mini|desno|Tux - maskota LinuxaLinux je ime za jezgru (engl. kernel) računalnog operacijskog sustava sličnog Unixu, ali najčešće i za cijeli operacijski sustav utemeljen na toj jezgri. Ime je dobio po svom izvornom autoru Linusu Torvaldsu. Prije nego što je Torvalds napravio novu jezgru za Intelov mikroprocesor 80386, operacijski sustavi slični Unixu u pravilu nisu bili primjenjivi za kućnu upotrebu, već samo za istraživačke i uredske poslove. Linus Torvalds je napravio svoj kernel po uzoru na SunOS (danas Solaris), koji je koristio na fakultetu. Nakon što je neko vrijeme sam koristio kernel, Linus je objavio izvorni kod na Internetu (1991) te pozvao ljude da sudjeluju u daljnjem razvoju. Mnogi programeri su prihvatili poziv, tako da je jezgra linuxa zajedničko djelo programera diljem svijeta. Isto tako, i operacijski sustav nastao na jezgri linuxa je djelo zajednice tisuća programera.
Linux je slobodan softver. Za njegov spontani razvoj zaslužni su brzi razvoj globalne komunikacijske mreže i GPL licenca za korištenje. To je omogućilo stvaranje i rast globalne zajednice suradnika – korisnika i programera, koji su omogućili da Linux dođe na naslovne stranice i postane prepoznatljivo ime.

 Povijest i sadašnja pozicija Linuxa
mini|desno|Linus Torvalds - autor Linux jezgre

Linux je nastao 5. listopada 1991. Tog je dana izašla prva službena inačica Linuxa - 0.02.
Od tada broj ljudi koji radi na Linuxu, bilo kao programeri (razvijatelji kernela ili Linux aplikacija) stalno raste.
No, sama jezgra ne čini cjelokupan operacijski sustav. Pojedinci s raznih sveučilišta i programeri diljem svijeta spojili su linux jezgru s programima iz projekta GNU Richarda Stallmana i tako dobili funkcionalan operacijski sustav. U tim ranim danima u linuxu se uglavnom radilo u tekstualnom sučelju, ali je već 1996. utemeljen projekt KDE koji je dao linuxu i drugim sustavima sličnima Unixu vrhunski grafički desktop. Činjenica da KDE u početku nije bio slobodan softver potaknula je godinu kasnije razvoj grafičkoga korisničkog sučelja GNOME.

U ranim danima linux je služio kao eksperimentalni sustav koji su koristili studenti, hakeri, programeri i općenito ljudi orijentirani na rad s računalima. Nije bilo šire komercijalne upotrebe. To se promijenilo s nastankom Apache Web Servera, koji je zajedno s linuxom pružio pouzdano i besplatno rješenje za pogonjenje velikog broja web stranica. Tako je linux u nekoliko godina istisnuo mnoge druge sustave slične Unixu te u velikoj mjeri i Windows NT sa serverskog tržišta.
Napredovanje linuxa na desktopu ide puno sporije te je linux još uvijek rijetka pojava na kućnim i uredskim računalima. S vremenom je nastalo mnogo novih programa za linux: uredski paketi, sve vrste programa za internet, PDF, gledanje i uređivanje slika, multimediju, snimanje CD/DVDa te mnogi specijalizirani programi. Može se reći da danas za linux postoje svi potrebni programi za prosječnog kućnog i uredskog korisnika koji se ne igra previše i ne koristi svoj računalo za visoko specijaliziranu profesionalnu svrhu.

Što se sigurnosti tiče, za sada postoji samo neznatan broj virusa, spyware-a i adware-a koji rade na linuxu, većina kojih je proof-of-concept (eng. dokaz zamisli) koji nisu u optjecaju, a osim toga osnovni dizajn linuxa i pratećeg softvera je takav da otežava ozbiljne upade u sustav. Osim sigurnosti, stabilnost je također jedna od prednosti ovog operacijskog sustava. Tome pridonosi modularan dizajn Linuxa (jezgre) koja omogućava da se pojedini dijelovi sistema zaustavljaju i ponovno pokreću po potrebi, što kod npr. instalacije grafičkog pogonskog programa znači da se računalo ne mora ponovno pokrenuti, već je dovoljno učitati novi modul i ponovno pokrenuti grafički podsustav. Isto vrijedi i za ostale pogonske programe.
Linux može imati više grafičkih sučelja (desktopa). Ako koristi neki vizualno siromašniji, može raditi i na sporijim računalima, koji bi za Windows bili preslabi.

Prodor linuxa na kućna računala te u poslovni svijet usporava činjenica da se igre uglavnom ne rade za linux, a nedostaju i mnogi profesionalni programi. Poseban problem su i pogonski programi (driveri) koje tvrtke rijetko izdaju ili korisnici odbijaju koristiti, što zbog nesuglasica oko stavova po pitanju slobodnog sofvera, što zbog brzog i pomalo divljeg razvoja linux jezgre koji otežava pisanje drivera. Iz tih razloga, linux zajednica teško surađuje s velikim komercijalnim tvrtkama koje bi mogle pomoći u podršci i širenju linuxa. Konačno, tu je i problem postojanja velikog broja distribucija, to jest, nekih specifičnih razlika među njima.

Ipak, polako ali sigurno, linux prodire na desktop. Nastaje više linux distribucija prilagođenih početnicima. Izmišljen je i LiveCD, koncept koji omogućava dizanje sistema s CD/DVD-a i USB-a te isprobavanje linuxa bez trajnog snimanja na disk. Mnoge distribucije dolaze kao liveCD-i s mogućnošću instalacije na korisnikov disk. U svijetu je linux postao veliki posao, i to ne samo među serverima. Nažalost, Hrvatska tu jako zaostaje za svijetom.

 Nesuglasice oko naziva

Neki članovi zajednice dijele mišljenje Free Software Foundation-a (zaklade koja stoji iza projekta GNU), i smatraju da se naziv "Linux" može koristiti samostalno samo kad se govori isključivo o jezgri (eng. kernel). Budući da je jezgra uklopljena u operacijski sustav GNU - umjesto njihove nedovršene jezgre Hurd - Free Software Foundation smatra da je ispravan naziv GNU/Linux (ili GNU+Linux), te da je to samo jedna od varijanti operativnog sustava GNU.  Dok neke distribucije jasno ističu naziv GNU/Linux - najistaknutiji primjer je Debian GNU/Linux - većina medija i korisnika koristi naziv Linux. Pristaše naziva GNU/Linux ističu kako je taj naziv bitan zbog širenja ideje o slobodnom softveru.

Linus Torvalds, kao i većina zajednice, odbacuje naziv GNU/Linux. Kao razlog, Torvalds navodi da se ovaj operacijski sustav ne sastoji samo od Linuxa (jezgre) i GNU projekta, te da se se korištenjem imena GNU/Linux zapostavljaju drugi važni projekti (kao primjer navodi Xorg),Moore, J.T.S. (producent, autor teksta, i redatelj). (2001). Revolution OS. [DVD]. bez kojih je teško zamisliti Linux danas. Osim toga, operacijski sustavi su često dobivali ime po jezgri.

 Distribucije Linuxa

mini|Desktop distribucije Ubuntu 9.04 iz 2009. godine|alt=
alt=|mini|Sučelje GNOME Shell distribucije Fedora iz 2020. godine
mini|KDE sučelje Plasma iz 2019. godine
Distribucija Linuxa je cjeloviti operacijski sustav sastavljen od jezgre Linuxa (s pogonskim programima), GNU sistemskih i aplikacijskih programa, dokumentacije, izvornog koda, grafičkog servera (Xorg ili wayland) i grafičkog okruženja. Osim tih osnovnih dijelova, različite distribucije uključuju veći ili manji broj ostalih korisničkih programa specifične namjene. Svaka distribucija je podešena prema željama autora i korisnika za određenu namjenu. Nemoguće je utvrditi točan broj distribucija, a ne postoji niti jasan kriterij što čini Linux distribuciju. Veliki broj distribucija kao i nepostojanje standarda – poput jedinstvenog načina instaliranja programa – mnogim korisnicima računala otežava prelazak na Linux, ali i komercijalnu upotrebu.

Većina uključenog softvera je besplatni softver otvorenog koda (free software/open-source) koji distribuiraju održavatelji i u već kompajliranim binarnim paketima i u izvornoj formi, te tako dopuštaju korisnicima mijenjanje i kompajliranje originalnog izvornog koda kako oni žele. Drugi softver uključen u distribucije može biti vlasnički (engl. proprietary) i njegov izvorni kod ne mora biti raspoloživ.

Distribucije se mogu podijeliti u tri osnovne skupine s obzirom kako se distribuira softver uz pojedinu distribuciju. Softver se može distribuirati samo u izvornom kodu (kao kod distribucije Gentoo) ili u zato predviđenim paketima (koji sadrže izvršne inačice softvera) ili pak kao izvršni programi ili skripte koje same instaliraju softver (također u izvršnom obliku). Dva najčešća sustava za upravljanje paketima su rpm i dpkg pa se stoga distribucije koje ih koriste često nazivaju nazivaju RPM-distribucije, odnosno distribucije temeljene na Debianu. U distribucije vrste RPM spadaju npr. RHEL, Fedora, Mandriva, PCLinuxOS, OpenSuse, dok u distribucije vrste Debian spadaju, osim samog Debiana, i Ubuntu, Xandros, Mepis, Knoppix, Sidux i dr.

 Istaknute distribucije
 Slackware. Najstarija aktivna distribucija namijenjena iskusnim korisnicima, s nekim zastarjelim mehanizmima funkcioniranja, ali s reputacijom stabilnog, sigurnog i pouzdanog sustava.
 Debian. Veliki međunarodni projekt s filozofijom slobodnog softvera u osnovi. Osnova za najveći broj drugih distribucija.
 Ubuntu. Distribucija temeljena na Debianu, iza koje stoji veliki kapital, što je pomoglo naglom širenju popularnosti.
 Mint. Po mnogima najjednostavnija distribucija bazirana na Ubuntu.
 Fedora. Temelji se na bivšoj RedHat distribuciji i služi kao osnova kompaniji RedHat za izradu komercijalnog linuxa.
 OpenSuSE. Besplatna verzija komercijalne Novell-ove distribucije Suse. Vrlo prilagođena početnicima.
 Mandriva. (bivši Mandrake) Izvorno nastao kao klon Redhat distribucije, razvio se u zasebnu distribuciju jako prilagođenu početnicima.
 Gentoo. Distribucija namijenjena isključivo onima koji žele do kraja ući u svijet linuxa. Instalacija zahtjeva kompajliranje cijelog sustava iz izvornog koda što može trajati danima.
 Knoppix. Također varijanta Debiana, poznat kao prvi LiveCD.
 Red Hat. Jedna od najstarijih komercijalnih distribucija.
 Kali Linux. Operativni sustav temeljen na Debianu koje dolazi s instaliranim paketima koji služe za sigurnosno testiranje ostalih tehnologija.

 Ostale distribucije
 Arch Linux
Puppy Linux

 Istaknute aplikacije

Uredske aplikacije
mini|Uredski paket LibreOffice
mini|LyX je grafičko sučelje za LaTeX
 Thunderbird, Kontact, GNOME Evolution (osobni organizatori)
 LibreOffice, GNOME Office, Koffice (uređivanje teksta, tablica, prezentacija i baza podataka)
 TeX Live, LyX (slog za tisak s pomoću LaTeX-a)
Scribus (stolno izdavaštvo)

Multimedijske aplikacije
mini|Aplikacija za vektorsku grafiku Inkscape.
 Gimp, Blender, Inkscape, Darktable, Hugin (programi za stvaranje i uređivanje slika)
 VLC, Mplayer, Kaffeine, AmaroK, Rhytmbox, Audacious (multimedijski svirači)
 Audacity, Ardour (snimanje i obrada zvuka)
 Firefox, Google Chrome, Epiphany, Konqueror, Opera (preglednici)

Grafička okruženja
 KDE
 GNOME
 Xfce
 Fluxbox
 LXDE

Aplikacije za poslužitelje
 Apache, proFTPd, vsFTP
 PHP, Perl, Ruby (skriptni programski jezici)
 mySQL, postgreSQL (baze podataka)
 Postfix, Courier, Horde
 VHCS

Ostalo
 Mdadm, pomoćni program

 Izvori

 Vanjske poveznice

 HULK – Hrvatska udruga linux korisnika

 Linux za sve – Portal napravljen za pomoć novim, a i iskusnijim korisnicima linuxa

 http://www.linux.org/
 http://www.distrowatch.com/

Kategorija:Operacijski sustavi
Kategorija:Linux
Kategorija:Unix
Kategorija:GNU

Linux and the GNU Systemby Richard Stallman
Many computer users run a modified version of the GNU system every day, without realizing it. Through a peculiar turn of events, the version of GNU which is widely used today is often called “Linux,” and many of its users are not aware that it is basically the GNU system, developed by the GNU Project.
There really is a Linux, and these people are using it, but it is just a part of the system they use. Linux is the kernel: the program in the system that allocates the machine's resources to the other programs that you run. The kernel is an essential part of an operating system, but useless by itself; it can only function in the context of a complete operating system. Linux is normally used in combination with the GNU operating system: the whole system is basically GNU with Linux added, or GNU/Linux. All the so-called “Linux” distributions are really distributions of GNU/Linux.
Many users do not understand the difference between the kernel, which is Linux, and the whole system, which they also call “Linux.” The ambiguous use of the name doesn't help people understand. These users often think that Linus Torvalds developed the whole operating system in 1991, with a bit of help.
Programmers generally know that Linux is a kernel. But since they have generally heard the whole system called “Linux” as well, they often envisage a history that would justify naming the whole system after the kernel. For example, many believe that once Linus Torvalds finished writing Linux, the kernel, its users looked around for other free software to go with it, and found that (for no particular reason) most everything necessary to make a Unix-like system was already available.
What they found was no accident—it was the not-quite-complete GNU system. The available free software added up to a complete system because the GNU Project had been working since 1984 to make one. In the GNU Manifesto we set forth the goal of developing a free Unix-like system, called GNU. The Initial Announcement of the GNU Project also outlines some of the original plans for the GNU system. By the time Linux was started, GNU was almost finished.
Most free software projects have the goal of developing a particular program for a particular job. For example, Linus Torvalds set out to write a Unix-like kernel (Linux); Donald Knuth set out to write a text formatter (TeX); Bob Scheifler set out to develop a window system (the X Window System). It's natural to measure the contribution of this kind of project by specific programs that came from the project.
If we tried to measure the GNU Project's contribution in this way, what would we conclude? One CD-ROM vendor found that in their “Linux distribution,” GNU software was the largest single contingent, around 28% of the total source code, and this included some of the essential major components without which there could be no system. Linux itself was about 3%. (The proportions in 2008 are similar: in the “main” repository of gNewSense, Linux is 1.5% and GNU packages are 15%.) So if you were going to pick a name for the system based on who wrote the programs in the system, the most appropriate single choice would be “GNU.”
But that is not the deepest way to consider the question. The GNU Project was not, is not, a project to develop specific software packages. It was not a project to develop a C compiler, although we did that. It was not a project to develop a text editor, although we developed one. The GNU Project set out to develop a complete free Unix-like system: GNU.
Many people have made major contributions to the free software in the system, and they all deserve credit for their software. But the reason it is an integrated system—and not just a collection of useful programs—is because the GNU Project set out to make it one. We made a list of the programs needed to make a complete free system, and we systematically found, wrote, or found people to write everything on the list. We wrote essential but unexciting [1] components because you can't have a system without them. Some of our system components, the programming tools, became popular on their own among programmers, but we wrote many components that are not tools [2]. We even developed a chess game, GNU Chess, because a complete system needs games too.
By the early 90s we had put together the whole system aside from the kernel. We had also started a kernel, the GNU Hurd, which runs on top of Mach. Developing this kernel has been a lot harder than we expected; the GNU Hurd started working reliably in 2001, but it is a long way from being ready for people to use in general.
Fortunately, we didn't have to wait for the Hurd, because of Linux. Once Torvalds freed Linux in 1992, it fit into the last major gap in the GNU system. People could then combine Linux with the GNU system to make a complete free system—a version of the GNU system which also contained Linux. The GNU/Linux system, in other words.
Making them work well together was not a trivial job. Some GNU components [3] needed substantial change to work with Linux. Integrating a complete system as a distribution that would work “out of the box” was a big job, too. It required addressing the issue of how to install and boot the system—a problem we had not tackled, because we hadn't yet reached that point. Thus, the people who developed the various system distributions did a lot of essential work. But it was work that, in the nature of things, was surely going to be done by someone.
The GNU Project supports GNU/Linux systems as well as the GNU system. The FSF funded the rewriting of the Linux-related extensions to the GNU C library, so that now they are well integrated, and the newest GNU/Linux systems use the current library release with no changes. The FSF also funded an early stage of the development of Debian GNU/Linux.
Today there are many different variants of the GNU/Linux system (often called “distros”). Most of them include nonfree programs—their developers follow the “open source” philosophy associated with Linux rather than the “free software” philosophy of GNU. But there are also completely free GNU/Linux distros. The FSF supports computer facilities for a few of them.
Making a free GNU/Linux distribution is not just a matter of eliminating various nonfree programs. Nowadays, the usual version of Linux contains nonfree programs too. These programs are intended to be loaded into I/O devices when the system starts, and they are included, as long series of numbers, in the “source code” of Linux. Thus, maintaining free GNU/Linux distributions now entails maintaining a free version of Linux too.
Whether you use GNU/Linux or not, please don't confuse the public by using the name “Linux” ambiguously. Linux is the kernel, one of the essential major components of the system. The system as a whole is basically the GNU system, with Linux added. When you're talking about this combination, please call it “GNU/Linux.”
If you want to make a link on “GNU/Linux” for further reference, this page and https://www.gnu.org/gnu/thegnuproject.html are good choices. If you mention Linux, the kernel, and want to add a link for further reference, https://foldoc.org/linux is a good URL to use.
Postscripts
Aside from GNU, one other project has independently produced a free Unix-like operating system. This system is known as BSD, and it was developed at UC Berkeley. It was nonfree in the 80s, but became free in the early 90s. A free operating system that exists today [4] is almost certainly either a variant of the GNU system, or a kind of BSD system.
People sometimes ask whether BSD too is a version of GNU, like GNU/Linux. The BSD developers were inspired to make their code free software by the example of the GNU Project, and explicit appeals from GNU activists helped persuade them, but the code had little overlap with GNU. BSD systems today use some GNU programs, just as the GNU system and its variants use some BSD programs; however, taken as wholes, they are two different systems that evolved separately. The BSD developers did not write a kernel and add it to the GNU system, and a name like GNU/BSD would not fit the situation [5].
Footnotes
- These unexciting but essential components include the GNU assembler (GAS) and the linker (GLD), both are now part of the GNU Binutils package, GNU tar, and many more.
- For instance, The Bourne Again SHell (BASH), the PostScript interpreter Ghostscript, and the GNU C library are not programming tools. Neither are GNUCash, GNOME, and GNU Chess.
- For instance, the GNU C library.
- Since that was written, a nearly-all-free Windows-like system has been developed, but technically it is not at all like GNU or Unix, so it doesn't really affect this issue. Most of the kernel of Solaris has been made free, but if you wanted to make a free system out of that, aside from replacing the missing parts of the kernel, you would also need to put it into GNU or BSD.
- On the other hand, in the years since this article was written, the GNU C Library has been ported to several versions of the BSD kernel, which made it straightforward to combine the GNU system with that kernel. Just as with GNU/Linux, these are indeed variants of GNU, and are therefore called, for instance, GNU/kFreeBSD and GNU/kNetBSD depending on the kernel of the system. Ordinary users on typical desktops can hardly distinguish between GNU/Linux and GNU/*BSD.
For more information see also the GNU/Linux FAQ, and Why GNU/Linux?

Question: what is the name of the foundation behind the gfs project

Question: what does the free software foundation believe is the correct name for linux

Question: what does the free software foundation call the operating system linux

Question: who is the foundation behind the gfs project

Question: what is the core of linux incorporated into

Question: what is incorporated into the gfs operating system

Some members of the community share the opinion of the Free Software Foundation ( the foundation behind the GNU project ) , and believe that the name " Linux " can be used independently only when it is spoken exclusively about the core ( English kernel ) .

Since the core is incorporated into the GNU operating system - instead of their incomplete core Hurd - Free Software Foundation believes that it is the correct name GNU / Linux ( or GNU+Linux ) , and that it is just one of the variants of the GNU operating system .

Some members of the community share the opinion of the Free Software Foundation (the foundation behind the GNU project), and believe that the name "Linux" can be used independently only when it is spoken exclusively about the core (English kernel). Since the core is incorporated into the GNU operating system - instead of their incomplete core Hurd - Free Software Foundation believes that it is the correct name GNU/Linux (or GNU+Linux), and that it is just one of the variants of the GNU operating system.


mini|Portret Galbe na novčiću
Lucius Livius Ocella Servius Sulpicius Galba (24. prosinca 3. pr. Kr. – 15. siječnja 69. po. Kr.)roman-emperors.org (na engleskom jeziku) rimski car.

 Životopis

Vladao je prvi u razdoblju znanom kao Godina četiri cara, vrlo kratko - sedam mjeseci, od 8. lipnja 68. do 15. siječnja 69. po. Kr. Prije dolaska na vlast, bio je namjesnik u Hispaniji. Galba je slovio kao škrt čovjek koji je ograničio državne rashode. Ubili su ga pretorijanci.

 Izvori

 Vanjske poveznice

Kategorija:Rimski carevi u 1. stoljeću

by Kr.
January 15th, 69th.

Introduction
The evidence for the principate of Galba is unsatisfactory. The sources either concentrate on the personality of the man, thereby failing to offer a balanced account of his policies and a firm chronological base for his actions; or, they focus on the final two weeks of his life at the expense of the earlier part of his reign.[[1]] As a result, a detailed account of his principate is difficult to write. Even so, Galba is noteworthy because he was neither related to nor adopted by his predecessor Nero. Thus, his accession marked the end of the nearly century-long control of the Principate by the Julio-Claudians. Additionally, Galba’s declaration as emperor by his troops abroad set a precedent for the further political upheavals of 68-69. Although these events worked to Galba’s favor initially, they soon came back to haunt him, ending his tumultuous rule after only seven months.
Early Life and Rise to Power
Born 24 December 3 BC in Tarracina, a town on the Appian Way 65 miles south of Rome, Servius Galba was the son of C. Sulpicius Galba and Mummia Achaica.[[2]] Galba’s connection with the noble house of the Servii gave him great prestige and assured his acceptance among the highest levels of Julio-Claudian society. Adopted in his youth by Livia, the mother of the emperor Tiberius, he is said to have owed much of his early advancement to her.[[3]] Upon her death, Livia made Galba her chief legatee, bequeathing him some 50 million sesterces. Tiberius, Livia’s heir, reduced the amount, however, and then never paid it. Galba’s marriage proved to be a further source of disappointment, as he outlived both his wife Lepida and their two sons. Nothing else is known of Galba’s immediate family, other than that he remained a widower for the rest of his life.
Although the details of Galba’s early political career are incomplete, the surviving record is one of an ambitious Roman making his way in the Emperor’s service. Suetonius records that as praetor Galba put on a new kind of exhibition for the people – elephants walking on a rope.[[4]] Later, he served as governor of the province of Aquitania, followed by a six-month term as consul at the beginning of 33.[[5]] Ironically, as consul he was succeeded by Salvius Otho, whose own son would succeed Galba as emperor. Over the years three more governorships followed – Upper Germany (date unknown), North Africa (45) and Hispania Tarraconensis, the largest of Spain’s three provinces (61). He was selected as a proconsul of Africa by the emperor Claudius himself instead of by the usual method of drawing lots. During his two-year tenure in the province he successfully restored internal order and quelled a revolt by the barbarians. As an imperial legate he was a governor in Spain for eight years under Nero, even though he was already in his early sixties when he assumed his duties. The appointment showed that Galba was still considered efficient and loyal.[[6]] In all of these posts Galba generally displayed an enthusiasm for old-fashioned disciplina, a trait consistent with the traditional characterization of the man as a hard-bitten aristocrat of the old Republican type. Such service did not go unnoticed, as he was honored with triumphal insignia and three priesthoods during his career.
On the basis of his ancestry, family tradition and service to the state Galba was the most distinguished Roman alive (with the exception of the houses of the Julii and Claudii) at the time of Nero’s demise in 68. The complex chain of events that would lead him to the Principate later that year began in March with the rebellion of Gaius Iulius Vindex, the governor of Gallia Lugdunensis. Vindex had begun to sound out provincial governors about support for a rebellion perhaps in late 67 or early 68. Galba did not respond but, because of his displeasure with Neronian misgovernment, neither did he inform the emperor of these treasonous solicitations. This, of course, left him dangerously exposed; moreover, he was already aware that Nero, anxious to remove anyone of distinguished birth and noble achievements, had ordered his death.[[7]] Given these circumstances, Galba likely felt that he had no choice but to rebel.
In April, 68, while still in Spain, Galba “went public,” positioning himself as a vir militaris, a military representative of the senate and people of Rome. For the moment, he refused the title of Emperor, but it is clear that the Principate was his goal. To this end, he organized a concilium of advisors in order to make it known that any decisions were not made by him alone but only after consultation with a group. The arrangement was meant to recall the Augustan Age relationship between the emperor and senate in Rome. Even more revealing of his imperial ambitions were legends like LIBERTAS RESTITUTA (Liberty Restored), ROM RENASC (Rome Reborn) and SALUS GENERIS HUMANI (Salvation of Mankind), preserved on his coinage from the period. Such evidence has brought into question the traditional assessment of Galba as nothing more than an ineffectual representative of a bygone antiquus rigor in favor of a more balanced portrait of a traditional constitutionalist eager to publicize the virtues of an Augustan-style Principate.[[8]]
Events now began to move quickly. In May, 68 Lucius Clodius Macer, legate of the III legio Augusta in Africa, revolted from Nero and cut off the grain supply to Rome. Choosing not to recognize Galba, he called himself propraetor, issued his own coinage, and raised a new legion, the I Macriana liberatrix. Galba later had him executed. At the same time, 68 Lucius Verginius Rufus, legionary commander in Upper Germany, led a combined force of soldiers from Upper and Lower Germany in defeating Vindex at Vesontio in Gallia Lugdunensis. Verginius refused to accept a call to the emperorship by his own troops and by those from the Danube, however, thereby creating at Rome an opportunity for Galba’s agents to win over Gaius Nymphidius Sabinus, the corrupt praetorian prefect since 65. Sabinus was able to turn the imperial guard against Nero on the promise that they would be rewarded financially by Galba upon his arrival. That was the end for Nero. Deposed by the senate and abandoned by his supporters, he committed suicide in June. At this point, encouraged to march on Rome by the praetorians and especially by Sabinus, who had his own designs on the throne, Galba hurriedly established broad-based political and financial support and assembled his own legion (subsequently known as the legio VII Gemina).[[9]] As he departed from Spain, he abandoned the title of governor in favor of “Caesar,” apparently in an attempt to lay claim to the entire inheritance of the Julio-Claudian house. Even so, he continued to proceed cautiously, and did not actually adopt the name of Caesar (and with it the emperorship) until sometime after he had left Spain.[[10]]
The Principate of Galba
Meanwhile, Rome was anything but serene. An unusual force of soldiers, many of whom had been mustered by Nero to crush the attempt of Vindex, remained idle and restless. In addition, there was the matter concerning Nymphidius Sabinus. Intent on being the power behind the throne, Nymphidius had orchestrated a demand from the praetorians that Galba appoint him sole praetorian prefect for life. The senate capitulated to his pretensions and he began to have designs on the throne himself. In an attempt to rattle Galba, Nymphidius then sent messages of alarm to the emperor telling of unrest in both the city and abroad. When Galba ignored these reports, Nymphidius decided to launch a coup by presenting himself to the praetorians. The plan misfired, and the praetorians killed him when he appeared at their camp. Upon learning of the incident, Galba ordered the executions of Nymphidius’ followers.[[11]] To make matters worse, Galba’s arrival was preceded by a confrontation with a boisterous band of soldiers who had been formed into a legion by Nero and were now demanding legionary standards and regular quarters. When they persisted, Galba’s forces attacked, with the result that many of them were killed.[[12]]
Thus it was amid carnage and fear that Galba arrived at the capital in October, 68, accompanied by Otho, the governor of Lusitania, who had joined the cause. Once Galba was within Rome, miscalculations and missteps seemed to multiply. First, he relied upon the advice of a corrupt circle of advisors, most notably: Titus Vinius, a general from Spain; Cornelius Laco, praetorian prefect; and his own freedman, Icelus. Second, he zealously attempted to recover some of Nero’s more excessive expenditures by seizing the property of many citizens, a measure that seems to have gone too far and to have caused real hardship and resentment. Third, he created further ill-will by disbanding the imperial corps of German bodyguards, effectively abolishing a tradition that originated with Marius and had been endorsed by Augustus. Finally, he seriously alienated the military by refusing cash rewards for both the praetorians and for the soldiers in Upper Germany who had fought against Vindex.
This last act proved to be the beginning of the end for Galba. On 1 January 69 the troops in Upper Germany refused to declare allegiance to him and instead followed the men stationed in Lower Germany in proclaiming their commander, Aulus Vitellius, as the new ruler. In response, Galba adopted Lucius Calpurnius Piso Frugi Licinianus to show that he was still in charge and that his successor would not be chosen for him. Piso, although an aristocrat, was a man completely without administrative or military experience.[[13]] The choice meant little to the remote armies, the praetorians or the senate, and it especially angered Otho, who had hoped to succeed Galba. Otho quickly organized a conspiracy among the praetorians with the now-familiar promise of a material reward, and on 15 January 69 they declared him emperor and publicly killed Galba; Piso, dragged from hiding in the temple of Vesta, was also butchered.
Assessment
In sum, Galba had displayed talent and ambition during his lengthy career. He enjoyed distinguished ancestry, moved easily among the Julio-Claudian emperors (with the exception of Nero towards the end of his principate), and had been awarded the highest military and religious honors of ancient Rome. His qualifications for the principate cannot be questioned. Even so, history has been unkind to him. Tacitus characterized Galba as “weak and old,” a man “equal to the imperial office, if he had never held it.” Modern historians of the Roman world have been no less critical.[[14]] To be sure, Galba’s greatest mistake lay in his general handling of the military. His treatment of the army in Upper Germany was heedless, his policy towards the praetorians short sighted. Given the climate in 68-69, Galba was unrealistic in expecting disciplina without paying the promised rewards. He was also guilty of relying on poor advisors, who shielded him from reality and ultimately allowed Otho’s conspiracy to succeed. Additionally, the excessive power of his henchmen brought the regime into disfavor and made Galba himself the principal target of the hatred that his aides had incited. Finally, the appointment of Piso, a young man in no way equal to the challenges placed before him, further underscored the emperor’s isolation and lack of judgment. In the end, the instability of the post-Julio-Claudian political landscape offered challenges more formidable than a tired, septuagenarian aristocrat could hope to overcome. Ironically, his regime proved no more successful than the Neronian government he was so eager to replace. Another year of bloodshed would be necessary before the Principate could once again stand firm.
Bibliography
The works listed below are main treatments of Galba or have a direct bearing on issues discussed in the entry above.
Benediktson, Dale T. “Structure and Fate in Suetonius’ Life of Galba.” CJ 92 (1996-97): 167-172.
Bowman, Alan K. et al. The Cambridge Ancient History, X: The Augustan Empire. 2nd ed. (Cambridge, 1996).
Brunt, P. A. “The Revolt of Vindex and the Fall of Nero.” Latomus 18 (1959): 531-559.
Chilver, G. E. F. A Historical Commentary on Tacitus’ Histories I and II. (Oxford, 1979).
Fluss, M. “Sulpicius (Galba).” Real-Encyclopädie IVA2.772-801 (1932).
Greenhalgh, P. A. L. The Year of the Four Emperors. (New York, 1975).
Haley, E. W. “Clunia, Galba and the Events of 68-69.” ZPE 91 (1992): 159-164.
Keitel, E. “Plutarch’s Tragedy Tyrants: Galba and Otho.” Papers of the Leeds International Latin Seminar 8, Roman Comedy, Augustan Poetry, Historiography. edited by Roger Brock and Anthony J. Woodman. (Leeds, 1995): 275-288.
Kleiner, Fred S. “The Arch of Galba at Tarragona and Dynastic Portraiture on Roman Arches.” MDAI(M) 30 (1989): 239-252.
________. “Galba and the Sullan Capitolium.” AJN 1 (1989): 71-77.
________. “Galba Imperator Augustus P(opuli) R(omani).” RN 32 (1990): 72-84.
Murison, Charles L. Galba, Otho and Vitellius: Careers and Controversies. (Hildesheim, 1993).
________. Suetonius: Galba, Otho, Vitellius. (London, 1992).
Nawotka, Krzysztof. “Imperial Virtues of Galba in the Histories of Tacitus.” Philologus 137 (1993): 258-264.
Sutherland, C. H. V. Roman Imperial Coinage, vol 1. (London, 1984).
Syme, R. “Partisans of Galba.” Historia 31 (1982): 460-483.
________. Tacitus. (Oxford, 1958).
Townsend, G. B. “Cluvius Rufus in the Histories of Tacitus,” AJPhil 85 (1964): 337-377.
Wellesley, Kenneth. The Long Year A. D. 69. 2nd. ed. (London, 1989).
Zimmerman, M. “Die restitutio honorum Galbas.” Historia 44 (1995): 56-82.
Notes
[[1]] The main ancient sources for Galba’s life are: Suet. Galba; Tac. Hist. 1.1-49; Plut. Galba; Dio 63.22-64.7. In addition, there were major works for this period by Cluvius Rufus, Fabius Rusticus and Pliny the Elder, but they have not survived. For an important discussion, see G. B. Townsend, “Cluvius Rufus in the Histories of Tacitus,” AJPhil 85 (1964): 337-377.
[[2]] Galba’s birthdate is impossible to determine. Suetonius give it as 24 December, 3 B.C. (Galba 4.1), yet in the final chapter of Galba’s Life, he presupposes 5 B.C. as the date (Galba 23). Dio (64.6.52), taken with Tacitus’ evidence (Hist. 1.27.1), also gives his birthdate as 5 B.C. The evidence given here is preferable, since Suetonius provides the information precisely and is concerned with Galba’s actual birthdate, not the length of his life or his reign.
[[3]] Suet. Galba 4. This must be a testamentary adoption, since a woman in classical law was not allowed to adopt during her lifetime. See the commentary of Charles L. Murison, editor, Suetonius: Galba, Otho, Vitellius (London, 1991), 33.
[[4]] Suetonius’ claim that Galba was the first to offer an exhibition of rope-walking elephants has been refuted. See J. M. C. Toynbee, Animals in Roman Life and Art (London, 1973), 48-49, 352 nn. 103-110. See also H. H. Scullard, The Elephant in the Greek and Roman World (London, 1974), 250-259.
[[5]] This governorship is slightly unconventional, since most nobiles in this period usually governed senatorial provinces as praetorian proconsuls, not important imperial provinces like Aquitania. Galba was perhaps being groomed for a career as a vir militaris. Regarding the consulship, there may have been a delay at some point in Galba’s accession to the office. For a more complete discussion on this point, see Charles L. Murison, Galba, Otho and Vitellius: Careers and Controversies (Hildesheim, 1993), 35-36.
[[6]] On Galba’s behavior in Spain, see Suet. Galba 9 and Murison, Careers and Controversies, 37-38. Galba’s eight-year term, although lengthy, was not unprecedented. The time spent by an imperial legate as a provincial governor was entirely at the discretion of the emperor.
[[7]] On Nero’s order for Galba’s death, see Suet. Galba 9.2.
[[8]] On Galba’s coinage, see C. H. V. Sutherland, Roman Imperial Coinage I.2, (London, 1984), 197-215, 216-257. On Galba as a strict constitutionalist in the Augustan mold, see Murison, Careers and Controversies, 31-44.
[[9]] To obtain the necessary financing Galba confiscated and sold all of Nero’s property in Spain (Plut. Galba 5.6) and received a large amount of gold and silver from Otho (Plut. Galba 20.3). He also seems to have demanded contributions from communities in Spain and Gaul. See Tac. Hist. 1.8.1 and 1.53.3.
[[10]] On the chronology of Galba’s journey from Spain to Rome, see Murison, Careers and Controversies, 27-30. On events at Rome, see K. Wellesley, The Long Year A.D. 69. 2nd ed. (Bristol, 1989), 15-30.
[[11]] For the most complete account of the Nymphidius affair, see Plut. Galba 2; 8-9; 13-15.
[[12]] Tac. Hist. 1.6.2; Plut. Galba 15; Dio 64.3.1-2. See also Murison, Careers and Controversies, 63-64.
[[13]] Piso Licinianus was the son of M. Licinius Crassus Frugi, consul in 27, and of Scribonia, a direct descendant of Pompey the Great. He was only about eight years old when his parents and eldest brother were executed as part of the senatorial opposition to the later Julio-Claudians. Tacitus records that he was diu exul (Hist. 1.48.1; cf. Hist. 1.21.1; 1.38.1), which would explain his lack of experience.
[[14]] Tac. Hist. 1.6.1; 1.49. R. Syme, “Partisans of Galba,” Historia 31 (1982): 460-483. See also K. Nawotka, “Imperial Virtues of Galba in the Histories of Tacitus.” Philologus 137 (1993): 258-264.

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