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# Calculate Standard Error Of Measurement

## Contents

Finally, if a test is being used to select students for college admission or employees for jobs, the higher the reliability of the test the stronger will be the relationship to The measurement of psychological attributes such as self esteem can be complex. The higher the reliability of the test of spatial ability, the higher the correlations will be. Your cache administrator is webmaster.

## Standard Error Of Measurement Example

Quinnipiac University: Health Professions Biostatistics 19,873 views 2:35 Errors of Measurement | How to find errors - Duration: 2:29. Nate Jensen 6 Archives Monthly Archive November 20166 October 20168 September 20169 August 20169 July 20167 June 20167 May 20169 April 20169 March 20169 February 20168 January 20168 December 20158 November It's unfortunate that we also talk of Cronbach's alpha as a "lower bound for reliability" since this might have confused you.

Let's assume that each student knows the answer to some of the questions and has no idea about the other questions. If the test included primarily questions about American history then it would have little or no face validity as a test of Asian history. Actionable next steps for teachers. Standard Error Of Measurement Reliability Between +/- two SEM the true score would be found 96% of the time.

Then you calculate SEM as follows: $$SEM= SD*(\sqrt{1-ICC})$$ share|improve this answer edited Dec 13 '13 at 13:47 Ming-Chih Kao 683518 answered Feb 17 '13 at 3:14 amin 111 Standard Error Of Measurement Spss The table at the right shows for a given SEM and Observed Score what the confidence interval would be. Your cache administrator is webmaster. In this example, a student's true score is the number of questions they know the answer to and their error score is their score on the questions they guessed on.

This gives an estimate of the amount of error in the test from statistics that are readily available from any test. Standard Error Of Measurement Interpretation BMC Medical Education 2010, 10:40 Although it might seem to barely address your question at first sight, it has some additional material showing how to compute SEM (here with Cronbach's $\alpha$, Meaning of '2> >(command)' Redirection in Bash more hot questions question feed about us tour help blog chat data legal privacy policy work here advertising info mobile contact us feedback Technology In practice, this is very unlikely.

## Standard Error Of Measurement Spss

How to concentrate during conference talks where the quality of the presentation is poor? Construct Validity Construct validity is more difficult to define. Standard Error Of Measurement Example Is it a stochastic matrix? How To Calculate Standard Error Of Measurement In Excel Loading...

These concepts will be discussed in turn. check my blog Please answer the questions: feedback Math Calculators All Math Categories Statistics Calculators Number Conversions Matrix Calculators Algebra Calculators Geometry Calculators Area & Volume Calculators Time & Date Calculators Multiplication Table Unit S true = S observed + S error In the examples to the right Student A has an observed score of 82. Loading... Standard Error Of Measurement And Confidence Interval

j.mp/2g0I5qy #edchat… twitter.com/i/web/status/79938…(Yesterday at 10:49 pm) Featured Posts 10 (More) Questions to Ask When Comparing and Evaluating Interim Assessments10 Questions to Ask about Norms10 Questions to Ask When Evaluating Student Growth A correlation above the upper limit set by reliabilities can act as a red flag. Higher up doesn't carry around their security badge and asks others to let them in. this content An individual response time can be thought of as being composed of two parts: the true score and the error of measurement.

Loading... Standard Error Of Measurement For Dummies SEM SDo Reliability .72 1.58 .79 1.18 3.58 .89 2.79 3.58 .39 True Scores / Estimating Errors / Confidence Interval / Top Confidence Interval The most common use of the based on MAC address -- why not "based on MAC addresses"?

## Bozeman Science 181,580 views 7:05 Module 10: Standard Error of Measurement and Confidence Intervals - Duration: 9:32.

The observed score and its associated SEM can be used to construct a “confidence interval” to any desired degree of certainty. If we want to measure the improvement of students over time, it’s important that the assessment used be designed with this intent in mind. Educators should consider the magnitude of SEMs for students across the achievement distribution to ensure that the information they are using to make educational decisions is highly accurate for all students, Standard Error Of Measurement Vs Standard Deviation Find out how the interim cut scores were created, see examples of proficiency projections, and estimate your state’s proficiency rates for each subject and grade.

Uploaded on Sep 28, 2011A presentation that provides insight into what standard error of measurement is, how it can be used, and how it can be interpreted. Assessment Literacy Common Core Early Learning Formative Assessment Research © 2016 NWEA Privacy Policy & Terms of Use © 2016 NWEA Measurement Author(s) David M. On some reports, it looks something like this: Student Score Range: 185-188-191 So what information does this range of scores provide? have a peek at these guys About the Author Nate Jensen is a Research Scientist at NWEA, where he specializes in the use of student testing data for accountability purposes.


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If two distances are equal and the points are not collinear then points form a isosceles triangle. To prove that it is also right triangle , use the converse of Pythagoras Check that is square of longest sides equal to sum of square of two shorter side. H^2=P^2+B^2

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A(-1,0)B(3,1)C(2,2)D(x, y) ABCD is a diagonal apply mid point method AC and BD and 4th vertex (-2,1)

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the y axis divides the line joining the points (-2, -3) and (3, 7) be k : 1. point of intersection line to y axis to be (0, y). Apply section formula and answer 2:3

The Mystery 20 hours ago

$$\sf \color{aqua}{Trigonometry\: Table}\\ \blue{\boxed{\boxed{\begin{array}{ |c |c|c|c|c|c|} \sf \red{\angle A} & \red{\sf{0}^{ \circ} }&\red{ \sf{30}^{ \circ} }& \red{\sf{45}^{ \circ} }& \red{\sf{60}^{ \circ}} &\red{ \sf{90}^{ \circ}} \\ \hline \\ \rm \red{sin A} & \green{0} & \green{\dfrac{1}{2}}& \green{\dfrac{1}{ \sqrt{2} }} &\green{ \dfrac{ \sqrt{3}}{2} }&\green{1} \\ \hline \\ \rm \red{cos \: A} & \green{1} &\green{ \dfrac{ \sqrt{3} }{2}}&\green{ \dfrac{1}{ \sqrt{2} }} & \green{\dfrac{1}{2}} &\green{0} \\ \hline \\\rm \red{tan A}& \green{0} &\green{ \dfrac{1}{ \sqrt{3} }}&\green{1} & \green{\sqrt{3}} & \rm \green{\infty} \\ \hline \\ \rm \red{cosec A }& \rm \green{\infty} & \green{2}& \green{\sqrt{2} }&\green{ \dfrac{2}{ \sqrt{3} }}&\green{1} \\ \hline\\ \rm \red{sec A} & \green{1 }&\green{ \dfrac{2}{ \sqrt{3} }}& \green{\sqrt{2}} & \green{2} & \rm \green{\infty} \\ \hline \\ \rm \red{cot A }& \rm \green{\infty} & \green{\sqrt{3}}& \green{1} & \green{\dfrac{1}{ \sqrt{3} }} & \green{0}\end{array}}}}$$

The Mystery 20 hours ago

$$sinA = x$$
$$secA=y$$
$$\sf \bf :\longmapsto \dfrac{1}{cosA} = y$$
$$\sf \bf :\longmapsto \dfrac{sinA}{cosA} = xy$$
$$\sf \bf :\longmapsto tanA =xy$$

$$\sf \color{aqua}{Trigonometry\: Table}\\ \blue{\boxed{\boxed{\begin{array}{ |c |c|c|c|c|c|} \sf {\angle A} & \{\sf{0}^{ \circ} }&\red{ \sf{30}^{ \circ} }& \{\sf{45}^{ \circ} }& \red{\sf{60}^{ \circ}} &{ \sf{90}^{ \circ}} \\ \hline \\ \rm {sin A} & \green{0} & {\dfrac{1}{2}}& {\dfrac{1}{ \sqrt{2} }} &{ \dfrac{ \sqrt{3}}{2} }&{1} \\ \hline \\ \rm {cos \: A} & {1} &{ \dfrac{ \sqrt{3} }{2}}&{ \dfrac{1}{ \sqrt{2} }} & {\dfrac{1}{2}} &{0} \\ \hline \\\rm {tan A}& {0} &{ \dfrac{1}{ \sqrt{3} }}&{1} & {\sqrt{3}} & \rm {\infty} \\ \hline \\ \rm {cosec A }& \rm {\infty} & {2}& {\sqrt{2} }&{ \dfrac{2}{ \sqrt{3} }}&{1} \\ \hline\\ \rm {sec A} & {1 }&{ \dfrac{2}{ \sqrt{3} }}& {\sqrt{2}} & {2} & \rm {\infty} \\ \hline \\ \rm {cot A }& \rm {\infty} & {\sqrt{3}}& {1} & {\dfrac{1}{ \sqrt{3} }} &{0}\end{array}}}}$$

Prajan Elango 21 hours ago

Tan A = SinA/Cos A Sec A = 1/Cos A So TanA = SinA * Sec A = x*y = xy

Prince Sharma 22 hours ago

Paper easy hoga ya hard
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Vidhi Verma 1 day ago

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# node_measures

0th

Percentile

##### Querying node measures

These functions are a collection of node measures that do not really fall into the class of centrality measures. For lack of a better place they are collected under the node_* umbrella of functions.

##### Usage
node_eccentricity(mode = "out")node_constraint(weights = NULL)node_coreness(mode = "out")node_diversity(weights = NULL)node_bridging_score()node_effective_network_size()node_connectivity_impact()node_closeness_impact()node_fareness_impact()
##### Arguments
mode

The way edges should be followed in the case of directed graphs.

weights

The weights to use for each node during calculation

##### Value

A numeric vector of the same length as the number of nodes in the graph.

##### Functions

• node_eccentricity: measure the maximum shortest path to all other nodes in the graph

• node_constraint: measures Burts constraint of the node. See igraph::constraint()

• node_coreness: measures the coreness of each node. See igraph::coreness()

• node_diversity: measures the diversity of the node. See igraph::diversity()

• node_bridging_score: measures Valente's Bridging measures for detecting structural bridges (influenceR)

• node_effective_network_size: measures Burt's Effective Network Size indicating access to structural holes in the network (influenceR)

• node_connectivity_impact: measures the impact on connectivity when removing the node (NetSwan)

• node_closeness_impact: measures the impact on closeness when removing the node (NetSwan)

• node_fareness_impact: measures the impact on fareness (distance between all node pairs) when removing the node (NetSwan)

##### Aliases
• node_measures
• node_eccentricity
• node_constraint
• node_coreness
• node_diversity
• node_bridging_score
• node_effective_network_size
• node_connectivity_impact
• node_closeness_impact
• node_fareness_impact
##### Examples
# NOT RUN {
# Calculate Burt's Constraint for each node
create_notable('meredith') %>%
mutate(b_constraint = node_constraint())
# }

Documentation reproduced from package tidygraph, version 1.1.2, License: MIT + file LICENSE

### Community examples

Looks like there are no examples yet.


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# Why does this expression equal $\pi$?

I noticed that the following expression equals $\pi$ and I was curious as to why. Is it just a coincidence, or is there a meaningful explanation?

$$\int_{-\infty}^\infty\frac{1}{x^2+1}~dx=\pi$$

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It is susceptible to use of residues, with a semi-circle contour with diameter on $[-R,R]$, but the $\arctan$ method is much more straightforward. – Jonas Meyer Jul 29 '11 at 8:04
@Geoff: I came up with a bell curve and decided to integrate it on my CAS calculator – anonymous coward Jul 29 '11 at 8:08
Would it be perverse to factor the denominator (with complex coefficients) and integrate using partial fractions? Some knowledge of complex logarithms will get you a $\pi$ in the answer. – GEdgar Jul 29 '11 at 13:35
– Qiaochu Yuan Jul 29 '11 at 15:34
In my experience, things in math are rarely coincidences. As Qiaochu points out, I asked a related question a while back, and he gives a very nice answer in that thread. – AnonymousCoward Jul 29 '11 at 21:28

The value follows from the identity $\int_{0}^{a} (x^2 + 1)^{-1} dx = \arctan a$, the evenness of the integrand about the origin, and the limit $\lim_{a \to \infty} \arctan a = \tfrac{\pi}{2}$.

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One way to see this is by noting that $$\arctan(x)' = \cos^2(\arctan(x)) = {1 \over 1 + \tan^2(\arctan(x))} = {1 \over 1 + x^2}$$ where we used that $\tan(x)' = {1 \over \cos^2(x)}$, the rule for the differentiation of the inverse function and the simple identity $$\tan^2(x) + 1 = {\sin^2(x) + \cos^2(x) \over \cos^2(x)} = {1 \over \cos^2(x)}.$$ Since $\lim\limits_{x \to \pm \pi/2} \tan(x) = \pm \infty$ and $\tan(x)$ is a bijection for $x \in (-\pi/2, \pi/2)$ the claim follows.

Another way to see this is by interpreting the integral as the one along a closed curve in the complex domain where the curve first runs along the real axis and then closes upon itself by making "an infinite half-circle" in the upper half-plane (formally, we take circle of radius $R$ and in the end take the limit $R \to \infty$). Since the integral along the closed curve equals the sum of residues enclosed by it times $2 \pi i$ and since the only pole in the upper half plane is located at $x = i$ it follows that the integral is equal to ${2\pi i \over 2i} = \pi$. If you are not familiar with the residue concept, it's just a coefficient of the function that stands at the $(z-a)^{-1}$ term of the Laurent expansion. In this case we have $${1 \over 1 + z^2} = {1 \over (z + i)(z-i)}$$ so the coefficient at $z=i$ is given by ${1 \over z + i} = {1 \over 2i}$.

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The trigonometric explanation makes the most sense to me, thanks for an interesting answer! – anonymous coward Jul 29 '11 at 8:12
@Charlie: indeed, that explanation is more straightforward but it kind of requires you to know the answer beforehand (i.e. to know derivatives of all the elementary functions). The second method is much more robust. One can e.g. use it to integrate $1 \over P(x)$ for any polynomial $P(x)$ (assuming it grows sufficiently quickly so that we can discard the boundary term coming the half-circle). This is because the first method gives us much more information than the second one: it allows us to integrate $\int_a^b {1 \over 1+x^2} dx$ for any $a,b \in \mathbb R$ not just the infinite ones. – Marek Jul 29 '11 at 8:20
People remember the derivative of $\tan$ as anything other than $1+\tan^2$?! Colour me surprised - $\frac{1}{\cos^2}$ has always been kind of a secondary cute form of $\tan'$ for me at least (PS: Disregard my first comment if you happen to have read it. I completely failed at reading comprehension on the post. Sorry about that) – kahen Sep 12 '11 at 21:54

I have told this story before: Choose a large $N$ and put $$t_k:=\tan{k\pi\over 2N+1} \qquad (-N\leq k\leq N)\ .$$ Then $t_N=\tan\bigl({\pi\over2}(1-{1\over 2N+1}\bigr)\gg 1$, similarly for $t_{-N}$, and for $t\in [t_{k-1},t_k]$ one has $t^2 \doteq t_{k-1}t_k$. Therefore we can approximate the given integral in the following way by a Riemann sum: $$\int_{-\infty}^\infty {1\over 1+t^2}\ dt\doteq\sum_{k=-N+1}^N {1\over 1+t_{k-1}t_k} (t_k-t_{k-1})\ .$$ On the right hand side all $2N$ summands are seen to have the same value $\tan{\pi\over 2N+1}\ll 1$ (by the formula for $\tan(\alpha-\beta)$) , and our Riemann sum computes to $$2N\ \tan{\pi\over 2N+1}\ \to\ \pi\qquad(N\to\infty)\ .$$

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Here is another approach, which avoids taking $\arctan(\infty)$, etc.: let $u = \frac{1}{x}$, so that $\frac{du}{dx} = \frac{-1}{x^2}.$ Then we obtain $\int_{1}^{\infty} \frac{1}{1+u^{2}} du = \int_{0}^{1} \frac{1}{1+x^2}dx$. Hence $\int_{- \infty}^{\infty} \frac{1}{1+x^2} dx = 4\int_{0}^{1} \frac{1}{1+x^2}dx = 4 \arctan(1) = 4\frac{\pi}{4} = \pi$. As is well-known, the last integral can also be evaluated by integrating $\frac{1}{1+x^2} = (1 - x^2 + x^4 -\ldots )$ term by term (this needs a little justification but is permissible here), to obtain the famous formula $\frac{\pi}{4} = \sum_{n=0}^{\infty} \frac{(-1)^n}{2n+1}$.

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One answer is that atanx is the primitive. If you want to calculate it by complex analysis see here How to justify term-by-term expansion to compute an integral

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In my opinion this would better fit as a comment to the question, as the highest voted answer already contains it except the link. – t.b. Sep 12 '11 at 22:01

This is an elucidation of the "perverse" suggestion of GEdgar in the comments.

Note that the fraction decomposes as

$$\frac{1}{i}\left(\frac{1}{x-i}-\frac{1}{x+i}\right).$$

The indefinite integral of this is

$$\frac{1}{i}(\log(x+i)-\log(x-i))=\frac{1}{i}\log\left(\frac{x+i}{x-i} \right)=\frac{1}{i}\log\left(\frac{x^2-1+2ix}{x^2+1} \right)$$

We are considering $x$ to be a real number here. As $x$ tends to infinity, the real part of the argument of the logarithm above approaches $0$, and the complex part approaches $\pi/2$. By similar reasoning, as $x$ goes to negative infinity, the value of the logarithm becomes $-i\pi/2$. Subtracting, we get $(1/i)(i\pi)=1$.

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text: To learn more about why prepared statements are better at stopping SQL injection, refer to this mysql_real_escape_string() bypass and recently fixed Unicode SQL Injection vulnerabilities in WordPress. Learn with experts from world-leading universities and organisations. In general, there are two approaches to reinforcement learning: (1) to learn a model of the world from expe… In practice, a reinforcement learning algorithm is considered to converge when the learning curve gets flat and no longer increases. It only takes a minute to sign up. From your question, I get the impression that this seems to be your goal. Goal: Implement an agent that is intended to be deployed for a long period of time. Too much screen time, too many video calls and too few boundaries make working from home hard for all of us. Why do we need to stop gambling towards the end and lower our exploration rate? This mechanism is at the heart of all machine learning. Handwriting. I'm wondering if there's a scientific way(s) to determine when to stop training rather than observe the cumulative rewards. The real mistake is to stop trying. At some point, it accidentally lands on its butt and gets a sudden reward. By using our site, you acknowledge that you have read and understand our Cookie Policy, Privacy Policy, and our Terms of Service. Thanks for contributing an answer to Cross Validated! Q-Learning. As time goes by, and given enough iterations, itâll figure out the expert strategy of sitting down on cue. This kind of algorithms are the best choice when you would like to control the system while learning about the policy. If you understand why the information âleaksâ and why it is beneficial then you will understand how and why the whole algorithm works. Q-Learning — a simplistic overview Let’s say that a robot has to cross a maze and reach the end point. How late in the book-editing process can you change a characters name? Want to make Q(s,a) a little closer to the value predicted by sampled'' one-step lookahead: Related to TD(0) (but with a max), NN update (but with no gradient), and also value iteration (with no sum). There are other small mistakes new writers often make. Despite the na m e, Deep Q-learning is not as simple as swapping out a state-action table for a … In this tutorial we will be walking through the creation of a Deep Q-Network. However, other elements should be taken into account since it depends on your use case and your setup. I am using a 2 layer feedforward network with linear output layer and relu hidden layers. By clicking “Post Your Answer”, you agree to our terms of service, privacy policy and cookie policy. Why is this? Reinforcement learning is useful when you have no training data or specific enough expertise about the problem. Enough talk. For our learning algorithm example, we'll be implementing Q-learning. Notice that for the sake of example, we did a lot of gambling just to prove a point. In SARSA, our return at state st is rt + γQ(st+1, at+1), where Q(st+1, at+1) is calculated from the state-action pair (st, at, rt, st+1, at+1) that was obtained by following policy π. This depends very much on what your goal is. Q-learning is another type of TD method. With more than 700,000 registered users in over 100 countries around the world, Onestopenglish is the number one resource site for English language teachers, providing access to thousands of resources, including lesson plans, … This strategy is slower to converge, but we can see that the top row (going FORWARD) is getting a higher valuation than the bottom one (BACKWARD). Q-learning is a value-based Reinforcement Learning algorithm that is used to find the optimal action-selection policy using a q function. self.timer.stop() #End button is not clickable, start button is clickable self.startBtn.setEnabled(True) self.endBtn.setEnabled(False) Book: Create Desktop Apps with Python PyQt5 7 Strategies to Stop Small Arguments From Turning Into Big Fights Fatherly - Adam Bulger. An accountant finds himself in a dark dungeon and all he can come up with is walking around filling a spreadsheet. Log in Will vs Would? Upon googling, I learned that Q-learni n g is a great place to start to learn RL, since we are making the agent learn the value of being in a given state and rewards from taking a certain action from that given state, and this concept seems simple. When compared to the strategy of the accountant, we can see a clear difference. Q-Learning consists in updating Q (s, a) Q(s,a) Q (s, a) each time the agent experiences a transition (s, r = R (s), a, s ′) (s, r=R(s), a, s') (s, r = R (s), a, s ′). … In this case, you'd simply want to make sure to use a similar amount of training time / number of training steps as was used for the baseline you're comparing to. rev 2020.12.10.38158, Sorry, we no longer support Internet Explorer, The best answers are voted up and rise to the top, Cross Validated works best with JavaScript enabled, Start here for a quick overview of the site, Detailed answers to any questions you might have, Discuss the workings and policies of this site, Learn more about Stack Overflow the company, Learn more about hiring developers or posting ads with us. During the very short initial randomness, the accountant might willingly choose to go FORWARD once or twice, but as soon as he chooses BACKWARD once, he is doomed to choose that forever. Q-Learning is a simple modification of value iteration that allows us to train with the policy in mind. In Q-learning the âinformation you haveâ is the information gathered from your previous games, encoded into a table. Well â you donât. Use MathJax to format equations. ncs역량진단소개; ncs직무확인; ncs역량진단실시; 진단결과확인; 추천과정확인; ncs 역량진단 소개. At the heart of Q-learning are things like the Markov decision process (MDP) and the Bellman equation . If we knew the transition and reward functions, we could easily use value iteration and policy extraction to solve our problem. The convergence of Q-learning holds using any exploration policy, and only requires that each state action pair (s,a) is executed infinitely often.. Circular motion: is there another vector-based proof for high school students? Q-learning updates the Q-values using Temporal Difference method. In other words, the objective of q-learning is the same as the objective of dynamic programming, but with the discount rate. Q-Values or Action-Values: Q-values are defined for states and actions. In this case it really doesn't matter all too much when you stop training, as long as you do it consistently in the same way for all algorithms you're comparing. While Q-learning took me only a day to go from reading the Wikipedia article to getting something that worked with some OpenAI Gym environments, Deep Q-learning frustrated me for over a week! To do this automatically (which is what I suppose you're looking for when you say "scientific way(s) to determine when to stop training"), I suppose you could do something simple like measuring average performance over the last 10 episodes, and also average performance over the last 50 episodes, and average performance over the last 100 episodes (for example). I believe I understand the basics of how Q learning works but it doesn't seem to be giving me the correct values. because. Password. Or you could consider to halt the training whenever performance seems adequate, if you're afraid that it may degrade afterwards during deployment. used in writing at the end of a sentence or at the end of the short form of a word…. To subscribe to this RSS feed, copy and paste this URL into your RSS reader. We can summarize it as: Update the value estimation of an action based on the reward we got and the reward we … Almost all of the courses in Reinforcement learning begins with a basic introduction to Q … Language Arts. Author: Adam Paszke. Cross Validated is a question and answer site for people interested in statistics, machine learning, data analysis, data mining, and data visualization. See High School Example Course Catalog here See UC A-G required course list here List of Possible School Subjects: Primary Subjects. It is because the best way to reach an optimal strategy is to first explore aggressively and then slowly move to more and more conservatism. Learn more. To learn more, see our tips on writing great answers. What's a great christmas present for someone with a PhD in Mathematics? They’re just turned in different directions. Q-Learning is a basic form of Reinforcement Learning which uses Q-values (also called action values) to iteratively improve the behavior of the learning agent. The best rewards (+10) are at the end of the dungeon after all. ; ncs란 무엇인가? Q-Learning) to triage patients using curated clinical vignettes. It has the ability to compute the utility of the actions without a model for the environment. The learning rate and discount , while required, are just there to tweak the behavior. You will learn how to implement one of the fundamental algorithms called deep Q-learning to learn its inner workings. During this series, you will not only learn how to train your model, but also what is the best workflow for training it in the cloud with full version control using the Valohai deep learning management platform. This is a deep dive into deep reinforcement learning. Think of this as a “cheat-sheet” to help us to find the maximum expected future reward of an action, given a current state. Belajar nyaman sepanjang hayat Belajar daring, dimana saja dan kapan saja! Notice also how after the initial +10 reward, the valuations start to âleakâ from right to left on the top row. Our gambler is entering the dungeon! So it’s not surprising that kids who are just learning to write would flip them around. The learning rate is sort of an overall gas pedal. In this case, you may even want to consider to simply never stop learning ("life-long learning"). is an estimation of how good is it to take the action at the state . Python implementation of Q-Learning. This assumes that you actually implemented something (like a very simple GUI with a stop button) so that you are able to decide manually when to interrupt the training loop. Check out how I approach the very strong Tryndamere top as Illaoi. Everyone’s a little on edge right now. But this algorithm is not enough â it just tells us how to update our spreadsheet, but nothing about how to use the spreadsheet to behave in the dungeon! Explore courses. And not just gambling, but we biased the coin flips to go right, so this would normally be a very unusual first dozen steps! Learn 100% online with world-class universities and industry experts. When you think about it, b, d, p, and q are all really the same letter. Does my concept for light speed travel pass the "handwave test"? site design / logo © 2020 Stack Exchange Inc; user contributions licensed under cc by-sa. We are in state s, choose action a. We implemented the Q-learning function to create and update a Q-table. 플라이하이 스타2000; 교육사업자 대상/ 학습쿠폰 160회+온라인 사이트; 불휘기픈 나무 온라인 논술 6개월+교재6권 At first the dog is clueless and tries random things on your command. Physical Education (P.E.) Can I combine two 12-2 cables to serve a NEMA 10-30 socket for dryer? Can a total programming language be Turing-complete? We will tackle a concrete problem with modern libraries such as TensorFlow, TensorBoard, Keras, and OpenAI Gym. So how do you know which future actions are optimal? That said, focusing solely on the action is not enough. Explore Learn Microsoft Employees can find specialized learning resources by signing in. As famous author Andrew Trask says “I … Making statements based on opinion; back them up with references or personal experience. I'm using Q-learning for my side project. This is the fundamental thing we are doing. Username or Email address. Why do we need to gamble and take random actions? This is how the Q-learning algorithm formally looks like: It looks a bit intimidating, but what it does is quite simple. This is the fundamental mechanism that allows the Q table to âsee into the futureâ. 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Right to left on the action at the time key difference between SARSA and is. Maximum reward: ) Go play @ interactive Q learning us have been contained in our for! Policy extraction to solve our problem working from home hard for all us. To another algorithm / performance described in publications 수 있습니다 you can simply keep updating as agent! Discount will define how much we weigh future expected action values over the last article we. Q-Table instead of pig might be a financially positive bet, while latter!


text:
# When primes are just too hard…

Tim Trudgian

## Date:

Wed, 11/12/2019 - 3:00pm

## Venue:

RC-4082, The Red Centre, UNSW

## Abstract:

… turn to square-free numbers! These include the primes as well as other numbers that are ‘not too composite’. If the primes are giving us grief, then we can content ourselves with solving questions on square-free numbers. This is a longer, more expository version of the talk I gave at AustMS this December.


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# Is the perimeter of triangle T greater than the perimeter of

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Is the perimeter of triangle T greater than the perimeter of square S?

(1) T is an isoceles right triangle.
(2) The length of the longest side of T is equal to the length of a diagonal of S.
[Reveal] Spoiler: OA

Last edited by Bunuel on 20 Jun 2013, 04:58, edited 2 times in total.
Edited the question and added the OA
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Re: Triangles and Squares - comparing perimeter [#permalink]

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02 Jul 2010, 12:40
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knewtonina wrote:
I'm stumped on this one. Can anyone help?

Is the perimeter of triangle T greater than the perimeter of square S ?
(1) T is an isoceles right triangle.
(2) The length of the longest side of T is equal to the length of a diagonal of S.

(1) T is an isoceles right triangle --> no info about the square. Not sufficient.

(2) The length of the longest side of T is equal to the length of a diagonal of S --> let the side of the square be $$s$$ --> the longest side of the triangle will be $$\sqrt{2}s$$ and $$P_{square}=4s$$. Now the max perimeter of the triangle T will be if this triangle is equilateral, then $$P_{triangle}=3\sqrt{2}s>4s=P_{square}$$, but if triangle T is half of the square S (isosceles right triangle), then $$P_{triangle}=\sqrt{2}s+s+s=s(\sqrt{2}+2)<4s=P_{square}$$. Two different answers. Not sufficient.

(1)+(2) Statement (1) says that we have the second case from statement (2), hence $$P_{triangle}=\sqrt{2}s+s+s=s(\sqrt{2}+2)<4s=P_{square}$$. Sufficient.

Hope it's clear.
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Re: Triangles and Squares - comparing perimeter [#permalink]

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02 Jul 2010, 21:07
I get B

i). Not sufficient

ii). a - longest side of triangle
x - side of square
Given, a = sqrt(2)*x, so perimeter of square, 4x = 2*sqrt(2)*a
Perimeter of triangle (of sides a,b,c) = a+b+c is < 2a (sum of the two sides (b+c) < a)

So, B is sufficient
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Re: Triangles and Squares - comparing perimeter [#permalink]

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05 Jul 2010, 07:03
Hi dallasgmat,

Note:
- In triangles, sum of any two sides is GREATER than the third side.
- In triangles, difference of any two sides is LESS than the third side.

Keep in mind the above to avoid concept mistakes.

cheers,
Jack
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Is the perimeter of triangle T greater than the perimeter of square S ?
(1) T is an isosceles right triangle.
(2) The length of the longest side of T is equal to the length of a diagonal of S.

Solution:
Bunnuel is right the ans is C.
(1) No information about S is given, so insufficient
(2) Let the one side of s = x, so Diagonal of s = x√2
Perimeter of S = 4x
Thus, the longest side of T = x√2
No other information is given about other sides of T, So insufficient.

Considering C
the sides of T = x, x, x√2 [Sides of triangle with 90 degree, 45 degree and 45 degree is s, s, s√2]
Perimeter of T = x + x + x√2 which is Less than 4x.
Ans. C
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Re: perimeter of triangle T greater than the perimeter of square [#permalink]

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09 Feb 2012, 20:09
subhajeet wrote:
Is the perimeter of triangle T greater than the perimeter of square S ?

(1) T is an isoceles right triangle.

(2) The length of the longest side of T is equal to the length of a diagonal of S.

(A) Statement (1) ALONE is sufficient, but statement (2) alone is not sufficient.

(B) Statement (2) ALONE is sufficient, but statement (1) alone is not sufficient.

(C) BOTH statements TOGETHER are sufficient, but NEITHER statement ALONE is sufficient.

(D) EACH statement ALONE is sufficient.

(E) Statements (1) and (2) TOGETHER are NOT sufficient.

Can anyone please provide a solution for this.

Let a, b, and c denote the three sides of triangle T, with c as the largest side, and let s denote a side of square S.
The question then becomes: is $$(a+b+c)>4s$$?

(1) Does not give any information about the square S. Thus, Not Sufficient.

(2) $$c = s\sqrt{2}$$.
From the triangle property, we know that sum of lengths of any two sides of a triangle is always greater than the length of third side. Thus, for triangle T, we have:
$$a+b>c$$
$$a+b+c>2c$$
$$a+b+c> 2\sqrt{2}s$$
This still is insufficient data, as we cannot prove weather
$$4s>(a+b+c)>2\sqrt{2}s$$ OR
$$(a+b+c)>4s$$ (true in case of equilateral triangles)

(1)+(2) a = b, and $$c = a\sqrt{2} = s\sqrt{2}$$
Thus, we get a = s.
$$a+b+c = a(2+\sqrt{2}) < 4s$$. Thus, we can have our answer to the question: is (a+b+c)>4s? No!

So correct answer is (C): (1) and (2) are sufficient together, but not alone..

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09 Feb 2012, 22:41
subhajeet wrote:
Is the perimeter of triangle T greater than the perimeter of square S ?

(1) T is an isoceles right triangle.
(2) The length of the longest side of T is equal to the length of a diagonal of S.

Can anyone please provide a solution for this.

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10 Feb 2012, 04:24
Bunnel thanks for the explanation
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Re: Is the perimeter of triangle T greater than the perimeter of [#permalink]

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10 Feb 2012, 04:58
Again! Well done explained! Couldn´t figure it out myself!
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10 Nov 2015, 10:35
Forget conventional ways of solving math questions. In DS, Variable approach is the easiest and quickest way to find the answer without actually solving the problem. Remember equal number of variables and independent equations ensures a solution.

Is the perimeter of triangle T greater than the perimeter of square S?

(1) T is an isoceles right triangle.
(2) The length of the longest side of T is equal to the length of a diagonal of S.

There are 3 variables (3 sides) in a triangle and 1 (one side) in a square. We need 4 equations when only 2 equations are given by the conditions, so there is high chance (E) will be our answer.
Looking at the conditions together,
perimeter of T < perimeter of S, so the answer is 'no' and this is sufficient. The answer becomes (C).

For cases where we need 3 more equation, such as original conditions with “3 variables”, or “4 variables and 1 equation”, or “5 variables and 2 equations”, we have 1 equation each in both 1) and 2). Therefore, there is 80% chance that E is the answer (especially about 90% of 2 by 2 questions where there are more than 3 variables), while C has 15% chance. These two are the majority. In case of common mistake type 3,4, the answer may be from A, B or D but there is only 5% chance. Since E is most likely to be the answer using 1) and 2) separately according to DS definition (It saves us time). Obviously there may be cases where the answer is A, B, C or D.
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January 31, 2023
Journal Article

Abstract

Advanced carbon capture technologies are in demand to enable a transition to a low-carbon global economy. Chemical absorption using aqueous amines has been long considered as the most mature technology for capturing CO2 from point sources, but their deployment has been impeded by high costs and energy penalties. Here, we present a comprehensive techno-economic evaluation of four derivatives of CO2-Binding Organic Liquids (CO2BOLs), all water-lean solvents, as promising options towards energy- and cost-effective carbon capture from point sources. This evaluation was conducted using experimentally-measured solvent properties and rigorous plant-wide process simulations in Aspen Plus based on a U.S. Department of Energy power plant reference and 2018 pricing basis. The results suggest that water-lean formulations can minimize water condensation and vaporization during solvent regeneration, leading to a 36% energy saving compared with aqueous amines, in a typical absorption / desorption process without any complex configuration design. Indeed, all four CO2BOLs derivatives were predicted to achieve a carbon capture rate greater than 90% for the 650 MW supercritical pulverized coal reference power plant, with three of the solvents at an estimated carbon capture cost below $40/tonne CO2 at 90-97% carbon capture rate. Of all CO2BOLs, the estimated carbon capture cost is about 11-25% less expensive than the aqueous amine references with the lowest cost formulation at$38.1/tonne CO2. The CO2BOLs assessments showed that in addition to vapor liquid equilibrium and kinetics (key properties already identified for aqueous solvents in the literature), viscosity, volatility, and hydrophobicity, also have strong impacts on the energy and economic performance of water-lean solvents. These effects helped to identify future areas for further improvement.

Published: January 31, 2023

Citation

Jiang Y., P.M. Mathias, R.F. Zheng, C.J. Freeman, D. Barpaga, D. Malhotra, and P.K. Koech, et al. 2023. Energy-effective and low-cost carbon capture from point-sources enabled by water-lean solvents. Journal of Cleaner Production 388. PNNL-SA-176711. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.135696


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# Purification of water by alum is a separation method of

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# Homework Help: Force of Constraint for Particle in a Paraboloid

1. Oct 1, 2014

### Izzhov

1. The problem statement, all variables and given/known data
A particle is sliding inside a frictionless paraboloid defined by $r^2 = az$ with no gravity. We must show that the force of constraint is proportional to $(1+4r^2/a^2)^{-3/2}$

2. Relevant equations
$f(r,z) = r^2-az = 0$
$F_r = \lambda \frac{\partial f}{\partial r}$ (and similarly for $F_z$)

3. The attempt at a solution
$F_r = \lambda \frac{\partial f}{\partial r} = 2r\lambda$ and $F_z = \lambda \frac{\partial f}{\partial z} = -a\lambda$ and hence the total force of constraint is $F = \sqrt{F_r^2+F_z^2} = (4r^2+a^2)^{1/2}\lambda$.

So you can factor out the a from the square root and get $(1+4r^2/a^2)^{1/2} a \lambda$ but the exponent is supposed to be -3/2, not 1/2. What am I missing? Am I supposed to find a factor of $(1+4r^2/a^2)^{-2}$ in the $\lambda$ somewhere? How would I go about doing that?

2. Oct 3, 2014

### cwasdqwe

Hello izzhov,
You calculated the module of F. Perhaps the force of constrain is proportional to $(1+4r^2/a^2)^{-3/2}$ since $\hat{F}=\frac{\vec{F}}{|F|}$. ($\lambda$ should be a number, independent of r).

3. Oct 5, 2014

### BvU

The $\lambda$ is the Lagrange multiplier in the Euler-Lagrange equations, extended with the constraints (see a treatise on EL / Hamilton's principle, e.g Goldstein, Classical Mechanics -- or, as I suspect, your lecture notes) $${d\over dt}{\partial L\over \partial \dot q_k} - {\partial L\over \partial q_k}=\lambda a_k.$$That's three eqations in four variables (the coordinates and $\lambda$). The fourth equation is ${df\over dt} = 0$. $f$ is the constraint equation and df = $\sum {\partial f\over \partial q_k}\dot q + {\partial f\over \partial t}$ (the very last one being 0).

You need to solve for $\lambda$ only, since you aren't interested in the coordinates. Perhaps knowing that $L = T$ and choosing a nice set of $q_k$ makes it easier. Your choice is perhaps fine, but you do need to work out $T$.

I do not understand the cwasd post (nice password candidate, this cwasdwqe combination!)

4. Oct 5, 2014

### cwasdqwe

Yep, I was definitely thinking outside the box, feeling sleepy. You're right with Euler-Lagrange.
Cwasdqwe's too weak for a proper password... :w


text:
homechevron_rightStudychevron_rightPhysics

# Normal force

This online calculator calculates strength of the normal force from the mass of the object, the gravitational field strength and the angle of the inclined surface measured from the horizontal.

In mechanics, the normal force Fn is the component, perpendicular to the surface (surface being a plane) of contact, of the contact force exerted on an object by, for example, the surface of a floor or wall, preventing the object from falling. Here "normal" refers to the geometry terminology for being perpendicular, as opposed the common language use of "normal" meaning common or expected.

Where an object rests on an incline, the normal force is perpendicular to the plane the object rests on. Still, the normal force will be as large as necessary to prevent sinking through the surface, presuming the surface is sturdy enough. The strength of the force can be calculated as:
$|{\vec N}|=mg\cos \theta$
where,
$|{\vec N}|$ - Normal force modulus, $m$ - the mass of the object, $g$ - the gravitational acceleration (default value corresponds to Earth's gravitational field strength), $\theta$ - the angle of the inclined surface measured from the horizontal.

### Normal force

°

Digits after the decimal point: 2
Gravitational force, N

Normal force, N

Guarde el cálculo para reutilizarlo la próxima vez, para extension incrustarlo en su sitio web o share compartirlo con amigos.


text:
# Revision history [back]

There is no distinction between row vector and column vector in Sagemath

sage: v = vector((1,2,3))
sage: A = matrix(3, [1, -2, 3, 0, 1, -1, 2, 0, -2])
sage: A * v
(6, -1, -4)
sage: v * A
(7, 0, -5)

And vectors are different from 1 x n and n x 1 matrices which make a difference between rows and columns

sage: col_v = matrix(3, 1, [1, 2, 3])
sage: print(col_v)
[1]
[2]
[3]
sage: A * col_v
[ 6]
[-1]
[-4]

sage: row_v = matrix(1, 3, [1, 2, 3])
sage: print(row_v)
[1 2 3]
sage: row_v * A
[ 7  0 -5]

Of course both A * row_v and col_v * A will fail.

There is no distinction between row vector and column vector in Sagemath

sage: v = vector((1,2,3))
sage: A = matrix(3, [1, -2, 3, 0, 1, -1, 2, 0, -2])
sage: A * v
(6, -1, -4)
sage: v * A
(7, 0, -5)

And Sagemath vectors are different from objects than 1 x n and or n x 1 matrices which matrices. Matrices make a difference between rows and columns

sage: col_v = matrix(3, 1, [1, 2, 3])
sage: print(col_v)
[1]
[2]
[3]
sage: A * col_v
[ 6]
[-1]
[-4]

sage: row_v = matrix(1, 3, [1, 2, 3])
sage: print(row_v)
[1 2 3]
sage: row_v * A
[ 7  0 -5]

Of course both A * row_v and col_v * A will fail.


text:
# Raft: New Crates!

We've been resoundingly busy with our Raft implementation after a brief period of calm in the early summer! I'll be posting a few bits over the next weeks to help people both learn Rust, and learn about Raft!

As a result of Raft development two new crates have been put together for general consumption! Both of these are macro-centric and lead mainly by James.

## A Useful Error Pattern

Working with Raft we discovered a useful error pattern for making use of things like try!(). Let's quickly recap on why error handling can be a pain sometimes.

Let's say you're off happily using .read() on some file descriptor (maybe a TcpStream) and than performing some action which may also result in an error. So you write a function like so:

use std::io::Read;
let buf = Vec::with_capacity(10);
try!(String::from_utf8(buf))
}

But wait! There is a problem here! The first try!() and the second try!() have different errors that they might return. This won't work. Even worse, in a sufficiently complex library or application there can be many Error types in play!

We identified this very early in Raft and came up with a eloquent solution: Create an Error composed of the various possible errors! James went ahead and actually made a fantastic macro that you can use to do the same easily!

/// A simple convienence type.
pub type Result<T> = std::result::Result<T, Error>;

// From crate: https://github.com/james-darkfox/rs-wrapped_enum-macro
wrapped_enum!{
#[derive(Debug)]
pub enum Error {
// Cap'n Proto Errors
CapnProto(capnp::Error),
// Cap'n Proto schema errors
SchemaError(capnp::NotInSchema),
// std::io errors
Io(io::Error),
// Our very own!
Raft(RaftError),
}
}

impl fmt::Display for Error {
fn fmt(&self, f: &mut fmt::Formatter) -> fmt::Result {
match *self {
Error::CapnProto(ref error) => fmt::Display::fmt(error, f),
Error::SchemaError(ref error) => fmt::Display::fmt(error, f),
Error::Io(ref error) => fmt::Display::fmt(error, f),
Error::Raft(ref error) => fmt::Debug::fmt(error, f),
}
}
}

With this machinery in place our previous example starts to work, fantastic! This has saved us so much headache and complication in our code. Want it? Click one of the badges below!

## Scoped Logging

Okay, let's take a minute to remember how frigging awesome the log crate is. If you've got a project, large or small, this crate is super handy for helping trace, debug, and log whatever you need and to do it only when needed! The best part about the log crate is that when logs are off it's a simple noop.

One problem we identified, however, was that sometimes it was very difficult to identify the source of a log message. Asking "Did it come from foo or bar?" is only fun so many times.

James and Dan put together the scoped_log crate to help with this. Check out the documentation there for a usage example.

When we use this crate with tests (which makes it all that much more awesome!) we use the following macro.

/// Prepares the environment testing. Should be called as the first line of every test with the
/// name of the test as the only argument.
#[cfg(test)]
macro_rules! setup_test {
($test_name:expr) => ( let _ = env_logger::init(); push_log_scope!($test_name);
);
}

Now our logs look like this:

INFO:raft::replica: test_apply_client_message: ElectionTimeout
INFO:raft::replica: test_election_3: ElectionTimeout
INFO:raft::replica: test_election_2: ElectionTimeout
INFO:raft::replica: test_election_5: ElectionTimeout
INFO:raft::replica: test_election_5: transitioning to Candidate
DEBUG:raft::replica: test_election_5: Replica { id: 3, state: Follower, term: 0, index: 0 }: RequestVoteRequest from Replica { id: 0, term: 1, latest_log_term: 0, latest_log_index: 0 }

Much more context that we barely have to tool. Fantastic! This crate even maintains the same noop characteristic of the log crate which it heavily relies on. Want it?

## Travis & Cargo!

If you've read any of my other articles you probably know I love tooling and automation. After my Rust, Travis, and Github Pages article Huon created the fantastic travis-cargo tool! It's incredible!

With its help we've moved to a sudo-less build and overall things work much better. I'll talk more about out tooling and infrastructure in a later post!

# Aside: Contributors!!!

We now have 3 whole code contributors to Raft! This includes Dan Burkert, James McGlashan, and myself (Ana Hobden). I'd like to thank both James and Dan for their awesome work, interest, and mentorship!

d7994a50cf9756cd9c31f9b4571250b9f2265343


text:
# Biology:Tongue

Short description: Muscular organ in the mouth of most vertebrates
Tongue
The human tongue
Details
Precursorpharyngeal arches, lateral lingual swelling, tuberculum impar[1]
SystemAlimentary tract, gustatory system
Arterylingual, tonsillar branch, ascending pharyngeal
Veinlingual
NerveSensory
Anterior two-thirds: Lingual (sensation) and chorda tympani (taste)
Posterior one-third: Glossopharyngeal (IX)
Motor
Hypoglossal (XII), except palatoglossus muscle supplied by the pharyngeal plexus via vagus (X)
LymphDeep cervical, submandibular, submental
Identifiers
Latinlingua
Anatomical terminology

The tongue is a muscular organ in the mouth of a typical tetrapod. It manipulates food for chewing and swallowing as part of the digestive process, and is the primary organ of taste. The tongue's upper surface (dorsum) is covered by taste buds housed in numerous lingual papillae. It is sensitive and kept moist by saliva and is richly supplied with nerves and blood vessels. The tongue also serves as a natural means of cleaning the teeth.[2] A major function of the tongue is the enabling of speech in humans and vocalization in other animals.

The human tongue is divided into two parts, an oral part at the front and a pharyngeal part at the back. The left and right sides are also separated along most of its length by a vertical section of fibrous tissue (the lingual septum) that results in a groove, the median sulcus, on the tongue's surface.

There are two groups of muscles of the tongue. The four intrinsic muscles alter the shape of the tongue and are not attached to bone. The four paired extrinsic muscles change the position of the tongue and are anchored to bone.

## Etymology

The word tongue derives from the Old English tunge, which comes from Proto-Germanic *tungōn.[3] It has cognates in other Germanic languages—for example tonge in West Frisian, tong in Dutch and Afrikaans, Zunge in German, tunge in Danish and Norwegian, and tunga in Icelandic, Faroese and Swedish. The ue ending of the word seems to be a fourteenth-century attempt to show "proper pronunciation", but it is "neither etymological nor phonetic".[3] Some used the spelling tunge and tonge as late as the sixteenth century.

## In humans

### Structure

The underside of a human tongue, showing its rich blood supply.

The tongue is a muscular hydrostat that forms part of the floor of the oral cavity. The left and right sides of the tongue are separated by a vertical section of fibrous tissue known as the lingual septum. This division is along the length of the tongue save for the very back of the pharyngeal part and is visible as a groove called the median sulcus. The human tongue is divided into anterior and posterior parts by the terminal sulcus which is a V-shaped groove. The apex of the terminal sulcus is marked by a blind foramen, the foramen cecum, which is a remnant of the median thyroid diverticulum in early embryonic development. The anterior oral part is the visible part situated at the front and makes up roughly two-thirds the length of the tongue. The posterior pharyngeal part is the part closest to the throat, roughly one-third of its length. These parts differ in terms of their embryological development and nerve supply.

The anterior tongue is, at its apex, thin and narrow. It is directed forward against the lingual surfaces of the lower incisor teeth. The posterior part is, at its root, directed backward, and connected with the hyoid bone by the hyoglossi and genioglossi muscles and the hyoglossal membrane, with the epiglottis by three glossoepiglottic folds of mucous membrane, with the soft palate by the glossopalatine arches, and with the pharynx by the superior pharyngeal constrictor muscle and the mucous membrane. It also forms the anterior wall of the oropharynx.

The average length of the human tongue from the oropharynx to the tip is 10 cm.[4] The average weight of the human tongue from adult males is 70g and for adult females 60g.

In phonetics and phonology, a distinction is made between the tip of the tongue and the blade (the portion just behind the tip). Sounds made with the tongue tip are said to be apical, while those made with the tongue blade are said to be laminal.

#### Upper surface of the tongue

Foramen cecum and terminal sulcus labelled above
Features of the tongue surface

The upper surface of the tongue is called the dorsum, and is divided by a groove into symmetrical halves by the median sulcus. The foramen cecum marks the end of this division (at about 2.5 cm from the root of the tongue) and the beginning of the terminal sulcus. The foramen cecum is also the point of attachment of the thyroglossal duct and is formed during the descent of the thyroid diverticulum in embryonic development.

The terminal sulcus is a shallow groove that runs forward as a shallow groove in a V shape from the foramen cecum, forwards and outwards to the margins (borders) of the tongue. The terminal sulcus divides the tongue into a posterior pharyngeal part and an anterior oral part. The pharyngeal part is supplied by the glossopharyngeal nerve and the oral part is supplied by the lingual nerve (a branch of the mandibular branch (V3) of the trigeminal nerve) for somatosensory perception and by the chorda tympani (a branch of the facial nerve) for taste perception.

Both parts of the tongue develop from different pharyngeal arches.

#### Undersurface of the tongue

On the undersurface of the tongue is a fold of mucous membrane called the frenulum that tethers the tongue at the midline to the floor of the mouth. On either side of the frenulum are small prominences called sublingual caruncles that the major salivary submandibular glands drain into.

#### Muscles

The eight muscles of the human tongue are classified as either intrinsic or extrinsic. The four intrinsic muscles act to change the shape of the tongue, and are not attached to any bone. The four extrinsic muscles act to change the position of the tongue, and are anchored to bone.

##### Extrinsic
Lateral view of the tongue, with extrinsic muscles highlighted

The four extrinsic muscles originate from bone and extend to the tongue. They are the genioglossus, the hyoglossus (often including the chondroglossus) the styloglossus, and the palatoglossus. Their main functions are altering the tongue's position allowing for protrusion, retraction, and side-to-side movement.[5]

The genioglossus arises from the mandible and protrudes the tongue. It is also known as the tongue's "safety muscle" since it is the only muscle that propels the tongue forward.

The hyoglossus, arises from the hyoid bone and retracts and depresses the tongue. The chondroglossus is often included with this muscle.

The styloglossus arises from the styloid process of the temporal bone and draws the sides of the tongue up to create a trough for swallowing.

The palatoglossus arises from the palatine aponeurosis, and depresses the soft palate, moves the palatoglossal fold towards the midline, and elevates the back of the tongue during swallowing.

##### Intrinsic
Coronal section of tongue, showing intrinsic muscles

Four paired intrinsic muscles of the tongue originate and insert within the tongue, running along its length. They are the superior longitudinal muscle, the inferior longitudinal muscle, the vertical muscle, and the transverse muscle. These muscles alter the shape of the tongue by lengthening and shortening it, curling and uncurling its apex and edges as in tongue rolling, and flattening and rounding its surface. This provides shape and helps facilitate speech, swallowing, and eating.[5]

The superior longitudinal muscle runs along the upper surface of the tongue under the mucous membrane, and elevates, assists in retraction of, or deviates the tip of the tongue. It originates near the epiglottis, at the hyoid bone, from the median fibrous septum.

The inferior longitudinal muscle lines the sides of the tongue, and is joined to the styloglossus muscle.

The vertical muscle is located in the middle of the tongue, and joins the superior and inferior longitudinal muscles.

The transverse muscle divides the tongue at the middle, and is attached to the mucous membranes that run along the sides.

#### Blood supply

Blood supply of the tongue

The tongue receives its blood supply primarily from the lingual artery, a branch of the external carotid artery. The lingual veins drain into the internal jugular vein. The floor of the mouth also receives its blood supply from the lingual artery.[5] There is also a secondary blood supply to the root of tongue from the tonsillar branch of the facial artery and the ascending pharyngeal artery.

An area in the neck sometimes called the Pirogov triangle is formed by the intermediate tendon of the digastric muscle, the posterior border of the mylohyoid muscle, and the hypoglossal nerve.[6][7] The lingual artery is a good place to stop severe hemorrhage from the tongue.

#### Nerve supply

Innervation of the tongue consists of motor fibers, special sensory fibers for taste, and general sensory fibers for sensation.[5]

• Motor supply for all intrinsic and extrinsic muscles of the tongue is supplied by efferent motor nerve fibers from the hypoglossal nerve (CN XII), with the exception of the palatoglossus, which is innervated by the vagus nerve (CN X).[5]

Innervation of taste and sensation is different for the anterior and posterior part of the tongue because they are derived from different embryological structures (pharyngeal arch 1 and pharyngeal arches 3 and 4, respectively).[8]

• Anterior two-thirds of tongue (anterior to the vallate papillae):
• Taste: chorda tympani branch of the facial nerve (CN VII) via special visceral afferent fibers
• Sensation: lingual branch of the mandibular (V3) division of the trigeminal nerve (CN V) via general visceral afferent fibers
• Posterior one third of tongue:
• Taste and sensation: glossopharyngeal nerve (CN IX) via a mixture of special and general visceral afferent fibers
• Base of tongue

#### Lymphatic drainage

The tip of tongue drains to the submental nodes. The left and right halves of the anterior two-thirds of the tongue drains to submandibular lymph nodes, while the posterior one-third of the tongue drains to the jugulo-omohyoid nodes.

#### Microanatomy

Section through the human tongue; stained H&E

The upper surface of the tongue is covered in masticatory mucosa, a type of oral mucosa which is of keratinized stratified squamous epithelium. Embedded in this are numerous papillae, some of which house the taste buds and their taste receptors.[9] The lingual papillae consist of filiform, fungiform, vallate and foliate papillae,[5] and only the filiform papillae are not associated with any taste buds.

The tongue can divide itself in dorsal and ventral surface. The dorsal surface is a stratified squamous keratinized epithelium which is characterized by numerous mucosal projections called papillae.[10] The lingual papillae covers the dorsal side of the tongue towards the front of the terminal groove. The ventral surface is stratified squamous non-keratinized epithelium which is smooth.[11]

### Development

Floor of pharynx at about 26 days showing lateral swellings at first pharyngeal arch (mandibular arch).

The tongue begins to develop in the fourth week of embryonic development from a median swelling – the median tongue bud (tuberculum impar) of the first pharyngeal arch.[12]

In the fifth week a pair of lateral lingual swellings, one on the right side and one on the left, form on the first pharyngeal arch. These lingual swellings quickly expand and cover the median tongue bud. They form the anterior part of the tongue that makes up two-thirds of the length of the tongue, and continue to develop through prenatal development. The line of their fusion is marked by the median sulcus.[12]

In the fourth week a swelling appears from the second pharyngeal arch, in the midline, called the copula. During the fifth and sixth weeks the copula is overgrown by a swelling from the third and fourth arches (mainly from the third arch) called the hypopharyngeal eminence, and this develops into the posterior part of the tongue (the other third and the posterior most part of the tongue is developed from the fourth pharyngeal arch ). The hypopharyngeal eminence develops mainly by the growth of endoderm from the third pharyngeal arch. The boundary between the two parts of the tongue, the anterior from the first arch and the posterior from the third arch is marked by the terminal sulcus.[12] The terminal sulcus is shaped like a V with the tip of the V situated posteriorly. At the tip of the terminal sulcus is the foramen cecum, which is the point of attachment of the thyroglossal duct where the embryonic thyroid begins to descend.[5]

### Function

Taste receptors are present on the human tongue in papillae

#### Taste

Main pages: Biology:Taste, Biology:Biology:Taste receptor, and Philosophy:Supertaster

Chemicals that stimulate taste receptor cells are known as tastants. Once a tastant is dissolved in saliva, it can make contact with the plasma membrane of the gustatory hairs, which are the sites of taste transduction.[13]

The tongue is equipped with many taste buds on its dorsal surface, and each taste bud is equipped with taste receptor cells that can sense particular classes of tastes. Distinct types of taste receptor cells respectively detect substances that are sweet, bitter, salty, sour, spicy, or taste of umami.[14] Umami receptor cells are the least understood and accordingly are the type most intensively under research.[15] Tongue map is a myth that is widely taught in schools.

#### Mastication

The tongue is an important accessory organ in the digestive system. The tongue is used for crushing food against the hard palate, during mastication and manipulation of food for softening prior to swallowing. The epithelium on the tongue's upper, or dorsal surface is keratinised. Consequently, the tongue can grind against the hard palate without being itself damaged or irritated.[16]

#### Speech

The tongue is one of the primary articulators in the production of speech, and this is facilitated by both the extrinsic muscles that move the tongue and the intrinsic muscles that change its shape. Specifically, different vowels are articulated by changing the tongue's height and retraction to alter the resonant properties of the vocal tract. These resonant properties amplify specific harmonic frequencies (formants) that are different for each vowel, while attenuating other harmonics. For example, [a] is produced with the tongue lowered and centered and [i] is produced with the tongue raised and fronted. Consonants are articulated by constricting airflow through the vocal tract, and many consonants feature a constriction between the tongue and some other part of the vocal tract. For example alveolar consonants like [s] and [n] are articulated with the tongue against the alveolar ridge, while velar consonants like [k] and [g] are articulated with the tongue dorsum against the soft palate (velum). Tongue shape is also relevant to speech articulation, for example in retroflex consonants, where the tip of the tongue is curved backward.

#### Intimacy

The tongue plays a role in physical intimacy and sexuality. The tongue is part of the erogenous zone of the mouth and can be used in intimate contact, as in the French kiss and in oral sex. The tongue can be used for stimulating the clitoris and other areas of the vulva.

### Clinical significance

#### Disease

A congenital disorder of the tongue is that of ankyloglossia also known as tongue-tie. The tongue is tied to the floor of the mouth by a very short and thickened frenulum and this affects speech, eating, and swallowing.

The tongue is prone to several pathologies including glossitis and other inflammations such as geographic tongue, and median rhomboid glossitis; burning mouth syndrome, oral hairy leukoplakia, oral candidiasis (thrush), black hairy tongue , bifid tongue (due to failure in fusion of two lingual swellings of first pharyngeal arch) and fissured tongue.

There are several types of oral cancer that mainly affect the tongue. Mostly these are squamous cell carcinomas.[17][18]

Food debris, desquamated epithelial cells and bacteria often form a visible tongue coating.[19] This coating has been identified as a major factor contributing to bad breath (halitosis),[19] which can be managed by using a tongue cleaner.[20]

#### Medication delivery

The sublingual region underneath the front of the tongue is an ideal location for the administration of certain medications into the body. The oral mucosa is very thin underneath the tongue, and is underlain by a plexus of veins. The sublingual route takes advantage of the highly vascular quality of the oral cavity, and allows for the speedy application of medication into the cardiovascular system, bypassing the gastrointestinal tract. This is the only convenient and efficacious route of administration (apart from Intravenous therapy) of nitroglycerin to a patient suffering chest pain from angina pectoris.

## Other animals

Giraffe's tongue
Extended proboscis of a long tongued Macroglossum moth

The muscles of the tongue evolved in amphibians from occipital somites. Most amphibians show a proper tongue after their metamorphosis.[21] As a consequence most vertebrate animals—amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals—have tongues (the frog family of pipids lack tongue). In mammals such as dogs and cats, the tongue is often used to clean the fur and body by licking. The tongues of these species have a very rough texture which allows them to remove oils and parasites. Some dogs have a tendency to consistently lick a part of their foreleg which can result in a skin condition known as a lick granuloma. A dog's tongue also acts as a heat regulator. As a dog increases its exercise the tongue will increase in size due to greater blood flow. The tongue hangs out of the dog's mouth and the moisture on the tongue will work to cool the bloodflow.[22][23]

Some animals have tongues that are specially adapted for catching prey. For example, chameleons, frogs, pangolins and anteaters have prehensile tongues.

Other animals may have organs that are analogous to tongues, such as a butterfly's proboscis or a radula on a mollusc, but these are not homologous with the tongues found in vertebrates and often have little resemblance in function. For example, butterflies do not lick with their proboscides; they suck through them, and the proboscis is not a single organ, but two jaws held together to form a tube.[24] Many species of fish have small folds at the base of their mouths that might informally be called tongues, but they lack a muscular structure like the true tongues found in most tetrapods.[25][26]

## Society and culture

### Figures of speech

The tongue can be used as a metonym for language. For example, the New Testament of the Bible, in the Book of Acts of the Apostles, Jesus' disciples on the Day of Pentecost received a type of spiritual gift: "there appeared unto them cloven tongues like as of fire, and it sat upon each of them. And they were all filled with the Holy Ghost, and began to speak with other tongues ....", which amazed the crowd of Jewish people in Jerusalem, who were from various parts of the Roman Empire but could now understand what was being preached. The phrase mother tongue is used as a child's first language. Many languages[27] have the same word for "tongue" and "language", as did the English language before the Middle Ages.

A common temporary failure in word retrieval from memory is referred to as the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon. The expression tongue in cheek refers to a statement that is not to be taken entirely seriously – something said or done with subtle ironic or sarcastic humour. A tongue twister is a phrase made specifically to be very difficult to pronounce. Aside from being a medical condition, "tongue-tied" means being unable to say what you want due to confusion or restriction. The phrase "cat got your tongue" refers to when a person is speechless. To "bite one's tongue" is a phrase which describes holding back an opinion to avoid causing offence. A "slip of the tongue" refers to an unintentional utterance, such as a Freudian slip. The "gift of tongues" refers to when one is uncommonly gifted to be able to speak in a foreign language, often as a type of spiritual gift. Speaking in tongues is a common phrase used to describe glossolalia, which is to make smooth, language-resembling sounds that is no true spoken language itself. A deceptive person is said to have a forked tongue, and a smooth-talking person said to have a silver tongue.

### Gestures

Sticking one's tongue out at someone is considered a childish gesture of rudeness or defiance in many countries; the act may also have sexual connotations, depending on the way in which it is done. However, in Tibet it is considered a greeting.[28] In 2009, a farmer from Fabriano, Italy, was convicted and fined by the country's highest court for sticking his tongue out at a neighbor with whom he had been arguing. Proof of the affront had been captured with a cell phone camera.[29]

### Body art

Tongue piercing and splitting have become more common in western countries in recent decades. In one study, one-fifth of young adults were found to have at least one type of oral piercing, most commonly the tongue.[30]

### As food

The tongues of some animals are consumed and sometimes considered delicacies. Hot tongue sandwiches are frequently found on menus in kosher delicatessens in America. Taco de lengua (lengua being Spanish for tongue) is a taco filled with beef tongue, and is especially popular in Mexican cuisine. As part of Colombian gastronomy, Tongue in Sauce (Lengua en Salsa), is a dish prepared by frying the tongue, adding tomato sauce, onions and salt. Tongue can also be prepared as birria. Pig and beef tongue are consumed in Chinese cuisine. Duck tongues are sometimes employed in Sichuan dishes, while lamb's tongue is occasionally employed in Continental and contemporary American cooking. Fried cod "tongue" is a relatively common part of fish meals in Norway and Newfoundland. In Argentina and Uruguay cow tongue is cooked and served in vinegar (lengua a la vinagreta). In the Czech Republic and Poland, a pork tongue is considered a delicacy, and there are many ways of preparing it. In Eastern Slavic countries, pork and beef tongues are commonly consumed, boiled and garnished with horseradish or jelled; beef tongues fetch a significantly higher price and are considered more of a delicacy. In Alaska, cow tongues are among the more common. Both cow and moose tongues are popular toppings on open-top-sandwiches in Norway, the latter usually amongst hunters.

Tongues of seals and whales have been eaten, sometimes in large quantities, by sealers and whalers, and in various times and places have been sold for food on shore.[31]

## References

1. hednk-024—Embryo Images at University of North Carolina
2. Maton, Anthea; Hopkins, Jean; McLaughlin, Charles William; Johnson, Susan; Warner, Maryanna Quon; LaHart, David; Wright, Jill D. (1993). Human Biology and Health. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, USA: Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-981176-1.
3. "Tongue". Online Etymology Dictionary.
4. Kerrod, Robin (1997). MacMillan's Encyclopedia of Science. 6. Macmillan Publishing Company, Inc.. ISBN 0-02-864558-8.
5. Drake, Richard L.; Vogl, Wayne; Mitchell, Adam W. M. (2005). Gray's anatomy for students. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Elsevier. pp. 989–995. ISBN 978-0-8089-2306-0.
6. "Pirogov's triangle". Whonamedit? - A dictionary of medical eponyms. Ole Daniel Enersen.
7. Jamrozik, T.; Wender, W. (January 1952). "Topographic anatomy of lingual arterial anastomoses; Pirogov-Belclard's triangle". Folia Morphologica 3 (1): 51–62. PMID 13010300.
8. Dudek, Dr Ronald W. (2014). Board Review Series: Embryology (Sixth ed.). LWW. ISBN 978-1451190380.
9. Bernays, Elizabeth; Chapman, Reginald. "taste bud | anatomy".
10. Fiore, Mariano; Eroschenko, Victor (2000). Di Fiore's atlas of histology with functional correlations. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. pp. 238.
11. Hib, José (2001). Histología de Di Fiore: texto y atlas. Buenos Aires: El Ateneo. p. 189. ISBN 950-02-0386-3.
12. Larsen, William J. (2001). Human embryology (Third ed.). Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Churchill Livingstone. pp. 372–374. ISBN 0-443-06583-7.
13. Tortora, Gerard J.; Derrickson, Bryan H. (2008). "17". Principles of Anatomy and Physiology (12th ed.). Wiley. p. 602. ISBN 978-0470084717.
14. Silverhorn, Dee Unglaub (2009). "10". Human Physiology: An integrated approach (5th ed.). Benjamin Cummings. p. 352. ISBN 978-0321559807.
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27. Afrikaans tong; Danish tunge; Albanian gjuha; Armenian lezu (լեզու); Greek glóssa (γλώσσα); Irish teanga; Manx çhengey; Latin and Italian lingua; Catalan llengua; French langue; Portuguese língua; Spanish lengua; Romanian limba; Bulgarian ezik (език); Polish język; Russian yazyk (язык); Czech and Slovak jazyk; Slovene and Serbo-Croatian jezik (језик); Kurdish ziman (زمان); Persian and Urdu zabān (زبان); Arabic lisān (لسان); Aramaic liššānā (ܠܫܢܐ/לשנא); Hebrew lāšon (לָשׁוֹן); Maltese ilsien; Estonian keel; Finnish kieli; Hungarian nyelv; Azerbaijani and Turkish dil; Kazakh and Khakas til (тіл)
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