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# Air Pollutant Effects

Authored by: Edward F. Ferrand

# Encyclopedia of Environmental Science and Engineering

Print publication date:  June  2012
Online publication date:  June  2012

Print ISBN: 9781439804421
eBook ISBN: 9780203757659

10.1081/E-EESE6-120048489

#### Abstract

Air pollutants may be pervasive throughout areas because they are the products of daily-life activities, or generated by activities whose pollutant by-products tend to be localized in nearby areas by specific processes. They may be caused by point sources, area sources, or mobile sources. The primary standards for cleaner air are intended to protect health, and the secondary standards protect public-welfare interests. The standards often reflect a conservative approach in favor of the protection of health.

#### Air Pollutants

Air pollutants fall into two main categories: (1) those that are pervasive throughout areas because they are the products of daily‐life activities such as transportation, power generation, space and water heating, and waste incineration, and (2) those generated by activities such as chemical, manufacturing, and agricultural processing whose pollutant by‐products tend to be localized in nearby areas or are spread long distances by tall stacks and prevailing winds.

Air pollutants are also categorized by their emission characteristics: (1) point sources, such as power plants, incinerators, and large processing plants; (2) area sources, such as space and water heating in buildings; and (3) mobile sources, mainly cars and trucks, but also lawn mowers and blowers and airplanes.

The United States has established National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) for seven pollutants that are pervasive and are threats to public health and welfare. The Clean Air Act, which initiated this program, was passed in 1963 and was last amended in 1990. The primary standards are intended to protect health, and the secondary standards protect public‐welfare interests such as visibility and danger to animals, crops, and buildings.[ 1 ]

The standards reflect, for the most part but not always, a conservative approach in favor of the protection of health. It is notable that the public, who in the final analysis must pay the cost, appears to be firmly committed to enforcement of the standards without overwhelming concern for costs.

The act requires the states to determine the status of their air quality and to find and introduce the controls that will enable them to meet these standards. Their proposal describing how and when the standards will be met is submitted to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) as an implementation plan for approval. Meeting target dates for air quality standards has been problematic because the complex system that has to be managed includes important socioeconomic and political factors. For example, the close connection between air quality and daily activities such as transportation, waste disposal, and the heating of homes and workplaces requires education of the population to obtain their support for alternative and perhaps costly lifestyle choices in the vehicles they purchase, the packaging of articles they choose, and the type and cost of the fuels they use—choices they may be reluctant to make, even if they will improve the quality of their air environment. Choices benefiting air quality that carry disadvantages for important sectors of the economy are usually skillfully discouraged by some of those sectors.

#### Control of Criteria Pollutants

Control of the criteria pollutants requires a measurement program to determine the daily and short‐term patterns of the ambient concentrations, identification of the emitting sources, and design and implementation of strategies for their control. A detailed inventory of the sources causing the pollution is prepared. The effectiveness of control technology and potential regulatory strategies is evaluated and their availability is determined with consideration given to the economic and political restraints on their implementation. In other words, the total system to be managed and its interactions have to be detailed and understood in order to evaluate the potential for successful control of the air pollution in an area.

The amount of exposure to the pollutants from independent or grouped sources depends upon the intensity of the activities producing the emissions, the effectiveness of the controls, and the quality of the surveillance instituted to ensure the continued proper use and maintenance of the controls. A factor that can be overwhelming is the pattern of the local meteorology and its effectiveness in dispersing emitted pollutants. The effects of dispersions from one area upon downwind areas should also be considered.

Fig. 1   National ambient air quality standards.

Detailed analysis of data accumulated over many years using unchanging analytical methods has shown that very significant changes in an area's air pollution can take place from year to year without significant changes in controls, primarily as the result of changes in the local weather patterns. The combination of 10 years of data at three sampling sites in New York City showed that its sulfur dioxide pollution problems was clearly related to the sulfur content of the fuel that was burned in the city. The data for a 10‐year period were combined on a week‐by‐week basis, with the result that the shape of the 10‐year curve for ambient sulfur dioxide concentrations and the long‐term temperature curve for the city could be superimposed with significant success. Therefore, the sometimes great variations found between years when little change occurred in controls were caused by variations in the local atmosphere, demonstrating that the success or failure of control strategies cannot be evaluated with security over short intervals of time.

The primary standards to protect health and the secondary standards to protect welfare (Fig. 1) have improved with increasing knowledge about the effects of exposures and measurement technology.

#### Epidemiology

Epidemiology is the study of the occurrence and distribution of disease within a population as opposed to its study on an individual basis. An epidemiologist who undertakes to determine the acute and chronic effects caused by exposures of a population to a particular component of local air pollution faces complex problems that can be itemized as follows:

• In a community study the subjects under scrutiny are subjected to pollutants, known and unknown, other than the ones being investigated.
• Supporting clinical studies guiding the investigation are seldom based upon human data, but must depend upon studies using surrogate species that were exposed to much higher doses without the contaminants that may contribute to the effects found in the epidemiological study.
• The true dose is not always the simple product of the measured concentration and the duration of exposure, because of the complexity that can exist between exposure and response—the biologically active dose can be quite different.
• Individuals whose exposure and symptoms are being correlated very often spend the major part of their time indoors or traveling, where they may be subjected to different pollutants and different concentrations.
• Different pollutants will disperse and interact differently with the surroundings, introducing a location factor caused by the relationship of exposed individuals to the measurement site—for example, sulfur dioxide concentrations will not vary as much as ozone concentrations, because the higher reactivity of ozone with structural materials and other compounds will affect its concentration at the receptor.

#### Informing the Public

The aerometric networks established by cities and states have been gathering and analyzing data about air pollutants for many years. During these years, attempts were made to inform the public about the quality of its air environment, which can change from day to day and even hour to hour, and about the possible impact that local concentrations are having upon their health. The relationship between raw air pollution data and its health impact significance is complex; therefore, the attempt is made to present the information in a simplified manner that is understandable to the public. Toward this goal, the EPA has developed an Air Quality Index for daily reporting about what has been found in the air together with some indication of its potential effects on health. Important considerations are the variability in the susceptibility of the exposed population, meaning that what may have little or no effect on one group can be a serious concern for others, and that personal patterns of behavior of the exposed can affect the amounts of pollutants that they breathe. Individuals whose lifestyle requires them to move throughout an area (indoors, outdoors, and in vehicles) will receive very different exposures from those who stay at home, depending upon the pervasiveness of the pollutants. In particular, exposures to carbon monoxide will be much greater for those whose daily activities requires them to be in the vicinity of motor vehicles than for those who stay indoors or travel on railroads and subways.

The Air Quality Index designed by EPA reports the daily levels of ozone, particulate matter, carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, and nitrogen dioxide on a scale of 0–500. The range corresponds to six different categories of health concern that are also characterized by colors in Table 1.

### Table 1   Air quality index definitions.

Air Quality Index

Health Concerns

0–50: Good (green)

Little or no risk

51–100: Moderate (yellow)

Concern for unusually sensitive people

101–150: Unhealthy for sensitive groups (orange)

The general public is unaffected, but people with health problems such as lung and heart disease may be affected

151–200: Unhealthy (red)

Everyone is affected to some degree, especially those in sensitive groups

201–300: Very unhealthy (purple)

A health alert exists; everyone should take precautions, especially those in sensitive groups

301–500: Hazardous (maroon)

Everyone is affected and everyone should take precautions

#### Risk Reduction

Air pollution affects people primarily through the respiratory system; therefore, the logical way to start minimizing risk is by avoidance of activities that increase one's inhalation of polluted air. When air pollution levels are high, activities that cause increases in breathing rate should be minimized as much as possible, depending upon the importance and necessity of the activity and the seriousness of the pollution episode. As an example, jogging in the vicinity of vehicles where local ventilation is poor, as in the canyon streets of cities, should be avoided because of the high concentrations of carbon monoxide and other pollutants usually found in those areas. This is of special importance to people with asthma or heart diseases such as angina.

Children who spend their time playing outdoors should be restrained from overexerting themselves when ozone levels are high during warm weather episodes, as should individuals with asthma or other respiratory diseases or those who are hypersensitive to ozone.

#### Respiratory System Overview

An elementary understanding of studies describing the adverse health effects caused by the inhalation of gaseous or particulate air pollutants requires at least an elementary familiarity with respiratory tract anatomy and dynamics. The respiratory tract can be considered to include three sections:

• Nasopharynx—nose and mouth down to epiglottis and larynx
• Tracheobronchial—bronchi down to terminal bronchiole
• Pulmonary—respiratory bronchiole, alveoli ducts, and alveoli

The trachea divides into left and right bronchi, which divide many times into smaller and smaller tubes down to the respiratory bronchioles. These feed about 65,000 lobules, each containing approximately 5000 thin‐walled air sacs called alveoli. Thus, in an adult there are approximately 300 million alveoli whose thin walls, totaling 70 m2 in area, contain hundreds of miles of tiny capillaries. Oxygen is added to and carbon dioxide is removed from the blood through the walls of these capillaries. The transfer of toxic chemicals into the blood can also take place in the alveoli.

Starting in the nose, where the air is conditioned for proper temperature and humidity, the direction of airflow is changed many times, thereby causing the impaction and deposition of particles on the surfaces of the branching airways. These surfaces contain hairlike ciliary cells whose rapid, wavelike motion, over 15 times per second, carry impacted particles on a mucus layer upward into the trachea for subsequent ingestion.

The velocity of the airflow decreases from about 150 cm/s at the start to almost zero in the alveoli; the smaller the particles, the greater the ease with which they turn corners, thus escaping impaction to penetrate to the alveoli, where they are collected via sedimentation. The larger particles and soluble gases will be trapped in the upper airways, where tissues and their defense mechanisms can be damaged reversibly or irreversibly depending upon the nature, intensity, and duration of the attack.

The amounts of a water‐soluble gas or suspended particles that reach the pulmonary region are strongly dependent upon their inhalation pathway into the body. When inhaled through the nose instead of the mouth, they experience a number of chances of removal by impaction. In the case of sulfur dioxide, this process is greatly enhanced by its very rapid dissolution in the watery fluids on the surface of nasal tissues. The greater tendency for mouth breathing combined with the greater intake of air that accompanies increased exertions contraindicates strenuous activity wherever pollutant levels are high.

Particle removal by deposition along the upper and lower respiratory system is strongly dependent upon particle size.

Particles with an aerodynamic diameter above 10 µm are removed in the convoluted, moist passages of the nose and tracheobronchial region. While almost all those below 2 µm reach the pulmonary region, intermediate sizes tend to distribute themselves along both regions. When the particles are insoluble, they are removed in a few days from the upper respiratory system by mucociliary action; however, those that penetrate down farther can remain for many months or even years. Removal of particles also occurs by phagocytosis through the scavenging action of macrophages.

The size distribution of particles suspended in the atmosphere exhibits a log‐normal behavior. The distribution by mass tends to separate into a fine and a coarse group depending principally upon whether they are formed by condensation of very small precursors, such as those produced in combustion, or are produced from larger particles by mechanical breakdown processes.

#### Ozone

Ozone is a very reactive chemical that readily attacks other molecules, including those in the tissues of the respiratory system. Exertions that increase the need for oxygen will increase air intake and allow ozone molecules to penetrate and damage the sensitive areas of the lungs. Ozone can aggravate asthma attacks by making individuals more sensitive to allergens that promote the attacks and more susceptible to respiratory infections. Lung tissue can be scarred by continued exposure to ozone over the years. Researchers at Johns Hopkins found that an increase of 10 ppb in weekly ozone levels in cities whose average level was 26 ppb was associated with a 0.52% daily increase in deaths the following week. They calculated that a 10 ppb reduction in daily ozone levels could save nearly 4000 lives throughout the 95 urban communities included in the study. Out of 296 metropolitan areas, 36 have significant upward trends in the criteria pollutants; however, of these, only trends involving ozone had values over the level of air quality standards.

The presence of ozone and other photochemical pollutants depends upon atmospheric conditions, notably temperature, as experience shows that this type of pollution is associated with warm temperatures. The precursors that are affected by elevated temperatures are volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and nitric oxide. Natural sources for these compounds are a less important factor than the emissions produced by human activities, but the long‐range transport of the precursors while atmospheric conditions are converting them to photochemical oxidants means that there is a possibility of picking up precursor material from natural sources en route. Control of this type of air pollutant is focused on controlling emissions of VOCs and nitrogen oxides. It should be noted that ambient concentrations of the criteria pollutant nitrogen dioxide have been found to be generally below the levels considered to be health‐damaging; therefore, efforts to control its presence in the atmosphere are driven by the need to control ozone. The combustion of fuels and other materials provides sufficient energy to cause the nitrogen and oxygen in the air to react to form nitric oxide. The slow air oxidation of nitric oxide to nitrogen dioxide results in a mixture described as nitrogen oxides (NO x ).

The chemical reactions involved in the formation of photochemical oxidants from these precursors are complex. The basic reactions are

$N O 2 + h v = N O + O O + O 2 + M = O 3 + M *$
where hv represents a photon and M and M* represent material before and after absorbing energy from the ozone formation reaction. In the absence of other molecules capable of reacting with the nitric oxide, the ozone is removed by the rapid reaction
$N O + O 3 = N O 2 + O 2$

Therefore, concentrations of ozone will remain quite small unless there is a competing reaction for rapid removal of the nitric oxide.

Many organic compounds can play the role of nitric oxide remover in forming photochemical oxidants such as peroxyacetylnitrate (PAN, CH3COO2NO2). VOCs possessing varying reactivities are able to remove nitric oxide and thus make possible the buildup of ozone:

$V O C + N O → N O 2 + organic nitrates$

Although ozone is the major component, peroxynitrates, peracids, hydroperoxides, aldehydes, and a variety of other compounds are found in photochemical smog. Among the major sources releasing reactive organic compounds are automobile engines and tailpipes; gasoline stations; the use of solvents, paints, and lacquers; and a variety of industrial operations. Thus, the control of ozone is complicated by the variety of sources and the distances that can occur between high‐ozone areas and the sources. Suburban and rural areas downwind of urban sources will often have higher ozone levels than source areas because of the transport that occurs while ozone is being formed. Both ozone and PAN cause serious injury to vegetation, but PAN does so at much lower concentrations.

#### Particulate Matter

“Fine particles” are less than 2.5 mm in size and require electron microscopy for detection; nevertheless, they are much larger than molecules such as ozone and other gaseous pollutants, which are thousands of times smaller and cannot be seen even with electron microscopy. Fine particles are formed by the condensation of molecules into solids or liquid droplets, whereas larger particles are mostly formed by mechanical breakdown of material. “Coarse particles” are between 2.5 and 10 µm in diameter and cannot penetrate as readily as fine particles; nevertheless, they have been found to cause serious deterioration of health. The severity of effects will vary with the chemical nature of the particles; however, since their nature can be so varied and difficult to determine, coarse and fine particles are considered in terms of what epidemiological studies have shown.

The inhalation of particles has been linked with illnesses and deaths from heart and lung disease as a result of both short‐ and long‐term exposures. People with heart disease may experience chest pain, palpitations, shortness of breath, and fatigue when exposed to particulate matter pollutants. Exposures have been linked to cardiac arrhythmias and heart attacks. Inhalation of particulate matter can increase susceptibility to respiratory infections such as asthma and chronic bronchitis. The EPA has found that nearly 100 million people in the United States live in areas that have not met the standard for particulate matter with a diameter less than 2.5 µm. It estimates that compliance by 2010 will prevent 15,000 premature deaths, 75,000 cases of chronic bronchitis, 20,000 cases of acute bronchitis, 10,000 hospital admissions for respiratory and cardiovascular disease, and the loss of 3.1 million days worked.

Emissions from diesel fuel combustion in vehicles and equipment are a special problem, especially for those individuals breathing in close proximity to the exhausts. Cars, trucks, and off‐road engines emit more than half a million tons of diesel particulate matter per year. Emissions of 2.5‐mm particles have decreased in the United States from 2.3 million tons in 1990 to 1.8 million tons in 2003.

#### Sulfur Dioxide

The combustion of sulfur‐containing fuels is the main source of sulfur dioxide air pollution. The oil and coal burned to heat homes and water and to produce electrical power are the main sources that affect the general population, but individuals who live near metal smelting and other industrial processes can be heavily exposed. Sulfur dioxide exposures are usually accompanied by exposures to particulate matter, which together exacerbate the effects.

Emissions of sulfur compounds from motor vehicles have increased in importance as those from oil and coal burning have been reduced. The diesel fuel used in vehicles can contain up to 500 ppm by weight of sulfur. California, which has the unfortunate combination of high emissions and poor atmospheric ventilation, hopes to reduce the allowable sulfur content of fuels to 15 ppm by 2007. It must be noted that California is the only state that is not preempted by the federal government in controlling pollution, because its efforts anteceded those of the federal government. Emissions of sulfur dioxide in the United States decreased from 31 million tons in 1970 to 16 million tons in 2003.

The defense mechanisms of the lung are challenged by sulfur dioxide; however, its rapid solution in water irritates tissues but reduces the concentrations that reach the deeper parts of the lung. Inhalation of particulate matter together with sulfur dioxide increases the hazard to the lungs. Asthmatic children and active adults can experience breathing difficulties in high concentrations of sulfur dioxide, and individuals with cardiovascular disease can have their symptoms exacerbated. The conversion in the atmosphere of sulfur dioxide into sulfite and sulfate acidic aerosol particles increases its threat to health.

Sulfur dioxide harms the body's defense system against particulate pollution and the ingress of bacteria into the body through the respiratory system. It also increases the harmful effects of ozone when both these gases are present. Asthmatics, the elderly, and those already suffering from respiratory problems are affected at lower concentrations than the general population. Studies have shown that in the 1950s and 1960s, when ambient concentrations were sometimes higher than 1 ppm and mixed with particulate matter, the occurrence of lasting atmospheric inversions resulted in thousands of excess deaths.

#### Carbon Monoxide

Carbon monoxide has afflicted the human race since the discovery of fire. Nature contributes very significant quantities, but it does so in such a highly dispersed fashion that human exposures from this source are insignificant. Nature has provided sinks for this insoluble, relatively unreactive gas; otherwise, background concentrations would rise much more rapidly as human contributions added their burden. The oceans, which at one time were believed to be a major sink, are now considered to be a source, because certain marine organisms release enough carbon monoxide to supersaturate the surface layer. The important removal mechanism is believed to be the action of microorganisms that live in soils and plants and the reaction of carbon monoxide with hydroxyl radicals in the atmosphere.

The rapid growth in the use of internal combustion engines has created an outdoor problem as indoor problems were decreased by improvements in space‐heating equipment. The problem is concentrated in urban areas where traffic congestion is combined with canyonlike streets. Emissions of carbon monoxide in the United States decreased from 197 million tons in 1970 to 94 million tons in 2003.

Fig. 2   Criteria for a recommended standard occupational exposure to carbon monoxide.

Source: Adapted from NIOSH.[ 2 ]

With the exception of exposures resulting from the breakdown or misuse of indoor heating equipment that produces fatalities or serious injuries, carbon monoxide exposures of significance occur in the vicinity of congested traffic. People whose occupation requires them to be near such traffic receive the highest exposures, as do those who jog or bicycle in these areas. Malfunctions in the exhaust system of vehicles also can result in high exposures to their occupants. Exposure to carbon monoxide results in the buildup of carboxyhemoglobin in the blood, which will interfere with the transport of oxygen to cells in the body.

Fig. 3   Criteria for recommended standard occupational exposure to carbon monoxide.

Source: Adapted from NIOSH.[ 2 ]

Carbon monoxide molecules attach themselves to the hemoglobin molecules in the blood with much greater tenacity than do oxygen molecules. The Haldane equation attempts to approximate this competition:

$( H b C O ) ( H b O 2 ) = 2 1 0 P C O P O 2$

(HbCO) and (HbO2) are the concentrations of carboxyhemoglobin and oxyhemoglobin, and PCO and PO2 are the partial pressures of carbon monoxide and oxygen. Inspiration of air containing high concentrations of carbon monoxide results in its preferential absorption in the blood, thereby interfering with oxygen delivery to the cells in the body. Exposure to carbon monoxide causes a gradual increase in the percentage of carboxyhemoglobin in the blood until an equilibrium value dependent upon the ambient air concentration is reached. The rate of intake is dependent upon the breathing rate; therefore, the more quickly the equilibrium is reached, the greater the exertion. Up to 50 ppm, the equilibrium values of car‐boxyhemoglobin corresponding to different concentrations of inspired carbon monoxide can be estimated from the equation

$%HbCO = 0 . 4 + P P M CO 7$

The 0.4 constant is in the equation to account for the endogenous carbon monoxide, that is, the carboxyhemoglobin that results from the body's own production of carbon monoxide.

Graphic representations of the conversion of hemoglobin to carboxyhemoglobin in the presence of different concentrations of ambient carbon monoxide and the effect of various levels of activity on the rate of uptake are presented in Figs. 2 and 3.

The level of HbCO in the blood (Table 2) is the important measurement in the evaluation of carbon monoxide pollution. High levels of HbCO are associated with cigarette smokers, firemen, garage workers, foundry workers, and individuals who spend extended periods of time in heavy congested traffic or in vehicles with faulty exhaust systems. Ambient carbon monoxide measurements at a monitoring site can be very misleading as an index of exposure, because study populations are usually mobile and carbon monoxide concentrations can vary significantly, both horizontally and vertically, throughout an urban area.

Exposures to the high concentrations of carbon monoxide sometimes encountered in community atmospheres, even those well above the national standards, are not believed to be sufficient to initiate cardiopulmonary disease; however, individuals whose pulmonary functions are already significantly impaired because of anemia or damage to the heart, vascular system, or lungs can suffer adverse health effects from such exposures.

### Table 2   Carboxyhemoglobin levels resulting from steady-state exposure to increasing concentrations of CO in ambient air.

CO in Atmosphere (ppm)

COHb in blood (%)

Signs and Symptoms

10

2

Asymptomatic

70

10

No appreciable effect, except shortness of breath on vigorous exertion; possible tightness across the forehead; dilation of cutaneous blood vessels

120

20

Shortness of breath on moderate exertion; occasional headache with throbbing in temples

220

30

Headache; irritable; easily fatigued; judgment disturbed; possible dizziness; dimness of vision

350–520

40–50

Headache; confusion; collapse; fainting on exertion

800–1220

60–70

Unconsciousness; intermittent convulsion; respiratory failure; death if exposure is long continued

1950

80

Rapidly fatal

Source: Adapted from Ellenhorn's Medical Toxicology 2nd Ed., Baltimore, MD: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.[ 3 ]

In order to maintain normal function, the tissues of the body must receive oxygen at a rate that depends upon their nature and functions. Those with a high rate of oxygen demand are more susceptible to the oxygen‐depriving action of carbon monoxide. For example, studies of the brain and liver show a decrease in oxygen pressure at those sites even at levels as low as 2% carboxyhemoglobin. Cardiopulmonary system abnormalities, such as shunts that have developed that allow venous blood to mix directly with arterial blood, cause the individuals affected to be explicitly sensitive to carbon monoxide. Angina pectoris patients who experienced exposures that raised their carboxyhemoglobin level to 2.5%—that is, approximately to the level produced by an 8‐hour exposure at the concentration set as the air quality standard—suffered the onset of chest pain from exercise significantly sooner than did other angina patients not similarly exposed. The reduction in risk of heart attack that is observed soon after the cessation of the cigarette smoking habit indicates that carbon monoxide may be an important factor in precipitating heart attacks. The inhalation of carbon monoxide during pregnancy is a special concern because a higher concentration of carboxyhemoglobin is generated in the fetus than in the mother, and the elimination of carbon monoxide after exposure is slower in the fetus. The effects of combining exposure to carbon monoxide with sudden significant changes in altitude or the intake of drugs or alcohol upon the performance of body functions should be considered and avoided.

#### Nitrogen Oxides

“Nitrogen oxides” (NO x ) refers to the mixtures of nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide that are formed when combustion causes the nitrogen and oxygen in the atmosphere to combine to form nitric oxide, some of which then oxidizes further to nitrogen dioxide; combustion gases contain about 5–10% nitrogen dioxide mixed with nitric oxide. The mechanism for the process is believed to be

$O 2 = 2 O N 2 + O = N O + N N + O 2 = N O + O N + O H = N O + H$

The overall reaction for the formation of nitrogen dioxide is

$2 N O + O 2 = 2 N O 2$

Nitric oxide is oxidized rapidly by ozone; therefore, ozone levels tend to be lower in the vicinity of nitric oxide sources, such as the tailpipes of vehicles.

Nitrogen dioxide, the most toxic of the nitrogen oxides, causes damage to lung tissues at concentrations higher than usually found in ambient atmospheres. Exposures above the national standard of 0.053 ppm are rare; therefore, with the exception of activities in the vicinity of industrial sources, nitrogen oxides have not been found to be a cause for community concern. An important consideration in the case of significant exposures is the delay that can occur between exposure and sensations of distress, which may delay prompt treatment. An important effect is the increased susceptibility to pathogens that may result from the destruction of macrophages and general injury to the lung's defense mechanisms.

The major source of lead in the air environment has been motor vehicles; therefore, levels have decreased dramatically as regulations have mandated the elimination of lead from gasoline because of its health effects and its detrimental action on the catalytic converters in vehicles. Metal processing, such as in lead smelters, is currently responsible for most of the lead in the air, but waste incinerators and lead acid battery manufacturing also contribute.

The chief cause of concern about lead is its effect on children. Lead damages the brain, particularly the cerebellum, and the kidneys, liver, and other organs, and can lead to osteoporosis and reproductive disorders. Its effect upon fetuses and young children produces learning disabilities and lowers IQ. Lead exposures result in high blood pressure and can lead to anemia.

The exposure of children occurs not only through the air but also through accidental or intentional eating of paint chips and contaminated food or water.

#### Toxic Air Pollutants

The Clean Air Act of 1977 required that emission standards be imposed upon air pollutants considered hazardous because they have been found to increase illness or mortality. The complexities encountered in attempts to control pollutants by declaring them to be criteria pollutants and setting air quality standards resulted in the choice of emission controls instead of air quality standards for toxic materials. The EPA has listed 188 pollutants whose emissions must be reduced. Examples are benzene (gasoline), perchlorethylene (used in dry cleaning), and methylene chloride (a solvent and paint stripper), as well as toluene, dioxin, asbestos, cadmium, mercury, and chromium.

The effects of significant exposures to toxic pollutants may be cancer, neurological effects, damage to the immune system, and reproductive effects. The risk of cancer associated with exposure to toxic pollutants in the air for a population is calculated on the basis of two factors. One describes the potency of the air contaminant, the other the magnitude and duration of the exposure, which is commonly assumed to be a lifetime of 70 years. The potency of a hazardous material can be expressed as a unit risk value. The unit risk value for an air pollutant is the increased lifetime cancer risk occurring in a population in which all individuals are exposed continuously from birth (70 years). The following discussion is based on a relatively simple version of risk assessment compared to the more sophisticated methods that are now in use.

The unit risk values are used to compare the potency of carcinogens with each other and to make crude estimates of the risk to populations whose exposures are known or assumed. The unit risk values are calculated so as to represent plausible upper bounds that are unlikely to be higher but could be appreciably lower. The units of unit risk values are (µ/m3)−1. The product of the unit risk value and the ambient concentration is the individual risk, and the product with the population exposed is the aggregate risk. Division of the individual or aggregate risk by 70 results in the corresponding annual risks. The maximum average concentration of the hazardous material in the ambient atmosphere is used in order to be conservative. Thus, if a maximum value of cadmium in the atmosphere in the vicinity of a copper smelter is 0.3 µg/m3, and the unit risk value of cadmium is 2.3 × 10−3(µg/m3)−1, then the probability of cancer (i.e., the maximum individual risk from the inhalation of cadmium) is

$2 . 3 × 1 0 - 3 × 0 . 3 = 0 . 6 9 × 1 0 - 3$
and the aggregate risk is
$1 0 0 0 / 7 0 = 1 4 . 3$

Risk assessment has become not only increasingly important but also more complex as the basis for the management of exposures. The EPA issues guidelines for assessing the risks of carcinogens, mutagens, developmental toxicants, and chemical mixtures together with guidelines for estimating exposures. The integrated risk information system (IRIS) is an electronic database maintained by EPA that contains information on the human health effects that can result from exposure to hazardous pollutants. The EPA provides telephone, fax, and e‐mail contacts for obtaining information about hazardous pollutants.

#### Dioxin

The term “dioxin” refers to a group of compounds that cause similar adverse health effects. They belong to three classes of chemicals: chlorinated dibenzo‐p‐dioxins (CDDs), chlorinated dibenzofurans (CDFs), and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). Studies to date indicate that the compound 2,3,7,8‐tetrachlo‐rodibenzo‐p‐dioxin (TCDD) is the more toxic substance. CDDs and CDFs are not created on purpose but result as byproducts of certain activities; PCBs were produced for use in transformers and other purposes, but their use has now been prohibited. Combustion of certain materials, chlorine bleaching of pulp and paper, and certain chemical manufacturing processes all may create small amounts of dioxins.

Dioxins are characterized as likely human carcinogens, with the compound TCDD considered a human carcinogen on the basis of available human and animal data. The cancer risk to the population from exposures to dioxins is estimated to be 1 in 1000, with the likelihood that the risk may be much lower. Adverse health effects have been associated with personnel exposed to Agent Orange in Vietnam because of its dioxin content. Based upon available data, there is no clear indication that the general population is suffering health diseases from exposure to dioxins.

#### Indoor Air

Indoor air quality became important to those responsible for protection against adverse health effects caused by the inhalation of pollutants when it was realized that most individuals spend 90% of their time indoors and that indoor air quality is deteriorated by a large variety of sources. Four organizations—the American Lung Association, EPA, Consumer Product Safety Commission, and American Medical Association—prepared a document titled Indoor Air Pollution in 1989 that presents a summary of information for health professionals about the causes and effects of indoor air pollution. Fig. 4, taken from this document, provides an overview of the effects of air pollutants and their causes.

From a practical standpoint, the most important factor in the control of indoor air pollution is the quality of the ventilation of occupied space. The reduction of energy costs by cutting down on forced ventilation can lead to “sick building syndrome,” the term applied to outbreaks of complaints as a result of poorly ventilated indoor spaces. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health has investigated many cases of indoor air quality health hazards and has published guidelines for such investigations.

In certain cases, air quality standards are met outdoors but not indoors. For example, an investigator who measured indoor versus outdoor levels of suspended particulate matter found that he spent 84% of his time indoors, and that 82.3% of his exposure was attributable to indoor air. The average indoor levels of nitrogen dioxide of 95 homes in rural Wisconsin was higher than the outdoor level, sometimes exceeding the ambient air quality standard.

#### Secondhand Smoke

The mixture of combustion products from the burning end of tobacco products and the smoke exhaled by smokers is referred to as “environmental tobacco smoke” or “secondhand smoke.” It contains more than 4000 chemicals, more than 50 of which are cancer‐causing agents. It is associated with an increase in lung cancer and coronary heart disease and is particularly dangerous to the not yet fully developed lungs of young children, increasing their risk for sudden infant death syndrome, asthma, bronchitis, and pneumonia. An estimated 3000 lung cancer deaths and 35,000 coronary heart disease deaths occur annually among adult nonsmokers in the United States as a result of exposure to secondhand smoke. In children it is estimated that 8000–26,000 new asthma cases and 15,000–300,000 new cases of bronchitis and pneumonia for those less than 18 months are result from inhaling secondhand smoke.

Next to cigarette smoking, the inhalation of radon gas and the products of its radioactive disintegration are considered the most significant cause of lung cancer. The EPA has estimated that 20,000 of the lung cancer deaths expected annually can be ascribed to radon, and the surgeon general has attributed 85% of lung cancer deaths to smoking.[ 4 ]

Radon‐222, an odorless, colorless radioactive gas, is one of the products in the chain of decay of elements starting with uranium‐238 in the soil, which after radon goes on to produce polonium isotopes 218 and 214. Their alpha particle emissions dissipate their energy while destroying lung tissue, which leads to lung cancer. The radioactivity attributable to radon in the air is measured in picocuries per liter, which correspond to two atoms decaying per liter per minute. The concentration of the decay products is measured in “working level units,” where 1 working level unit of decay products is released from approximately 200 pCi/L of radon.

The only certain method of determining the presence of radon is by testing, which should be performed whenever a dwelling is brought or sold. The EPA has prepared the “Home Buyer's and Seller's Guide to Radon,” which provides information about what can be done to protect against this problem.

#### Biological Contaminants

The New York Academy of Medicine issued a resolution in 1983[ 6 ] expressing its concern about the damage to health caused by the inhalation of biologic agents that points out that “by far the most important substances in indoor air that affect human health are infectious agents, primarily viruses and bacteria in the form of aerosols or as part of droplets or particles. These cause more than 60,000 deaths and 250 million disabling illnesses in the United States each year.” In addition to viruses and bacteria, the indoor air can be contaminated with pollens, fungal sores, algae, amoebas, actinomycetales, arthropod fragments, and droppings and dander from humans and animals. The airborne transfer of disease can involve pathogenic, toxicogenic, or allergenic agents via short‐range direct person‐to‐person transfer or long‐range dispersion throughout rooms sharing a common ventilation system. An important preventive strategy is to isolate other rooms from contamination by the air from rooms containing sources of microbial pollution.

Secondary sources of biological contamination can be established indoors by viable organisms that find friendly environments and sources of nourishment in soils, plants, and stagnant water. Pathogens, toxins, and allergens can be brought indoors through air intakes and shoes, clothing, or tools. The human body—mainly from the nose and mouth but also from other parts of the body—is a primary source of biological air contaminants and of nourishment for the growth of microorganisms. For example, it has been reported that the body sheds skin scales at a rate, dependent upon activity level, which averages 7 million scales per minute with an average of four bacteria per scale. Dust mites, derma‐tophagoides, feed on these scales and in turn produce fecal pellets in the respirable size range that can strongly affect sensitive individuals.

Fig. 4   Diagnostic quick reference.

Source: Adapted from American Lung Association, EPA, Consumer Product Safety Commission, and American Medical Association, Indoor Air Pollution.[ 5 ]

Almost all surfaces containing organic material such as cloth fabrics, paper, wood, leather, adhesive ceiling tiles, paint, soaps, and greases under proper conditions can sustain the growth of fungi, bacteria, acarids, and other microbes. Locations indoors where water can stagnate or cause continuous dampness of surfaces—for example, chilled water air‐conditioning systems, refrigerator drip pans, bathrooms, flooded basements, hot tubs, and saunas—are possible sources of biological pollutants.

Aerosol formation originating from water reservoirs is an important mechanism for airborne transmission of disease. The “jet‐drop” phenomenon that occurs in washbasins, bathtubs, toilet bowls, and urinals can generate aerosolized microorganisms, as can the high‐speed water‐cooled drills used by dentists. Humidifiers that generate steam by other than thermal means can be dangerous sources of microorganisms that have grown inside the reservoirs; therefore, they should be sterilized before use and will always form droplets containing the minerals in the water being used. Filters in ventilating systems, if not properly cleaned and maintained, can also become significant sources of infectious diseases.

Some organisms are not able to survive for long periods outside a host and thus require rapid person‐to‐person transfer to cause serious problems, but others can remain viable for long periods and thus carry the diseases that are recognized as transmittable through air. The following are some of the major diseases that are classified as human airborne infections:

 Tuberculosis Diphtheria Rheumatic fever Meningococcus meningitis Scarlet fever German measles Psittacosis Smallpox Measles Chicken pox Whooping cough Hemolytic streptococci Poliomyelitis Pneumococcus pneumonia Systemic mycosis Mycoplasma pneumonia Mumps Influenza Common cold

Certain lesser‐known diseases have been brought into focus by investigators of illnesses attributed to indoor air pollution. Some of these have been associated with contaminated water reservoirs in humidifiers, chilled‐water air‐conditioning systems, and other adjuncts to indoor ventilation and climatization.

The most notable infection is Legionnaires' disease, which has caused a number of epidemics, including the one at the Legionnaires Convention in Philadelphia in 1977, which resulted in 182 cases, 25 of which were fatal. The infection is caused by a not‐uncommon soil bacterium, Legionella pneumophila, which survives very well in water and can thus contaminate cooling towers, air conditioners, and other potential sources of aerosols. Drinking water in a hospital has also been implicated in the transmission of this infection. Since its discovery, studies have claimed that 10–15% of pneumonia cases in hospitals are attributable to legionella. A milder, self‐limiting disease with flulike symptoms called Pontiac fever is also attributed to legionella.

Tuberculosis is caused by a virulent microorganism, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, which can survive for long periods in encapsulated form and has been shown to be readily transmitted through ventilation systems. The gradual disappearance of this disease has been reversed in areas where acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) is prevalent; therefore, its importance as a public health problem is increasing.

Hypersensitivity pneumonitis and humidifier fever also are associated with aerosols from contaminated water. The former, which is the more serious, is an interstitial lung disease that in its acute form causes fever, chills, cough, and dyspnea 4–6 h after exposure. The more commonly blamed agents are the thermoactinomycetes or the thermophylic micropolyspora. Humidifier fever is self‐limited, with symptoms resembling the flu.

#### Fungal Diseases

Fungi can cause disease and can also generate highly potent toxins. Treating the diseases is a special problem because available drugs are few in number because of the difficulty of finding ones that will preferentially attack fungal cells in the presence of mammalian cells.

Histoplasma capsulatum and other molds and yeast organisms such as blastomyces, cryptococcus, and coccidioides are pathogenic to humans. The latter is responsible for valley fever, which is causing concern in hot, dry areas such as the Southwest, where it thrives. Cryptococcus, often found in soil contaminated by pigeon droppings, is a killer of AIDS patients, attacking the central nervous system and causing meningitis. Aspergillus fumigatus is a common fungus that invades the lung. When the spores are stirred up and inhaled they can grow fungus balls in the lung. One condition is called “farmer's lung,” but in hospitals where transplant or AIDS patients have suppressed immune systems, the fungus can produce severe infections that must be treated rapidly. Detection of the fungus is difficult because instead of using the bloodstream it attacks by traveling from tissue to tissue. Aspergillus flavus produces aflatoxin, one of the most potent carcinogens known.

As in the case of tuberculosis, immunocompromised individuals are readily susceptible to the acquisition of disease via inhalation. Nosocomial aspergillosis from sources such as contaminated air conditioners should be a special concern in hospitals.[ 7 ]

#### Asbestos

“Asbestos” is the generic term for silicate materials that occur in fibrous form. A fibrous form that is classified as a serpentine is called “chrysotile” and is the type of asbestos most common in the United States. The length and flexibility of its fibers allow it to be spun and woven. Other types of asbestos are amphiboles that include amosite, crocidolite, tremolite, anthophyllite, and actinide. Their fibers do not lend themselves to weaving, but in general they have higher heat resistance than chrysotile. Asbestos is used in many products, but most of it is used in construction—in floor tiles, cements, roofing felts, and shingles—and was used in very large quantities to protect steel structures from weakening during fires.

Measurements made of asbestos concentrations in the ambient air of New York City led to its banning in 1971 in sprayed material, a ban rapidly adopted nationally and worldwide. Nevertheless, many tons of asbestos will have to be handled with great care when the many buildings that used it to protect their steel structure from fire are finally demolished.

A study by Selikoff et al. of mortality among 17,800 asbestos workers from 1967 to 1976 found 675 excess deaths from cancer out of a total of 995. The ratio of observed to expected deaths in such a population was 3.11 for all cancers, 4.60 for lung cancers, and >1 for several other types of cancer. They found 175 deaths from mesothelioma, a cancer rarely found in the general population, and 168 from asbestosis, a form of pneumoconiosis characterized by fibrosis of the lung that often continues after exposure ceases.

Cigarette smoking was found to have a strong multiplicative effect when combined with exposure to asbestos. Based upon a mortality rate of 1 for a nonsmoking, nonexposed comparison group, the mortality ratio for nonsmoking asbestos workers, nonexposed cigarette smokers, and workers exposed to asbestos who also smoked were 5, 11, and 53.

The methods of asbestos analysis differed in that occupational exposures were originally measured by counting the number of fibers longer than 5 µm in a given volume of air using optical microscopy. In the ambient air, the submicroscopic fibers, called “fibrils,” which are the ones that can penetrate deeply into the respiratory system, had to be measured; therefore, the Environmental Science Laboratory, led by Irving Selikoff, at Mount Sinai School of Medicine developed an electron microscopy method that measured the mass of fibrils per cubic meter of air.

Fig. 5   Percentage of plant species visibly injured as a function of peak 1 h and 3 h SO2 concentrations.

Source: Adapted from Air Quality Criteria for Particulate Matter and Sulfur Oxide, 1981..[ 8 , 9 ]

Asbestos air concentrations are now reported in terms of nanograms per cubic meter—asbestos background concentrations are usually in the range of 0–10 ng/m3.

### Table 3   Relative sensitivity of plants to SO2.

Crops

Sensitive

Tolerant

Alfalfa

Sweet potatoes

Celery

Buckwheat

Lettuce

Corn

Barley

Beans

Onion

Cotton

Broccoli

Potato

Red clover

Squash

Cabbage

Oats

Wheat

Peas

Carrot

Spinach

Tomato

Flowers

Sensitive

Tolerant

Sweet pea

Sweet William

Four‐o'clock

Cosmos

Tulip

Bachelor button

Violet

Aster

Zinnia

Trees

Sensitive

Tolerant

Trembling aspen

Alder

Cedar

Jack pine

Red pine

Citrus

White pine

Austrian pine

Maple

White birch

Hazel

Linden

Larch

Apple

Large‐toothed aspen

Douglas fir

Willow

Ponderosa pine

Garden Plants

Sensitive

Tolerant

Peas

Cucumber

Muskmelon

Rhubarb

Lettuce

Corn

Spinach

Onion

Swiss chard

Squash

Potato

Beans

Tomato

Cabbage

Beets

Cultivated mustard

Broccoli

Turnips

Kohlrabi

Carrot

Asbestos in schools has been a major concern because of the prevalence of its use and the nature of the population involved. A study of chrysotile asbestos in schools known to contain damaged asbestos insulation measured 9–1950 ng/m3. Measurements in schools selected at random found a mean of 179 ng/m3, compared to average outdoor concentrations of 6. The excess risk of death from lung cancer caused by asbestos exposure is proportional to the intensity of the exposure and its duration. One estimate of the cancer incidence rate from asbestos reported by the EPA was that continuous exposure to 0.01 fibrils per mL (about 300 ng/m3) will cause 28 mesotheliomas per million females and 19 per million males, and 5 excess lung cancers per million females and 17 per million males.

#### Plant Effects

The effects upon the plant surfaces of the contact of vegetation by suspended particulate matter via dry or wet deposition are not well documented. Direct entry of sulfur dioxide gas molecules through the plant stomata, on the other hand, produces effects that are better understood and appear to depend, to a great extent, upon the rate of conversion to sulfate, a natural plant nutrient. As might be expected, the response of a plant to a particular exposure incident is dependent upon the concentration and duration of exposure and, because of the opening and closing patterns of stomata, also on the time in its daily cycle that exposures occur. Data on the injury threshold of 31 species of forest and agricultural plants were plotted to show their relative sensitivity to sulfur dioxide (Fig. 5). The relative sensitivity of specific plants to SO2 is indicated in Table 3.

#### Bibliography

1
Carbon Monoxide, 1984—Addendum to the 1979 Air Quality Criteria Document for Carbon Monoxide—Revised Evaluation of Health Effects Associated with Carbon Monoxide Exposure. EPA‐600/8‐83‐033F.
2
A Guide to Indoor Air Quality 1995, EPA‐402‐K‐93‐007.
3
Health effects of acid precipitation. Report of NIEHS Conference in Environmental Health Perspectives. 1984.
4
5
National Air Toxics Information Clearinghouse, Lung cancer risk from passive smoking. Environ. Int., 1985, 11, 3–22.
6
National Research Council Carbon Monoxide, 1977; Ozone, 1977; Lead, 1972; Nitrogen Oxides, 1977; Polycyclic Organic Matter, 1972, National Academy Press: Washington, DC.
7
Nitrogen Oxides, 1982—Air Quality Criteria Document for Oxides of Nitrogen. EPA‐600/8‐82.
8
Repace, J.L. Indoor air pollution. Environment International. 1982, 8, 21–36.
9
Samet, J.M.; Marbury, M.C.; Spegler, J.D. Health effects and sources of indoor air pollution. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 1988, 137 Part I, 1486–1508, Part II, 221–242.
10
Second Addendum, 1986—Assessment of Newly Available Health Information. 1986, EPA‐600/8‐86/02 OF.
11
Selikoff Asbestos Lung Disease—A Primer for Patients, Physicians and Lawyers.
12
Spengler, J.; Hallowell, C.; Moschandreas, D.; Fanger, O. Indoor air pollution. Environ. Int. 1982, 8, 1–534.
13
Stewart, R.D.; Peterson, J.E.; Baretta, E.D. Experimental human exposure to carbon monoxide. Arch. Environ. Health 1970, 21, 154–164.
14
Symposium on Health Aspects of Indoor Air Pollution. Bull. N. Y. Acad. Med. 1981, 57, 825–1084.
15
Task Group on Lung Dynamics, Deposition and Retention Models for Internal Pasimetry of the Human Respiratory Tract. Health Physics 1966, 12, 173–207.
16
USEPA Airborne Asbestos Health Assessment Update. 1985, USEPA‐600/8‐84‐003F.
17
USEPA Air Quality Criteria Documents Particulate Matter and Sulfur Oxides. 1982, EPA‐600/8‐82‐029 AF‐CF.
18
USEPA Environmental Progress and Challenges: EPA's Update. 1988, USEPA‐230‐07‐88‐033.
19
USEPA EPA Indoor Air Quality Implementation Plan, 1987; Preliminary Indoor Air Pollution Information Assessment: USEPA–600/8–87/014, Appendix A.
20
Waldbott, G.L. Health Effects on Environmental Pollutants, C.V. Mosby Co.: St. Louis, 1973.
21
Waloh, M.P. Car Lines 2004, (6).
22
World Watch Institute Annual Reports and Featured Publications.

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# Tag Info

## Hot answers tagged header-footer

5

By default, the book document class uses the plain page style for the first pages of chapter-like document units and the headings page style for all other pages. (Aside: The LaTeX kernel defines four page styles: empty, plain, headings, and myheadings. The article document class employs the plain page style for all pages.) The instruction \pagestyle{fancy} ...

3

For a document with a table of contents of more than one page, redefining page style plain will be necessary. But then this will also change the footer of the first page of each chapter. If you don't want that, you can restrict the redefinition to the table of contents with a group, like the following. { \fancypagestyle{plain}{}% \tableofcontents \newpage }

3

You don't need tikz for this. With a current LaTeX you can simply use the shipout hook: \documentclass{article} \usepackage{geometry,fancyhdr,graphicx} \geometry{showframe} \begin{document} \pagestyle{fancy}\lhead{lhead} Why is text before the background picture disappeared? \AddToHookNext{shipout/background} {\put(0,-\paperheight) {\includegraphics[width=...

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When you start a header, the font settings that are in effect at the page break are what will be in effect in the page header. LaTeX brings things back to “normal” for the header by calling \reset@font which by default just calls \normalfont. You will need to do a bit of additional work since you're changing \spaceskip as well which wasn't anticipated by the ...

1

You probably meant lhead instead of rhead. I guess you mean something like the following: \chead{ \begin{tabular}[t]{l} \campus \\ \dept \\ \course \\ \coursen \end{tabular} } \lhead{ \begin{tabular}[b]{p{0.4\textwidth}} \TDAG \\\hline \\[-2ex] \end{tabular} } You can fiddle with the -2ex to get the proper position. But please note that you will get ...

1

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First of all never use titlesec with memoir it breaks a lot of stuff in memoir. I added the memoir way of getting the same chapter style. Your're missing resetting the marks made by section etc. I've removed stuff from the MWE that are not relevant for this question \documentclass[smalldemyvopaper,11pt,twoside,onecolumn,openright,extrafontsizes]{memoir} \...

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With document class scrbook you can use \frontmatter and \mainmatter and \chapter for unnumbered chapters in front matter. Example: \documentclass{scrbook} \usepackage{lipsum}% only for dummy text \begin{document} \frontmatter \tableofcontents \chapter{Preface} \lipsum \chapter{Introduction} \lipsum \mainmatter \chapter{Foo} \lipsum \end{document} Or you ...

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Here's how I'd solve it \documentclass[10pt]{memoir} \usepackage{lipsum} \makeatletter \makepagestyle{myheadings} \makepsmarks{myheadings}{ \nouppercaseheads % remove any marks for sections (might be left over from default pagestyle) \clearmark{section} \clearmark{subsection} \clearmark{subsubsection} % hand code \chaptermark, the code is taken ...

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Something like this (that the added code is commanted with %here) could solve your problems (about the header). \documentclass[12pt,a4paper,oneside,onecolumn]{book} \usepackage[letterpaper, portrait]{geometry} \usepackage{lipsum} %SET AVERAGE MARGIN \geometry{ left={4cm}, right={2cm}, top={1.75cm}, %here bottom={2.5cm}, head={1.5cm}, %here includehead %here }...

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this instruction helps: \copyrightnote{} I get this from https://mirror.las.iastate.edu/tex-archive/macros/latex/contrib/aomart/aomart.pdf , page 6

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# Latex Rotate Page

From the header and Footer group, select the Page Number down-arrow… 4. MacKichan Software offers Scientific WorkPlace, Scientific Word, and Scientific Notebook. You can send jobs directly from your preferred design application or simply drag and drop files directly into the queue. Please see the REVTEX 4 Author's Guide for complete informa-tion on how to use. pdf, in the parent directory of the current one, contains an empty page, followed by all pages of file1. Here you can see a diagram showing all the variables defining the page. You write text and mathematics in your document without having to know a programming language or exit to an equation editor. pdf with the PDF rotated by 1. Move the pointer to a corner handle so that the pointer changes to a rotate symbol. When I receive a scanned pdf file and I need to rotate it in order to read it (without turning my head sideways) how do I then save it so it will stay readable? It seems to automatically turn back sideways. It is possible, but with some limitation. LATEX is a special version of the TEX document preparation system. To change the size of a font use a new font size parameter. , you can define that specific columns are automatically stretched until the table reaches a predefined width). The Rotating package, as the name suggests allows you to rotate any objects by a given angle. If you need help contact [email protected] Finally, it calls PDFedit to crop and resize the pages. LATEX runs on the J-Vax and the LLL-LCC Pyramid machines. Next, it determines the page orientation of each page of the PDF file. For example: if you want your figure to go on page 77, find the place in the text, where page 76 ends. Instead of having the number printed in the normal position, the rules state that the number should be rotated as well. ; Choose the rotation angle. How to rotate page on windows keyword after analyzing the system lists the list of keywords related and the list of websites with related content, in addition you can see which keywords most interested customers on the this website. These packages can be defined by clicking on the button: at the bottom of the user interface. LyX does not support the tabularx package natively yet, but with the hack below, you can redefine LyX's tables to tabularx's. Add \usepackage{rotating} in the preamble, and use. Royal Caribbean Cruises offers cruise deals to the best vacation destinations in innovative ships. A separate output PDF with rotated pages for each input is generated in a separate folder. The filename for each image will use whatever you type in as the base name followed by the page number and image number, i. It might mess with LaTeX things if you're using other packages to control margins and such. Hold down the Shift key to restrict the rotation to multiples of 15 degrees. Je veux que l'orientation de la page sur laquelle le tableau est tracé soit en pysage (et non en portrait comme pour l'emplacement conventionel des pages). ps should be used, means latex->dvips->ps2pdf. pdf document that will have the rotated page that you're looking for. sourceforge. Vicki Fitzgerald. jpg 23 degrees clockwise and "fill in" the empty space with white. HOME: Next: Miscellaneous symbols (LaTEX) Last: Arrow symbols (LaTEX) Top: Index Page Index Page. The SI unit for magnitude of the magnetic field strength is called the tesla (T), which is equivalent to one Newton per ampere-meter. Known issues. This tool is used to rotate the active layer, a selection or a path. The example there isn't enough - it only does one page. LaTeX preview support. The problem with my fields not repeating on a second page is because the report is not creating a second pagethe page is created by the pdf-maker because the report is to wide. This rotates the entire page and its contents, so that you can design something upside down (bellybands that wrap around a box or 2-sided packages folded on the short end, for example) and then rotate it back to design the right-side-up part. The results can be striking, especially when you take care to. You can tell Ghostscript to put each page of output in a series of similarly named files. TeXstudio - A LaTeX Editor An integrated writing environment for creating LaTeX documents the integrated pdf viewer should have a rotate view functionality. There are different way of placing figures side by side in Latex, subcaption, subfig, subfigure, or even minipage. psnup is a tool for printing multiple pages per sheet. Rotate Image Free Online Photo Editor. With over a decade of experience in the mattress industry, I'm here to help you decide which mattress foundation is best for you. If you want continuous text (i. ONYX provides the ability to print each side with a different mode. The LaTeX rotating package. Sumatra has built-in support for easy previewing of LaTeX documents. John ordered me to do a task that I didn't know how to do exactly, the tas. LATEX is a special version of the TEX document preparation system. For example, consider this figure: You can use the rotating package to insert this image sideways in the page. MacKichan Software offers Scientific WorkPlace, Scientific Word, and Scientific Notebook. open the \addins" tab, click on \Convert table to latex". When I did this "O" appeared on the landscape page. of a page with the “multicol” package: \documentclass[12pt]{article} \usepackage{multicol} \begin{document} \setlength{\columnseprule}{1pt} %% make a one pt rule between columns Not multicolumn in the beginning, but the next bit is: \begin{multicols}{3} This is 3 col material in the middle of a page, instead of for the whole document. Mattress Topper Special Get the all new MyPillow Mattress Topper and 2 Standard MyPillows in one great bundle. Creating Tables with LaTeX Tables are created using the "table" environment given below: \begin{table}[where] table \end{table} In the above syntax, table stands for the contents of the 'tabular' environment together with a possible \caption command. Should I Flip or Rotate My Natural Latex Mattress? Normally there is no need to flip or rotate your Savvy Rest or Sleeptek natural latex mattress. No need to worry, because we'll be going over 3 different ways to rotate objects in Inkscape! 1. Donna Baker – March 26, 2012 To get started, in the Pages tools, click Header & Footer to open the drop-down menu, then click Add Header & Footer. LaTeX: Rotate the entire page? and have a large table that is rotated sideways to fit onto the page. Here you can see a diagram showing all the variables defining the page. My question is not about "center vs. To include pages as landscape you can use the following: \usepackage{pdfpages} \includepdf[landscape=true]{circuit. LaTeX is a system for preparing documents to be printed or displayed. This is handy for those of you that have particularly large figures or tables, that would fit better in landscape. Suppose you are using the pdflatex command to generate a PDF from your LaTeX document, and you need to insert pages from an external PDF document in the PDF document that you are creating. PDFView is an Universal Binary, and requires Mac OS X 10. A minimal example of rotated text in LaTeX. This website uses cookies to ensure you get the best experience here. If the 'twoside' option has been given to the main document class (either explicitly, or implicitly as in the default for book class), the package will rotate sideways figures according to the page number (this requires at least two passes through LATEX). Lunapics Image software free image, art & animated Gif creator. You can preview the pages of the source file prior to splitting. From the header and Footer group, select the Page Number down-arrow… 4. To answer your question in the comments, I don't know how to achieve this within one single environment if you are going to use different types of content (text, images) within the turn. 4 2017-07-23 09:23 Regina Obe * [r15500. From the command line, how do you rotate a PDF file 90 degrees? I tried searching and found a bunch of solutions but I had trouble finding what looked like an authoritative solution[1] that uses a stable/robust linux/unix tool. " Vimball Archiver by Charles E. 'Breaking' because they'll still get the page, just not the right place on it. \( -type d -name. On the other hand, when people say "revolve," they usually mean that an object moves around another. PDFill PDF Tools (basic edition) is a multipurpose software. I've scanned a book chapter with two book pages to a PDF page, and the two book pages are set side-by-side in. Do you need a designated page to be rotated you can achieve it using \newpage and \clearpage. How to refer to a figure or table from within a LaTeX document. I've been in the mattress industry over a decade, and the #1 question I hear from people is, "What type of foundation or support base should I use with my memory foam or. # LATEX OF MULTIPLE PLOTS # Either make a single plot with multiplot as above, or make each plot # individually and combine in the latex document. Butyl turned out to be a very successful substitute, better, in fact, than latex for this application. It is useful, especially if you are importing a full page postscript graph that has a landscape layout: \begin{figure} \centering \includegraphics[width=. Rotate Image Free Online Photo Editor. LATEX adds to TEX a collection of commands that simplifies formatting. How can I rotate an item into landscape mode in Latex? If you wish to rotate one item (a table, or a figure or something), follow these steps. If you want to control the column width of a table, you may want to use p option instead of l , c or r for left, center or right alignment. PDFCrop should preserve the input file's fonts, bookmarks and hyperlinks when generating the output file. On the Header and Footer toolbar, click Link to Previous so that the button appears off (not depressed). Toggle the options for Print Reflection and Rotate 180 degrees as needed. Rotate Image Free Online Photo Editor. I've been in the mattress industry over a decade, and the #1 question I hear from people is, "What type of foundation or support base should I use with my memory foam or. As with the previous method, choose the select tool, and then select the object that you wish to rotate. I use LaTeX like this to combine pdfs this way and rotate their pages as necessary all the time — super convenient and I find it easier (and cheaper!) than Adobe Pro. this gives you full control of every page in your document. I'm looking for easy-to-use desktop software that shows thumbnails of the pages in a PDF document, and the pages can be sorted using click-and-drag, right-click rotate, or right-click delete. For example: if you want your figure to go on page 77, find the place in the text, where page 76 ends. \( -type d -name. tex file and use the above code to generate a new. PDFView is an Universal Binary, and requires Mac OS X 10. extra NULL A character string of extra options for figures to be passed to LaTex or HTML. This gives you potentially twelve fields (left, right and centre; header and footer; odd and even pages). LaTeX commands may need specific packages to be complied. Use ImageMagick ® to create, edit, compose, or convert bitmap images. Note: While the most common LaTeX commands used in the context of mathematics and text styling are working in GeoGebra, GeoGebra itself just supports a subset of LaTeX. I've scanned a book chapter with two book pages to a PDF page, and the two book pages are set side-by-side in. Since 2001, Processing has promoted software literacy within the visual arts and visual literacy within technology. 2) Selecting the Table, how do I rotate it from horizontal to. Documentation Full documentation for the rotating package is in the book the The LATEX Companion by Mittle-bach & Goossens. When you purchase through links on our site, we may earn an affiliate commission. pdf \includegraphics[page=1]{Test} \end{document} put more then one page on a page By using option nup from usepackage pdfpages, it is also possible to put more then one page from the origin pdf file on one page of the new document. NOTE: In DVI viewer, you may find the pictures are scaled correctly, but not LaTeX text. How to rotate an image, table or paragraph in LaTeX by. Using front will prevent a label from being obscured by dense data. REVTEX 4 Command and Options Summary American Physical Society∗ One Research Road, Ridge, NY 11961 (Dated: July 2001) This is the REVTEX 4 Command and Options Sum-mary. Get YouTube without the ads. The option can be: plain - Just a plain page number. The rotating packages only deals in rotated boxes (or floats, which are themselves boxes), and boxes always stay on one page. For example, a spreadsheet could print horizontally, while a newsletter could print vertically. I've sort of been cludging around using \hspace's and \textcolor but I've always meant to figure out the right way to do things so this seemed like a good chance to figure out how to do it right. It details usage for many of the new commands and options that are available in REVTEX 4. As it's currently written, it’s hard to tell exactly what you're asking. For example, Earth revolves around the Sun, since Earth is moving around the Sun. It supports almost all PNG features, is extensible, and has been extensively tested for over 23 years. 8\\linewidth, 50px resize. , the caption, tabular, etc. The default size seems to come out better without the 'eps', i. One cautionary warning is that a table is supposed to be a concise representation of data, problems like these can sometimes occur because one is trying to fit too much data in the table. TikZ is build on top of PGF and allows you to create sophisticated graphics in a rather intuitive and easy manner. Is there a way to tell the report to automatically create a page-break when the report extends the page-wifth? I am using a matrix which is extended to the right. You can tell Ghostscript to put each page of output in a series of similarly named files. pdf file as your image! You could also produce geometric diagrams within LaTeX as shown in the Asymptote article. For example, Earth revolves around the Sun, since Earth is moving around the Sun. Teach LaTeX to understand what a slide is If you are using the slides class to write slides in LaTeX, you can go ahead and use the "landscape" option, which in this context means that the page is wider than it is high, but not rotated. You can create the structures in memory, manipulate them (flip, rotate, trace edges, etc. Your child can still receive Rotateq vaccine if he or she has a minor cold. Abstracts must be at most twelve (12) pages with a maximum of 38 lines per page and an average of 75 characters per line (corresponding to the LaTeX article-style, 12pt), excluding the title page and the bibliography. Entering Asymptote code directly into the LaTeX source file, at the point where it is needed, keeps figures organized and avoids the need to invent new file names for each figure. Finally, you can set page range and then rotate all those specific pages of all the input PDF files. Rotate Image Free Online Photo Editor. , may be buggy or subject to change or include experimental features) is https://libpng. If Rotate appears outside a graphic, the coordinates {x, y} are taken to run from to across the bounding box of the object being rotated. Otherwise, if you are using LaTeX to produce PDF documents, you can make images such as geometric diagrams in your documents. You have a couple of alternatives at your disposal if you want to rotate text in Word. pdf with the PDF rotated by 1. With ShareLaTeX you get the same LaTeX set-up wherever you go. LaTeX preview support. This was the home page for Ghostscript, an interpreter for the PostScript language and for PDF, and related software and documentation. Word, although primarily a word processing software, also provides quite a few photo manipulation functionalities. Bonjour tous le monde , Je veux tracer un tableau sur la Latex (MixTeX 2. All you need is \usepackage{rotating} in the preamble, and \begin{turn}{45} \end{turn} around the text you wish to rotate (in this case, by an angle of 45 degrees). How to rotate tables in latex? > how could i get to rotate a table? You want to rotate the contents of the table' environment (i. The main difference between the various types of matrix is the kind of delimeters that surround them. TeXstudio - A LaTeX Editor An integrated writing environment for creating LaTeX documents the integrated pdf viewer should have a rotate view functionality. Gnuplot supports many types of plots in either 2D and 3D. How to rotate an image, table or paragraph in LaTeX by. I was wondering how it would be possible for me to rotate a cube diagonally 360 degrees. PDFView can be configured to reload, at startup, the document you had open when you closed it, and for each of them it remembers all the display settings you changed, and the page you were viewing. ShareLaTeX comes with a complete, ready to go LaTeX environment which runs on our servers. pdflscape is thought to work with pdflatex (and lscape with latex). The best is to rotate it. Rotate Handles. My question is not about "center vs. It is useful, especially if you are importing a full page postscript graph that has a landscape layout: \begin{figure} \centering \includegraphics[width=. , 'set terminal postscript enhanced'. pdf that you just can't memorize. The resulting PDF page size will be whatever is the default paper size for you at your site. Please see the REVTEX 4 Author's Guide for complete informa-tion on how to use. 'Breaking' because they'll still get the page, just not the right place on it. png's--you can even use a 1 page. Regular turning is critical. e how to change page margings and sizes, headers and footers, and the proper placement of ﬁgures and tables (collectively called ﬂoats) on the page. Step 3: Rotate, resize or change position on page. Scientific and technical areas. ps should be used, means latex->dvips->ps2pdf. Note that even if you can do this it will typically affect the entire page, which may have side effects for other users. The pdfpages Package Andreas MATTHIAS [email protected] If Rotate appears outside a graphic, the coordinates {x, y} are taken to run from to across the bounding box of the object being rotated. To answer your question in the comments, I don't know how to achieve this within one single environment if you are going to use different types of content (text, images) within the turn. The ﬁgure environment also provides a "caption" command. Besides that it’s nice to be able to choose from all the free fonts the web has to offer instead of just a few basic ones. , more than one page) set in landscape mode, use the lscape package instead. To get automatic page rotation with latex, the way over. Perfectly scale an image to the rest of a page with LaTeX I had the following problem for a long time: I wanted to embed a picture into a page and automatically have it scaled to the maximum size that possibly fits the page, but not more. When I did this "O" appeared on the landscape page. Thanks to José to find this solution! Below info works well, but old info. Rotate tables in Latex If a table is too wide, it does not look elegant. Insert a \clearpage command there. Many examples here involve the now outdated and deprecated \subfig package so it is recommended that you head to Formatting captions and subcaptions in LaTeX to see more up to date examples that use the \subcaption package. If you press F1 and look at the 5th help page, there is an explaination on this feature. Producing White Space in LaTeX. pdf document that will have the rotated page that you're looking for. For a more in depth. Their idea is that as you read the document in your favorite PDF viewer, the page number on rotated pages will be easily readable. See the How to Ask page for help clarifying this question. This will automatically rotate the table for us, so it can be read when flipping the page sideways: Tables from Excel (. The name of the key binding to rotate left is 'Context Left', for right it is 'Context Right'. Google has many special features to help you find exactly what you're looking for. Our mission is to provide a community for people (students, professional scientists, or hobbyists) to learn and discuss science as it is currently generally understood and practiced by the professional scientific community. Perfectly scale an image to the rest of a page with LaTeX I had the following problem for a long time: I wanted to embed a picture into a page and automatically have it scaled to the maximum size that possibly fits the page, but not more. Besides, PDF Rotator is able to rotate restricted PDF files, and it supports batch mode so that users are able to rotate PDF documents in bulk. de Abstract This talk presents strategies for including graphics into LATEX documents. Under the "Page" menu, select "Manage page properties". You may want to have a look at the pdfpages package which "simplifies the inclusion of external multi-page PDF documents in LATEX documents". Getting the page numbering right in LaTeX documents may not seem like a big deal, but it's frustrating when it's all wrong. LATEX adds to TEX a collection of commands that simplifies formatting. The main difference between the various types of matrix is the kind of delimeters that surround them. Placing a Header on certain pages only I am Using Microsoft Word 2007, I have a 10 page document and wish to place a header to appear on pages 2 and 3 only. In such cases I have tried to match the colors using palette provided by the svgnames option to the xcolor package. If this question can be reworded to fit the rules in the help center, please edit the question. Export (png, jpg, gif, svg, pdf) and save & share with note system. In a LaTeX document, you might sometimes want to insert an image sideways, rotated by 90 degrees, along with its caption. Click and drag the image watermark to change the position on the PDF page. , 'set terminal postscript enhanced'. Then, I’ll show how to use multiple documents together, and get the fiddly layout bits like page numbering, title pages and table of contents stuff working to create a full thesis document. PSfrag is a LaTeX package that allows one to overlay Encapsulated PostScript (EPS) figures with arbitrary LaTeX constructions, properly aligned, scaled, and rotated. This would rotate the content you put between begin and end. Discussion tended to support erring on the side of compatibility, and no one on the TC had had requests from customers asking for other things, except for Thilo; his customers need for an entry to be able to rotate either +90% or -90%. We also, happily, give free mattress buying advice, whether you are purchasing a new mattress or need help with an existing mattress. Each parameter corresponds to the length of an element of the page, for example, \paperheight is the physical height of the page. Latex table formatting: rotate, fit in page, caption floated to right side and moving out of the page. if the child is allergic to latex rubber. 4 (trunk) 2017-07-23 20:08 Regina Obe * [r15502] Put in safeguards around availability, changes, enhances so if no match, then doesn't break xml and latex validation 2017-07-23 18:33 Regina Obe * [r15501] specify absolute path to texstyle. Sidewaysfigure example. pdf, in the parent directory of the current one, contains an empty page, followed by all pages of file1. Finally, it calls PDFedit to crop and resize the pages. It is advised that you use lyx from the beginning rather than import a half-done latex file. I'm not planning on checking bags so it will have to be carry on. Entering Asymptote code directly into the LaTeX source file, at the point where it is needed, keeps figures organized and avoids the need to invent new file names for each figure. pdf \includegraphics[page=1]{Test} \end{document} put more then one page on a page By using option nup from usepackage pdfpages, it is also possible to put more then one page from the origin pdf file on one page of the new document. You have a couple of alternatives at your disposal if you want to rotate text in Word. Royal Caribbean Cruises offers cruise deals to the best vacation destinations in innovative ships. The best is to rotate it. Note 2: The resulting image using this procedure will be a raster. From the command line, how do you rotate a PDF file 90 degrees? I tried searching and found a bunch of solutions but I had trouble finding what looked like an authoritative solution[1] that uses a stable/robust linux/unix tool. height, out. On the Header and Footer toolbar, click Link to Previous so that the button appears off (not depressed). LaTeX doesn't require any packages to use tabular by itself, so tabular is ubiquitous. Access the properties: Click the Selection button first. 1She is inclined to use TeXShop, since she already has it, but Aquamacs would really be more suitable. the defined axis passes through the center of the object in question, or at least through some internal point of the object), while "rotate around" implies that the object is orbiting an. In the fourth video in this series we look at adding images into LaTeX documents. However, I need to rotate the image, and so far, haven't found a way. Using Page Setup. That's because the natural latex foam layers are made from rubber. The A4 version of this book mostly uses the headings page style. I believe the default is latex and the \begin \end tags seems to say that. Step 3: Rotate, resize or change position on page. You may want to have a look at the pdfpages package which "simplifies the inclusion of external multi-page PDF documents in LATEX documents". There are two disadvantages of writing tables by hand as described in this tutorial. The fastest and easiest way to look for help with LaTeX is Google. If this question can be reworded to fit the rules in the help center, please edit the question. A lot of hypertext operations are supported,. This really is a super easy project but with great impact! Learn how to make vinyl letter decals after the jump. The Edit Text & Images tool outlines each text box, so it is clear what text is affected. To do this, include the "rotating" package in the preamble of the document, and use the \sidewaysfigure or \sidewaystable environments defined therein (see example below). If negative rotate for another 3 minutes. You also get to make sure you get as much quality sleep out of your mattress as possible. Adding Page Numbers to the Landscape Page(s) Rackham no longer requires dissertations to be prepped for printing. In this quick tutorial I'll show you how to rotate the orientation of just one page within a Microsoft Word document, so that you can have a page set to landscape whilst the adjacent pages are. A minimal example of rotated text in LaTeX. Mattress Topper Special Get the all new MyPillow Mattress Topper and 2 Standard MyPillows in one great bundle. pdf except the first, followed by pages 10, 3, 4, 5 and 6 from file2. Move the pointer to a corner handle so that the pointer changes to a rotate symbol. When you click on the image or the selection with this tool a Rotation adjustment dialog is opened. The fastest and easiest way to look for help with LaTeX is Google. 10 Using Ipe figures in Latex. if the child is allergic to latex rubber. Use ImageMagick ® to create, edit, compose, or convert bitmap images. How to rotate tables in latex? > how could i get to rotate a table? You want to rotate the contents of the table' environment (i. LaTeX: Rotate the entire page? and have a large table that is rotated sideways to fit onto the page. VideoLAN software is licensed under various open-source licenses: use and distribution are defined by each software license. Compiles under MPW. Je veux que l'orientation de la page sur laquelle le tableau est tracé soit en pysage (et non en portrait comme pour l'emplacement conventionel des pages). Note that even if you can do this it will typically affect the entire page, which may have side effects for other users. Drag the handle to rotate the object. Navigate to the page you need to modify (in this example, Page 3). 47 64283 Darmstadt Germany klaus. Choose Position and Size - Rotation to enter an exact rotation value. If this does not solve your issue, please post little code as necessary to reproduce your issue, so that I can dig further into it on my end. A powerful and robust LaTeX, ConTeXt, Plain TeX, PreTeXt, EPlain, Markdown, Textile, CSV and HTML Table Editor and Generator. To rotate, I use pdftk, also freeware. PDFView is an Universal Binary, and requires Mac OS X 10. Page 3 of 8. Astronomy 3; Biology 5; Chemistry 12; Computer science 42; Economics 14; Electrical engineering 44; Geography 1; Geometry 40; Mathematics 81; Mechanics 3; Networking 4. A few features (hand tool, magnification tool, PDFSync support, some icons. The following code does the job: \ newpage \ thispagestyle {empty} \ mbox {} The major part is \ mbox {}, which ensures the existence of an empty page. Latex can not manage images by itself, so we need to use the graphicx package. For example: if you want your figure to go on page 77, find the place in the text, where page 76 ends. Legal | Report Trademark Abuse VideoLAN, VLC, VLC media player and x264 are trademarks internationally registered by the VideoLAN non-profit organization. It is available for Ubuntu with the package pdftk. It makes it hard to read. For a more in depth. Documentation Full documentation for the rotating package is in the book the The LATEX Companion by Mittle-bach & Goossens. See the example posted on this web page titled \HHbasics", a table with basic sample demographics that is customary in many empirical papers. Drag the resize handles found on the image sides to resize the image. Any text element can use math text. I have a scanned PDF document on an iPad 2 (iOS 6) that I need to rotate but cannot find any easy way to do this. You may, of course, want to add or subtract material from the examples, such as. Je veux que l'orientation de la page sur laquelle le tableau est tracé soit en pysage (et non en portrait comme pour l'emplacement conventionel des pages). Using Page Setup. A text area appears and the package can be put there. Sumatra PDF aims to overcome this by cutting out almost all of the features that weight other PDF editors and viewers down. csv) to LaTeX. It is useful, especially if you are importing a full page postscript graph that has a landscape layout: \begin{figure} \centering \includegraphics[width=. de Abstract This talk presents strategies for including graphics into LATEX documents. Some mattress brands may recommend every three months, in which case you could use the beginning/end of a business quarter to rotate. The Auto-Rotate And Center option in the Print dialog box automatically selects the page orientation that best matches the content and paper. For example, consider this figure: You can use the rotating package to insert this image sideways in the page. Drag the rotation handle to rotate the text watermark. Your table will be rotated 90 degree. How to rotate an image, table or paragraph in LaTeX by. In a LaTeX document, you might sometimes want to insert an image sideways, rotated by 90 degrees, along with its caption. These packages can be defined by clicking on the button: at the bottom of the user interface. This is just how LaTeX works by default. LaTeX preview support. How to Track and Rotate Text in Inkscape. Rotate Image Free Online Photo Editor. If front is given, the label is written on top of the graphed data. If the 'twoside' option has been given to the main document class (either explicitly, or implicitly as in the default for book class), the package will rotate sideways figures according to the page number (this requires at least two passes through LATEX). The Rotating package, as the name suggests allows you to rotate any objects by a given angle. Le plus simple est d'insérer des fichiers de type eps (Encapsuled Postscript) : Il suffit d'insérer dans le préambule la ligne. Use ImageMagick ® to create, edit, compose, or convert bitmap images. The main point in these exercises is based on the overall durability and reliability of the bed - the less reliable it is - the more you'd have to flip it so that you can maintain its integrity. For example, if your data looks like this, with Sales Regions in the column headings and and Quarters along the left side:. Depending on the PDF you open, you have to move forward through multiple pages, see different parts of the page, or change the magnification. , more than one page) set in landscape mode, use the lscape package instead. How to Track and Rotate Text in Inkscape. Use ImageMagick ® to create, edit, compose, or convert bitmap images. If used with latex->dvipdf, the pages in pdf are not rotated (the same happans to lscape). Asymptote comes with a convenient LaTeX style file asymptote. ONYX provides the ability to print each side with a different mode. If you have created the document that has gradually been modified over the previous few sections, you may have noticed that the. The table gives the name of the attribute, the graph components (node, edge, etc. Find amazing cruises to the Caribbean, Bahamas, Mexico, Europe, Alaska, and more. Features and Capabilities • News • Community. I have a multi-page pdf file, and I want to rotate a specific page 90 degrees clockwise, to obtain a new pdf file which has the same pages as the original pdf, but with this specific page rotated. This is a global setting: all figure will then obey this rule set. pdf cat A1 output page1. 4 or higher. Otherwise, if you are using LaTeX to produce PDF documents, you can make images such as geometric diagrams in your documents. Using front will prevent a label from being obscured by dense data. One figure can be too large for a page, in which case it gets held with all the other figures until the end of the section and then they all get printed.


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# Trying to define n/m when it exists in N.suppose m and n are

1. Nov 30, 2003

### phoenixthoth

trying to define n/m when it exists in N.

suppose m and n are natural numbers and let [n,m] denote all functions from n (which is {0=Ø, 1, ..., n-1}) onto m. if [n,m] is empty, stop and say that m does not divide n.

consider the subset of functions f in [n,m] such that ~ defines an equivalence relation on n where x~y iff f(x)=f(y) and that each equivalence class has the same size q. call this set [[n,m]]. i'm guessing that if [[n,m]] is nonempty then it will be the same q for all functions in [n,m] such that ~ defines an equivalence relation partitioning n into equal sized parts (m parts each having q elements).

i suppose this is equivalent to saying
[[n,m]]={f in [n,m] : for all z in m, card(f-1({z})) is constant}.

definition: if [[n,m]] is nonempty then let n/m=q. if [[n,m]] is empty say that m does not divide n.

question: n/m=q in this sense if and only if n/m=q in the usual sense? (i'll also have to decide if q is well defined.)

this is a definition of division not obviously equivalent to "the inverse of multiplication." one can now define multiplication to be the inverse of division!

Last edited: Nov 30, 2003
2. Nov 30, 2003

### Hurkyl

Staff Emeritus
All right, let me see if I understand you.

In order to lessen potential sources of confusion, I'm going to use the notation $\mathbb{N}_n = \{0, 1, \ldots, n-1\}$.

Given two natural numbers $n$ and $m$, consider the set $(\mathbb{N}_m)^n \; (\,= (\mathbb{N}_m)^{\mathbb{N}_n}\,)$, the set of all functions from $\mathbb{N}_n[/tex] to $\mathbb{N}_m$. We can then define $n/m := q$ where $q$ is a number having the property that there exists a function $f$ such that $\forall z \in \mathbb{N}_m : |f^{-1}(z)| = q$. This is well-defined; $q$ exists iff $n/m$ exists, and $q$ is unique when it exists, but I fear that you might need to know multiplication to prove the uniqueness of $q$. Edit: fixed logical mistake. Last edited: Nov 30, 2003 3. Nov 30, 2003 ### phoenixthoth yeah, that's what i meant though my $(\mathbb{N}_m)^n$ is the set of such functions that are onto. that would suck. i'm really aiming and doing a similar thing for infinite cardinals... Last edited: Nov 30, 2003 4. Nov 30, 2003 ### Hurkyl Staff Emeritus There's a problem for infinite cardinals: Consider the following elements of $\mathbb{N}^\mathbb{N}$: $f(x) = x$, $g(x) = \lfloor \frac{x}{2} \rfloor$, and $h(x) = n - 1$ where $p_n$ is the smallest prime dividing $x + 2$. $f(x)$ partitions $\mathbb{N}$ into the equivalence classes $0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | \ldots$, indicating that $\frac{\mathbb{N}}{\mathbb{N}}=1$. $g(x)$ partitions $\mathbb{N}$ into the equivalence classes $0, 1 | 2, 3 | 4, 5 | 6, 7 | \ldots$, indicating that $\frac{\mathbb{N}}{\mathbb{N}}=2$. $h(x)$ partitions $\mathbb{N}$ into the equivalence classes: $$0, 2, 4, \ldots | 1, 7, 13, \ldots | 3, 23, 33, \ldots | \ldots$ indicating that indicating that $\frac{\mathbb{N}}{\mathbb{N}}=\mathbb{N}$. Notice, though, that [tex]\mathbb{N} = \mathbb{N} * 1 = \mathbb{N} * 2 = \mathbb{N} * \mathbb{N}$$.

Last edited: Nov 30, 2003
5. Nov 30, 2003

### phoenixthoth

this concept of "division" seemed to capture the statement $$\mathbb{N} = \mathbb{N} * 1 = \mathbb{N} * 2 = \mathbb{N} * \mathbb{N}$$
. i suppose no definition of division would be well defined for infinite cardinals.

6. Nov 30, 2003

### Hurkyl

Staff Emeritus
This is a superfluous condition if you do it right; I didn't do it right when I first wrote the post. If a function isn't onto, then the inverse image of some element will be the empty set (which is not $q$), so we don't have to restrict ourselves to onto functions.

7. Nov 30, 2003

### phoenixthoth

yeah i was wondering if you omitted that because you realized it was superfluous.

hmm... i wonder about 0/0

it would seem to be the case that by my definition, 0/0=0.

i also wonder about P(N)/N.

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