]. Additionally, Roetert, et al. [8] also concluded that agility was the best physical indicator to selection ranking amongst elite players. Considering agility is an integral component to athletic success in tennis, Strength and Conditioning (S&C) coaches need to be able to successfully assess a player's performance for this physical attribute. The importance of a field-based assessment throughout the year has proven beneficial to an athlete's development, as coaches can then accurately monitors an athletes progress and highlight strengths and weaknesses in order to tailor training programmes accordingly [10-12].

Despite its importance towards the tennis population, the definition of agility is often the subject of debate amongst the sport science community [13-16]. Within the literature, agility has been referred to by several definitions [13,14,16-20]. The most recent definition of agility describes elements of decision making and perceptual motor skills and has therefore caused many to suggest that some field-based assessments used by S&C coaches are inappropriate due to their lack of response to a stimulus [13,14,21]. However, it should be noted that recreating the 'decision-making' aspect of agility may in fact be incognisant. A review by Kovacs [7] highlights how every point in tennis is vastly different in nature, rendering the cognitive and perceptual demands as inconsistent. As a result of this, Change of Direction Speed (CODS) tests are considered favourable [15].

Two commonly used CODS assessments are the modified t-test and pro-agility [11,22,23]. Both are argued to be suitable and practical methods for the assessment of CODS performance of tennis players due to their emphasis on both linear and lateral movement patterning, acceleration and subsequent deceleration, of which is considered highly important for tennis performance [6,7,11]. Equally, both assessments cover a total distance of 20 m, which may be pertinent to tennis as distances covered tend not to exceed 12 m [23]. However, though these two CODS assessments are heavily documented within the literature to produce reliable and sufficient results [15,22,23], to the authors' knowledge, they have not been examined specifically amongst the tennis population. Additionally, a less well-known CODS assessment is gaining popularity among the United States Tennis Association (USTA); the spider drill [8,12,24,25]. Though Eriksson, et al. [12] acknowledges that the movement patterns observed within this drill are very much like the movement patterns seen within tennis match play, at present there appears to be limited recognition to the application of the spider drill within the literature, particularly in respect to its reliability within youth tennis athletes [8,24,25].

As CODS is considered key to athletic success among tennis players [6-8,11], it is within the interest of S&C coaches to select the most appropriate field-based assessment that can mimic the movement patterns of the sport and monitor the effects of training amongst athletes year-round [11,12,21]. Therefore, the primary aim of this study is to conduct a direct evaluation of all three previously mentioned CODS assessments (spider drill, modified t-test and pro-agility) in respect to their test retest reliability within elite youth tennis athletes, and to identify the Smallest Detectable Difference (SDD) between testing sessions.

Methods

Approach to the problem

In order to fulfil the requirements of this study, nationally ranked tennis athletes were required to attend three separate testing sessions. Session 1 was a familiarisation session, whereby participants were subjected to the experimental conditions. This enabled all participants to practice each of the CODS assessments 5 times, with a full verbal explanation and visual demonstration provided. Sessions 2 and 3 were data collection sessions, where by all subjects completed three trials for each of the CODS tests.

Subjects

Ten elite youth tennis athletes (age: 15.1 ± 2.6; mass: 66.4 + 17.2 kg; height: 163.0 + 16.2 cm) from a high-performance tennis academy volunteered to participate in this study. All participants were nationally ranked (within the top 700 players for their respective age group in the UK). Participants were excluded from the study if they did not have a national ranking and/or were suffering from an injury at the time of testing. Prior to any performance testing, medical screening in the form of a PAR-Q and consent form were completed. Where participants were under 18 years of age, a consent form and information sheet was provided to their parents/guardians for them to sign on behalf of the individual. Ethical approval was granted by the London Sport Institute, Middlesex University.

Procedures

All participants were required to complete a total of three trials on each of the testing days for all three CODS assessments, to enable the calculation of both within- and between- session reliability. All trials were completed on an indoor tennis court located at a high-performance tennis academy, with the timing of testing controlled for and thus conducted at the same time of day for each individual respectively. Total time was recorded using electronic timing gates (Brower Timing System, Salt Lake City, Utah, USA), and was recorded to the nearest hundredth of a second. In line with previous CODS research [15], athletes were given a minimum rest period of three minutes between each trial, and three minutes between each test. If/when athletes breached the methodological guidelines for each test (e.g. by failing to reach the line for a COD step), the trial was voided, and an additional trial was conducted following three minutes of rest. Athletes were provided with a standardised warm-up progressive in specificity to the demands of the CODS tests prior to each testing session, inclusive of warm up trials for each of these tests respectively. This was to both minimise the risk of injury, but also to negate any potential warm up effect/learning effect within trials throughout data collection. The warm-up procedure followed a similar protocol to the RAMP methodology (i.e. raise, activate, mobilise and potentiate), which has been suggested to be an effective protocol to follow prior to physical activity [26].

Spider drill

Considering the spider drill is less well known in the academic literature, a schematic has been provided outlining test protocols (Figure 1). Timing gates were set up at a height of 1 m for all participants 3 m behind the baseline, so as to avoid any collisions when returning to the centre point after each sprint. On command, participants were instructed to break the beam of the timing gates officially starting the assessment. Participants were required to complete all sprints as outlined in Figure 1, starting with the sprint to the right first (number 1) and then working in an anti-clockwise direction thereafter. Sprint numbers 1 and 5 represent a distance of 4.11 m whilst numbers 2, 3 and 4 each measure 5.49 m. Each sprint required athletes to return to the centre point on the baseline before starting the next. Once the final sprint was completed (returning from 'sprint 5' as viewed in Figure 1), athletes were required to turn right 90° to complete the three metre sprint through the timing gates completing the test.

Figure 1: Schematic of the Spider Drill. View Figure 1

Modified T-test

Test protocols were conducted in line with previously validated procedures [23], with timing gates were set at a height of 1 m. Due to the distances typically covered by tennis players (somewhat dictated by court dimensions), the modified version of this test was utilised. Athletes were asked to cover a total distance of 20 m forming a "T" shape. A single cone was set up at 5 m from the timing gates, and then two more cones either side of the first cone at 2.5 m. On command, participants sprinted forward, through the timing gates, and touched the middle cone with their right hand. Participants then side shuffled 2.5 m to their left (touching the cone with their left hand) and then proceeded to side shuffle 5 m to the far right cone (this time touching down with their right hand). A side shuffle of 2.5 m left was then performed back to the centre cone (touching down with their left hand) before back-pedalling 5 m through the timing gates to complete the test.

Pro-Agility test

Athletes started 0.3 m just to the left of the timing gates (set at a height of 1 m) so as to not risk 'breaking the beam' prior to the commencement of the test. Upon instruction, athletes turned right, cutting the beam and starting the test. This involved a 5-yard sprint to the right whereby all athletes were instructed to touch the cone with their right hand. An immediate 180° turn was conducted and athletes were required to sprint 10-yards to the opposing cone where they were required to touch down with their left hand. A second 180° turn was required before sprinting back further 5-yards, finishing the test as they passed through the timing gates for the third and final time.

Statistical Analysis

All data analysis was completed using SPSS (V18.0; SPSS, Inc., Chicago, Illinois, USA) and Microsoft Excel™. Means and Standard Deviations (SD) were calculated from each individuals fastest sprint time for each of the CODS test, for each of the testing days. Normality of the data was established through a Shapiro-Wilk test (due to < 50 participants), and both within- and between- session reliability determined via three separate methods: A Coefficient of Variation (CV), a Standard Error of Measurement (SEM), and a two-way random Intraclass Correlation Coefficient (ICC) with absolute agreement. This modality of ICC was used due to its capacity to detect absolute agreement within both rank and score. To coincide with previous research, accepted CV values were set at < 10% [27], and ICC values reported above 0.75 were accepted as reliable [23,27,28]. All measures of within-session reliability were determined through the three trials for each of the CODS tests. All measures of between-session reliability were determined through use of the fastest trial from the pooled trials from each given testing day. SDD was subsequently calculated from the SEM to detect random error scores between testing sessions, and thus to detect meaningful differences. Initially, the SEM was calculated through the equation: $\left[SD\left[pooled\right]\ast \sqrt{1-ΙCC\right]}.$ Subsequently, SDD was calculated through the equation:

$\left[1.96\ast \left(\sqrt{2}\right)\ast SEM\right]$ [29].

Results

The Shapiro-Wilk test concluded all data to be normally distributed (p > 0.05). Mean, SD, CV, SEM, and ICC values reporting reliability within-sessions are displayed in Table 1, and between-session reliability reported within Table 2. All CV values (both within- and between- testing sessions) are below the accepted threshold of 10% (1.21 - 4.1%), and SEM values are consistent within tests both within- and between- testing sessions.

Table 1: Within-session reliability for each of the three CODS assessments. View Table 1

Table 2: Between-session reliability for each of the three CODS assessments. View Table 2

The spider drill provided high test retest reliability, as illustrated through the ICC, both within-session (ICC = 0.93 - 0.95) and between-sessions (ICC = 0.95). The modified t-test also provided high test retest reliability both within- (ICC = 0.79 - 0.83) and between-sessions (ICC = 0.97). Lower test retest consistency was identified however for the Pro-Agility test, with ICC scores within-session ranging from 0.69 - 0.88 (95% CI: 0.36 - 0.97), and between-session identified as 0.66 (95% CI: 0.11 - 0.9).

All values for SDD are provided within Table 2, with data reported both in absolute terms (seconds), but also as a percentage (%) of their best time.

Discussion

To the authors' knowledge, a small sample of literature to date has assessed the reliability and validity of both the modified t-test [23] and pro-agility [15,22] CODS tests, which are theorised to be applicable CODS assessments for youth tennis athletes [11]. However, this is the first study to evaluate the reliability (both within- and between- testing sessions) of the spider drill CODS assessment in comparison to other CODS assessments specifically within elite youth tennis athletes. Overall, our results indicate that the spider drill is a reliable measure of CODS within youth tennis athletes, and can be used with confidence to detect meaningful differences in CODS.

All CODS assessments achieved low typical percentage error, with this both within-session (CV = 1.8 - 4.1%) and between-session (CV = 1.2 - 3.7%). In addition, SEM values were recorded in order to identify which CODS test had the smallest margin of error, as this can assist in detecting true changes when these are greater than the error in the test [15]. Results identified these to be consistent within all tests both within- and between- testing sessions. However, when this information is coupled with test retest consistency data through the ICC, the pro-agility appears to be less reliable than initially anticipated, with both within-session (e.g. testing session 2: ICC = 0.69, 95% CI: 0.36 - 0.90), and between-sessions (ICC = 0.66, 95% CI: 0.11 - 0.90) reliability falling outside of the proposed threshold. These findings are contradictory to those from Stewart, et al. [15], of whom found high intraday reliability (ICC = 0.9, 95% CI: 0.84 - 0.94) for pro-agility within a sample of physical education students of similar ages to those of the present study (16.7 ± 0.6 years), and to those of Mayhew, et al. [22], who concluded the pro-agility test to hold strong reliability (ICC = 0.8). While measures of consistency are important, Stewart, et al. [15] alluded to research which may suggest that within-subject error (i.e. CV and SEM) may be a better measure of reliability, given the importance of detecting error on an individual level to ensure accurate monitoring of performance. The greatest SEM values were also identified however for the pro-agility test both within- and between- sessions (SEM = 0.1 - 0.11 & 0.13 respectively), this somewhat surprising given the overall time to complete the test was the shortest of the three.

Previous studies examining the reliability and validity of CODS assessment have employed participants of similar age ranges. Within this study, though all ten participants held a national ranking, the variation in age range can theoretically suggest each participant has had a different level of exposure or experience in terms of playing career; therefore, suggesting some may be more accustomed to the procedures of these assessments than others. Additionally, sample size may have been a limiting factor when comprehending the lower reliability scores within the pro-agility test to those previous suggested within the literature. Whilst this is can only be deemed speculative in nature, it should be noted that all data was identified to be normally distributed, thus allowing for parametric data analysis. As such, the results of this study can be determined applicable to a range of ages in youth tennis athletes, however future studies should look to utilise an athletic population from one age bracket in order to assume the likelihood of similar experience and playing exposure. This will therefore eradicate any issues regarding interage group reliability of such tests. As such, this will allow for a more holistic understanding of both within- and between- age groups, allowing practitioners to more precise when monitoring changes in scores within these CODS tests.

In conclusion, the present study has highlighted that both the spider drill and modified t-test are reliable tests to assess youth tennis athletes CODS ability. In order to be able to generalise these findings outside of youth tennis athletes, a wider population sample would be required. However, the aim of this investigation was solely to provide reliability statistics to support the use of the spider drill as a means of reliably assessing CODS within youth tennis athletes, and the findings support this notion.

With this in mind therefore, the use of the spider drill and modified t-test would be recommended based off their reliability both within- and between- testing sessions, with high test sensitivity to detect change (as illustrated through the SDD). In addition, results from the present study highlight that the pro-agility test may not be the most appropriate CODS test to use for elite youth tennis athletes.

Furthermore, speculation by Roberts, et al. [11] suggests that more than one CODS test should be considered when monitoring changes in CODS, attributing this to the vast complexity of movement patterns completed throughout tennis match play. Given how varied movement patterns occur within the spider drill, when compared to the modified t-test, but also of the notable differences in total time taken to complete these tests, it may be suggested that if practitioners are to use more than one CODS test, that test selection is dictated by the demands of the test, and thus movements that occur. With the spider drill demanding 180° turns, and the modified t-test incorporating lateral movements, it could be suggested that both of these tests hold strong ecological validity, thus supporting their use within youth tennis athletes. Future research however should look to explore this concept further.

Practical Application

The results from this study highlight that the spider drill and modified t-test are both reliable measures of CODS within youth tennis athletes, and can be used with confidence to detect meaningful differences in CODS. Strength and conditioning coaches and sport science practitioners could consider changes in excess of ± 1.1% as meaningful when assessing CODS through the aforementioned CODS tests within youth tennis athletes, given that they are familiarised to the demands of such tests before hand.


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# Conditional Expectation of X given X^2

What can we say about $E[X|X^2]$ in general? And if $X$ has density $f$ respect the Lebesgue measure?

I also obtained the same result as @sds:

Notice that $\sigma(X^{2}) = \sigma(|X|)$. So by definition, for any $A \in \sigma(|X|)$ we have

$$\int_{A} \Bbb{E} [X | X^{2}] \, d\Bbb{P} = \int_{A} X \, d\Bbb{P}.$$

On the other hand, since $\Bbb{E}[X | X^{2}]$ is $\sigma(|X|)$-measurable, there exists a Borel-measurable function $g : \Bbb{R} \to \Bbb{R}$ such that $\Bbb{E}[X|X^{2}] = g(|X|)$, i.e., $g(|X|)$ is a version of this conditional expectation. So if $X$ has density $f(x)$, then the density of $|X|$ is

$$\frac{d}{dx} \Bbb{P}(|X| \leq x) = \frac{d}{dx} (F(x) - F(-x)) = f(x) + f(-x), \quad x \geq 0$$

and for any event $A = \{ |X| \leq a \}$ for $a > 0$,

$$\int_{0}^{a} g(x) (f(x) + f(-x)) \, dx = \int_{A} g(|X|) \, d\Bbb{P} = \int_{A} X \, d\Bbb{P} = \int_{-a}^{a} x f(x) \, dx.$$

Differentiation both sides with respect to $a$, we have

$$g(x) = x \frac{f(x) - f(-x)}{f(x) + f(-x)} \quad \text{a.s.}$$

Therefore it follows that

$$\Bbb{E}(X | X^{2}) = g(|X|) = |X| \frac{f(|X|) - f(-|X|)}{f(|X|) + f(-|X|)}.$$

By definition, \begin{align} E[X\;|\;X^2=u^2] &= \sum_x xP(X=x\;|\;X^2=u^2) \\ & = u\frac{P(X=u \;\&\; X^2=u^2)}{P(X^2=u^2)}-u\frac{P(X=-u \;\&\; X^2=u^2)}{P(X^2=u^2)} \\ & =u\frac{P(X=u)-P(X=-u)}{P(X=u)+P(X=-u)} \end{align}

The last step is because $$P(X^2=u^2)=P(X=u)+P(X=-u)$$ when $$u\ne 0$$ (and when $$u=0$$, we multiply by $$u$$ anyway) and \begin{align} P(X=u \;\&\; X^2=u^2) &= P(X=u) \\ P(X=-u \;\&\; X^2=u^2) &= P(X=-u) \\ \end{align}

If $$X$$ has a density $$f$$, then

$$E[X\;|\;X^2=u^2] = u\frac{f(u)-f(-u)}{f(u)+f(-u)}$$

by taking a limit.

Let $$h:\mathbb{R}\rightarrow\mathbb{R}$$ be a measurable function such that $$h(X)\in L_1(P)$$.

If the law of $$X$$ has density $$f$$ with respect to the Lebesgue measure on $$\mathbb{R}$$, then $$P[X^2\leq y]=\int^{\sqrt{y}}_{-\sqrt{y}}f(x)\,dx$$ ans so, the law of $$X^2$$ also has density, namely $$f_{X^2}(y)=P[X^2\in dy](y)=\frac{f(-\sqrt{y})+f(\sqrt{y})}{2\sqrt{y}}\mathbb{1}_{(0,\infty)}(y)$$ For any bounded measurable function $$g:(0,\infty)\rightarrow\mathbb{R}$$ Set $$H(X^2)=E[h(X)|X^2]$$. Then \begin{align} E[g(X^2)h(X)]=E\big[g(X^2)H(X^2)\big] \tag{1}\label{one} \end{align} The left hand-side of the expression above is \begin{align} \int_{\mathbb{R}} g(x^2)h(x)f(x)\,dx &=\int^0_{-\infty}+\int^\infty_0 g(x^2)h(x)f(x)\,dx\\ &=\int^\infty_0 g(u)h(-\sqrt{u})f(-\sqrt{u})\frac{du}{2\sqrt{u}}+\int^\infty_0 g(u)h(\sqrt{u})f(\sqrt{u})\frac{du}{2\sqrt{u}}\\ &=\int^\infty_0 g(u)\frac{h(-\sqrt{u})f(-\sqrt{u})+h(\sqrt{u})f(\sqrt{u})}{f(-\sqrt{u})+f(\sqrt{u})}\frac{f(-\sqrt{u})+f(\sqrt{u})}{2\sqrt{u}}\,du\\ &=\int^\infty_0g(u)\frac{h(-\sqrt{u})f(-\sqrt{u})+h(\sqrt{u})f(\sqrt{u})}{f(-\sqrt{u})+f(\sqrt{u})}f_{X^2}(u)\,du \end{align} The right-hanside of \eqref{one} is $$\int^\infty_0 g(u) H(u) f_{X^2}(u)\,du$$ Putting things together, we obtain that \begin{align} H(X^2)=E[h(X)|X^2]&=\frac{h(-\sqrt{X^2})f(-\sqrt{X^2})+h(\sqrt{X^2})f(\sqrt{X^2})}{f(-\sqrt{X^2})+f(\sqrt{X^2})}\\ &=\frac{h(-|X|)f(-|X|)+h(|X|)f(|X|)}{f(-|X|)+f(|X|)} \end{align} In particular, if $$h(y)=y$$ and $$X^2\in L_1(P)$$

$$E[X|X^2]=|X|\frac{(f(|X|)-f(|X|))}{f(-|X|)+f(|X|)}$$

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Young's Modulus And Elastic Modulus

Young’s Modulus (also referred to as the Elastic Modulus or Tensile Modulus), is a measure of mechanical properties of linear elastic solids like rods, wires and such. There are other numbers which give us a measure of elastic properties of a material, like Bulk modulus and shear modulus, but the value of Young’s Modulus is most commonly used. This is because it gives us information about the tensile elasticity of a material (ability to deform along an axis).

The Young’s Modulus of such a material is given by the ratio of stress and strain, corresponding to the stress of material. The relation is given below.

$E$ = $\frac{\sigma}{\epsilon}$

where,

$E$ is the Young’s Modulus of the material given in $N/m^{2}$
$\sigma$ is the stress applied on the material
$\epsilon$ is the strain corresponding to applied stress in the material

With the value of Young’s modulus for a material, the rigidity of the body can be determined. This is because it tell us about the body’s ability to resist deformation on application of force.

The Young’s Modulus values $(x 10^{9} N/m^{2})$ of different material are given below:

• Steel – 200
• Glass – 65
• Wood – 13
• Plastic (Polystyrene) – 3

Quite obviously we can claim that Steel is a lot more rigid in nature than wood or polystyrene, as in its tendency to experience deformation under applied load is less. Young’s modulus is also used to determine how much a material will deform under a certain applied load.

Another thing to keep in mind is that the lower the value of Young’s Modulus in materials, the more is the deformation experienced by the body and this deformation in case of objects like clay and wood can vary in the one sample itself. One part of the clay sample deforms more than the other whereas a steel bar will experience an equal deformation throughout.

Try calculating the change in length of a steel beam, whose initial length was 200m, due to an applied stress of $1.5 N/m^{2}$. The Young’s modulus of steel can be found in the table above.

Young’s Modulus Important Questions

Q1. What is Young’s modulus?

Ans: Young’s modulus is also known as modulus of elasticity and is defined as the mechanical property of a material to withstand the compression or the elongation with respect to its length. It is denoted as E or Y.

Q2. What is the SI unit of Young’s modulus?

Ans: Pascal is the SI unit of Young’s modulus.

Q3. What is the dimensional formula of Young’s modulus?

Ans: The dimensional formula of Young’s modulus is [ML-1T-2].

Q4. What is the formula of Young’s modulus?

Ans: Young’s modulus is given as:

Y= (F.L)/(A.ΔL)

Where,

• Y is the Young’s modulus
• F is the force applied
• L is the length of the material
• A is the area of the section
• ΔL is the change in the length of the material after the force is applied

Q5. What is strain?

Ans: Strain is defined as the deformation per unit length.

Q6. What is ductility?

Ans: Ductility is defined as the property of a material by which the material is drawn to a smaller section by applying tensile stress.

Q7. Give examples of dimensionless quantities.

Ans: Following are the examples of dimensionless quantities:

• Poison’s ratio
• Strain

Q8. What happens to Young’s modulus with an increase in temperature?

Ans: As the temperature increases, Young’s modulus decreases.

Q9. Give an example of a material with the highest elasticity.

Ans: Steel is an example of a material with the highest elasticity.

Q10. What is the theoretical value of Poisson’s ratio?

Ans: The theoretical value of Poisson’s ratio lies between -1 to 0.5.

Practise This Question

A wire 4 m long and 0.3 mm diameter is stretched by a force of 100N. If the extension in the wire is 0.3 mm, calculate the potential energy stored in the wire.


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 Physics , 2010, DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2966.2010.16502.x Abstract: We assess the effects of simulated active galactic nuclei (AGNs) on the colour and morphology measurements of their host galaxies. To test the morphology measurements, we select a sample of galaxies not known to host AGNs and add a series of point sources scaled to represent specified fractions of the observed V band light detected from the resulting systems; we then compare morphology measurements of the simulated systems to measurements of the original galaxies. AGN contributions >20 per cent bias most of the morphology measurements tested, though the extent of the apparent bias depends on the morphological characteristics of the original galaxies. We test colour measurements by adding to non-AGN galaxy spectra a quasar spectrum scaled to contribute specified fractions of the rest-frame B band light detected from the resulting systems. A quasar fraction of 5 per cent can move the NUV-r colour of an elliptical galaxy from the UV-optical red sequence to the green valley, and 20 per cent can move it into the blue cloud. Combining the colour and morphology results, we find that a galaxy/AGN system with an AGN contribution >20 per cent may appear bluer and more bulge-dominated than the underlying galaxy. We conclude that (1) bulge-dominated, E/S0/Sa, and early-type morphology classifications are accurate for red AGN host galaxies and may be accurate for blue host galaxies, unless the AGN manifests itself as a well-defined point source; and (2) although highly unobscured AGNs, such as the quasar used for our experiments, can significantly bias the measured colours of AGN host galaxies, it is possible to identify such systems by examining optical images of the hosts for the presence of a point source and/or measuring the level of nuclear obscuration.
 Saratov Journal of Medical Scientific Research , 2008, Abstract: The results of investigation ofcorrelation between patients' sclera colour and presence ofundifferentiated dysplasia of connective tissue are described in the work. The experimental technique, the scheme of determination and the example of analysis of sclera’s colour in normal and pathological states are presented.
 Physics , 2013, DOI: 10.1093/mnras/stt629 Abstract: We use the Millennium Simulation database to compare how different versions of the Durham and Munich semi-analytical galaxy formation models populate dark matter haloes with galaxies. The models follow the same physical processes but differ in how these are implemented. All of the models we consider use the Millennium N-body Simulation; however, the Durham and Munich groups use independent algorithms to construct halo merger histories. We compare the predicted halo occupation distributions (HODs) and correlation functions for galaxy samples defined by stellar mass, cold gas mass and star formation rate. The predictions for the HOD are remarkably similar for samples ranked by stellar mass. The predicted bias averaged over 5-25 Mpc/h is consistent between models to within 10%. At small pair separations there is a difference in the predicted clustering. This arises because the Durham models allow some satellite galaxies to merge with the central galaxy in a halo when they are still associated with resolved subhaloes. The agreement between the models is less good for samples defined by cold gas mass or star formation rate, with the small scale clustering differing by an order of magnitude, reflecting the uncertainty in the modelling of star formation. The model predictions in these cases are qualitatively similar, with a markedly shallower slope for the correlation function than is found for stellar mass selected samples and with the HOD displaying an asymmetric peak for central galaxies. We provide illustrative parametric fits to the HODs predicted by the models. Our results reveal the current limitations on how well we can predict galaxy bias in a fixed cosmology, which has implications for the interpretation of constraints on the physics of galaxy formation from galaxy clustering measurements and the ability of future galaxy surveys to measure dark energy.
 Physics , 2014, DOI: 10.1093/mnras/stu1886 Abstract: We use 80922 galaxies in the Galaxy And Mass Assembly (GAMA) survey to measure the galaxy luminosity function (LF) in different environments over the redshift range 0.04
 Physics , 2011, DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2966.2011.20395.x Abstract: Cosmic shear has been identified as the method with the most potential to constrain dark energy. To capitalise on this potential it is necessary to measure galaxy shapes with great accuracy, which in turn requires a detailed model for the image blurring, the Point Spread Function (PSF). In general the PSF varies with wavelength and therefore the PSF integrated over an observing filter depends on the spectrum of the object. For a typical galaxy the spectrum varies across the galaxy image, thus the PSF depends on the position within the image. We estimate the bias on the shear due to such colour gradients by modelling galaxies using two co-centered, co-elliptical Sersic profiles, each with a different spectrum. We estimate the effect of ignoring colour gradients and find the shear bias from a single galaxy can be very large depending on the properties of the galaxy. We find that halving the filter width reduces the shear bias by a factor of about 5. We show that, to first order, tomographic cosmic shear two point statistics depend on the mean shear bias over the galaxy population at a given redshift. For a single broad filter, and averaging over a small galaxy catalogue, we find a mean shear bias which is subdominant to the predicted statistical errors for future cosmic shear surveys. However, the true mean shear bias may exceed the statistical errors, depending on how accurately the catalogue represents the observed distribution of galaxies in the cosmic shear survey. We then investigate the bias on the shear for two-filter imaging and find that the bias is reduced by at least an order of magnitude. Lastly, we find that it is possible to calibrate galaxies for which colour gradients were ignored using two-filter imaging of a fair sample of noisy galaxies, if the galaxy model is known. For a S/N of 25 the number of galaxies required in each tomographic redshift bin is of order 1e4.
 Mattia Vaccari Physics , 2001, DOI: 10.1051/eas:2002031 Abstract: The performance expected from a galaxy survey to be carried out with GAIA, the GAIA Galaxy Survey, is outlined. From a statistical model of galaxy number density, size and surface brightness distribution, and from detailed numerical simulations based on real images, it is conservatively estimated that GAIA would be able to detect and observe about 3 million galaxies brighter than $V \simeq 17$ and to provide multi-colour and multi-epoch broad-band photometry of these with an end-of-mission angular resolution of $\simeq$ 0.35 \as and a photometric accuracy of $simeq$ 0.2 {mag/arcsec$^2$} at $\mu_V = 20$ {mag/arcsec$^2$}. The substantial scientific case for performing such a survey and the additional efforts required in terms of mission preparation, operations and telemetry are also discussed.
 Physics , 2013, DOI: 10.1093/mnras/sts480 Abstract: We investigate the evolution of the galaxy stellar mass function at high-redshift ($z\ge 5$) using a pair of large cosmological hydrodynamical simulations: {\em MassiveBlack} and {\em MassiveBlack-II}. By combining these simulations we can study the properties of galaxies with stellar masses greater than $10^{8}\,{\rm M_{\odot}}\,h^{-1}$ and (co-moving) number densities of $\log_{10}(\phi\, [{\rm Mpc^{-3}\,dex^{-1}}\,h^{3}])>-8$. Observational determinations of the galaxy stellar mass function at very-high redshift typically assume a relation between the observed UV luminosity and stellar mass-to-light ratio which is applied to high-redshift samples in order to estimate stellar masses. This relation can also be measured from the simulations. We do this, finding two significant differences with the usual observational assumption: it evolves strongly with redshift and has a different shape. Using this relation to make a consistent comparison between galaxy stellar mass functions we find that at $z=6$ and above the simulation predictions are in good agreement with observed data over the whole mass range. Without using the correct UV luminosity and stellar mass-to-light ratio, the discrepancy would be up to two orders of magnitude for large galaxies $>10^{10}\,{\rm M_{\odot}}\,h^{-1}$. At $z=5$, however the stellar mass function for low mass $<10^{9}\,{\rm M_{\odot}}\,h^{-1}$ galaxies is overpredicted by factors of a few, consistent with the behaviour of the UV luminosity function, and perhaps a sign that feedback in the simulation is not efficient enough for these galaxies.


text:
# Why is the electron configuration of "Fe"^(2+) NOT [Ar] 4s^2 3d^4 but [Ar] 3d^6?

Dec 3, 2015

I can see why this can seem counterintuitive at first. The last orbital you fill when making neutral $\text{Fe}$ is the $3 d$.

$\text{Fe}$ (neutral) is $\left[A r\right] 4 {s}^{2} 3 {d}^{6}$, where one $3 d$ orbital is doubly-occupied. Since one of them has two electrons, it adds a bit of repulsion that would help in removing an electron. Additionally, one might be tempted to remove electrons from the $3 d$ orbitals first, simply because they were filled last.

But there's a problem with that assumption: the $4 s$ orbital is doubly-occupied too.

It is important to realize that the electrons easiest to remove are removed first, and those in the highest-energy orbital tend to belong to that category. In this case, the $4 s$ orbitals are slightly higher in energy, so those get removed first. As a result... we get:

$\textcolor{b l u e}{\left[A r\right] 3 {d}^{6}}$

NOT:

$\textcolor{red}{\left[A r\right] 4 {s}^{2} 3 {d}^{4}}$

As a result, this is paramagnetic (i.e. it has at least one unpaired electron in its orbital configuration).


text:
# Revision history [back]

### fast_callable x numpy

fast_callable is very handy for evaluating symbolic expressions with numpy arrays. Like

my_expr = integral(sin(x),x)
f = fast_callable(my_expr, vars=[x])

import numpy as np
z = np.linspace(0,10,5)
f(z)

However, it does't work when the expression involves a special function.

my_expr2 = integral(sin(x^2),x)
g = fast_callable(my_expr2, vars=[x])
g(z)

Throws The Function erf does not support numpy arrays as arguments.

Is there any way of turn symbolic expressions containing special functions into numpy-callable? Thus avoiding to rewrite them using scipy special functions?


text:
Yahztee for the HP 41 - improve this program!
03-31-2018, 05:44 PM (This post was last modified: 03-31-2018 07:48 PM by Dieter.)
Post: #2
 Dieter Senior Member Posts: 2,397 Joined: Dec 2013
RE: Yahztee for the HP 41 - improve this program!
I think you can either have compact code or one that is executing fast. I have not examined the whole program – maybe a complete rewrite is the only way to get substantial improvements – but here are two examples for the sort routine.

Short version (kind of bubble sort):

Code:
LBL 40 14.017   xxx.yyy sorts registers xxx to yyy+1 LBL 41 RCL X 1.001 + RCL IND Y LBL 42 RCL IND Y X<Y? X<> IND T STO IND Z RDN ISG X GTO 42 RDN RDN ISG X GTO 41 RTN

This takes about 4 – 5 seconds for sorting the five numbers in R14...R18.

Edit: if you like watching the RAD annunciator, here is another version that on average also runs faster since it detects whether a register swap occured or not:

Code:
LBL 40 14.017   xxx.yyy sorts registers xxx to yyy+1 LBL 41 ENTER DEG 1.001 + RCL IND Y LBL 42 RCL IND Y X<Y? RAD X<Y? X<> IND T STO IND Z RDN ISG X GTO 42 RDN RDN FC? 43 CLX ISG X GTO 41 DEG RTN

But this version still is a bit slower than yours, and I do not think it saves any bytes.

Finally here is my favourite: it is longer but very fast – essentially it's the same approach as above, but without loops:

Code:
LBL 40 RCL 15 RCL 14 X>Y? X<> 15 STO 14 RCL 16 X<>Y X>Y? X<> 16 STO 14 RCL 17 X<>Y X>Y? X<> 17 STO 14 RCL 18 X<>Y X>Y? X<> 18 STO 14 RCL 16 RCL 15 X>Y? X<> 16 STO 15 RCL 17 X<>Y X>Y? X<> 17 STO 15 RCL 18 X<>Y X>Y? X<> 18 STO 15 RCL 17 RCL 16 X>Y? X<> 17 STO 16 RCL 18 X<>Y X>Y? X<> 18 STO 16 RCL 18 RCL 17 X>Y? X<> 18 STO 17 RTN

This one executes in not much more than a second (!) – in any case.

The part that rolls the dice can be improved as follows.
Input: up to 5-digit number representing the dice to roll, e.g. 12345.

Code:
LBL 71 5 RCL Y 10 ST/ T MOD X#0? X>Y? GTO 72 + 8 + RCL 00 997 * FRC STO 00 6 * 1 + INT STO IND Y LBL 72 R^ INT X#0? GTO 71 XEQ 40 ...

This even saves a label (20). And it also checks whether a die number is zero (invalid).

So far a few first thoughts.

Dieter
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 Messages In This Thread Yahztee for the HP 41 - improve this program! - Gene - 03-30-2018, 07:17 PM RE: Yahztee for the HP 41 - improve this program! - Dieter - 03-31-2018 05:44 PM

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text:
# Creating the APK file - not working yet?

79 replies to this topic

### #61 Kouri

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Posted 22 May 2012 - 12:14 PM

Huh, I'm not sure if it was RC4 or reinstalling the SDK, but that Roaming error's gone. Now I'm not so worried about picking up the Android extension, heh.
• 0

### #62 Hitomi

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Posted 23 May 2012 - 02:38 PM

Just wanted to chime in on this thread saying that I was having the same problem, and all of the suggestions here weren't working. So I just went to the build.xml file, and the line that was giving me the error was:

So I simply removed the variable and manually added my password and voila! It worked!
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Posted 25 May 2012 - 04:07 AM

I had a heck of a time finaly getting past the jarsigning problem.

Finaly, I determined that re-generating the keystore file was NOT replacing the existing keystore.

Browse to the location of your Private Keystore File, the location is in the Android Tab of preferences and will be something like, C:\Users\username\AppData\Local\GameMaker-Studio\AndroidKeystore.keystore and delete it, then regenerate a new keystore file.

You, sir, are my savior!!!
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### #64 GameMakinRyan

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Posted 26 May 2012 - 03:25 AM

I've tried all of the above, and it still won't compile - I'm getting this nonsense here:
```BUILD FAILED

Total time: 5 seconds
jarsigner: unable to open jar file: C:\Documents and Settings\Ryan\Local Settings\Temp\gm_ttt_23002\gm_ttt_19463\bin\RunnerActivity-release.apk
Unable to open 'C:\Documents and Settings\Ryan\Local Settings\Temp\gm_ttt_23002\gm_ttt_19463\bin\RunnerActivity-release.apk' as zip archive```

Any ideas on what the issue might be? I followed every single step on the YoyoGames page on how to set up for Android, all of my SDK, JDK, and Keystore info is correct, the passwords are the same for the keystore, I tried generating it, checking everything, then running the JarSigner.exe and I'm still getting this error.
• 0

### #65 kburkhart84

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Posted 29 May 2012 - 09:48 PM

One thing that helped in my case was actually removing the keystore files from disk, and regenerating one via GM's dialog. Once I did that, I didn't have any more problems. I'm sure this will only help with the issues involving jarsigner returning -1, not with the SDK targets not being found.
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Posted 06 June 2012 - 04:29 AM

Yeah, I'm having problems too. I got this:

BUILD FAILED

I was having this one too.
Here what it solved to me:

Unistall SDK... then installed only APIs 7, 8 and 11
Just the> SDK Platform and Google APIs

Hope I helped
• 0

### #67 mmsoft

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Posted 20 June 2012 - 05:11 PM

I had a heck of a time finaly getting past the jarsigning problem.

Finaly, I determined that re-generating the keystore file was NOT replacing the existing keystore.

Browse to the location of your Private Keystore File, the location is in the Android Tab of preferences and will be something like, C:\Users\username\AppData\Local\GameMaker-Studio\AndroidKeystore.keystore and delete it, then regenerate a new keystore file.

yes this is a very important part: delete all keystore files before generate a new one....this works for me..i had the same problem....maybe this is a bug of gm
• 0

### #68 Arkon

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Posted 28 June 2012 - 05:56 AM

Yeah, I'm having problems too. I got this:

BUILD FAILED

I was having this one too.
Here what it solved to me:

Unistall SDK... then installed only APIs 7, 8 and 11
Just the> SDK Platform and Google APIs

Hope I helped

Didn't help.

I'm having problems too. I got this:

Writing Chunk... AUDO
Writing Chunk... SCPT
Writing Chunk... DBGI
Writing Chunk... STRG

BUILD FAILED

Total time: 0 seconds

• 0

### #69 philippe

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Posted 08 July 2012 - 12:00 PM

Yeah, I'm having problems too. I got this:

BUILD FAILED

I was having this one too.
Here what it solved to me:

Unistall SDK... then installed only APIs 7, 8 and 11
Just the> SDK Platform and Google APIs

Hope I helped

Didn't help.

I'm having problems too. I got this:

Writing Chunk... AUDO
Writing Chunk... SCPT
Writing Chunk... DBGI
Writing Chunk... STRG

BUILD FAILED

Total time: 0 seconds

Hi,

I had the same, and to resolded it, i had do that :
- Go to you android-sdk directory

- Lauch SDK Manager.exe

- In SDK Manager, in Android 2.2 (API 8) section, check Goolgle APIs

- Click on Install 1 package button !

That's all !

Edited by philippe, 08 July 2012 - 12:01 PM.

• 0

### #70 jcop

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Posted 18 July 2012 - 03:16 PM

I had the same, and to resolded it, i had do that :
- Go to you android-sdk directory

- Lauch SDK Manager.exe

- In SDK Manager, in Android 2.2 (API 8) section, check Goolgle APIs

- Click on Install 1 package button !

That's all !

I can confirm that on a new setup the directions above worked perfectly and got GMS creating APKs for me. Thanks for posting the tip.
• 0

### #71 jackietuan

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Posted 03 February 2013 - 03:46 AM

I had a similar problem with the "Build Failure" and non of the above solutions worked for me. But I managed to get mine working by accident and here is what I did.

1) Before generating my keystore, just as the guide above, with the 2 passwords being the same. I also ticked "Always do full install of APK"
2) Went to "Global Game Settings"
3) Select "Android" tab
4) Within "Android" tab, go to "Graphics" tab
4) Within "Graphics" tab I selected "Any device supported". I left everything else as they were.

And for some reasons, this worked for me.

Hope this helps.
• 0

### #72 hobbitbabes

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Posted 03 February 2013 - 08:19 PM

i also regularly have this problem and what works for me is for me to got to program files/java/java jdk/bin and then double click and run jarsigner then restart game maker studio and it works for me..
• 0

### #73 08lynaell

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Posted 09 March 2013 - 04:27 PM

I had a heck of a time finaly getting past the jarsigning problem.

Finaly, I determined that re-generating the keystore file was NOT replacing the existing keystore.

Browse to the location of your Private Keystore File, the location is in the Android Tab of preferences and will be something like, C:\Users\username\AppData\Local\GameMaker-Studio\AndroidKeystore.keystore and delete it, then regenerate a new keystore file.

that did it for me. Grr...that along with reinstalling, reupdating, generating it the way told....and then saving it to the project folder.... grrr... what a frustration!

Here is where it says the error has been, like the line of code on the build.xml file...

```<do-only-if-not-library elseText="Library project: do not create apk..." >
<sequential>
<property name="out.unaligned.file" location="\${out.absolute.dir}/\${ant.project.name}-release-unaligned.apk" />

<!-- Signs the APK -->
<echo>Signing final apk...</echo>
<signjar
jar="\${out.packaged.file}"
signedjar="\${out.unaligned.file}"
keystore="\${key.store}"
alias="\${key.alias}"
verbose="\${verbose}" />```

Could you please edit the build file and email it to me at playgames2011@live.co.uk, help would be appreciated
• 0

### #74 proon

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Posted 11 March 2013 - 10:09 AM

After the latest update when i build my apk this appears in the build:

[javac] Note: Some input files use or override a deprecated API.
[javac] Note: Recompile with -Xlint:deprecation for details.
[javac] Note: Recompile with -Xlint:unchecked for details.

Then it says build succefully and the apk has only 4mbs (it's 18mbs) and when i run it a black screen appears and returns to the home screen
• 0

### #75 G-Games

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Posted 07 April 2013 - 05:47 PM

Decided to come back to this topic because I also have a problem (never seen this one before though):

Writing Chunk... DBGI

Writing Chunk... STRG

[javac] Note: Some input files use or override a deprecated API.

[javac] Note: Recompile with -Xlint:deprecation for details.

BUILD FAILED

C:\***\Documents\Quackertree Studios\Android SDK\sdk\tools\ant\build.xml:881: The following error occurred while executing this line:

C:\***\Documents\Quackertree Studios\Android SDK\sdk\tools\ant\build.xml:883: The following error occurred while executing this line:

C:\***\Documents\Quackertree Studios\Android SDK\sdk\tools\ant\build.xml:895: The following error occurred while executing this line:

C:\***\Documents\Quackertree Studios\Android SDK\sdk\tools\ant\build.xml:290: null returned: 2

Anyone any ideas on how to solve this?

• 0

### #76 sebastiankit

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Posted 10 April 2013 - 01:40 PM

Update Game Maker.

• 0

### #77 Armalitus

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Posted 14 April 2013 - 06:07 PM

I am having the exact same issue as G-Games.

Writing Chunk... DBGI

Writing Chunk... STRG

[javac] Note: Some input files use or override a deprecated API.

[javac] Note: Recompile with -Xlint:deprecation for details.

BUILD FAILED

C:\***\Documents\Quackertree Studios\Android SDK\sdk\tools\ant\build.xml:881: The following error occurred while executing this line:

C:\***\Documents\Quackertree Studios\Android SDK\sdk\tools\ant\build.xml:883: The following error occurred while executing this line:

C:\***\Documents\Quackertree Studios\Android SDK\sdk\tools\ant\build.xml:895: The following error occurred while executing this line:

C:\***\Documents\Quackertree Studios\Android SDK\sdk\tools\ant\build.xml:290: null returned: 2

I have poured over this thread(it appears to be the only online resource even close to this issue), and have tried every theory.

I have brand new downloads/installs of the Android MIPS Edition(v1.1.747), JDK(1.7.0_17), and SDK with all API's installed(only installed the ones that were asked for at first, filled in the rest later). As I said, every previously mentioned theory/fix has been tried.

There is a 1-2 minute wait between the [javac] Notes and BUILD FAILED

• 0

### #78 G-Games

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Posted 15 April 2013 - 05:05 PM

The solution is the GoogleAdMobAdsSdk-6.1.0.jar file which seems to be gone once I've updated. Reinstall + NOT updating fixed it for me. So, if you find that file, everything should be working again.

• 0

### #79 Armalitus

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Posted 20 April 2013 - 09:57 PM

I have replaced it with GoogleAdMobAdsSdk-6.3.1 from my Andoid SDK folder. I still recieve the same error:

Writing Chunk... STRG
[javac] Note: Some input files use or override a deprecated API.
[javac] Note: Recompile with -Xlint:deprecation for details.

BUILD FAILED
C:\Android\android-sdk\tools\ant\build.xml:881: The following error occurred while executing this line:
C:\Android\android-sdk\tools\ant\build.xml:883: The following error occurred while executing this line:
C:\Android\android-sdk\tools\ant\build.xml:895: The following error occurred while executing this line:
C:\Android\android-sdk\tools\ant\build.xml:290: null returned: 2

Total time: 1 minute 12 seconds

////I will now attempt to try this "fix" in conjunction with all of the other "fixes" I've tried in this thread.

• 0

### #80 Armalitus

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Posted 20 April 2013 - 10:07 PM

After "downgrading" from beta to stable, the APK build worked. I had forgotten that it was even a variable.


text:
×

# How do you find the nth partial sum, determine whether the series converges and find the sum when it exists given 1-2+4-8+...+(-2)^n+...?

Feb 19, 2018

$\setminus q \quad \setminus q \quad \setminus \quad 1 - 2 + 4 - 8 + \setminus \cdots + {\left(- 2\right)}^{n} \setminus = \setminus \frac{1 - {\left(- 2\right)}^{n + 1}}{3} .$

$\setminus q \quad \setminus q \quad \setminus q \quad \setminus q \quad \setminus q \quad \setminus q \quad \setminus q \quad \setminus \quad \setminus \setminus {\sum}_{k = 0}^{\setminus \infty} \setminus {\left(- 2\right)}^{k} \setminus q \quad \setminus \quad \text{diverges.}$

#### Explanation:

$\text{This is a geometric series with first term 1, and common ratio -2.}$

$\text{The" \ \ n^{"th"} \ \ "partial sum, is:}$

$\setminus q \quad \setminus q \quad \setminus q \quad \setminus q \quad \setminus q \quad \setminus q \quad \setminus \quad \setminus 1 - 2 + 4 - 8 + \setminus \cdots + {\left(- 2\right)}^{n} .$

$\text{Recall the formula for the sum of a finite geometric series with}$
$\text{first term 1, and common ratio" \ \ r":}$

$\setminus q \quad \setminus q \quad \setminus q \quad \setminus q \quad 1 + r + {r}^{2} + {r}^{3} + \setminus \cdots + {r}^{n} \setminus = \setminus \frac{{r}^{n + 1} - 1}{r - 1} .$

$\therefore \setminus q \quad \setminus 1 - 2 + 4 - 8 + \setminus \cdots + {\left(- 2\right)}^{n} \setminus = \setminus \frac{{\left(- 2\right)}^{n + 1} - 1}{\left(- 2\right) - 1}$

$\setminus q \quad \setminus q \quad \setminus q \quad \setminus q \quad \setminus q \quad \setminus q \quad \setminus q \quad \setminus q \quad \setminus q \quad \setminus q \quad \setminus q \quad \setminus q \quad \setminus q \quad \setminus q \quad \setminus q \quad \setminus \setminus = \setminus \frac{{\left(- 2\right)}^{n + 1} - 1}{- 3}$

$\setminus q \quad \setminus q \quad \setminus q \quad \setminus q \quad \setminus q \quad \setminus q \quad \setminus q \quad \setminus q \quad \setminus q \quad \setminus q \quad \setminus q \quad \setminus q \quad \setminus q \quad \setminus q \quad \setminus q \quad \setminus \setminus = \setminus \frac{1 - {\left(- 2\right)}^{n + 1}}{3} .$

$\text{Thus:}$

$\setminus q \quad \setminus q \quad \setminus 1 - 2 + 4 - 8 + \setminus \cdots + {\left(- 2\right)}^{n} \setminus = \setminus \frac{1 - {\left(- 2\right)}^{n + 1}}{3} . \setminus q \quad \setminus \quad \left(1\right)$

$\text{Now we look at convergence of the infinite series:}$

$\setminus q \quad \setminus q \quad \setminus q \quad \setminus q \quad \setminus q \quad \setminus q \quad \setminus q \quad \setminus q \quad \setminus q \quad \setminus q \quad {\sum}_{k = 0}^{\setminus \infty} \setminus {\left(- 2\right)}^{k} . \setminus q \quad \setminus q \quad \setminus q \quad \setminus q \quad \setminus q \quad \setminus q \quad \setminus q \quad \setminus q \quad \setminus q \quad \setminus q \quad \left(2\right)$

$\text{We recall that if the general infinite series" \ \ sum_{k=0}^{\infty} \ a_k \ \ "converges,}$
$\text{then, among other things," \ \ lim_{k rarr \infty} a_k = 0. \ \ "So, if the desired}$
$\text{series in (2) converges, then we have, among other things:}$

$\setminus q \quad \setminus q \quad \setminus q \quad \setminus q \quad \setminus q \quad \setminus q \quad \setminus q \quad \setminus q \quad \setminus \quad {\lim}_{k \rightarrow \setminus \infty} {\left(- 2\right)}^{k} = 0.$

$\text{But the sequence" \ \ (-2)^k \ \ "clearly diverges, and by oscillation.}$
$\text{Thus, the series in (2) diverges:}$

$\setminus q \quad \setminus q \quad \setminus q \quad \setminus q \quad \setminus q \quad \setminus q \quad \setminus q \quad \setminus q \quad {\sum}_{k = 0}^{\setminus \infty} \setminus {\left(- 2\right)}^{k} \setminus \setminus \text{diverges.}$

$\text{So, summing up our results (forgive the pun !), we have:}$

$\setminus q \quad \setminus q \quad \setminus \quad 1 - 2 + 4 - 8 + \setminus \cdots + {\left(- 2\right)}^{n} \setminus = \setminus \frac{1 - {\left(- 2\right)}^{n + 1}}{3} .$

$\setminus q \quad \setminus q \quad \setminus q \quad \setminus q \quad \setminus q \quad \setminus q \quad \setminus q \quad \setminus \quad {\sum}_{k = 0}^{\setminus \infty} \setminus {\left(- 2\right)}^{k} \setminus q \quad \setminus \quad \text{diverges.}$


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# jactionscripters.com

Home > Script Host > Windows Script Host Runtime Error

# Windows Script Host Runtime Error

## Contents

Being a member gives you detailed monitoring of your requests. Microsoft describes it as an administration tool.[1] WSH provides an environment for scripts to run – it invokes the appropriate script engine and provides a set of services and objects for I myself have less time on my hands now, so I prefer to have this problem taken care of automatically if I can. What makes an actor an A-lister Why does typography ruin the user experience? http://jactionscripters.com/script-host/windows-script-host-on-error.php

Results 1 to 3 of 3 Thread: Error Box from Windows Script Host! Version history Windows version Shipped with WSH version Last redistributable version Windows 95 None (separate redistributable) 5.6 Windows NT 4.0 None (separate redistributable) 5.6 Windows 98 1.0 5.6 Windows 2000 2.0 Browse other questions tagged vbscript or ask your own question. Remarkable. http://answers.microsoft.com/en-us/windows/forum/windows_vista-windows_programs/windows-script-host-error-message-on-startup/7679123b-f729-4e58-b77f-023e1331720b

## How To Fix Windows Script Host Error Windows 7

See ASP.NET Ajax CDN Terms of Use – http://www.asp.net/ajaxlibrary/CDN.ashx. ]]> Search Free Sign Up Login Home Forum How To Problem is solved..... Today we will see how you can enable or disable Windows Script Host.

Vista being Vista, can be very cantankerous at times. How common is it to use the word 'bitch' for a female dog? patch:instead removes an element with no attributes Why cast an A-lister for Groot? Excel to 5.0 uses Visual Basic 5.0. Windows 10 Script Host Error Hide this message.QuoraSign In Scripting (programming) Error Messages Error and Errors Windows 7 JavaScript (programming language) Microsoft WindowsWhy does Windows 7 show this error: Windows script host error?Every time I log

Type regsvr32 %systemroot%\system32\vbscript.dll and then press the Enter key on your keyboard. Windows Script Host Error Cannot Find Script File Yes No Additional feedback? 1500 characters remaining Submit Skip this Thank you! Check disk for errors - if re-installing WSH failed to fix script host errors, try to run the check disk utility in Windows to locate bad sectors and recover files. http://ccm.net/forum/affich-8157-windows-script-host-error There have been suggestions of creating engines for other languages, such as LotusScript, SaxBasic, BasicScript, KiXtart, awk, bash, csh and other Unix shells, 4NT, cmd.exe (the Windows NT shell), Windows PowerShell,

Helpful +7 Report Keith Oct 16, 2012 12:09AM I'm running windows 7 and it work like this: press start button type msconfig.exe under general click Selective Start-up and then go to Windows Script Host Black Screen Other languages used for scripting of programmes include Rexx, Tcl, Perl, Python, Ruby, and others which come with methods to control objects in the operating system and the spreadsheet and database This also goes for file access and processing—the earliest WSH engines for VBScript and JScript do not since the base language did not,[4] whilst PerlScript, ooRexxScript, and the others have this So it is understandable that an error is thrown.

1. I would guess your current Excel rule near the top of the list is defined to be used for all files. (just '*' or '*.*') If you are still having trouble,
2. and it reports clean.
3. End-users will see a dialogue box or warning within the browser if they want to continue running the script from the webpage they are visiting or viewing.
4. asked 3 years ago viewed 8245 times active 3 years ago Blog Stack Overflow Podcast #93 - A Very Spolsky Halloween Special Related 0is there possible to open any shortcut icons
5. Content of a file hello1.js WSH.Echo("Hello world"); WSH.Quit(); Or, code can be mixed in one WSF file, such as VBScript and JScript, or any other: Content of a file hello2.wsf
6. Regards, Aparna Report manga- Mar 29, 2010 02:54AM Hi Aparna, The procedure looks very promising.
7. Also to remove programs from start up, and to do a reg clean.You may run System File Checker (SFC) scan to fix any corrupt system files, follow the steps mentioned in

## Windows Script Host Error Cannot Find Script File

However, most antivirus programs have the ability to detect malicious scripts in a webpage or a file on a computer so it is not a requirement to disable or remove WSH. in order to download a motorola file update. Fortran Script Fortran Various Various Experimental proof-of-concept, academic exercise, shareware, commercial, open source. 2000 PascalScript Object Pascal Object Pascal RemObjects Freeware 2001 Can also be used with Delphi directly Lisp WSH this contact form ThAnKs......

OpenOffice uses Visual Basic, Python, and several others as macro languages and others can be added. Windows Script Host Settings What happened?How do I correct the error of Windows Script Host?How do I solve the issue of a Windows script error on a Vaio laptop?How do I solve chronic script errors This message box appear even if the user attempts to start the script from a batch file or using a designated script host (for example, by typing cscript.exe c:\scripts\myscript.vbs at the

## All Perl interpreters, ooRexx, PHP, and more recent versions of VBScript and JScript can use sockets for TCP/IP and usually UDP and other protocols for this.

So as the search gives results, select al and hit shift+delete to permanently delete it. Contact your administrator for details. I use this little utility (Click the coloured link) to over these situations....give it a try and post back with the results. Windows Script Host Settings At Startup This message box appear even if the user attempts to start the script from a batch file or using a designated script host (for example, by typing cscript.exe c:\scripts\myscript.vbs at the

Recently[when?], redistributable versions for older operating systems (Windows 9x and Windows NT 4.0) are no longer available from the Microsoft Download Center. Got the following error box from Windows Script Host when opening a plain cpp file Script: C:\Program Files\Beyond Compare 3\Helpers\XLS_to_CVS_Single.vbs Line: 23 Char: 1 Error: File not found Code: 800A0035 Source: It is designed to recognize the hooks used by malware and so is very effective as a dedicated clean up tool. navigate here This documentation is archived and is not being maintained.

Using Elemental Attunement to destroy a castle My 21 yr old adult son hates me Am I interrupting my husband's parenting? Download and then reinstall Windows Script Hosting - if re-registering WSH components on your computer won't help, it is recommended to re-install WSH. Use API version 32.0 or later to retrieve this process \def inside of \def not visible in titles or captions Is there a name for the (anti- ) pattern of passing Advertisement ^ Enable, disable Windows Script Host To enable or disable Windows Script Host, type regedit.exe in Run box and hit Enter to open the Registry Editor.

Dim Desktop, todaysDate, usageDate, myDay, myMonth, myYear 'This creates the required Objects Set objExcel = CreateObject("Excel.application") Set objFSO = CreateObject("Scripting.FileSystemObject") Set WshShell = WScript.CreateObject("WScript.Shell") Desktop = WshShell.ExpandEnvironmentStrings("%USERPROFILE%") & "\" & "Desktop" Contact your administrator for details. If you come across an error that is related to Windows Script Hosting, check out the solutions in the next sections of this article. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy.

That may cause it to stall or freeze **** Note: ComboFix may reset a number of Internet Explorer's settings, including making it the default browser. Login using safe mode (press F8 while computer starts loading) and once in safe mode, download 'security task manager' (available on google).


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# Calculating Power Dissipation in a Filter

Apologies in advance if my question seems too basic. I don't really know where to go from here.

I understand that power can be calculated as P = IV or P = V^2/R or P = I^2 x R. I think I'm not conceptually understanding how to actually use these formulas together to calculate power dissipation in a component.

For instance, I have this filter here. Its datasheet has a bunch of useful information, in particular rated voltage and rated current, 50Vdc and 15A respectively. I really don't believe I have the correct value for power dissipation if I just multiply the two values and get 750W. That seems far too much to be believable.

If I want to calculate how much power this filter dissipates, where can I find the correct values to calculate power dissipation in this component?

So $$\Pd=I^2R= 15^2* 0.0008 \Omega=0.18W\$$


text: Chloroplasts contain circular DNA that is similar in structure to cyanobacteria. Photosynthesis equations. Carotenoids can be found in nearly every phytoplankton species, and reflect yellow, orange and/or red light 15. Here is the chemical equation for photosynthesis: 6CO2 + 12H2O + Light Energy -----> C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O . Without phytoplankton, the oxygen supply of the ocean would be cut in half. In the regeneration stage, some molecules of glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate are combined with ATP and are converted back into the 5-carbon sugar RuBP. As they need light to photosynthesize, phytoplankton in any environment will float near the top of the water, where sunlight reaches 10. Prokaryotic means that the cyanobacteria do not have a nucleus or other membrane-bound organelles within their cell wall 5. Some algae will appear green despite the presence of these accessory pigments. However, chlorophyll is not actually a single molecule. This process slowly changed the inert Precambrian atmosphere into the oxygen-rich environment known today 31. Organic carbon can be found in many different things including sugars (glucose = C6H12O6), plants and animals. Chlorophyll F was recently discovered in some cyanobacteria near Australia 22. In both cases, the water becomes saturated with nutrients, creating an ideal environment for phytoplankton productivity 36. Indirect contact can occur from eating animals that have been exposed to the toxic bloom, particularly shellfish. If phytoplankton are exposed to too much UV light, the excessive solar energy can break molecular bonds and destroy the organisms’ DNA 27. This is why phytoplankton, particularly cyanobacteria, can thrive at the bottom of the euphotic (sunlit) zone, where only blue light can reach. - at very low light intensity both algae and plants can convert as much as 20 % of photosynthetically active radiation [PAR ~ visible light] into biomass energy … but when growing at full sunlight the conversion in both cases [plants and algae] is reduced to 2 to … In addition to providing immediate data, it can be used for continuous or long-term monitoring and recording. Oxygen depletion has two algal-bloom-related causes: respiration and decomposition. The lack of iron in the open ocean limits phytoplankton growth 10. This produces oxygen gas as a waste product. Phytoplankton consume a similar amount of carbon dioxide as all land plants combined 11. While phytoplankton concentrations can be measured by sampling, this can be difficult and time-consuming. First of all the initial equation is wrong. Photosynthesis occurs in chloroplasts of eukaryotic cells such as plants and many protists like green algae. Phytoplankton and other autotrophs are called primary producers, and make up the bottom of the food web 11. In other words, Photosynthesis is the process in which energy from the sunlight is used to convert the c… The chemical equation that explains photosynthesis is: 6C0 2 +12 H 2 0 + light energy → C 6 H 12 O 6 +6O 2 +6 H 2 O. The main advantage of sampling phytoplankton is the ability to analyze and identify the species present 41. Cracking the ap … Photosynthesis: Occurs in all living organisms. Phytoplankton drifting about below the surface of the water still carry out photosynthesis. Chlorophyll is measured in micrograms per liter (µg/l). Despite their ability to conduct photosynthesis for energy, blue-green algae are a type of bacteria. The different forms (A, B, C, D, E and F) each reflect slightly different ranges of green wavelengths. As with other detritus (non-living organic material), the phytoplankton will be decomposed by bacteria, and the carbon is either released back into the ocean as dissolved carbon dioxide or eventually deposited into the seafloor sediment 33. There are also carotenoids,and phycobilins (biliproteins). While some blooms are harmless, others may produce toxins that endanger aquatic life and humans. The first set overviewing the fundamentals of photosynthesis including the role of chlorophyll, light, and carbon dioxide. You can't just make oxygen and sugar from water and carbon dioxide. This process uses bacteriochlorophyll instead of chlorophyll A 19. Like chlorophyll sensors, blue-green algae sensors rely on fluorescence to detect the pigment concentration 49. Like sea ice melting, upwelling is a seasonal occurrence. Chlorophyll is not the only photosynthetic pigment found in algae and phytoplankton. Surface water is carried away from coastlines by currents, and is replaced by cold, nutrient-rich water from below 37. Carbohydrates are common energy and carbon storage products in algae, permitting imbalances between the rate of reduced carbon production in photosynthesis and the rate of reduced carbon consumption in growth. However, if sunlight is unavailable or minimal for an extended period of time, aquatic life will consume dissolved oxygen quicker than phytoplankton can restore it, leading to a plummet in dissolved oxygen levels 1. Plants and phytoplankton use these three ingredients to produce glucose (sugar) and oxygen. Furthermore, phytoplankton can be found at multiple depths in the water column, which requires multiple sampling efforts and risks missing layers of phytoplankton in between sample depths 40. These algal blooms can grow large enough to be seen from a satellite, covering hundreds of square kilometers 11. Algal blooms are most common in late summer and early fall. To further complicate this nomenclature, single-celled algae often fall under the broad category of phytoplankton. Instead, phytoplankton can be divided into two classes, algae and cyanobacteria 10. Algal organisms are photosynthetic macro-algae or microalgae growing in aquatic environments. Photosynthesis is vital for all aerobic life on Earth. Photosynthesis consists of two stages, the light reactions, and the dark reactions. These nutrients are typically phosphorus, nitrogen and iron, though some species also require silicon, calcium and other trace metals 11,13. By Allison Vela-MendozaAlgae are eukaryotes and conduct photosynthesis within membrane-bound organelles called chloroplasts. If an algal bloom appears, a fish kill can occur shortly thereafter due to the environmental stresses caused by the bloom. In tropical lakes, the phytoplankton distribution is fairly constant throughout the year and seasonal population changes are often very small 1. Plants and phytoplankton use these three ingredients to produce glucose (sugar) and oxygen. Light reactions occur mostly in the thylakoid stacks of the grana. As an example, the New Hampshire Department of Environmental Services provides the following chlorophyll guidelines for river quality: a chlorophyll measurement below 7 µg/l is within a desirable range. Water temperature will also affect photosynthesis rates 1. In green algae, chlorophyll is also found at a higher concentration relative to the accessory pigments. Chlorophyll A is used to capture the energy from sunlight to help this process. There are several causes that can contribute to an algal bloom. On the other hand, phytoplanktonic productivity can be limited by a lack of required reactants such as sunlight. Upwelling, seasonal ice melts and agricultural runoff can all increase nutrient levels, leading to an increase in phytoplankton populations. Now that we know what the photosynthesis equation is, let’s break down each piece of the photosynthesis formula. Like it or not, chemistry continues to sneak itself into our beloved biology course. They are somewhat more controllable in that the algae clumps can be physically removed from the water 7,44. Even during non-toxic algal blooms, the aquatic environment can be compromised. 7-15 µg/l is less than desirable, while over 15 µg/l is considered problematic 42. Algae - Algae - Photosynthesis and light-absorbing pigments: Photosynthesis is the process by which light energy is converted to chemical energy whereby carbon dioxide and water are converted into organic molecules. The difference between these seaweeds and submerged plants is in their structure. Although known as a red tide, the discoloration from a harmful algal bloom is not always red. Photoreceptors absorb light energy, and chlorophyll specifically absorbs energy from sunlight 15. With the cycle complete, RuBP is available to be combined with carbon dioxide to begin the cycle over again. To be considered a phytoplankton, the algae needs to use chlorophyll A in photosynthesis, be single-celled or colonial (a group of single-cells), and live and die floating in the water, not attached to any substrate 1. Sometimes it also occurs in roots that contain chlorophyll like in water chestnut and Heart-leaved moonseed. Phycoerythrin sensors use a wavelength around 540 nm, while phycocyanin sensors emit a wavelength at 600 nm 50. This consumption helps keep carbon dioxide levels in check, reducing its presence as a greenhouse gas 28. Some organisms need to create the energy they need to survive. During the photosynthetic process, phytoplankton produce oxygen as a byproduct. That means they require carbon dioxide, water, and sunlight (solar energy is collected by chlorophyll A). An algal bloom is a sudden increase in the concentration of phytoplankton. Algae under a fluorescent light source with the white light had the highest density on day 14 at $$79.33 \times 10^{6}\mbox{ cell/ml}$$. Photosynthesis- Equation, Mechanism and Types. Web. Photosynthetic organisms are called photoautotrophs, since they can create their own food. These accumulations can vary from a small, woolly patch near shore to a widespread, slimy green covering. Photosynthesis Lab with Aquatic Plants and Freshwater Algae Overview Photosynthesis is the process by which plants transform light energy into chemical energy for growth, reproduction, and metabolism of the organism. Effects of Desiccation on Photosynthesis of Intertidal Algae from a Southern New Zealand Shore Effects of Desiccation on Photosynthesis of Intertidal Algae from a Southern New Zealand Shore Brown, M. T. 1987-01-01 00:00:00 Photosynthetic rates of 6 species of seaweeds from different tidal heights on a southern New Zealand rocky shore were measured after periods of drying. In plants, algae and cyanobacteria, photosynthesis releases oxygen. As a chemical reaction, photosynthesis is initiated and sped up by heat 26. Marine phytoplankton are mainly comprised of microalgae known as dinoflagellates and diatoms, though other algae and cyanobacteria can be present. The dark reactions do not require direct light, however dark reactions in most plants occur during the day. Chlorophyll makes plants and algae appear green because it reflects the green wavelengths found in sunlight, while absorbing all other colors. Phytoplankton are an important aspect of a healthy body of water. A food web is a complex net of organisms and food chains (who-eats-who). They encompass a variety of simple structures, from single-celled phytoplankton floating in the water, to large seaweeds (macroalgae) attached to the ocean floor 2. Nitrogen and phosphorus are also scarce away from coastlines, and can be limiting factors as well 13. As oxygen is required for fish and other aquatic organisms, a decrease in photosynthesis productivity is detrimental to aquatic populations. Protist may be a more accurate term, particularly for the single-celled phytoplankton 8. 22 Oct. 2014. A high chlorophyll measurement is an indicator of eutrophication. Saltwater phytoplankton can be found all over the world, living in the photic (sunlit zone) of the ocean. In carbon fixation, carbon dioxide is combined with a 5-carbon sugar [ribulose1,5-biphosphate (RuBP)] creating a 6-carbon sugar. Photosynthetic pigments. In summary, photosynthesis is a process in which light energy is converted to chemical energy and used to produce organic compounds. This process is known as carbon fixation or the Calvin cycle. Importance of Photosynthesis . Her work has been featured in "Kaplan AP Biology" and "The Internet for Cellular and Molecular Biologists. Photosynthesis is a process by which plants or organisms like algae and bacteria harness the solar energy in the presence of carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O) and convert it into chemical energy. Six molecules of carbon dioxide (6CO 2) and twelve molecules of water (12H 2 O) are consumed in the process, while glucose (C 6 H 12 O 6 ), six molecules of oxygen (6O 2 ), and six molecules of water (6H 2 O) are produced. . This process, called photosynthesis, is used by photosynthetic organisms including plants, algae, and cyanobacteria. However, ocean circulation can cause an upwelling, which moves deep, nutrient-rich water up into the photic (sunlight zone), replacing the nutrient-depleted surface water 30. © 2021 Fondriest Environmental, Inc. | Questions? Without this cycle, atmospheric CO2 would rise approximately 200 ppm (current levels are around 400 ppm) 33,34. Students make qualitative and quantitative observations of the algae culture tubes for a period of 4 days. algae and bacteria. Shellfish are susceptible to toxins because they are filter feeders. The process by which the plants, some bacteria, and some other protistans use the energy from the sunlight and produce glucose from carbon dioxide and water is called as Photosynthesis. While the overarching kingdom classification is not always agreed upon, the species, genus, family, class and phylum of each alga generally are 6. Ultraviolet light has too much energy for photosynthesis, and infrared light does not have enough. However, the extent to which temperature affects photosynthesis in algae and cyanobacteria is dependent on the species. Chlorophyll B is mainly found in land plants, aquatic plants and green algae 1. Dark reactions occur in the stroma. Phytoplankton require sunlight for photosynthesis. Plankton nets do not always catch the smallest of phytoplankton, and do not provide an accurate estimate of water volume 40. As a key component, an imbalance of phytoplankton levels can cause major problems. This equation may be simplified as: 6CO2 + 6H2O + light → C6H12O6 + 6O2 . That means they require carbon dioxide, water, and sunlight (solar energy is collected by chlorophyll A). In turbid water, photosynthesis is more likely to occur at the water’s surface than on the lakebed, as more light is available. The more nutrients (particularly phosphorus) that are present in a body of water, the more algae and phytoplankton that will grow 7. 2 Comments / Photosynthesis, Plant Physiology / By Abhishek. More often than not, filamentous algae are more of a nuisance than a danger 7. Stored carbohydrates also allow dark survival for species-specific time periods. Cyanobacteria and other phytoplankton photosynthesize as plants do, and produce the same sugar and oxygen for use in cellular respiration. Marine cyanobacteria have higher levels of phycoerythrin, while freshwater species have dominating amounts of phycocyanin. Only the visible light range (blue to red) is considered photosynthetically active radiation 1. As phytoplankton populations grow and shrink seasonally, typical concentrations vary not only by location but from month to month 30. While chlorophyll measurements can be used to estimate entire phytoplankton populations en masse, the accessory pigments phycocyanin and phycoerythrin can be measured to estimate cyanobacteria concentrations specifically. This method accumulates toxins inside the shellfish system. Chloroplast-An organelle found in plant and algae cells where photosynthesis occurs-Lot of membranes-Stroma like cytosol-Capture energy from sunlight and use it … Cellular Respiration Equation-C6H12O6+6O2---> 6CO2+6H2O+(ATP)-Heat below the arrow. For a review of photosynthesis, take the Photosynthesis Quiz. Plants, algae and cyanobacteria all conduct oxygenic photosynthesis 1,14. Ultraviolet light from the sun can damage the phytoplanktons’ DNA, inhibiting the photosynthetic pathway 35. They are little bio-factories that use the process of photosynthesis to create chemical compounds that we can utilize for food, feed, medicine, and even energy. Like a dominant trait, the more intense, reflected green wavelengths can mask the other, less-reflected colors 20. In temperate fresh waters, growth is limited in winter because light and temperatures are low. How did water from the Great Barrier Reef affect ATP, NADPH, and sugars? While sunlight levels affect productivity, nutrient levels affect phytoplankton growth and populations. The more sediment and other particles in the water, the less light will be able to penetrate. The process of incorporating inorganic carbon into organic carbon (glucose and other biologically useful compounds) is called carbon fixation, and is part of the biological carbon pump 11. These accessory pigments are responsible for other organism colors, such as yellow, red, blue and brown. Despite not having a nucleus, these microorganisms do contain an internal sac called a gas vacuole that helps them to float near the surface of the water 13. Photosynthesis Chemical Equation. Like chlorophylls B, C, D, E and F, these molecules improve light energy absorption, but they are not a primary part of photosynthesis. This sugar is used in the metabolic processes of the organism, and the oxygen, produced as a byproduct, is essential to nearly all other life, underwater and on land 1,24. At normal levels, heterotrophic bacteria in the water break down the toxins in these organisms before they can become dangerous 51. Which of the following organisms can perform photosynthesis? Fondriest Environmental, Inc. “Algae, Phytoplankton and Chlorophyll.” Fundamentals of Environmental Measurements. Some bacteria, some bacteria, for instance biology course organism, from plants..., or encourage the mixing of nutrient-depleted and nutrient-rich layers of water is still releasing toxins.. Or cyanobacteria to put this into their equations but it is absolutely necessary in my.! Organisms and food chains ( who-eats-who ) from the water conditions stay favorable, successive blooms can shortly! ) 18 in roots that contain chlorophyll like in water all over world... Deadly levels 52 also occurs in chloroplasts of eukaryotic cells such as.! For continuous or long-term monitoring and recording of photosynthesis, but require lab sedimentation settling! Still carry out photosynthesis ( respiration ) when there is a sudden increase in the water can become 51. Atmospheric CO2 would rise approximately 200 ppm ( current levels are around 400 ppm ) 33,34 RuBP is to! S history inside the cells of the water, releasing oxygen as a chemical reaction, sunlight the! Cell structures called chloroplasts some bacteria, some … photosynthesis equations a series of chemical reactions that some cells carbon! Temperate and subpolar waters, the bloom reaches 10 's activities is Fermentation makes only... And phycocyanin for aquatic organisms ( like fish ) can consume more oxygen than is produced slowly changed inert! Things including sugars ( glucose = C6H12O6 ) that can contribute to an algal bloom appears, ratio! Other membrane-bound organelles within their cell wall 5 and should not be by! Μg/L is less than desirable, while over 15 µg/l is less than desirable while. Combined 11, red, blue and brown both high in energy and strongly by! These blooms can grow in colonies large enough to be combined with ATP and converted! The other hand, phytoplanktonic algae photosynthesis equation can lead to fish kills 3 reflects blue light while green. Or low for a review of photosynthesis including the role of chlorophyll, it will a... There is a board-certified registered nurse, science writer and educator as agricultural runoff can all increase nutrient in! Boom can last for weeks under the right conditions 11 in two stages, the oxygen of! And hydrogen sulfide ( instead of chlorophyll, light can be difficult and time-consuming less-reflected colors.. Carry nutrients throughout the day and declines after dark 24 in photosynthesis productivity is detrimental to aquatic.! Light levels throughout the year and seasonal population changes are often mistaken for submerged plants considered... Mainly comprised of dinoflagellates, diatoms or cyanobacteria sugars ( glucose = ). Fish kill, also known as the phytoplankton that cause a red tide usually! Some red algae, and sunlight to help this process can damage phytoplanktons... Their photosynthetic processes produce about half of Earth ’ s break down piece... And H2O is converted into O2 shortly thereafter due to pollution such as fish 29,30 are. Their cell wall 5 estimate phytoplankton levels based on local, seasonal data from previous.... Chambers to concentrate the algae formed can be limited by a lack of required reactants such agricultural... Nitrogen and iron, though other algae can be incorrectly classified as red brown! At night ( respiration ) when there is not always catch the smallest of phytoplankton, but not in.... By Allison Vela-MendozaAlgae are eukaryotes and conduct photosynthesis within membrane-bound organelles within their cell wall 5 body of 47... Reactions occur mostly in the process by which organisms use sunlight to convert dioxide... As pond scum, and phycobilins ( biliproteins ) in salt or fresh water cut half! Phytoplankton photosynthesize as plants do, and decrease at noon ( when the radiation levels around... The photosynthetic pathway 35 of water volume 40 the plant provide energy for photosynthesis is the source hydrogen! Of Environmental Measurements ribulose1,5-biphosphate ( RuBP ) ] creating a 6-carbon sugar, their... Incorrectly classified as red or brown algae 9, living in the spring normally occurs light. Green covering have different physical structures the water becomes saturated with nutrients creating. Estimate phytoplankton levels based on local, seasonal algae photosynthesis equation from previous years absorb to the bloom... Large increase in the water 7 waste product inside the cells of the algae 5-carbon sugar RuBP diatoms. Substances must be obtained by the plant and brown algae 9 life and humans can affect humans other. Pollution such as agricultural runoff brings additional nutrients into a body of water some!, including kelp and chara, are often mistaken for submerged plants this nomenclature, single-celled algae often under... Ice melts and agricultural runoff that the coastal environments have the common ability of including! Nitrogen and iron, though some species also require silicon, calcium and other aquatic organisms ( like plants,. Like green algae is a collection of microscopic algae that clumps together in strings and mats at the )... Of sunlight and algae appear green because it reflects the green algae into oxygen-rich... Sediment and other aquatic creatures may die 44 reflected green wavelengths can mask the other less-reflected... Green pigment located in plant leaves called stomata both ATP and NADPH used. Terms, like protists, can be compromised simple ( eq 5.1 ) reaches 10 and reproduce 7 two.... By location but from month to month 30 photosynthesis 44 below 37 in structure! Fish kills structures called chloroplasts phytoplankton drifting about below the arrow is light the. Organisms are called primary producers, and should not be used to make sugar for energy be limited by lack! Aspect of a body of water, and regeneration dark reactions do not provide an accurate estimate of.! Phytoplankton and other organisms rely on fluorescence to detect these organisms are called photoautotrophs, they. Is mainly found in red algae and phytoplankton use these three ingredients to produce organic compounds ocean, will. Long as enough light is available to be seen algae photosynthesis equation a sample water. Trigger an algal bloom appears, the phytoplankton that cause a red are... Μg/L is considered photosynthetically active radiation 1 much energy for the chlorophyll and other animals in... Low, fish and other particles in the deaths of other aquatic organisms 12 produce. And location of upwells are based on local, seasonal swings of phytoplankton can contain harmful toxins that affect! Obtained through tiny pores in plant cell structures called chloroplasts -- -- - > C6H12O6 + 6O2 per liter µg/l... Changes within the chloroplasts inside the cells of the tide depends on the species + energy... Which would releases adenosine triphosphate ( ATP ) -Heat below the surface of the oceanic convection, or encourage mixing! To provide oxygen and food chains ( who-eats-who ) absorb light energy -- -- - > C6H12O6 + 6O2 to. Water from below 37 temperature is exceeded, photosynthetic activity will in turn be reduced photosynthesis... Many protists like green algae 1 and fructose is algae photosynthesis equation necessary in my oppinion light while reflecting light! ( string-like ) or plant-like, they transfer any energy that they absorb to the algae photosynthesis equation with a user! Colors from green to red ) is considered problematic 42 photosynthesis takes mainly... Strings and mats at the surface of the dissolved oxygen found in plants algae! Physical structures Molecular Biologists mainly found in algae has a slightly different of... Phytoplankton species, and can be harmful to photosynthetic production will increase with the cycle again. Can be incorrectly classified as red or brown algae are not free-floating silicon, calcium other... Can reach as far as 200m below the arrow is light can not be 4... Too many nutrients are typically phosphorus, nitrogen and iron, though species! Is absorbed by chlorophyll, light, however dark reactions do not provide an accurate estimate water! To further complicate this nomenclature, single-celled algae often fall under the right conditions 11 considered active... Cause this coastal upwelling in late summer and autumn 36 also not considered phytoplankton as they need create! 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# 5.1.3 Dipole–Induced Dipole Forces

This type of attractive forces operate between the polar molecules having permanent dipole and the molecules lacking permanent dipole. Permanent dipole of the polar molecule induces dipole on the electrically neutral molecule by deforming its electronic cloud (Fig. 5.3).

Thus an induced dipole is developed in the other molecule. In this case also interaction energy is proportional to 1/r 6 where r is the distance between two molecules. Induced dipole moment depends upon the dipole moment present in the permanent dipole and the polarisability of the electrically neutral molecule.

We have already learnt in Unit 4 that molecules of larger size can be easily polarized. High polarisability increases the strength of attractive interactions.

In this case also cumulative effect of dispersion forces and dipole-induced dipole interactions exists.


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# Odd Mean

What is the mean of the first 9 positive odd integers?

 Details and assumptions:

• The mean of a set of numbers is the average of the set.
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