Bitka kod Termopila (kolovoz ili rujan 480. pr. Kr.) vođena je u sklopu Grčko-perzijskih ratova, odnosno druge perzijske ekspedicije predvođene velikim kraljem Kserksom, sinom Darija Velikog. Bitka se održala kraj prolaza Termopila (Vruća vrata), gotovo istovremeno kad i pomorska bitka kod Artemizija. Sukobljene strane bili su savez grčkih polisa predvođenih Spartom i Perzijsko Carstvo. Perzijska vojna ekspedicija bila je odgovor na atensko pomaganje jonskog ustanka, gusarenje nad perzijskim brodovima u Egejskom i Sredozemnom moru, grčko razaranje hrama u Sardu (perzijska satrapija), te kao ispravak neuspješne prve vojne ekspedicije koju je poveo veliki kralj Darije I. Veliki. Atenski general Temistoklo predložio je da se Perzijance pokuša zaustaviti istodobno kod prolaza Termopila na kopnu i kod tjesnaca Artemizija.

Grčki plan bio je neutralizirati perzijsku brojčanu nadmoć rabeći prirodne uske prolaze poput Termopila koji je od planine do morskih litica bio širok svega 14 m i u kojem se mogla boriti samo grupica od obje vojske. Unatoč hrabrom pokušaju suprostavljanja nadmoćnijoj vojsci, Perzijanci su porazili grčke snage te nastavili napredovati prema jugu gdje su u znak odmazde spalili polise Atenu i Eretriju. Kserkso i većina vojske se potom vratila u Perziju prvenstveno zbog pobuna u Babilonu, dok je u Grčkoj ostavljena manja vojska pod vodstvom generala Mardonija, koje su ujedinjeni Grci napali i porazili godinu dana poslije kod Plateje.

Unatoč porazu, bitka kod Termopila postala je sinonimom hrabrosti u djelima zapadnih povjesničara, gdje je često opisana kao primjer malobrojnih domoljuba koji se brane protiv brojčano nadmoćnijeg neprijatelja. Zanimljivo je kako se slična bitka odigrala stoljeće i pol nakon bitke kod Termopila, gdje je šačica vrsnih perzijskih vojnika kod Perzijskih vrata zadržala vojsku Aleksandra Makedonskog više od mjesec dana.

 Pozadina
Glavni članak: Grčko-perzijski ratovi

 Perzijsko Carstvo

Grčki gradovi-države (tzv. polisi) Atena i Eretrija financirali su neuspješni Jonski ustanak protiv Perzijskog Carstva u doba vladavine Darija I. Velikog (499. – 494. pr. Kr.). Perzijsko Carstvo bilo je još uvijek relativno mlado, te kao takvo sklono čestim pobunama diljem prostranog carstva. Darije Veliki imao je bogato iskustvo s pobunama protiv njegove vladavine, pa je kao odgovor na atensku potporu jonskom ustanku odlučio kazniti sve upletene, posebno one koji nisu bili dijelom njegovog carstva.Herodot, 5.105 Također, Darije je u tome vidio priliku i da proširi svoje carstvo na antičku Grčku.Holland, str. 171.-178. Godine 492. pr. Kr. poslao je generala Mardonija da pripremi teren za vojnu ekspediciju, pa je ovaj osvojio Trakiju i pridobio savezništvo Makedonije u korist Perzije.Herodot, 6.43.1

Godine 491. pr. Kr. Darije je poslao pregovarače u sve grčke polise, te je s većinom skopio sporazume o suradnji osim s Atenom i Spartom koji su odbili perzijsku ponudu i tako automatski objavili rat Perziji.

Nakon toga, Darije je 490. pr. Kr. poslao mornaricu pod zapovjedništvom Data i Artaferna koji su prvo napali otok Naksos na Cikladima i pokorili tamošnje stanovništvo. Perzijska vojska tada je nastavila kažnjeničku ekspediciju prema Eretriji, koju su opkolili i razorili.Herodot, 6.100.1 Konačno, nastavili su put prema Ateni i iskrcali su se blizu Maratonskog zaljeva gdje su se suprostavili atenskog vojsci. U bitci kod Maratona Atenjani su ostvarili značajnu pobjedu koja je rezultirala povlačenjem perzijske vojske.Herodot, 6.113

mini|lijevo|400px|Karta grčkog svijeta u doba bitke kod Termopila

Nakon što je perzijska ekspedicija protiv Atene doživjela neuspjeh, Darije je odlučio poslati veću vojsku da kazni Atenu, no 486. pr. Kr. počela je pobuna u perzijskoj satrapiji Egiptu, zbog čega je druga vojna ekspedicija protiv Grčke otkazana.Holland, str. 203. Prilikom priprema za smirivanje pobune u Egiptu Darije Veliki umire, a naslijeđuje ga njegov sin Kserkso.Holland, str. 206. Kserkso je ugušio pobunu u Egiptu, i ubrzo počeo pripremati novu kažnjeničku ekspediciju protiv Grčke.Holland, str. 211. Budući da je nova ekspedicija trebala biti veća od one koje je pokrenuo njegov pokojni otac Darije, perzijska vojska krenula je s planiranjem, skupljanjem zaliha i novačenjem regruta za novu vojnu operaciju.Holland, str. 208.

Kserkso je odlučio sagraditi pontonski most preko Helensponta (Dardanela) da olakša svojoj vojsci prijelaz na teritorij Europe, te iskopavanje kanala preko prevlake brda Atos koji je bio na glasu kao vrlo opasan zbog morskih struja, plićaka i oluja, gdje je perzijska flota 492. pr. Kr. doživjela velike gubitke.Holland, str. 213. Oba projekta predstavljala su ambiciozni inženjerski plan kojeg do tada nitko nije pokušao ostvariti. Početkom 480. pr. Kr. pripreme su bile gotove, pa se perzijska vojska okupila u lidijskom gradu Sardu nakon čega je počeo marš prema Europi. Vojska je kod Dardanela prešla na europsko kopno preko dva velika pontonska mosta koji su predstavljali vrhunsko inženjersko dostignuće tog vremena.Herodot, 7.35.1

 Grčka

Atenjani su se također pripremali za rat s Perzijancima od sredine 480-ih godina, te su 482. pr. Kr. prema savjetima atenskog političara Temistokla odlučili sagraditi golemu flotu trirema koje su bile neophodne za rat protiv Perzije.Holland, str. 217. Ipak, Atenjani nisu imali ljudstvo za rat protiv Perzije na kopnu i moru, pa su smatrali kako je neophodan savez između grčkih gradova-država. Godine 481. pr. Kr. Kserkso je poslao veleposlanike po cijelog Grčkoj nudeći savezništvo, no Atena i Sparta su odbili perzijske uvjete,Herodot, 7.32.1 što je pak nagnalo neke manje grčke polise da stanu na njihovu stranu. Na kongresu grčkih gradova-država u kasnu jesen 481. pr. Kr.Herodot, 7.145.1 stvoren je konfederacijski savez grčkih polisa. Taj korak predstavljao je prekretnicu u grčkom svijetu, jer je većina grčkih gradova-država do tada bila tehnički u međusobnom ratu.Holland, str. 226.

Kongres se ponovo sastao u proljeće 480. pr. Kr. gdje je tesalijska delegacija predložila kako se saveznici mogu okupiti kod doline Tempa na granicama Tesalije što je pogodno mjesto za zaustavljanje napredovanja Kserksove vojske.Holland, str. 248. Grčka vojska od 10.000 hoplita poslana je kod doline Tempa jer su na tom mjestu očekivali prolaz perzijske vojske. Ipak, kada su došli do doline čuli su od Aleksandra I. Makedonskog kako Perzijanci mogu proći u srce Grčke i preko prolaza Sarantoporo te kako su Perzijanci brojčano nadmoćniji, nakon čega su se Grci povukli.Herodot, 7.173.1 Nedugo poslije, dojavljeno im je kako jer Kserkso s vojskom prešao Dardanele.

Nakon povlačenja iz doline Tempa, drugu strategiju je predložio Temistoklo. Put koji vodi prema južnoj Grčkoj (Boetija, Atika i Peloponez) usmjerit će perzijsko napredovanje prema vrlo uskom prolazu Termopila, koji lako može biti blokiran od strane grčkih hoplita jer tu brojčana superiornost Perzijanaca ne može doći do izražaja. Također, osim kopnene blokade bila je moguća i pomorska blokada kod morskog tjesnaca u blizini rta Artemizija. Ova dvostruka kopneno-pomorska strategija prihvaćena je na grčkom kongresu.Holland, str. 255. Na kongresu je odlučeno i da će peloponeški gradovi evakuirati svoje civilno stanovništvo zbog mogućeg neuspjeha obrane, pa je većina Atenjana evakuirana u grad Trezenu.Herodot, 8.39.1

 Uvod
mini|400px|desno|Bitka kod Termopila i manevri prema Salamini, 480. pr. Kr.

Perzijska vojska je nesmetano napredovala kroz Trakiju i Makedoniju, a vijesti o neminovnom perzijskom dolasku u Grčku pročule su se kod saveznika u kolovozu.Holland, str. 256. U to doba su Spartanci, praktički vojni lideri saveza, slavili Karnejski festival. U vrijeme tog festivala, vojne djelatnosti bile su zabranjene spartanskim zakonom zbog čega su Spartanci deset godina ranije zakasnili na bitku kod Maratona.Herodot, 7.206.1 Također, istovremeno je bilo doba i Olimpijskih igrara za vrijeme kojih je također prema zakonu vladalo primirje, pa se ratovanje u doba istih smatralo osvrknućem.Holland, str. 258.-259. Međutim, prilikom ovog navrata efori su odlučili kako je opasnost prevelika pa su dozvolili kralju Leonidi da s osobnom gardom od 300 vojnika, te većim brojem pratećih trupa iz ostatka Lakonije (uključujući helote) krenu u rat.Holland, str. 258. Prilikom njihove ekspedicije cilj je bio okupiti što više savezničkih trupa, te pričekati dolazak ostatka spartanske vojske.

Prilikom puta ka Termopilu, spartanskoj vojsci su se priključili kontigenti iz raznih gradova pa su imali desetak tisuća ljudi prilikom dolaska do prolaza. Leonida je postavio svoj logor kod srednjih vrata, odnosno najužeg dijela Termopilskih vrata, gdje su Fokiđani ranije izgradili obrambeni zid.Herodot, 7.201.1 Od lokalnog je stanovništva Leonida čuo kako postoji i planinski prolaz koji može poslužiti za zaobilaženje Termopilskih vrata, pa je odlučio postaviti 1000 Fokiđana da onemoguće takav eventualni pokušaj.Holland, str. 262.

Konačno, sredinom kolovoza perzijska vojska došla je do Malijskog zaljeva (dio Korintskog zaljeva, odnosno Egejskog mora) te se počela približivati Termopilu.Holland, str. 269.-270. Uoči samog perzijskog dolaska u blizinu prolaza, grčki saveznici održali su vojni sastanak. Neki Peloponežani predložili su povlačenje do Korintske prevlake i blokadu prolaza na Peloponez. Fokiđani i Lokriđani, čiji su gradovi bili smješteni u blizini, srdito su ustrajavali na obrani Termopila i na traženju pomoći od susjeda. Leonida je smirio paničarenje te se složio da ostanu kod Termopila.Herodot, 7.207.1

Perzijski veliki kralj Kserkso poslao je pregovarače kod Leonide koji su ponudili Grcima slobodu odnosno status Prijatelja perzijskog naroda i bolju zemlju, no Leonida je odbacio perzijsku ponudu pa je bitka postala neizbježna. Kserkso je odlučio odgoditi napad na četiri dana čekajući svoje saveznike u zaostatku,Herodot, 7.211.1 te je ponudio Spartancima ultimatum za predaju.

 Suprotstavljene snage

 Perzijska vojska

mini|350px|desno|Perzijski vojnici s antičkih reljefa

Broj perzijskih trupa koje je Kserkso poveo u ekspediciju protiv Grčke je predmet tisućljetne rasprave, jer su antičke brojke pretjerano preuveličane. Herodot npr. navodi kako je u pohodu sudjelovalo 2,6 milijuna Perzijanaca s jednako toliko njihovih saveznika što čini nevjerojatan broj od 5,2 milijuna ljudi.Herodot, 7.186 Grčki pjesnik Simonid s Keja spominje brojku od četiri milijuna, dok Ktezije daje brojku od 80.000 perzijskih vojnika.

Moderni povjesničari skloni su potpunom odbacivanju tih antičkih brojki koje smatraju nerealnim jer su ih pisali pristrani grčki povjesničari.Holland, str. 237. Moderne procijene variraju od najviše 200-250 tisuća vojnika, do minimuma od svega 15-20 tisuća vojnika. Točan broj perzijskih trupa koje su sudjelovale u bitci otežava i nerazjašnjenost jesu li prema Termopilu krenuli svi perzijski vojnici, ili je dio ostao u vojnim kampovima u Makedoniji i Tesaliji.

Perzijsko Carstvo bilo je prvo federalno carstvo u povijesti i objedinjavalo je teritorije desetaka raznih naroda. Budući da su Perzijanci prema pokorenim narodima provodili politiku tolerancije, zaštite i ukidanja ropstva, velika većina naroda stala je uz Perziju tijekom ratova protiv grčkog saveza. Vojnici mnogih naroda dobrovoljno su sudjelovali u perzijskoj vojsci, što uključuje Perzijance, Medijce, Asirce, Feničane, Babilonce, Indijce, Egipćane, Židove, Arape, te Grke iz perzijskih satrapija odnosno savezničkih pokrajina. Kserksov otac Darije I. Veliki bio je vrlo obziran prema svojim grčkim građanima kojima je financirao gradnju velikih hramova, ukidao ropstvo u grčkim gradovima, te Apolonova „sveta područja“ oslobađao od poreza. To je stvorilo velike simpatije jonskih i makedonskih Grka prema Perziji pa su stali na njihovu stranu tijekom Grčko-perzijskih ratova jer time su osiguravali prosperitet i sigurnost, za razliku od savezništva s moćnijim grčkim polisima koji su ratovali međusobno i time konstantno slabili.

Okosnicu perzijske vojske činili su vrsni Perzijski besmrtnici i medijski kopljanici. Besmrtnici su bili vrsna pješadijska jedinica poznata diljem svijeta po svojoj hrabrosti i sposobnosti, koja je uvijek imala 10.000 vojnika. Članovi tih vrsnih jedinica trenirani su od rođenja, a njima su mogli postati samo Perzijanci i Medijci. Ime su dobili po tome što bi u slučaju pogibje, bolesti ili starosti određenog člana na njegovo mjesto došao novi vojnik. U mirnodopsko vrijeme služili su kao carska tjelesna zaštita. Bili su naoružani kratkim lukom, kopljem i mačem, te zaštićeni metalnim oklopom. Medijski kopljanici podjednako dobro su se koristili kopljem i štitom, te su među perzijskim pješaštvom imali iznimnu reputaciju, odmah nakon Besmrtnika. Štit geron bio im je napravljen od pletenog šiblja prevučenog kožom koji je pružao dobru zaštitu od napada strijelama, no nedovoljnu zaštitu od preciznih uboda teških mačeva.

 Grčka vojska

GrupaBroj - HerodotBroj - Diodor sa Sicilije+Spartanci300300Lakedemonjani/Perijeci1000?1.000(uključujući Spartance?)Spartanski heloti (robovi)900?-Mantinejci5003.000(ostali Peloponežani s Leonidom)Tegejci500 Arkadijski Orhomeni120Ostali Arkadijci1.000 Korintnjani400 Fliuntnjani200Mikenjani80Ukupno Peloponežana3.100 ili 4.0004.000 ili 4.300Tespijanci700-Malijanci-1.000Tebanci400 400 Fokiđani1.000 1.000 Opuntski Lokriđani"Sve što su imali"1.000Sveukupno5.200 (ili 6.100) bez opuntskih Lokra7.400 (ili 7.700)

Napomene:
 Broj Peloponežana
Diodor sa Sicilije navodi kako je bilo 1000 Lakedemonjana i 3000 drugih Peloponežana, što ukupno čini 4000 trupa. Herodot također navodi isti broj od 4000 Peloponežana.Herodot, 7.228.1 No, na nekim drugim mjestima Herodot spominje 3100 Peloponežana kod Termopila uoči bitke. Također, Herodot spominje i heloteHerodot, 8.25.1 no nije precizirao njihov točan broj. Razlike između dvaju podataka iz tablice mogu se objasniti vjerojatnim sudjelovanjem 900 helota (trojica uz svakog Spartanca) u bitci. Prema alternativnoj inačici, nedostatak od 900 trupa u Herodotovim spisima možda čine Perijeci koje se može poistovjetiti s Diodorovim navođenjem 1000 Lakedemonjana.
mini|300px|desno|Grčka vojna formacija falange

 Broj Lakedemonjana
Sljedeći je nerazjašnjen podatak Diodorova nerazjašnjenost je li u 1000 Lakedemonjana spadaju onih 300 Spartanaca. U svojim spisima prvo navodi: „Leonida je poveo sa sobom tisuću ljudi“, da bi dalje dodao „Stajalo je tamo tisuću Lakedemonjana, i s njima tri stotine Spartanaca“, što precizno razjašnjenje čini gotovo nemogućim.
Pauzanije se u svojim navodima slaže s Herodotom (kojeg je vjerojatno čitao), osim što on daje precizan broj Lokriđana koje Herodot nije naveo. Prema Pauzaniju, Lokriđani su poslali čitavu svoju vojsku koja je imala 6000 ljudi, što s ostatkom od 5200 ljudi čini sveukupno 11.200 trupa.Pauzanije: Opis Grčke, 10.20.1

 Strategija i taktika

Sa strateškog gledišta obrana Termopila predstavljala je najbolji mogući način obrane od superiornijeg neprijatelja. Grčki plan nije uključivao izravan oružani sukob protiv Perzije za koji su znali da ne mogu pobijediti, već zaustavljanje perzijskog napredovanja u Grčku pa se grčka doktrina zasnivala isključivo na obrani. Obrana prolaza kod Termopila i tjesnaca kod Artemizija odabrana je zbog zemljopisnih osobina jer u uskim kopnenim i morskim prolazima perzijska brojčana nadmoć ne može doći do izražaja. Budući da se perzijska ekspedicija služila paralelnim snagama na kopnu i moru, kopnena vojska ovisila je o zalihama koje je prenosila njihova mornarica pa nisu mogli dopustiti da se zadrže na jednom mjestu duže vrijeme.Holland, str. 285. Perzijanci su uoči bitke znali da se moraju ili povući ili dalje napredovati da zadrže koordinaciju trupa na kopnu i zaliha na moru, a prolaz kod Termopila kao zemljopisno usko grlo predstavljalo je mogući problem za njihovo napredovanje.

Taktički gledano, prolaz kod Termopila bio je idealno mjesto za grčki stil ratovanja. Vojna formacija falange koju su koristili hopliti mogla je blokirati uski prolaz bez opasnosti da ih s bokova napadne perzijska konjica. Također, prednosti falange u odnosu na perzijske formacije su da su grčki vojnici opremljeni teškom kacigom, oklopom i štitom, dok je većina perzijske vojske bila lako pješaštvo, izuzevši teško oklopljene Perzijske besmrtnike. Glavna slaba točka kod Grka bio je planinski prolaz koji je vodio paralelno s Termopilskim vratima i koji je mogao Perzijancima poslužiti da zaobiđu i okruže grčke snage. Iako je taj put bio vjerojatno neprohodan za perzijsku konjicu, mogao je poslužiti njihovom pješaštvu od kojeg je veći dio bio treniran u planinskim uvjetima borbe.Holland, str. 288. Leonida je čuo za taj put od lokalnog stanovništva, pa je stacionirao tisuću Fokiđana da ga blokiraju.

 Topografija terena
desno|mini|Karta s promijenama obale kod Termopila iz doba 500. pr. Kr. do danas

U doba bitke, prolaz kod Termopila nalazio se između planine i obale Malijskog zaljeva, bio je toliko uzak (14 m) da su istovremeno mogla proći samo jedna bojna kola. Na južnoj strani nalazile su se litice planine, dok se s južne strane nalazio morski zaljev. Na stazi su se nalazila tri suženja ili vrata (pylai); na srednjim vratima nalazio se zid koji su stoljeće ranije podigli Fokiđani da se zaštite od tesalijske invazije.Herodot, 7.176.1 Naziv Termopil što na grčkom jeziku znači Vruća vrata dolazi od vrućih izvora koji se nalaze u blizini prolaza.

U današnje doba isti se prolaz više ne nalazi uz obalu zaljeva već je od istog udaljen nekoliko kilometara, zbog sedimentacije Malijskog zaljeva. Stari put nalazi se neposredno uz litice, uz koje prolazi moderna cesta. Novija istraživanja govore kako je prolaz bio stotinjak metara širine i da je more dolazilo do vrata. Termopil i dan danas ima važan strateški položaj pa su se kod njega i u novije doba vodile značajne bitke, poput one u 2. svjetskom ratu kada su snage Commonwealtha neuspješno pokušale zaustaviti njemačku invaziju. Moderna bitka odigrala se svega nekoliko metara od one antičke.

 Bitka
mini|desno|300px|Leonida kod Termopila, naslikao Jacques Louis David (1814.)

Detalji bitke slabo su poznati jer se temelje uglavnom na Herodotovim legendama, koje se pak temelje na iskazima svega nekolicine Grka koji su preživjeli cijelu bitku. Gotovo pouzdano se zna kako je Kserkso dao Grcima ultimatum od 5 dana da se povuku. Nakon što su se Grci odbili povući poslao je vojnike u napad. Herodot tvrdi kako su Perzijanci više puta odbijeni uz velike gubitke i kako je bitka trajala tri dana. Kao dokaz tim navodima spominje da su grčki hopliti imali duža koplja, za razliku od Perzijanaca koji su bili naoružani kratkim kopljima i strijelama.

Prema jednoj od legenda, nakon kraja drugog dana borbi lokalni grčki pastir Efijalt je prebjegao Perzijancima i rekao im za drugi prolaz paralelan s Termopilom, koji je branilo 1000 Grka. Kada su Perzijanci napali taj dio prolaza, Grci su se nakon slabog otpora povukli poslije čega su Grci ostali zarobljeni na prolazu. Uoči opkoljavanja Leonida je zaključio kako daljnja obrana nije moguća pa je naredio povlačenje, međutim 700 Tespijanaca pod vodstvom Demofila odbilo se povući s ostatkom grčkih trupa, već su ostali zajedno s oko 300 Spartanaca, Leonidinih osobnih tjelohranitelja i oko 400 Tebanaca. Razlozi zbog kojih su ostali nisu poznati, navodi se kako su se ostali boriti zbog časne pogibje i slave, no također postoji scenarij prema kojem se nisu ni mogli povući jer su ih Perzijanci okružili. Na posljetku bitke Tebanci su se predali, dok su se Spartanci i Tespijanci suočili se vrsnom perzijskom jedinicom Besmrtnika protiv kojih su svi Grci izginuli.

 Posljedice

Nakon perzijskog odlaska, Grci su pokupili svoje mrtve vojnike i pokopali ih na obližnjem brežuljku. Poslije svršetka perzijske ekspedicije u Grčkoj, pokraj Termopila isklesan je kameni lav kao spomen za poginulog Leonidu.Herodot, 7.238.1 Punih četrdeset godina poslije bitke, Leonidine kosti iskopane su i vraćene u Spartu gdje su ga ponovo sahranili s punim počastima, dok su svake godine održavane pogrebne igre u njegovu čast.Pauzanije: „Opis Grčke“, 3.14.1

Zbog grčkog poraza kod Termopila, blokada kod rta Artemizija postala je irelavantna u strateškom smislu pa se grčka flota povukla u Saronski zaljev gdje je pomagala evakuaciji preostalih atenskih građana na otok Salaminu.Holland, str. 294.

Nakon prolaza kroz Termopil, perzijska vojska kaznila je sve gradove koji su sudjelovali na neprijateljskoj strani, te su nastavili napredovati prema gradovima AteniHerodot, 8.49.1 i Eretriji koje su u znak odmazde zbog gusarenja i pljačkanja Sarda sravnili sa zemljom.

Istodobno, grčki savez pripremao je obranu kod Korintske prevlake gdje su rušili svaku cestu koja je vodila prema njoj i na kojoj su gradili obrambeni zid.Herodot, 8.72.1 Također, služeći se identičnom taktikom onesposobljavanja perzijske koordinacije na kopnu i moru, Grci su pripremali djelotvornu pomorsku strategiju koja je trebala onemogućiti perzijskoj mornarici direktno iskrcavanje na Peloponez.Holland, str. 299. Atenski general Temistoklo predlagao je izravan sukob s perzijskom mornaricom u uskim zaljevima Peloponeza poput onog kod Salamine, gdje je mjesec dana nakon bitke kod Termopila grčka flota uspjela blokirati perzijsku flotu te osigurala Peloponez od opasnosti.Holland, str. 334.

Prilikom napredovanja perzijske kopnene vojske prema Peloponezu, Kserksu je javljeno kako se dogodila pobuna u jednom od najvažnijih perzijskih gradova Babilonu, pa se s većinom vojske vratio u Perziju, dok je u Grčkoj ostavio generala Mardonija i manji dio vojske sastavljen uglavnom od njihovih grčkih saveznika, koju je sljedeće godine kod Plateje porazila brojnija udružena grčka vojska. Grčko-perzijski rat završit će tek trideset godina poslije, odnosno 449. pr. Kr. kada je potpisan Kalijin mir.

 Značaj

Bitka kod Termopila vjerojatno je najpoznatija bitka u europskoj antičkoj povijesti, te se spominje u raznim oblicima kulture kroz cijelu antičku i modernu povijest. U zapadnoj kulturi događaj ima naglasak na Grcima odnosno na njihovom nastupu tijekom bitke.Holland, XVIII

Ipak, u kontekstu perzijske ekspedicije u Grčkoj, bitka kod Termopola nesumnjivo predstavlja poraz za grčke saveznike koji je imao katastrofalne posljedice.Lazenby, str. 151. Što god da su saveznici pokušali, svakako da im cilj nije bila predaja Boetije i Atike Perzijancima.Lazenby, str. 248. Mnogi moderni izvori govore kako je značaj bitke bio zadržavanje Perzijanaca kod Termopila dok su Grci okupljali flotu kod Salamine,Bitka kod Termopila - PosljediceOsvrt na film „300“ (Eugene N. Borza) ili pretpostavljaju kako su Perzijanci demoralizirani navodnim velikim gubitcima, što najvjerojatnije nije točno. Teorija kako je bitka kod Termopila održana na bi se pripremila grčka flota za Salaminu ignorira činjenicu kako se ista flota borila i pretrpjela poprilične gubitke u bitci kod Artemizija, koja je vođena istodobno kad i ona kod Termopila. Vremenski period između bitaka kod Termopila i Artemizija nije bio značajan ni u smislu blokiranja perzijskog napredovanja, ni za obnovu grčke flote. Očito jest da je grčka strategija bila potpuna blokada Perzijanaca kod Termopila i Artemizija te da je u potpunosti propala, što podrazumijeva da su pretrpjeli neosporiv poraz.

Bez obzira na ishod i konačne posljedice bitke, sama ideja o zaustavljanju nadmoćnijeg neprijatelja služeći se zemljopisnim čimbenicima i posebnom taktikom postala je inspiracija mnogim zapadnim piscima, umjetnicima i vojnim taktičarima, koji i dan danas stvaraju umjetnička djela na temu, ili pak na vojnim akademijama proučavaju situaciju u kojoj se mala skupina dobro treniranih i vođenih vojnika može braniti protiv višestruko jačeg protivnika.

 Spomenici

Na mjestu bitke i po čitavoj Grčkoj podignuti su brojni spomenici koji veličaju spartanskog kralja Leonidu i njegove borce. Najpoznatiji je svakako spomenik sa Simonidinim epigramom koji kaže:

Pođi, neznanče, Sparti pripovjedi:
Pali smo slušajuć što nam zapovjedi.

 Legende
mini|Herodot, grčki povjesničar i izvor većine informacija iz doba grčko-perzijskih ratova

Uz bitku se vežu mnoge grčke legende koje najčešće ismijavaju Perzijance, a veličaju hrabrost i slavu grčkih vojnika. Jedna legenda kaže kako je Kserkso, bijesan nakon što mu je oluja navodno oštetila most preko Dardanela, naredio šibanje mora da ga se kazni. Druga legenda tvrdi kako je perzijska izvidnica javila Kserksu kako su Spartanci uoči bitke češljali kosu na što se veliki kralj smijao, no da ga je spartanski prebjeg Demarat upozorio kako je to spartanski običaj uoči bitke za koji znaju da se iz nje neće vratiti živi. Postoji i legenda kako su dvojica spartanskih hoplita zbog oftalmije privremeno oslijepili no da je jedan od njih ipak zatražio od roba da ga pošalje u bitku gdje su ga izbole perzijske strijele, dok su drugog robovi vratili u Spartu gdje je tretiran kao kukavica i dezerter. Ostale legende pričaju kako su se Perzijanci smrtno bojali i nenaoružanih Spartanaca, koji su nakon što bi ostali bez oružja skakali i borili se zubima i noktima, te mnoge druge slične priče koji glorificiraju Grke.

 Lakonski izrazi

Lakonski izrazi opisuje jezgrovit i kratki načina govora specifičan za Spartu i Lakoniju, područje na Peloponezu u drevnoj Grčkoj gdje su živjeli Spartanci. Najpoznatiji lakonski izraz vezan uz bitku je onaj kada je Leonida kao odgovor na perzijski poziv na predaju oružja odgovorio „Molon labe!“, odnosno „Dođi i uzmi ga!“.Plutarh, Apophthegmata Laconica Herodot spominje i kako je spartanski vojnik Dienek na navode kako će perzijske strijele zasjeniti sunce odgovorio „Mnogo bolje, jer borit ćemo se u hladu“.Herodot, 7.226.1 Sličaj primjer spominje i Plutarh koji navodi kako je Leonida na pitanje njegove supruge što će napraviti ako se ne on vrati, odgovorio: „Udaj se za dobra čovjeka i rodi dobru djecu“.Plutarh: Moralija, str. 240.

 Kontradikcije

Budući da se scenarij bitke kod Termopila uglavnom temelji na grčkim izvorima (uglavnom Herodotu) koji su pristrani, moderni povjesničari slažu se kako u antičkim izvorima postoji mnogo kontradikcija, preuveličavanja i nejasnoća koje su plod želje grčkih povjesničara da ublaže gorčinu poraza i stvore što slavniju sliku o svojim predcima.

 Broj vojnika

Herodot u svojim djelima navodi kako je u pohodu na Grčku sudjelovalo čak 5,2 milijuna Perzijanaca i njihovih saveznika, dok su moderni povjesničari reducirali tu brojku na realnijih stotinjak tisuća ljudi. Prema nekim povjesničarima poput Hansa Delbruecka u perzijskom pohodu sudjelovalo je svega 15-20 tisuća vojnika, odnosno 350 puta manje od Herodotovih brojki.

 Broj žrtava

Grčki izvori spominju kako je kod Termopila poginulo 20.000 Perzijanaca što se danas također čini nerealnim, s obzirom na to da se toliki broj ljudi ni teoretski nije mogao boriti u prolazu širine 14 metara, čak ni u razdoblju od tri dana. Također, Herodot spominje kako su zadnje grčke vojnike Perzijanci pobili strijelama iz daljine što isto tako ne ide u prilog priči o golemim perzijskim žrtvama.

 Sukob civilizacija

Iako su mnogi zapadni povjesničari pokušali opisati bitku kao sukob istočne i zapadne civilizacije, mnoge povijesne činjenice tome ne idu u prilog. Naime, ni Atenjani, Spartanci ili ostali Grci nisu osjećali nacionalnu svijest već su stoljećima ratovali za prevlast i dominaciju nad grčkim teritorijem, o čemu svjedoče i međusobni grčki ratovi prije i poslije perzijske ekspedicije. Također, veliki broj grčkih pokrajina dobrovoljno je sudjelovao na strani Perzije, što uključuje Tesaliju, Tebu, Boetiju i Makedoniju. Kasnije je u doba Peloponeskog rata čak i Sparta postala saveznikom Perzije protiv Atene, koja je također postala perzijskim saveznikom protiv Sparte, ovaj put u Korintskom ratu.

 Tiranija i sloboda

U Grčkoj i zapadnom svijetu bitka se često pokušava interpretirati kao sukob grčke demokracije i perzijske tiranije, odnosno grčke vojnike kao slobodnjake a perzijske kao robove, što prema povijesnim dokazima također nema činjeničnih uporišta. Perzija nikada nije bila robovlasnička država, i ropstvo je bilo zabranjeno u svih tridesetak perzijskih pokrajina ili satrapija. Unutrašnja pitanja na nivou carstva rješavana su demokratskim putem, a sve federalne jedinice (satrapije) same su rješavale vlastita unutrašnja politička pitanja, što podrazumijeva da su perzijske pokrajine imale status potpunih autonomija. Osnivač dinastije Ahemenida, odnosno Perzijskog carstva - Kir Veliki, bio je prvi državnik u povijesti koji je jamčio jednakost, ravnopravnost i ljudska prava za sve stanovnike njegovog carstva. Njegov dokument, famozni Kirov cilindar, bio je prvi pisani dokument o ljudskim pravima. Istodobno, ropstvo je bilo prakticirano u svim grčkim gradovima-državama, čak i u tzv. „demokracijama“ poput Atene u kojoj su robovi činili većinu stanovništva, te u kojoj je svega 8000 od 400.000 građana imalo politička prava.Istodobno, ropstvo je prakticirano u svim grčkim gradovima-državama, čak i u tzv. „demokracijama“ poput Atene. Perzijska vojska sastojala se isključivo od profesionalaca i dragovoljaca, dok su na grčkoj strani ratovali stotine robova, tzv. helota. Zbog tih razloga većina grčkih sjevernih polisa priključila se Perziji u ratu protiv Atene i Sparte.Dr. Kaveh Farrokh: The 300 Movie: Separating Fact from Fiction

Popularna kultura
desno|mini|Filmski poster za film „300 Spartanaca“ iz 1962.

Bitka kod Termopila postala je ikona zapadne povijesti još od antičkog doba. Inspirirala je nebrojene pjesme i citate, knjige, filmove, serije i videoigre, a važan čimbenik je i usmena predaja. Među umjetničkim radovima najpoznatiji su film „300 Spartanaca“ iz 1962., te Frank Millerov „300“ iz 2007. koji je postao vrlo kontroverzan zbog vrijeđanja perzijske kulture i prikazivanja Perzijanaca kao deformiranih krvožednih barbara, zbog čega su prosvjedovali Iranci diljem svijeta; Iranska akademija umjetnosti prosvjedovala je UNESCO-u,Iranian Academy of Arts to submit UNESCO declaration against "300" (Payvand) a oglasio se i sam iranski predsjednik Mahmud Ahmadinežad koji je film nazvao psihološkom pripremom američke javnosti na rat protiv Irana.Iran president irked by "300" (Variety.com)

Poslije bitke spartanska kultura postala je inspiracija i predmetom obožavanja i oponašanja diljem zapadnog svijeta, što je fenomen poznat kao lakonofilija.

 Povezani članci

 Grčko-perzijski ratovi
 Leonida I.
 Sparta
 Lakonski izrazi
 Kserkso I.
 Perzijsko Carstvo
 Bitka kod Perzijskih vrata

Izvori

Literatura

. Web stranica:

Vanjske poveznice

 Dr. Kaveh Farrokh: Osvrt na film „300“
 EDSITEment Obrazovni plan: 300 Spartanaca u bitci kod Termopila: Herodotova prava priča (iz Nacionalne zaklade za humanističke znanosti)

Pet velikih bitaka antike od Davida L. Smitha, Symposion Lectures , 30. lipanj 2006.
 Moderni spomenik na siu.edu
 Spartanski pogrebni brežuljak na coloradocollege.edu
Bitka kod Termopila Lycurgus.org

Termopil
Termopil
Termopil

by Kr.)

The Persian Empire was still relatively young, and as such tended to frequent rebellions throughout the spacious Empire.

Question: how old was the persian empire when it came into being

mlado , te kao takvo sklono čestim pobunama diljem prostranog

by Kr.)

The Persian Empire was still relatively young, and as such tended to frequent rebellions throughout the spacious Empire.

how old was the persian empire when it came into being

Question: what did the persian empire often have

by Kr.)

Question: what happened to persian empire during the middle ages

by Kr.)

what happened to persian empire during the middle ages

Question: how old was persia when it was in its infancy

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how old was persia when it was in its infancy

Question: which empire was known as 'bitka kod termopila'

Carstvo bilo je još uvijek relativno mlado , te kao takvo sklono čestim pobunama diljem prostranog

by Kr.)

which empire was known as 'bitka kod termopila'

Question: how young was persian empire when it came into being

uvijek relativno mlado , te kao takvo sklono čestim pobunama diljem prostranog

by Kr.)

how young was persian empire when it came into being

Question: what was the effect of the persian empire on persian society

sklono čestim pobunama diljem prostranog

by Kr.)

what was the effect of the persian empire on persian society

Question: which empire had the most rebellions in its history

"Perzijsko Carstvo bilo je još uvijek relativno mlado , te kao takvo sklono čestim pobunama diljem prostranog

by Kr.)

which empire had the most rebellions in its history

The Persian Empire was still relatively young , and as such tended to frequent rebellions throughout the spacious Empire .

Kr.). Perzijsko Carstvo bilo je još uvijek relativno mlado, te kao takvo sklono čestim pobunama diljem prostranog carstva.

Perzijsko Carstvo bilo je još uvijek relativno mlado, te kao takvo sklono čestim pobunama diljem prostranog carstva.

by Kr.) The Persian Empire was still relatively young, and as such tended to frequent rebellions throughout the spacious Empire.

The Persian Empire was still relatively young, and as such tended to frequent rebellions throughout the spacious Empire.

He sent the general Mardoni to prepare the ground for the military expedition, so this conquered Trakya and gained the alliance of Macedonia for the benefit of Persia.Herodot, 6.43.1

Question: which city was conquered by the general mardoni

He sent the general Mardoni to prepare the ground for the military expedition, so this conquered Trakya and gained the alliance of Macedonia for the benefit of Persia.Herodot, 6.43.1

which city was conquered by the general mardoni

Question: who benefited from the alliance of macedonia with bitka kod termopila

who benefited from the alliance of macedonia with bitka kod termopila

Question: who was sent to prepare the ground for the military expedition

who was sent to prepare the ground for the military expedition

Question: who was the general that conquered trakya

who was the general that conquered trakya

Question: who wrote the book bitka kod termopila

Question: who did bitka kod termopila gain an alliance with

who did bitka kod termopila gain an alliance with

Question: what is the significance of bitka kod termopila

osvojio Trakiju i pridobio savezništvo Makedonije

what is the significance of bitka kod termopila

Question: according to Herodot, what was the rank of the general who conquered trakya

according to Herodot, what was the rank of the general who conquered trakya

He sent the general Mardoni to prepare the ground for the military expedition , so this conquered Trakya and gained the alliance of Macedonia for the benefit of Persia . Herodot , 6.43.1

Kr . poslao je generala Mardonija da pripremi teren za vojnu ekspediciju, pa je ovaj osvojio Trakiju i pridobio savezništvo Makedonije u korist Perzije.Herodot, 6.43.1

Kr . poslao je generala Mardonija da pripremi teren za vojnu ekspediciju, pa je ovaj osvojio Trakiju i pridobio savezništvo Makedonije u korist Perzije.Herodot, 6.43.1

He sent the general Mardoni to prepare the ground for the military expedition, so this conquered Trakya and gained the alliance of Macedonia for the benefit of Persia.Herodot, 6.43.1

He sent the general Mardoni to prepare the ground for the military expedition, so this conquered Trakya and gained the alliance of Macedonia for the benefit of Persia.Herodot, 6.43.1

Kr. sent a marine under the command of Data and Artaferna who first attacked the island of Naksos on the Cyclades and humiliated the population there.

Question: what is the name of the island on the cyclades

Kr. sent a marine under the command of Data and Artaferna who first attacked the island of Naksos on the Cyclades and humiliated the population there.

what is the name of the island on the cyclades

Question: where is the island of naksos located

Question: on which island is the island of naksos

Question: who led the attack on naksos

Question: who did kr send to the island of naksos

Question: who did kr send to attack naksos

Question: what is the name of the island in the cyclades

what is the name of the island in the cyclades

Question: who was sent to the island of naksos

Kr . sent a marine under the command of Data and Artaferna who first attacked the island of Naksos on the Cyclades and humiliated the population there .

Kr . poslao mornaricu pod zapovjedništvom Data i Artaferna koji su prvo napali otok Naksos na Cikladima i pokorili tamošnje stanovništvo.

Kr . poslao mornaricu pod zapovjedništvom Data i Artaferna koji su prvo napali otok Naksos na Cikladima i pokorili tamošnje stanovništvo.

Kr. sent a marine under the command of Data and Artaferna who first attacked the island of Naksos on the Cyclades and humiliated the population there.

Kr. sent a marine under the command of Data and Artaferna who first attacked the island of Naksos on the Cyclades and humiliated the population there.

The Persian army then continued the punishment expedition toward Eretria, which they conquered and destroyed.Herodot, 6.100.1 Finally, they continued their way to Athens and escaped near the Marathon Bay where the Athens armies confronted.

In the battle at the Marathon the Athens achieved a significant victory resulting in the withdrawal of the Persian army.Herodot, 6.113

Question: where did the persian go after the battle at marathon

The Persian army then continued the punishment expedition toward Eretria, which they conquered and destroyed.Herodot, 6.100.1 Finally, they continued their way to Athens and escaped near the Marathon Bay where the Athens armies confronted.

In the battle at the Marathon the Athens achieved a significant victory resulting in the withdrawal of the Persian army.Herodot, 6.113

where did the persian go after the battle at marathon

Question: where did the athens and athens armies meet

where did the athens and athens armies meet

Question: who won the battle of the marathon in the old testament

who won the battle of the marathon in the old testament

Question: which city was the site of the battle of marathon

which city was the site of the battle of marathon

Question: where did the persian army escape to athens

where did the persian army escape to athens

Question: in which battle did the athens defeat the persian army

in which battle did the athens defeat the persian army

Question: who wrote the book bitka kod Termopila

The Persian army then continued the punishment expedition toward Eretria , which they conquered and destroyed . Herodot , 6.100.1 Finally , they continued their way to Athens and escaped near the Marathon Bay where the Athens armies confronted .

In the battle at the Marathon the Athens achieved a significant victory resulting in the withdrawal of the Persian army . Herodot , 6.113

Perzijska vojska tada je nastavila kažnjeničku ekspediciju prema Eretriji, koju su opkolili i razorili.Herodot, 6.100.1 Konačno, nastavili su put prema Ateni i iskrcali su se blizu Maratonskog zaljeva gdje su se suprostavili atenskog vojsci.

U bitci kod Maratona Atenjani su ostvarili značajnu pobjedu koja je rezultirala povlačenjem perzijske vojske.Herodot, 6.113

The Persian army then continued the punishment expedition toward Eretria, which they conquered and destroyed.Herodot, 6.100.1 Finally, they continued their way to Athens and escaped near the Marathon Bay where the Athens armies confronted. In the battle at the Marathon the Athens achieved a significant victory resulting in the withdrawal of the Persian army.Herodot, 6.113

The Persian army then continued the punishment expedition toward Eretria, which they conquered and destroyed.Herodot, 6.100.1 Finally, they continued their way to Athens and escaped near the Marathon Bay where the Athens armies confronted.

In the battle at the Marathon the Athens achieved a significant victory resulting in the withdrawal of the Persian army.Herodot, 6.113

The .

Preparations were finished, so the Persian army gathered in the Lydia city of Sarda after which the march towards Europe began.

The army at Dardanel passed to the European soil through two large ponton bridges that represented the highest engineering achievement of that time.Herodot, 7.35.1

Question: in which city did the persian army build the dardanel bridge

The .

Preparations were finished, so the Persian army gathered in the Lydia city of Sarda after which the march towards Europe began.

The army at Dardanel passed to the European soil through two large ponton bridges that represented the highest engineering achievement of that time.Herodot, 7.35.1

in which city did the persian army build the dardanel bridge

Question: what type of bridges did the persian army use to pass through europe

pontonska mosta koji su predstavljali vrhunsko inženjersko dostignuće tog vremena . Herodot , 7.35.1

The .

what type of bridges did the persian army use to pass through europe

Question: how did the persian army pass to europe

dva velika pontonska mosta koji su predstavljali vrhunsko inženjersko dostignuće tog vremena . Herodot , 7.35.1

The .

Question: where did the persian army march to after dardanel

The .

where did the persian army march to after dardanel

Question: where did the persian army pass through to europe

The .

where did the persian army pass through to europe

Question: in which city did the persian army build the ponton bridge at dardan

The .

in which city did the persian army build the ponton bridge at dardan

Question: what is the purpose of bitka kod termopila

The .

what is the purpose of bitka kod termopila

Preparations were finished , so the Persian army gathered in the Lydia city of Sarda after which the march towards Europe began .

The army at Dardanel passed to the European soil through two large ponton bridges that represented the highest engineering achievement of that time . Herodot , 7.35.1

pripreme su bile gotove, pa se perzijska vojska okupila u lidijskom gradu Sardu nakon čega je počeo marš prema Europi.

Vojska je kod Dardanela prešla na europsko kopno preko dva velika pontonska mosta koji su predstavljali vrhunsko inženjersko dostignuće tog vremena.Herodot, 7.35.1

The . Preparations were finished, so the Persian army gathered in the Lydia city of Sarda after which the march towards Europe began. The army at Dardanel passed to the European soil through two large ponton bridges that represented the highest engineering achievement of that time.Herodot, 7.35.1

Preparations were finished, so the Persian army gathered in the Lydia city of Sarda after which the march towards Europe began.

The army at Dardanel passed to the European soil through two large ponton bridges that represented the highest engineering achievement of that time.Herodot, 7.35.1

The .

According to the advice of the Athenian politician Temistokl decided to build a large fleet of triumphs that were necessary for the war against Persia.

However, the Athens had no people for war against Persia on the soil and the sea, so they considered a necessary alliance between the Greek cities-state.

Question: who built the fleet of triumphs necessary for the war against persia

The .

According to the advice of the Athenian politician Temistokl decided to build a large fleet of triumphs that were necessary for the war against Persia.

However, the Athens had no people for war against Persia on the soil and the sea, so they considered a necessary alliance between the Greek cities-state.

who built the fleet of triumphs necessary for the war against persia

Question: who did the athensians fight in the first half of the 4th century bc

The .

who did the athensians fight in the first half of the 4th century bc

Question: where did the athensians fight against persia

The .

where did the athensians fight against persia

Question: athens had no people for war against whom

moru , pa su smatrali kako je neophodan savez između grčkih gradova

The .

athens had no people for war against whom

Question: who did the athensians fight in the war of 1812

The .

who did the athensians fight in the war of 1812

Question: the fleet of triumphs that were necessary for the war against persia was built by

The .

the fleet of triumphs that were necessary for the war against persia was built by

Question: which greek city was the capital of the greek republic of athen

The .

which greek city was the capital of the greek republic of athen

Question: what did temistokl build to aid in the war against persia

The .

what did temistokl build to aid in the war against persia

According to the advice of the Athenian politician Temistokl decided to build a large fleet of triumphs that were necessary for the war against Persia .

However , the Athens had no people for war against Persia on the soil and the sea , so they considered a necessary alliance between the Greek cities - state .

prema savjetima atenskog političara Temistokla odlučili sagraditi golemu flotu trirema koje su bile neophodne za rat protiv Perzije.Holland, str. 217.

Ipak, Atenjani nisu imali ljudstvo za rat protiv Perzije na kopnu i moru, pa su smatrali kako je neophodan savez između grčkih gradova-država.

The . According to the advice of the Athenian politician Temistokl decided to build a large fleet of triumphs that were necessary for the war against Persia. However, the Athens had no people for war against Persia on the soil and the sea, so they considered a necessary alliance between the Greek cities-state.

According to the advice of the Athenian politician Temistokl decided to build a large fleet of triumphs that were necessary for the war against Persia.

However, the Athens had no people for war against Persia on the soil and the sea, so they considered a necessary alliance between the Greek cities-state.

Kserkso sent ambassadors throughout Greece offering alliance, but Athens and Sparta rejected the Persian conditions, Herodot, 7.32.1 which then tended some smaller Greek police to stand on their side.

Congress of the Greek Cities in the late autumn of 481 BC.

Question: when was the congress of the greek cities held

Kserkso sent ambassadors throughout Greece offering alliance, but Athens and Sparta rejected the Persian conditions, Herodot, 7.32.1 which then tended some smaller Greek police to stand on their side.

Congress of the Greek Cities in the late autumn of 481 BC.

when was the congress of the greek cities held

Question: who was the leader of the greek cities in 481 bc

who was the leader of the greek cities in 481 bc

Question: who organized the congress of the greek cities in 481 bc

who organized the congress of the greek cities in 481 bc

Question: which two greek cities rejected the persian alliance

which two greek cities rejected the persian alliance

Question: according to herodot, in which year did greece and sparta reject

according to herodot, in which year did greece and sparta reject

Question: in which language did the greek cities of athens and sparta reject the alliance

in which language did the greek cities of athens and sparta reject the alliance

Question: what was the name of the meeting held in 481 bc

what was the name of the meeting held in 481 bc

Question: which greek city rejected the persian offer of alliance with athens

which greek city rejected the persian offer of alliance with athens

Kserkso sent ambassadors throughout Greece offering alliance , but Athens and Sparta rejected the Persian conditions , Herodot , 7.32.1 which then tended some smaller Greek police to stand on their side .

Congress of the Greek Cities in the late autumn of 481 BC .

Kserkso je poslao veleposlanike po cijelog Grčkoj nudeći savezništvo, no Atena i Sparta su odbili perzijske uvjete,Herodot, 7.32.1 što je pak nagnalo neke manje grčke polise da stanu na njihovu stranu. Na kongresu grčkih gradova-država u kasnu jesen 481. pr.

Kserkso je poslao veleposlanike po cijelog Grčkoj nudeći savezništvo, no Atena i Sparta su odbili perzijske uvjete,Herodot, 7.32.1 što je pak nagnalo neke manje grčke polise da stanu na njihovu stranu.

Na kongresu grčkih gradova-država u kasnu jesen 481. pr.

Kserkso sent ambassadors throughout Greece offering alliance, but Athens and Sparta rejected the Persian conditions, Herodot, 7.32.1 which then tended some smaller Greek police to stand on their side. Congress of the Greek Cities in the late autumn of 481 BC.

Kserkso sent ambassadors throughout Greece offering alliance, but Athens and Sparta rejected the Persian conditions, Herodot, 7.32.1 which then tended some smaller Greek police to stand on their side.

Congress of the Greek Cities in the late autumn of 481 BC.

The .

where the Thessaly delegation proposed that the allies may gather at the Tempus Valley at the borders of Thessaly, which is a suitable place to stop the progress of the Kserks Army.Holland, p.

A Greek army of 10,000 hoplites was sent to the Tempus Valley because they expected the passage of the Persian army.

Question: how many hoplites were sent to the tempus valley

The .

where the Thessaly delegation proposed that the allies may gather at the Tempus Valley at the borders of Thessaly, which is a suitable place to stop the progress of the Kserks Army.Holland, p.

A Greek army of 10,000 hoplites was sent to the Tempus Valley because they expected the passage of the Persian army.

how many hoplites were sent to the tempus valley

Question: who sent the greek army to the tempus valley

The .

who sent the greek army to the tempus valley

Question: where was the greek army sent to stop the persian advance

The .

where was the greek army sent to stop the persian advance

Question: why was the greek army sent to the tempus valley

they expected the passage of the Persian army

su na tom mjestu očekivali prolaz perzijske vojske

The .

they expected the passage of the Persian army

why was the greek army sent to the tempus valley

Question: what type of soldiers were sent to the tempus valley

The .

what type of soldiers were sent to the tempus valley

Question: the tempus valley was a suitable place to stop the advance of which army

The .

the tempus valley was a suitable place to stop the advance of which army

where the Thessaly delegation proposed that the allies may gather at the Tempus Valley at the borders of Thessaly , which is a suitable place to stop the progress of the Kserks Army . Holland , p.

A Greek army of 10,000 hoplites was sent to the Tempus Valley because they expected the passage of the Persian army .

gdje je tesalijska delegacija predložila kako se saveznici mogu okupiti kod doline Tempa na granicama Tesalije što je pogodno mjesto za zaustavljanje napredovanja Kserksove vojske.Holland, str. 248.

Grčka vojska od 10.000 hoplita poslana je kod doline Tempa jer su na tom mjestu očekivali prolaz perzijske vojske.

The . where the Thessaly delegation proposed that the allies may gather at the Tempus Valley at the borders of Thessaly, which is a suitable place to stop the progress of the Kserks Army.Holland, p. A Greek army of 10,000 hoplites was sent to the Tempus Valley because they expected the passage of the Persian army.

where the Thessaly delegation proposed that the allies may gather at the Tempus Valley at the borders of Thessaly, which is a suitable place to stop the progress of the Kserks Army.Holland, p.

A Greek army of 10,000 hoplites was sent to the Tempus Valley because they expected the passage of the Persian army.

This dual land-marine strategy was adopted at the Greek Congress.Holland, p.

The congress also decided that the Peloponian cities will evacuate their civilian population due to a possible failure in defense, so the majority of the Athenians were evacuated to the city of Trezen.

Question: where were the athenians evacuated to after the greek congress

This dual land-marine strategy was adopted at the Greek Congress.Holland, p.

The congress also decided that the Peloponian cities will evacuate their civilian population due to a possible failure in defense, so the majority of the Athenians were evacuated to the city of Trezen.

where were the athenians evacuated to after the greek congress

Question: why did the greek congress decide to evacuate the peloponian population

why did the greek congress decide to evacuate the peloponian population

Question: what type of strategy was adopted at the greek congress

what type of strategy was adopted at the greek congress

Question: when was the dual land-marine strategy adopted

when was the dual land-marine strategy adopted

Question: where did the idea of dual land and sea defense originate

where did the idea of dual land and sea defense originate

Question: who did the peloponian cities evacuate due to failure in defense

who did the peloponian cities evacuate due to failure in defense

Question: which strategy was adopted at the greek congress

which strategy was adopted at the greek congress

This dual land - marine strategy was adopted at the Greek Congress . Holland , p.

The congress also decided that the Peloponian cities will evacuate their civilian population due to a possible failure in defense , so the majority of the Athenians were evacuated to the city of Trezen .

Ova dvostruka kopneno-pomorska strategija prihvaćena je na grčkom kongresu.Holland, str. 255.

Na kongresu je odlučeno i da će peloponeški gradovi evakuirati svoje civilno stanovništvo zbog mogućeg neuspjeha obrane, pa je većina Atenjana evakuirana u grad Trezenu.Herodot, 8.39.1

This dual land-marine strategy was adopted at the Greek Congress.Holland, p. The congress also decided that the Peloponian cities will evacuate their civilian population due to a possible failure in defense, so the majority of the Athenians were evacuated to the city of Trezen.

This dual land-marine strategy was adopted at the Greek Congress.Holland, p.

The congress also decided that the Peloponian cities will evacuate their civilian population due to a possible failure in defense, so the majority of the Athenians were evacuated to the city of Trezen.

The Persian army continued to progress through Trakya and Macedonia, and the news of the unminable Persian arrival in Greece came to the allies in August.Holland, p.

At that time, the Spartans, practically the military leaders of the Alliance, celebrated the Carnegie Festival.

Question: who celebrated the carnegie festival in greece

The Persian army continued to progress through Trakya and Macedonia, and the news of the unminable Persian arrival in Greece came to the allies in August.Holland, p.

At that time, the Spartans, practically the military leaders of the Alliance, celebrated the Carnegie Festival.

who celebrated the carnegie festival in greece

Question: in which month did the persian army arrive in greece

in which month did the persian army arrive in greece

Question: where did the persian army advance through in greece

where did the persian army advance through in greece

Question: what is the name of the festival that the spartans celebrated in greece

what is the name of the festival that the spartans celebrated in greece

Question: what festival did the spartans celebrate in greece

what festival did the spartans celebrate in greece

Question: who advanced through trakya and macedonia to reach greece

vojska je nesmetano napredovala kroz Trakiju i Makedoniju , a vijesti o neminovnom

who advanced through trakya and macedonia to reach greece

The Persian army continued to progress through Trakya and Macedonia , and the news of the unminable Persian arrival in Greece came to the allies in August . Holland , p.

At that time , the Spartans , practically the military leaders of the Alliance , celebrated the Carnegie Festival .

Perzijska vojska je nesmetano napredovala kroz Trakiju i Makedoniju, a vijesti o neminovnom perzijskom dolasku u Grčku pročule su se kod saveznika u kolovozu.Holland, str. 256.

U to doba su Spartanci, praktički vojni lideri saveza, slavili Karnejski festival.

The Persian army continued to progress through Trakya and Macedonia, and the news of the unminable Persian arrival in Greece came to the allies in August.Holland, p. At that time, the Spartans, practically the military leaders of the Alliance, celebrated the Carnegie Festival.

The Persian army continued to progress through Trakya and Macedonia, and the news of the unminable Persian arrival in Greece came to the allies in August.Holland, p.

At that time, the Spartans, practically the military leaders of the Alliance, celebrated the Carnegie Festival.

During the journey to Thermopil, the Spartan army was joined by contingents from various cities and there were tens of thousands of people at the arrival to the passage.

Question: where did the spartans go to get to the mediterranean

During the journey to Thermopil, the Spartan army was joined by contingents from various cities and there were tens of thousands of people at the arrival to the passage.

where did the spartans go to get to the mediterranean

Question: how many people were in the spartan army at thermopil

how many people were in the spartan army at thermopil

Question: who joined the spartan army at thermopil

who joined the spartan army at thermopil

Question: where did the spartans go to get to thermopil

where did the spartans go to get to thermopil

Question: who was involved in the battle of bitka kod termopila

vojsci su se priključili kontigenti iz raznih gradova pa su imali desetak tisuća ljudi prilikom dolaska do prolaza

who was involved in the battle of bitka kod termopila

Question: when did the spartan army arrive in texas

when did the spartan army arrive in texas

Question: what was the name of the Spartan army that fought at thermopil

what was the name of the Spartan army that fought at thermopil

Question: how many people were in the spartan army at the arrival to thermopil

desetak tisuća ljudi prilikom dolaska do prolaza

how many people were in the spartan army at the arrival to thermopil

During the journey to Thermopil , the Spartan army was joined by contingents from various cities and there were tens of thousands of people at the arrival to the passage .

Prilikom puta ka Termopilu, spartanskoj vojsci su se priključili kontigenti iz raznih gradova pa su imali desetak tisuća ljudi prilikom dolaska do prolaza.

Prilikom puta ka Termopilu, spartanskoj vojsci su se priključili kontigenti iz raznih gradova pa su imali desetak tisuća ljudi prilikom dolaska do prolaza.

During the journey to Thermopil, the Spartan army was joined by contingents from various cities and there were tens of thousands of people at the arrival to the passage.

During the journey to Thermopil, the Spartan army was joined by contingents from various cities and there were tens of thousands of people at the arrival to the passage.

Some Peloponegans proposed a withdrawal to the Corinthians and a blocking of the passage to Peloponez.

Fokidans and Lokridans, whose cities were located in the vicinity, strongly struggled to defend Thermopil and to seek help from their neighbors.

Question: which two groups of people struggled to defend thermopil

Some Peloponegans proposed a withdrawal to the Corinthians and a blocking of the passage to Peloponez.

Fokidans and Lokridans, whose cities were located in the vicinity, strongly struggled to defend Thermopil and to seek help from their neighbors.

which two groups of people struggled to defend thermopil

Question: who were the two groups that fought to defend thermopil

who were the two groups that fought to defend thermopil

Question: which city was the capital of the region of bitka kod termopila

which city was the capital of the region of bitka kod termopila

Question: who wanted to block the passage to peloponez

who wanted to block the passage to peloponez

Question: who did the peloponegans propose a withdrawal from

who did the peloponegans propose a withdrawal from

Question: where did the peloponegans block the passage to

where did the peloponegans block the passage to

Question: who were the two groups that fought in the battle of thermopil

who were the two groups that fought in the battle of thermopil

Some Peloponegans proposed a withdrawal to the Corinthians and a blocking of the passage to Peloponez .

Fokidans and Lokridans , whose cities were located in the vicinity , strongly struggled to defend Thermopil and to seek help from their neighbors .

Neki Peloponežani predložili su povlačenje do Korintske prevlake i blokadu prolaza na Peloponez. Fokiđani i Lokriđani, čiji su gradovi bili smješteni u blizini, srdito su ustrajavali na obrani Termopila i na traženju pomoći od susjeda.

Neki Peloponežani predložili su povlačenje do Korintske prevlake i blokadu prolaza na Peloponez.

Fokiđani i Lokriđani, čiji su gradovi bili smješteni u blizini, srdito su ustrajavali na obrani Termopila i na traženju pomoći od susjeda.

Some Peloponegans proposed a withdrawal to the Corinthians and a blocking of the passage to Peloponez. Fokidans and Lokridans, whose cities were located in the vicinity, strongly struggled to defend Thermopil and to seek help from their neighbors.

Some Peloponegans proposed a withdrawal to the Corinthians and a blocking of the passage to Peloponez.

Fokidans and Lokridans, whose cities were located in the vicinity, strongly struggled to defend Thermopil and to seek help from their neighbors.

The great Persian king Kserkso sent negotiators to Leonid who offered Greeks freedom or the status of the Friend of the Persian people and a better country, but Leonid rejected the Persian offer and the battle became inevitable.

Question: which persian king offered greeks freedom or status of the friend of the pers

The great Persian king Kserkso sent negotiators to Leonid who offered Greeks freedom or the status of the Friend of the Persian people and a better country, but Leonid rejected the Persian offer and the battle became inevitable.

which persian king offered greeks freedom or status of the friend of the pers

Question: who offered greeks freedom or status of friend of the persian people

who offered greeks freedom or status of friend of the persian people

Question: who rejected the persian offer to give greeks freedom

who rejected the persian offer to give greeks freedom

Question: what language did kserkso speak

Question: what was the result of the persian offer to leonid

Leonida je odbacio perzijsku ponudu pa je bitka postala neizbježna .

what was the result of the persian offer to leonid

Question: what did leonid offer the greeks

Question: what happened to leonid after he rejected the persian offer

perzijsku ponudu pa je bitka postala neizbježna .

what happened to leonid after Bitka kod Termopila rejected the persian offer

Question: which offer did leonid reject

The great Persian king Kserkso sent negotiators to Leonid who offered Greeks freedom or the status of the Friend of the Persian people and a better country , but Leonid rejected the Persian offer and the battle became inevitable .

Perzijski veliki kralj Kserkso poslao je pregovarače kod Leonide koji su ponudili Grcima slobodu odnosno status Prijatelja perzijskog naroda i bolju zemlju, no Leonida je odbacio perzijsku ponudu pa je bitka postala neizbježna.

Perzijski veliki kralj Kserkso poslao je pregovarače kod Leonide koji su ponudili Grcima slobodu odnosno status Prijatelja perzijskog naroda i bolju zemlju, no Leonida je odbacio perzijsku ponudu pa je bitka postala neizbježna.

The great Persian king Kserkso sent negotiators to Leonid who offered Greeks freedom or the status of the Friend of the Persian people and a better country, but Leonid rejected the Persian offer and the battle became inevitable.

The great Persian king Kserkso sent negotiators to Leonid who offered Greeks freedom or the status of the Friend of the Persian people and a better country, but Leonid rejected the Persian offer and the battle became inevitable.

The number of Persian troops that Kserkso linked to the expedition against Greece is the subject of a thousand-year debate, because the ancient numbers are excessively exaggerated.

Question: why is the persian army in greece disputed

The number of Persian troops that Kserkso linked to the expedition against Greece is the subject of a thousand-year debate, because the ancient numbers are excessively exaggerated.

why is the persian army in greece disputed

Question: how long is the debate over persian troops in greece

how long is the debate over persian troops in greece

Question: who did kserkso lead in the war against greece

who did kserkso lead in the war against greece

Question: which country did kserkso lead an expedition against

which country did kserkso lead an expedition against

Question: how long has it been debated about persian troops in greece

how long has it been debated about persian troops in greece

Question: who led the persian expedition against greece

who led the persian expedition against greece

The number of Persian troops that Kserkso linked to the expedition against Greece is the subject of a thousand - year debate , because the ancient numbers are excessively exaggerated .

Broj perzijskih trupa koje je Kserkso poveo u ekspediciju protiv Grčke je predmet tisućljetne rasprave, jer su antičke brojke pretjerano preuveličane.

Broj perzijskih trupa koje je Kserkso poveo u ekspediciju protiv Grčke je predmet tisućljetne rasprave, jer su antičke brojke pretjerano preuveličane.

The number of Persian troops that Kserkso linked to the expedition against Greece is the subject of a thousand-year debate, because the ancient numbers are excessively exaggerated.

The number of Persian troops that Kserkso linked to the expedition against Greece is the subject of a thousand-year debate, because the ancient numbers are excessively exaggerated.

Note: The number of Peloponegans Diodor from Sicily indicates that there were 1,000 Lakedemonans and 3,000 other Peloponegans, which make up a total of 4,000 troops.

Question: how many peloponegans are there in sicily

Note: The number of Peloponegans Diodor from Sicily indicates that there were 1,000 Lakedemonans and 3,000 other Peloponegans, which make up a total of 4,000 troops.

how many peloponegans are there in sicily

Question: how many lakedemonans are there in sicily

how many lakedemonans are there in sicily

Question: the island of termopila is on which mediterranean island

the island of termopila is on which mediterranean island

Question: what type of diodor is found in sicily

Question: how many troops are there in bitka kod termopila

how many troops are there in bitka kod termopila

Question: what is the scientific name for a group of peloponegans

what is the scientific name for a group of peloponegans

Note : The number of Peloponegans Diodor from Sicily indicates that there were 1,000 Lakedemonans and 3,000 other Peloponegans , which make up a total of 4,000 troops .

Napomene: Broj Peloponežana Diodor sa Sicilije navodi kako je bilo 1000 Lakedemonjana i 3000 drugih Peloponežana, što ukupno čini 4000 trupa.

Napomene: Broj Peloponežana Diodor sa Sicilije navodi kako je bilo 1000 Lakedemonjana i 3000 drugih Peloponežana, što ukupno čini 4000 trupa.

Note: The number of Peloponegans Diodor from Sicily indicates that there were 1,000 Lakedemonans and 3,000 other Peloponegans, which make up a total of 4,000 troops.

Note: The number of Peloponegans Diodor from Sicily indicates that there were 1,000 Lakedemonans and 3,000 other Peloponegans, which make up a total of 4,000 troops.

Herodot also mentioned the same number of 4000 Peloponegans.Herodot, 7.228.1 But, in some other places Herodot mentioned 3100 Peloponegans at Thermopil in the eve of the battle.

Also, Herodot mentions and helote Herodot, 8.25.1 but did not specify their exact number.

Question: who mentioned 4000 peloponegans at the battle of thermopil

Herodot also mentioned the same number of 4000 Peloponegans.Herodot, 7.228.1 But, in some other places Herodot mentioned 3100 Peloponegans at Thermopil in the eve of the battle.

Also, Herodot mentions and helote Herodot, 8.25.1 but did not specify their exact number.

who mentioned 4000 peloponegans at the battle of thermopil

Question: how many peloponegans were there at the battle of thermopil

how many peloponegans were there at the battle of thermopil

Question: where did the battle of bitka kod termopila take place

where did the battle of bitka kod termopila take place

Question: who mentioned 4000 peloponegans in the bible

who mentioned 4000 peloponegans in the bible

Question: what is the number of peloponegans mentioned by herodot

what is the number of peloponegans mentioned by herodot

Question: according to herodot, how many palatine organs were there at the battle

according to herodot, how many palatine organs were there at the battle

Question: according to herodot, how many peloponegans were there at the battle

according to herodot, how many peloponegans were there at the battle

Herodot also mentioned the same number of 4000 Peloponegans . Herodot , 7.228.1 But , in some other places Herodot mentioned 3100 Peloponegans at Thermopil in the eve of the battle .

Also , Herodot mentions and helote Herodot , 8.25.1 but did not specify their exact number .

Herodot također navodi isti broj od 4000 Peloponežana.Herodot, 7.228.1 No, na nekim drugim mjestima Herodot spominje 3100 Peloponežana kod Termopila uoči bitke. Također, Herodot spominje i heloteHerodot, 8.25.1 no nije precizirao njihov točan broj.

Herodot također navodi isti broj od 4000 Peloponežana.Herodot, 7.228.1 No, na nekim drugim mjestima Herodot spominje 3100 Peloponežana kod Termopila uoči bitke.

Također, Herodot spominje i heloteHerodot, 8.25.1 no nije precizirao njihov točan broj.

Herodot also mentioned the same number of 4000 Peloponegans.Herodot, 7.228.1 But, in some other places Herodot mentioned 3100 Peloponegans at Thermopil in the eve of the battle. Also, Herodot mentions and helote Herodot, 8.25.1 but did not specify their exact number.

Herodot also mentioned the same number of 4000 Peloponegans.Herodot, 7.228.1 But, in some other places Herodot mentioned 3100 Peloponegans at Thermopil in the eve of the battle.

Also, Herodot mentions and helote Herodot, 8.25.1 but did not specify their exact number.

The number of Lakedemonans The next is the unclear data of Diodor's unclear whether in 1000 Lakedemonans fall those 300 Spartan.

In his records he first states, “Leonid has connected with himself a thousand people,” to further add, “There were a thousand Lakedemonans, and with them three hundred Spartanans,” which a precise explanation makes it almost impossible.

Pausanius in his claims agrees with Herodot (who he probably read), except that he gives a precise number of Locridians that Herodot did not mention.

Question: who is the author of bitka kod termopila

The number of Lakedemonans The next is the unclear data of Diodor's unclear whether in 1000 Lakedemonans fall those 300 Spartan.

In his records he first states, “Leonid has connected with himself a thousand people,” to further add, “There were a thousand Lakedemonans, and with them three hundred Spartanans,” which a precise explanation makes it almost impossible.

Pausanius in his claims agrees with Herodot (who he probably read), except that he gives a precise number of Locridians that Herodot did not mention.

who is the author of bitka kod termopila

Question: how many spartans did leonid have

Question: according to diodor, how many lakedemonans were there

according to diodor, how many lakedemonans were there

Question: according to diodor, how many spartans did leonid connect with

tri stotine Spartanaca “ , što precizno razjašnjenje čini gotovo nemogućim

according to diodor, how many spartans did leonid connect with

Question: how many lakedemonans did leonid connect with himself

how many lakedemonans did leonid connect with himself

Question: according to diodor, who connected a thousand people with himself

according to diodor, who connected a thousand people with himself

Question: how many people did leonid connect with

The number of Lakedemonans The next is the unclear data of Diodor 's unclear whether in 1000 Lakedemonans fall those 300 Spartan .

In his records he first states , “ Leonid has connected with himself a thousand people , ” to further add , “ There were a thousand Lakedemonans , and with them three hundred Spartanans , ” which a precise explanation makes it almost impossible .

Pausanius in his claims agrees with Herodot ( who he probably read ) , except that he gives a precise number of Locridians that Herodot did not mention .

Broj Lakedemonjana Sljedeći je nerazjašnjen podatak Diodorova nerazjašnjenost je li u 1000 Lakedemonjana spadaju onih 300 Spartanaca.

U svojim spisima prvo navodi: „Leonida je poveo sa sobom tisuću ljudi“, da bi dalje dodao „Stajalo je tamo tisuću Lakedemonjana, i s njima tri stotine Spartanaca“, što precizno razjašnjenje čini gotovo nemogućim.

Pauzanije se u svojim navodima slaže s Herodotom (kojeg je vjerojatno čitao), osim što on daje precizan broj Lokriđana koje Herodot nije naveo.

The number of Lakedemonans The next is the unclear data of Diodor's unclear whether in 1000 Lakedemonans fall those 300 Spartan. In his records he first states, “Leonid has connected with himself a thousand people,” to further add, “There were a thousand Lakedemonans, and with them three hundred Spartanans,” which a precise explanation makes it almost impossible. Pausanius in his claims agrees with Herodot (who he probably read), except that he gives a precise number of Locridians that Herodot did not mention.

The number of Lakedemonans The next is the unclear data of Diodor's unclear whether in 1000 Lakedemonans fall those 300 Spartan.

In his records he first states, “Leonid has connected with himself a thousand people,” to further add, “There were a thousand Lakedemonans, and with them three hundred Spartanans,” which a precise explanation makes it almost impossible.

Pausanius in his claims agrees with Herodot (who he probably read), except that he gives a precise number of Locridians that Herodot did not mention.

During the battle, the passage to Thermopil was between the mountains and the coast of the Mali Bay, it was so far (14 m) that only one battle wheel could pass at the same time.

Question: how many battle wheel does the passage to thermopil have

During the battle, the passage to Thermopil was between the mountains and the coast of the Mali Bay, it was so far (14 m) that only one battle wheel could pass at the same time.

how many battle wheel does the passage to thermopil have

Question: where is the coast of mali located

Question: how many battle wheel could pass through the passage to thermopil

how many battle wheel could pass through the passage to thermopil

Question: how many wheel could pass through the passage to thermopil

how many wheel could pass through the passage to thermopil

Question: where is the coast of thermopil located

Question: which passage was so far that only one battle wheel could pass at the same time

which passage was so far that only one battle wheel could pass at the same time

Question: how far is the passage to thermopil from mali bay

how far is the passage to thermopil from mali bay

During the battle , the passage to Thermopil was between the mountains and the coast of the Mali Bay , it was so far ( 14 m ) that only one battle wheel could pass at the same time .

U doba bitke, prolaz kod Termopila nalazio se između planine i obale Malijskog zaljeva, bio je toliko uzak (14 m) da su istovremeno mogla proći samo jedna bojna kola.

U doba bitke, prolaz kod Termopila nalazio se između planine i obale Malijskog zaljeva, bio je toliko uzak (14 m) da su istovremeno mogla proći samo jedna bojna kola.

During the battle, the passage to Thermopil was between the mountains and the coast of the Mali Bay, it was so far (14 m) that only one battle wheel could pass at the same time.

During the battle, the passage to Thermopil was between the mountains and the coast of the Mali Bay, it was so far (14 m) that only one battle wheel could pass at the same time.

After the Persian departure, the Greeks buried their dead soldiers and buried them on the nearby coastline.

Question: who buried the dead soldiers of the persian empire

After the Persian departure, the Greeks buried their dead soldiers and buried them on the nearby coastline.

who buried the dead soldiers of the persian empire

Question: where did the greeks bury their dead soldiers

where did the greeks bury their dead soldiers

Question: what language is bitka kod termopila

Question: who did the greeks bury in the sea

After the Persian departure , the Greeks buried their dead soldiers and buried them on the nearby coastline .

Nakon perzijskog odlaska, Grci su pokupili svoje mrtve vojnike i pokopali ih na obližnjem brežuljku.

Nakon perzijskog odlaska, Grci su pokupili svoje mrtve vojnike i pokopali ih na obližnjem brežuljku.

After the Persian departure, the Greeks buried their dead soldiers and buried them on the nearby coastline.

After the Persian departure, the Greeks buried their dead soldiers and buried them on the nearby coastline.

After the passage through Thermopil, the Persian army punished all the cities that participated on the enemy side, and continued to advance towards the cities of Athens Herodot, 8.49.1 and Eretria which, in the sign of repentance for the gushing and crying of the Sarda, directed with the land.

Question: which was the first city to be punished by the persian army

which was the first city to be punished by the persian army

Question: who was the leader of the persian army during the battle of thermopil

who was the leader of the persian army during the battle of thermopil

Question: which city was the capital of the persian empire at the time of the battle of

which city was the capital of the persian empire at the time of the battle of

Question: which city did the persian army defeat at thermopil

which city did the persian army defeat at thermopil

Question: which city did the persian army attack at the end of the tripartite war

which city did the persian army attack at the end of the tripartite war

Question: which city did the persian army defeat in the battle of thermopil

which city did the persian army defeat in the battle of thermopil

Question: who punished the cities that participated in the battle of thermopil

who punished the cities that participated in the battle of thermopil

After the passage through Thermopil , the Persian army punished all the cities that participated on the enemy side , and continued to advance towards the cities of Athens Herodot , 8.49.1 and Eretria which , in the sign of repentance for the gushing and crying of the Sarda , directed with the land .

Question: where did the greeks build a defense against the persian fleet

where did the greeks build a defense against the persian fleet

Question: which athenian general proposed a direct confrontation with the persian navy in the gulf

which athenian general proposed a direct confrontation with the persian navy in the gulf

Question: where did the persian navy escape to after the battle of thermopila

where did the persian navy escape to after the battle of thermopila

Question: in which gulf did the greeks block the persian fleet from entering pelop

in which gulf did the greeks block the persian fleet from entering pelop

Question: what did the greeks prevent the persian navy from doing

Persian Navy from directly escaping to Peloponez

Persian Navy from directly escaping to Peloponez

what did the greeks prevent the persian navy from doing

Question: who is the author of the book bitka kod termopila

who is the author of the book bitka kod termopila

Question: according to herodot, in which book did the greeks defeat the pers

according to herodot, in which book did the greeks defeat the pers

At the same time , the Greek alliance prepared the defense at the Corinthians , where they ruined every road that led to it and on which they built a defense wall . Herodot , 8.72.1 Also , serving the identical tactic of disqualification of the Persian coordination on land and sea , the Greeks prepared an effective maritime strategy that had to prevent the Persian Navy from directly escaping to Peloponez . Holland , p.

The Athenian General Temistoklo proposed a direct confrontation with the Persian Navy in the narrow Gulf of Pelopones like that at Salamine , where a month after the battle at Thermopila the Greek fleet managed to block the Persian fleet and safeguard Pelopones from danger .

At the same time, the Greek alliance prepared the defense at the Corinthians, where they ruined every road that led to it and on which they built a defense wall.Herodot, 8.72.1 Also, serving the identical tactic of disqualification of the Persian coordination on land and sea, the Greeks prepared an effective maritime strategy that had to prevent the Persian Navy from directly escaping to Peloponez.Holland, p. The Athenian General Temistoklo proposed a direct confrontation with the Persian Navy in the narrow Gulf of Pelopones like that at Salamine, where a month after the battle at Thermopila the Greek fleet managed to block the Persian fleet and safeguard Pelopones from danger.

However, in the context of the Persian expedition to Greece, the battle at Thermopolis is undoubtedly a defeat for the Greek allies that has had catastrophic consequences.

Whatever the allies tried, their goal was<unk> not to give Boetia and Athens to the Persians.Lazenby, page 248.

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When
the body of Leonidas was recovered by the Persians, Xerxes, in
a rage at the loss of so many of his soldiers, ordered that the head
be cut off and the body crucified. This was very uncommon for the
Persians; they had the habit of treating enemies that fought bravely
against them with great honor, as the example of Pytheas captured
earlier off Skyros shows. However, Xerxes was known for his rage,
as when he had the Hellespont whipped because it would not obey
him.
Xerxes was curious as to why there was such a small Greek force
guarding Thermopylae and interrogated some Arcadian prisoners.
The answer was that all the other men were participating in the
Olympic Games, forbidding them to participate in war. When Xerxes
asked what the prize for the winner was, "An olive-wreath" came
the answer. Upon hearing this, Tritantaechmes, a Persian general,
spontaneously responded by saying to Mardonius: "Good
heavens! Mardonius, what kind of men are these against whom you
have brought
us to fight? Men who do not compete for money, but for honor".
Two Spartans survived the conflict. Aristodemus suffered an eye
injury and was sent behind the lines, eventually ordered back to
Sparta with the retreating allies by the King. Pantites, was sent
by Leonidas to raise support in Thessaly but returned to Thermopylae
only after the battle's conclusion. Pantites hanged himself in
disgrace after being shunned as a "trembler".
After the departure and defeat of the Persians, the Greeks collected
their dead and buried them on the hill. A stone lion was erected
to commemorate Leonidas. Forty years after the battle, Leonidas'
body was returned to Sparta where he was buried again with full
honors and funeral games were held every year in his memory.
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(4 photos)
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(2 photos)
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(1 photo)
The fierce resistance of the Spartan-led army offered Athens the
invaluable time to prepare for a decisive naval battle. The subsequent
Greek victory at the Battle of Salamis left much of the Persian
navy destroyed and Xerxes was forced to retreat back to Asia, leaving
his army in Greece under Mardonius, who was to meet the Greeks
in battle one last time. The Spartans assembled at full strength
and led a pan-Greek army that defeated the Persians decisively
at the Battle of Plataea, ending the Greco-Persian War and with
it Persian expansion into Europe.
The simultaneous naval Battle of Artemisium was a stalemate, whereupon
the Athenian navy retreated. The Persians were now in control of
the Aegean Sea and all of peninsular Greece as far south as Attica.
The Spartans prepared to defend the Isthmus of Corinth and the
Peloponnese, while Xerxes sacked an evacuated city of Athens, whose
inhabitants had already fled to Salamis Island. In September, the
Greeks defeated the Persians at the naval Battle of Salamis, which
led to the rapid retreat of Xerxes. The remaining Persian army,
left under the charge of Mardonius, was defeated in the Battle
of Plataea by a combined Greek army again led by the Spartans,
under the regent Pausanias.
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(6 photos)
Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this article under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License
, Version 1.2 or any later version published by the Free Software Foundation.
(What does it mean?
)
The text is based on material from the Wikipedia article "Battle of Thermopylae"
. Modifications, additions to the Wikipedia text and all the photos by the website author.

Question: where did the persians defeat the greeks

However, in the context of the Persian expedition to Greece, the battle at Thermopolis is undoubtedly a defeat for the Greek allies that has had catastrophic consequences.

Whatever the allies tried, their goal was<unk> not to give Boetia and Athens to the Persians.Lazenby, page 248.

where did the persians defeat the greeks

Question: who wrote about the persian invasion of greece

who wrote about the persian invasion of greece

Question: what was the final battle of the persian expedition to greece

what was the final battle of the persian expedition to greece

Question: the battle at thermopolis was a result of what

the battle at thermopolis was a result of what

Question: what was the effect of the persian defeat at thermopolis

what was the effect of the persian defeat at thermopolis

Question: who did the persians want to give to greece

who did the persians want to give to greece

Question: who was the leader of the persians at the time of the battle of thermop

who was the leader of the persians at the time of the battle of thermop

However , in the context of the Persian expedition to Greece , the battle at Thermopolis is undoubtedly a defeat for the Greek allies that has had catastrophic consequences .

Whatever the allies tried , their goal was < unk > not to give Boetia and Athens to the Persians . Lazenby , page 248 .

Ipak, u kontekstu perzijske ekspedicije u Grčkoj, bitka kod Termopola nesumnjivo predstavlja poraz za grčke saveznike koji je imao katastrofalne posljedice.Lazenby, str. 151.

Što god da su saveznici pokušali, svakako da im cilj nije bila predaja Boetije i Atike Perzijancima.Lazenby, str. 248.

However, in the context of the Persian expedition to Greece, the battle at Thermopolis is undoubtedly a defeat for the Greek allies that has had catastrophic consequences. Whatever the allies tried, their goal was<unk> not to give Boetia and Athens to the Persians.Lazenby, page 248.

However, in the context of the Persian expedition to Greece, the battle at Thermopolis is undoubtedly a defeat for the Greek allies that has had catastrophic consequences.

Whatever the allies tried, their goal was<unk> not to give Boetia and Athens to the Persians.Lazenby, page 248.

Question: where did the persians lose the battle of bitka kod termopila

where did the persians lose the battle of bitka kod termopila

Question: who directed the movie 300 based on the events of the battle of thermopil

who directed the movie 300 based on the events of the battle of thermopil

Question: how many films are there about the battle of bitka kod termopila

how many films are there about the battle of bitka kod termopila

Question: where did the persians fight at the battle of thermopil

where did the persians fight at the battle of thermopil

Question: at which battle did the persians defeat the greeks at thermopil

at which battle did the persians defeat the greeks at thermopil

Question: who did the persians defeat at the battle of bitka kod termopila

who did the persians defeat at the battle of bitka kod termopila

Question: what did the persians suffer at the battle of bitka kod termopila

what did the persians suffer at the battle of bitka kod termopila

Question: why did the persians lose the battle at thermopil

why did the persians lose the battle at thermopil

Many modern sources say that the significance of the battle was the retention of the Persians at Thermopil while the Greeks gathered the fleet at Salamine , Battle at Thermopil - ConsequencesOvert to the film " 300 " ( Eugene N. Borza ) or assume that the Persians were demoralized by alleged great losses , which is most likely not true .

The theory that the battle at Thermopil was held on the preparation of the Greek fleet for Salamin ignored the fact that the same fleet fought and suffered significant losses in the battle at Artemis , which was conducted at the same time as that at Thermopil .

Teorija kako je bitka kod Termopila održana na bi se pripremila grčka flota za Salaminu ignorira činjenicu kako se ista flota borila i pretrpjela poprilične gubitke u bitci kod Artemizija, koja je vođena istodobno kad i ona kod Termopila.

Many modern sources say that the significance of the battle was the retention of the Persians at Thermopil while the Greeks gathered the fleet at Salamine,Battle at Thermopil - ConsequencesOvert to the film "300" (Eugene N. Borza) or assume that the Persians were demoralized by alleged great losses, which is most likely not true. The theory that the battle at Thermopil was held on the preparation of the Greek fleet for Salamin ignored the fact that the same fleet fought and suffered significant losses in the battle at Artemis, which was conducted at the same time as that at Thermopil.

The theory that the battle at Thermopil was held on the preparation of the Greek fleet for Salamin ignored the fact that the same fleet fought and suffered significant losses in the battle at Artemis, which was conducted at the same time as that at Thermopil.

Lakonic expressions describe the core and short ways of speech specific to Sparta and Lakonia, the area on the Pelopones in ancient Greece where the Spartans lived.

Question: the term termopila refers to the short ways of speech of which ancient people

Lakonic expressions describe the core and short ways of speech specific to Sparta and Lakonia, the area on the Pelopones in ancient Greece where the Spartans lived.

the term termopila refers to the short ways of speech of which ancient people

Question: what is the term for the short ways of speech used by spartans

what is the term for the short ways of speech used by spartans

Question: where did spartacus live in greece

Question: where did the spartans live in ancient greece

where did the spartans live in ancient greece

Question: which ancient greek city was known as lakonia

which ancient greek city was known as lakonia

Question: where did the spartans live on the pelopones

where did the spartans live on the pelopones

Lakonic expressions describe the core and short ways of speech specific to Sparta and Lakonia , the area on the Pelopones in ancient Greece where the Spartans lived .

Lakonski izrazi opisuje jezgrovit i kratki načina govora specifičan za Spartu i Lakoniju, područje na Peloponezu u drevnoj Grčkoj gdje su živjeli Spartanci.

Lakonski izrazi opisuje jezgrovit i kratki načina govora specifičan za Spartu i Lakoniju, područje na Peloponezu u drevnoj Grčkoj gdje su živjeli Spartanci.

Lakonic expressions describe the core and short ways of speech specific to Sparta and Lakonia, the area on the Pelopones in ancient Greece where the Spartans lived.

Lakonic expressions describe the core and short ways of speech specific to Sparta and Lakonia, the area on the Pelopones in ancient Greece where the Spartans lived.

At the same time, slavery was practiced in all the Greek cities-states, even in so-called “democracies” such as Athens, where slaves accounted for the majority of the population, and in which only 8,000 out of 400,000 citizens had political rights.

The Persian army consisted exclusively of professionals and charitators, while on the Greek side hundreds of slaves, the so-called helots, were fighting.

Dr. Farrokh-Index
Dr. Kaveh Farrokh-The 300 Movie: Separating Fact from Fiction
Grossing over 70 million dollars in its first week of release, the movie “300” is set to crash into the list of highest grossing Hollywood blockbusters. Its strong opening is a clear indicator of its success with the North American and by implication, European audiences. Although this picture is based on a graphic novel by Frank Miller and directed by Zack Snyder (“Dawn of the Dead”), it is already being portrayed as a “historical” movie, and will be perceived as such by many (less discerning) viewers. More significant however, are the conclusions that are being derived from this picture.
The producers of the movie (as well as the actors) are honest in stating that they did not consult primary historical sources. The writer of the comic book appears to have relied on the writings of Greek historian Herodotus, whose works, though valuable, inevitably contain an element of bias, as do any historical works from any culture.
My article will not discuss the cinematography (a job best left to the film critics), nor is it a criticism of the cast and crew. There has been no agenda on the part of the original novelist, movie director, cast and crew to promote an anti-Iranian agenda. The movie however (no matter how sincerely it was intended as entertainment), is nevertheless purveying messages; messages most certainly unintended by Miller or the film producers.
The following commentary is specifically directed against the very human biases and distortions that currently pervade against ancient Iran and Iranians; the very same views that “300” has (inadvertently) stimulated.
Though perhaps trivial, I feel my background gives me a unique perspective. Born of Iranian parents in Greece, I am a student of both ancient Greece and its “East Roman” successor, Byzantium, alongside my main research interest, ancient Iran. My Greek friends often cite me as a blend of ancient Iran (or what the west terms as “Persia”) and “Hellas” (Greece). It is often overlooked that an Iranian can admire ancient Greece just as a Greek can do likewise with Persia. A Greek friend stated this to me in an e-mail on Monday, March 12, 2007:
“I watched the movie 300…and I was totally disappointed…The movie demonized the Persians, everything that was depicted in the movie about the Persians was untrue. The movie demonized also the Greeks and through some words of Leonidas Greek philosophers and Athenian civilization were downrated…I wonder why I should watch demons and Spartans with a false image…there was no showing of glorious brave and smart people from both sides. I have learned that what Spartans did in Thermopyles was magnificent, that they did not match any enemy but what they did there was really magnificent because it was achieved against a very brave, worthy and glorious enemy. …very few understand it.”
In the course of their historical intercourse, Greece and Persia have created breathtaking works in domains such as the arts, architecture, sciences, music and of course, democracy and human rights. It is interesting that many modern Greeks acknowledge and appreciate ancient Iran as a civilization as worthy as their own, yet the same is not necessarily true in northwest Europe and North America.
This review will focus on eight items for discussion:
(1) The Notion of Democracy and Human Rights
(2) What really led to War
(3) The Military Conflict: Separating Fact from Fiction
(4) The Error of Xerxes: The Burning of Athens
(5) The “West” battling against the “Mysticism” of “the East”
(6) The Portrayal of Iranians and Greeks
(7) A Note on the Iranian Women in Antiquity
(8) “Good” versus “Evil”
= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
(1) The Notion of Democracy and Human Rights.
What struck me about the movie was its portrayal of the Greco-Persian Wars in binary terms: the democratic, good, rational “Us” versus the tyrannical, evil and irrational, “other” of the ever-nebulous (if not exotic) “Persia”. Central to this dichotomy is the following message:
“300 men stood between victory and the collapse of Western civilisation.… If the barbarian hordes…overran these defenders, Greek democracy and civilisation would fall prey to alien forces whose cruelty was a byword.”
[Christopher Hudson, “The Greatest Warriors Ever”, Daily Mail, London, England, March 9, 2007]
Note the key words “collapse of Western civilization”, “barbarian hordes”, “democracy and civilisation” and “alien forces whose cruelty was a byword”. These key words are reminiscent of political sloganeering, targeting the “other” with slanderous propaganda. These simplistic (and patronizing) statements are a clear indication that the general media and much of the audience is seeing “300” as much more than just a movie of a “graphic novel”. This has been astutely observed by Tomas Engle, a student at a West Virginia College, who has noted with some concern that many people are viewing the movie to “inform themselves on history." [http://www.lewrockwell.com/orig8/engle1.html].
The citations from popular media outlets (such as The Daily Mail) are yet another vivid demonstration of the gross prevailing ignorance as to the actual origins of the notions of human rights, democracy and freedom, as well as the complex factors that led to the Greco-Persian wars.
The origins of democracy and human rights are not as simple as we are led to believe. As we will see below, these notions share both Greek and Iranian origins.
Meanwhile, the Greeks (the Athenians and their Ionian kin in particular), created the notion of “Demos” (the people) and “Kratus” (government). This government by the people is what excites the imagination of the contemporary “western world”. However, few acknowledge the role of “the East” in helping place modern democracy as we know it today, within the context of racial, religious and cultural equality, or (more succinctly), human rights.
The founder of the Achaemenid Empire, Cyrus the Great, was the world’s first world emperor to openly declare and guarantee the sanctity of human rights and individual freedom.
Cyrus the Great as reconstructed by Tim Newark, 2000, p.21
(Ancient Armies, Concord Publications, painter Angus McBride)
Cyrus was a follower of the teachings of Zoroaster (Zarathustra), the founder of one of the world’s oldest monotheistic religions.
Portrait of Zarathustra as depicted in a Mithraic Temple in Dura Europus (in modern Syria) in the 3rd Century AD.
Zoroaster taught that good and evil resides in all members of humanity, regardless of racial origin, ethnic membership or religious affiliation. Each person is given the choice between good and evil – it is up to us to choose between them. It is that goodness, and a firm belief in its divinity, that is the key to human liberty, according to Zoroaster. As a consequence, every individual is entitled to liberty of thought, action and speech. This is enshrined in Zoroaster’s guidelines: Good Thoughts (Pendar Nik), Good Deeds (Kerdar Nik) and Good Speech (Goftar Nik).
As a result, freedom of thought, action and speech are laden with the awesome responsibility of wielding these for the good of all mankind. Zoroaster taught that there is no such thing as a “bad race” or “bad religion”. The only divide is that between good and bad people, both within one’s own community and those outside of one’s community. Zoroastrians often referred to ancient Iran as “the land of the Free/Freedom” (Zamin Azadegan).
Zoroaster preached the concept of an all-powerful single god known as Ahura-Mazda (the Supreme Angel), who stood for all that is good. However, the acceptance of Ahura-Mazda was a personal choice. There were to be no forced conversions and the gods of all nationalities were fully respected: Cyrus prostrated himself in front of the statue of Babylonian god Marduk after his conquest of Babylon. As noted by Graf, Hirsch, Gleason, & Krefter “Belief in a heavenly afterlife for good people and torment for evildoers may have been partly responsible for the moral treatment that Achaemenid Kings accorded subject nations…”[i]
The Greek warrior-historian Xenophon, spoke highly of Cyrus in his Cyropaedia. Cyrus is described as being void of deceit, arrogance, guile or selfishness. Cyrus is the first “one world hero” in history, namely the ruler who sought to unite all the peoples into one empire while according full respect to all languages, creeds and religious practices. Alexander the Great, who greatly admired Cyrus, adopted his mantle of the “world hero” after his conquests of Persia in 333-323 BC.
Cyrus’ system of government has been forever immortalized by the Cyrus Cylinder. This is a clay cylinder of a decree that was issued by Cyrus the Great in 538 BC shortly after his conquest of Babylon.
The Cyrus Cylinder. This is the first human rights charter in history. A facsimile of the Cyrus Cylinder is present at the United Nations building in New York City
There three main premises in the decrees of the Cyrus Cylinder were:
(1) the institution of racial, linguistic and religious equality
(2) all exiled peoples were to be allowed to return home
(3) all destroyed temples were to be restored.
When Cyrus defeated King Nabonidus of Babylon, he officially declared the freedom of the Jews from their Babylonian captivity. This was the first time in history that a world power had guaranteed the survival of the Jewish people, religion, customs and culture. Cyrus allowed the Jews to rebuild their Temple and provided them with funds to do so. The empire continued that support as indicated by a decree by Darius the Great in 519-518 BC by allowing the Jews to complete the reconstruction of the Jerusalem Temple (Ezra, 4:1). Cyrus’ magnanimity is reflected in the Old Testament where he is cited as Yahweh’s anointed (See Book of Ezra 1). Koresh (Hebrew for Cyrus), was hailed as a Messiah by the Jews. Isaiah cites Cyrus as “He is my Shepherd, and he shall fulfill all my purpose” (Isaiah, 44.28; 45.1). The Biblical characters Ezra, Daniel, Esther and Mordecai played historically important roles in the Persian court. The tomb of Esther and Mordechai still stands to this day in Hamadan, the site of the ancient city of Ecbatana, a city that has hosted Jews for over 2500 years. The Persian king Xerxes himself was married to a Jewish queen named Esther.
A more humane 1962 Hollywood picture of ancient Iran: Xerxes (played by Richard Egan) and his Jewish queen Esther (played by Joan Collins)
Tomb of Esther and Mordechai in Hamedan, Iran.
Professor Victor Davis Hanson (Senior Fellow at the Hoover Institution, Stanford University, Professor emeritus at California University) summarizes the issue of “Freedom versus Tyranny” very succinctly:
“If critics think that 300 reduces and simplifies the meaning of Thermopylae into freedom versus tyranny, they should reread carefully ancient accounts and then blame Herodotus, Plutarch, and Diodorus — who long ago boasted that Greek freedom was on trial against Persian autocracy…in almost all wars, one side is defending its freedom. The Greeks were not the first human beings to defend their freedom…monarchy is not something Eastern…when these 'freedom-defender' Greeks were united under Alexander, they did the same thing…they invaded Persia, Egypt and India and created their own empire…so did their Roman successors…”
[For full text see: http://www.victorhanson.com/articles/hanson101106.html]
(2) What Really led to War: The Untold Story
As noted above, Western popular opinion and academic historiography portrays the Greco-Persian wars as being an epic contest between liberty, as represented by Greece, and “Persian Tyranny”. Professor Richard Nelson Frye, however cautions us that such historical narratives are “…an example of imposing modern concepts on the past…distorting our understanding…” [Richard Nelson Frye, 1984, p.93
Yes, indeed it is true that the Ionian revolt on the west Anatolian coast and the support of the Athenians for their Hellenic ethnic kin against the Persian Empire was a major factor that led Darius the Great (549-486 BC), the father of Xerxes, to invade Greece in 490 BC. But this is only a part of the story. Very few western historians have discussed the role of economic rivalry as a factor in the Greco-Persian wars.
By this time, the Greeks had established a powerful maritime economic empire in the Mediterranean Sea. The Greeks established colonies in southern Italy as well as contemporary southern France; an example of this legacy is seen in the name of the city of “Nice” (pronounced /nees/) in southern, France – “Nice” is derived from the Greek Nicea (modern Nice). Greek trading posts had also been established in the Caucasus, in the Modern Republic of Georgia.
The Achaemenid Empire became a marine empire as soon as it reached the Aegean Sea. Darius the Great built the world’s first formal “Imperial Navy”, many of its ships manned by Phoenician, Egyptian and (Hellenic) Ionians. More importantly, the Persian Empire began to “muscle in” on the economic sphere of the Greeks in the Mediterranean and the Black Sea (see Cook, The Greeks in Ionia and the East, 1962, 98-120; 132-133; Farrokh, Shadows in the Desert: Ancient Persia at War, 2007, Chapter 4). Italian researchers such as Nik Spatari have confirmed that Darius had sent naval scouts as far as Southern Italy to gain information on possible trade contacts with the western Mediterranean (Farrokh, Shadows in the Desert, 2007, Chapter 4).
Reconstruction of Achaemenid ships in 1971.
Persia’s growing economic strength in the Mediterranean was certainly of great concern to the Greeks and their prosperity. The Greco-Persian wars were as much about economics, as they were about systems of government. For further references consult the bibliography.
(3) The Military Conflict: Separating Fact from Fiction
There are very few historians who doubt the tenacity and military skill of the Greek defenders who faced the invading army of Xerxes. The 300 movie displayed the equipment of the Spartans relatively well, considering that the producers were intent on reproducing the images of a comic book, leaving little room for consultation with modern scholarship. If the portrayal of the Greek side was adequate, that of “the Persians” was pure fantasy. This being said, there are already a large number of viewers who have taken these images in a very “literal” and historical context – the human mind is indeed a very impressionable organ.
The discussion here is a very quick and overall analysis of the actual military factors that were in place during Xerxes’ invasion of Greece in 480 BC – however we will digress into the post-Alexandrian eras, notably the evolution of the Persian knights during the Parthian (238 BC- 224 AD) and Sassanian (224-651 AD) eras. I will closely scrutinize the veracity of whether Xerxes actually wielded 1,700,000 troops during his invasion of Greece. By no means is this discussion adequate, however it is hoped that the reader’s curiosity will be sufficiently evoked as to encourage further research and readings.
Weapons.
Greek spears and swords were longer than their Achaemenid counterparts. This meant that in hand to hand combat, the Spartans held the advantage and were able to “outrange” their opponents with their swords and spears, which were primarily used for thrusting (see Farrokh, Shadows in the Desert, 2007, Chapters 4-5). The swords of “the Persians” in the movie are of no historical relevance – many of the Iranian swords of that era were short and dagger-like. These were known as the “Akenakes”.
Scythian (left) and Mede (right)
Saka Tigrakhauda (Tall-capped Scythian to the left) and a Mede (round cap to the right) appearing before the Achaemenid kings at the Imperial palace of Persepolis. Note the short size of the Akenakes daggers, which proved inadequate in hand to hand combat against Greek warriors.
For a thorough examination of the Akenakes daggers, as well as all Iranian military gear from the Bronze Age to the 19th century, consult Manoucher Moshtagh Khorasani’s comprehensive book on the subject:
Arms and Armor from Iran: The Bronze Age to end of the Qajar Period
http://www.arms-and-armor-from-iran.de/
Armor.
Greek troops were far better armored than their opponents, although it is not clear if all the Spartans wore heavy armor at Thermopylae. Greek helmets, body armor and greaves provided excellent protection against blade weapons in hand to hand combat, whereas the vast majority of the Achaemenids lacked significant armor protection. Scale armor was available, but not to the majority of troops. When engaged in hand to hand combat, Achaemenid troops were exposed to deadly spear thrusts as well as hacking/thrusts against their faces, limbs and torso (see Farrokh, Shadows in the Desert, 2007, Chapters 4-5). The movie portrayal of Achaemenid armor, was pure fiction and has no resemblance to that issued among Achaemenid troops.
The Martial Arts Tradition of Greece.
The 300 movie did capture the camaraderie, zeal and “esprit de corps” of the Spartans very well, and represented the contemporary military culture of ancient Sparta in a fairly realistic manner.
Greece (as a whole) was the heir to an excellent martial arts tradition. According to legend, the newborn child in Sparta would be washed by his mother in wine to ensure that the child was strong and fit (the weaker baby would reputedly die from the bathing). The father would then bring the baby to advisors who would ultimately decide if the newborn child was fit to be raised as a Spartan. If the baby “failed” the test, he would cast off a cliff or gulley at Mount Taygetos, known as the “Kaiada”.
As shown in the movie, the boys of Sparta began training from the age of 7. Formal military service would begin at the age of twenty. Examination of Greek vases clearly shows Greek warriors engaged in very “modern” training methods: kicking, boxing, wrestling, Pankration, using “speedbags”, etc.
Greek warriors engaged in martial arts “kick boxing” training – note “coach” to the right.
Training and drills were at least as brutal as combat situations. Sparta was very much a warrior society; it was the Athenians and their ethnic cousins in Ionia (modern western Turkey), then under Persian rule, who were at the forefront of the Hellenic Democratic tradition.
The Greek Phalanx System.
The Greeks in general had developed the phalanx system, where soldiers fought as one unit in a single formation. Central to this system was the use of overlapping shields which formed an impenetrable barrier against javelins, spears and arrows. The Macedonians of northern Greece, perfected the phalanx and adopted the 12 foot long pike or “sarissa” used with devastating effect by Alexander the Great during his invasion of Persia.
The Chiqi vase which shows a Greek Phalanx
(Source: www.livius.org)
The Greeks often engaged in close quarter combat and had been doing so for centuries before the Achaemenid invasions. Suffice it to say that when it came to hand to hand combat, the Spartans held the advantage. Thanks to their training, the Spartans were os disciplined that they were able to collectively maneuver the phalanx at a single command. With their shields locked together, the phalanx was able to march and put forward all of their spears simultaneously. There was no breaking of formation in acts of battlefield individualism – all warriors were expected to adhere strictly and steadfastly to the phalanx. The spears protruded in deadly fashion towards the onrushing enemy, with deadly results. The Greeks testify to the bravery of the lightly armored Iranians who tried to break the spears of the Spartans with their bare hands in an endeavor to get close to the warriors within the phalanx.
The Evolution of cavalry.
The portrayal of “Persian cavalry” was totally wrong in the movie with respect to weapons, equestrian gear and uniforms. Superficially, these resembled more the Arab horsemen seen during the Arabo-Islamic conquests over a thousand years after the Battle of Thermopylae and bore little resemblance to either the Iranian cavalry of the Achaemenid era (559-333 BC), or the armored knights of the later Parthian and Sassanian eras of Persia (238 BC - 651 AD). Below is a reconstruction of Iranian heavy cavalry of the Achaemenid period.
Mede Cavalryman of the later Achaemenid era
Despite their formidable armor, Achaemenid cavalry had yet to solve the problem of rider stability, especially against well-trained, heavily armored, lance/spear wielding infantry fighting in phalanxes (see Farrokh, Shadows in the Desert, 2007, Chapters 4-5). This is mainly because the Iranians had not yet invented saddle technology advanced enough to keep the rider stable enough as he fought on horseback. As a result, Iranian cavalry during the Achaemenid period was vulnerable to unseating by Greek heavy infantry, a fact that was duly observed by Xenophon in the early 400s BC.
Nevertheless, Iranian cavalry continued to evolve, even after the Alexandrian conquests of the Persian Empire. It was the cavalry which had posed the greatest challenge to the Greeks during their conquests of Persia, and the Greeks were duly impressed by them. Xenophon warned about the dangers of the Iranian cavalry, a prophecy which was to prove true with the rise of the Parthians and the Sassanians. It was these new Persian knights who finally defeated the Seleucid successors of Alexander and who scored dramatic victories against Marcus Lucinius Crassus at Carrhae (53 BC), and against Roman Emperors Severus Alexander (Ctesiphon in 233 AD), Gordian III (Mesiche in 244 AD), Phillip the Arab (Barbalissos in 253 AD), Valerian (Carrhae-Edessa in 260 AD), and Julian (inside Persia in 363 AD). By the 5th century AD, the Turks had arrived from the North of China into Central Asia and Europe, and were influencing the Iranians and the Romans: the Turks were probably the first to invent stirrups.
Very few are aware of the positive references to the military skill of the later Persian knights. One example is Libianus who, referring to the Sassanian knights, notes that Roman troops “prefer to suffer any fate rather than look a Persian in the face” [Libianus, XVIII , pp.205-211; Consult also Farrokh, Sassanian Elite cavalry, 2005, p.5]
The Pushtighban Heavy Knights of the Royal Guard (left) and Jyanavspar-Peshmerga (right) engaged against Roman troops during the failed invasion of Emperor Julian in 363 AD (Farrokh, Sassanian Elite Cavalry, 2005, Plate D; Paintings by Angus McBride).
Much of the armor of these knights appears very “European”; the warriors wear mail, plate armor, riveted Spangenhelm helmets, broadswords, maces and battle-axes. Yet these warriors predate their European counterparts by centuries (see Farrokh, Sassanian Elite Cavalry, 2005).
Though the Spartans (and indeed the Greeks as a whole) are rightfully remembered as magnificent warriors whose exploits and heroism resonate across time, Persia too gave birth to magnificent military tradition: the Partho-Sassanian elite cavalry, known as the “Savaran.” Is it not interesting that nobody has even heard of the Savaran? As noted by Greek-Canadian historian, George Tsonis: “Unfortunately we probably will never see movies of Roman defeats in “the east” at the hands of Persian knights…such movies would most probably bomb at the box office.”
This bias is not confined to the entertainment media. The academic community (mainly in northwest European and English-speaking world) has until recently continued to champion ancient Greece and diminish, sideline and even ignore the Savaran. This bias can be seen in the comments of world renowned military historian, Professor John Keegan, who in reference to the Persian influence on western European cavalry states in no uncertain terms that: “True, the Persians…had fielded squadrons of armored horsemen and even armored horses at an earlier date [than the western Europeans]…to ascribe the origin of heavy cavalry warfare to them is risky.” [Richard Keegan, A History of Warfare, 1993, p.286]
Professor John Keegan
Keegan’s interpretation is essentially rejected by a large number of historians such as Herrmann, Michalak, Inostrancev, Nickel and Newark (see discussion by Farrokh, Shadows in the Desert, 2007, Chapters 9-22, 24). Professor Keegan represents a more selective interpretation of the history of cavalry, one that has sought to diminish the role of Persia in particular. As noted by another Greek colleague, “Stamatis”:
“…there is no need for academics to denigrate Persia just to preserve the glory of ancient Greece. Both Greece and Persia are glorious in their contributions to world civilization. Comments such as these are more a product of academic dogma rather than true scholarship. One sees such scholarship in ancient Greece, Persia, Egypt, China and the golden age of Islamic learning where non-Arabs such as the Iranians made mighty contributions …
The Immortal Units.
Perhaps most interesting was the portrayal of the Immortal units of the Achaemenids. Superficially, they resembled Hollywood-style “ninjas”, dressed in black. Black and dark clothing were not featured among any of the standard Achaemenid troops. The superficially “Oriental” looking iron face masks were never used by the elite troops, and as noted above, Iranian units (in general) were more lightly armed and armored than their Greek counterparts. The paintings below provide a more accurate reconstruction of the uniforms, weapons and armor of the Achaemenid troops.
Achemenid Persian officers as they would have appeared during Xerxes’ invasion of Greece.
These were reconstructed by historians, researchers as well as professional army officers in 1971. Suffice it so say, that the movie portrayal and historical veracity are widely divergent. Note the colors on the uniforms as well as the equipment (and virtually no armor). But at least the creators of the 300 picture admit that they are basing their “Persians” on cartoon-like demon characters.
The Size of Xerxes’ Invasion Force.
Few question the fact that Xerxes’ army was huge and that the Greeks were outnumbered. The question is “by how much”? The trailer of the movie states:
“They [the Spartans] were 300 men against a Million”.
The main source of these accounts for modern European scholarship is Herodotus, who actually cites 1,700,000 invaders (Herodotus, VII, 60). Herodotus, who wrote after the Greco-Persian wars of Darius and Xerxes had ended, and before the age of Alexander.
Herodotus (484-425 BC)
Herodotus lists a total of 46 nations mustered by Xerxes in his invasion of Greece (see Farrokh, Shadows in the Desert, 2007, Chapter 5). The vast numbers of troops were actually a liability as co-ordination and communication and logistical support must have been complex, particularly in contrast to the much smaller and compact, and linguistically uniform, Greek force.
Nevertheless, it is unfair to pin these quantitative citations solely on Herodotus. The Greek tragedy by Aeschylos, The Persians, describes the Greeks facing Xerxes’ armies as facing "a great flood of humans…a wave of the sea that cannot be contained by the most solid dikes (The Persians, lines 87-90)…” and ”…a rash ruler of populous Asia [Xerxes] pushes a human herd to the conquest of the entire world" (The Persians, 73-75).
It was from the mid-19th to the early 20th centuries when a number of European scholars began to question the fantastic numbers cited by Herodotus. European researchers such as Gobineau and Delbrueck began to seriously doubt the numerical claims made by Classical sources. The table below cites some of the researchers of the period who provided the following estimates as to the actual size of Xerxes’ invading armies:
Scholar
Citation and Year
Estimated number of Xerxes’ Troops
Eduard Meyer
As cited in William Kelly Prentice, “Thermopylae and Artemisium”, Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association, Vol. 51, 1920 p. 5-18
100,000 plus an equal number of non-combat support personnel
Ernst Obst
Der Feldzug des Xerxes in Klio, Beiheft 12, Leipzig, 1914, p. 88
90,000
Comte de Gobineau
Histoire des Perses [History of the Persians], Volume II, 1869 p. 191
90,000
Reginald Walter Macan
Herodotus, The Seventh, Eighth and Ninth Books, London, 1908, Vol. II, p. 164
90,000
William Woodthorpe Tarn
"The Fleet of Xerxes", The Journal of Hellenic Studies, 28, 1908, p. 208
60,000
Hans Delbrueck
Die Perserkriege und die Burgunderkriege, Berlin, 1887, p. 164
55,000
Robert von Fischer
"Das Zahlenproblem in Perserkriege 480-479" Klio, N. F., vol. VII, p. 289
40,000
Most modern scholarship appears to accept the figure of 100,000-200,000 invading troops, a figure consistent with the population base of the Achaemenid Persian Empire at the time (Farrokh, Shadows in the Desert, 2007, Chapter 5). Even if the Persian Empire had had the population base to produce 1,700,000 troops, it would have faced a gargantuan task in organizing and deploying these without the benefit of modern computers and communications technology. Even if such an army could be organized to set off on the mammoth journey from Asia to Greece, ancient logistics and supply would not have been able to sustain such fantastic numbers of troops in so ambitious a campaign. These capabilities date from far more recent modern times, from the time of the American Civil War (1861-1865) and the advent of the railway and telegraph.
At Thermopylae, the Greek numbers were close to 6000, when counting all of the Spartans and Greek kinsmen. Still, even if we take the lowest estimate of 40,000 Achaemenid Persian troops, the Greeks would have been vastly outnumbered, especially during King Leonidas’ last stand.
Few have addressed the engineering feats that Xerxes’ engineers accomplished in building the world’s first true bridge between Asia and Europe. For an introduction of the Engineering feats that led to the invasion of Europe from Asia Minor (modern Turkey), you may wish to consult the History Channel program:
“Engineering an Empire: The Persians”
http://store.aetv.com/html/product/index.jhtml?id=77071
The show is also available in 5 parts on youtube – part 4 narrates the engineering aspect of Xerxes’ invasion of Greece:
Part 1: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eKN-gZuSH2o&mode=related&search=
Part 2: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pdqmdB_Sbtc&mode=related&search=
Part 3: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bykHGRD_BZ4&mode=related&search=
Part 4: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WNWmaMTTesI&mode=related&search=
Part 5: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tFPoe06ThRU&mode=related&search=
A Final Note: The Battle of Salamis.
There are other inaccuracies in the movie as well, especially with regards to the Greek perspective. First, the Spartans were not exactly “democratic” in the Athenian sense; theirs was a hierarchical and militaristic society. To argue that the Spartans were “fighting for Democracy” is somewhat simplistic. It is correct however that the Spartans fought for the glory of Greece, which included Democracy. That does not necessarily mean that the Spartans specifically stood for Democracy as the Athenians and Ionians did.
Second, the 300 Spartans were not alone in their last stand – they were accompanied to the death by at least 300 Thessapian Hoplites, who fought shoulder to shoulder beside them. The fact is that Xerxes finally won at Thermopylae and pushed through into Greece. The Battle that actually saved Greece from total conquest occurred at sea: the Battle of Salamis, after the forcing of Thermopylae. Xerxes could not maintain or expand his European land conquests if he could not control the seas. The Greeks under the bold leadership of Admiral Themistocles lured Xerxes’ fleet into a trap in the straits between Salamis itself and Piraeus.
Typical of the drama of Greek politics, Themistocles, the man who had rescued Greece from the jaws of defeat, was later condemned as a traitor to Greece and forced to flee Athens! Even more ironic is the fact that Themistocles was given shelter by Artaxerxes I, the successor of Xerxes I! In my opinion, it would be fascinating to have a historically balanced movie that would portray the lives of Themistocles, Xerxes, Artemesia, and Artaxerxes.
(4) The Error of Xerxes: the Burning of Athens
The greatest blunder committed by Xerxes in his invasion of Greece were his very un-Persian actions in ordering the city of Athens to be torched, including the Acropolis.
The Acropolis in Athens
Xerxes’ troops destroyed many towns, villages, farms and temples. These actions stiffened the Greek determination to resist and expel the invader from their soil. As I have previously noted, the statues of sacred Greek gods were confiscated and brought to Persia – an action that only fueled the intensity of the Greek desire to seek vengeance. This culminated in the invasion and conquest of Persia by Alexander the Great in the 330s BC.
Xerxes soon realized the error of his actions, but it was too late. His offers to rebuild Athens after the battles were firmly rejected by the Greeks. Most significant however was the fact that Xerxes had broken the tradition of tolerance and respect that had been shown by Cyrus the Great towards captured cities. How would history have been different had Xerxes behaved in Athens as Cyrus had in Babylon? One thing is certain: the West has never forgiven Xerxes’ invasion of Classical Greece.
(5) The “West” battling against the “Mysticism” of “the East”
Towards the end of the movie, there is a statement to the effect that the war is against “the Mysticism and Tyranny” of Persia. How does one wage war on “Mysticism”? As a student of history for 20 years, I honestly was not aware that Xerxes’ invasion was about bringing (or forcing) “Mysticism” upon Europe, at least in the historical sense. The directors and producers of the 300 movie do not appear to have given much thought to the consequences of this proverbial Hollywood “one-liner”, however it does contain a powerful latent message: “the East” stands for “Mysticism”. In that case, what does “the West” stand for? I would surmise the antithesis of Mysticism – namely, Reason and Learning”.
Few would question the fact that the Greeks pioneered much of what we cherish today with respect to logic and philosophy: Greeks (like all great peoples of history) are integral to world civilization. But any type of assumption that ALL of learning has been historically confined to Greece is very much a recent interpretation (from the late 17th century) – and if I may be so bold, it is also an “Orientalist” viewpoint.
While outside the scope of this discussion, it may surprise some readers to know that a number of the greatest Greek minds of the Classical era, Pythagoras, Plato, Thales, and Democritus, traveled to the Persian Empire to take advantage of the centers in learning in Persis, Babylon and Egypt, notably in the fields of astronomy, mathematics, physical sciences, geometry and theosophy (see Farrokh, Shadows in the Desert, 2007, Chapter 4).
Pythagoras (582 - 500 BC)
]
Plato (4th century BC)
Thales (624-546 BC)
Democritus (460 – 370 BC)
The Greeks, like many other of the learned and civilized peoples of antiquity, also had their share of superstitions as well. Very few are aware that the study of Astronomy was actually prohibited in ancient Athens in the 5th Century BC; any such studies were labeled as blasphemy. Anaxagoras of Clazomenae (Ionia, modern Western Turkey) was actually expelled from Athens because of the hypotheses he proposed about the sun. The Achaemenid Persians certainly had their superstitions. One vivid example is that of Xerxes “punishing” the Aegean Sea by having the waves lashed – the king was angry that the sea had been so turbulent during his invasion of Greece.
The evolution of learning very much resembles the evolution of human rights in history: it is organic and is ultimately achieved by the synthesis and sharing of ideas between nations, cultures and peoples, whether they are engaged in trade, cultural relations or war.
For further references consult the reference list of discussion item (1).
(6) The Portrayal of Iranians and Greeks
What struck me most vividly in this movie was the following question:
Where are the Greek actors in this movie? After all, is this movie not narrating a story about ancient Greece?
The straight forward answer would be that the movie producers were depicting the characters of a graphic novel, which may explain their casting decisions. There still remains the question however of why not at least consider utilizing Greek actors to portray Greek historical characters?
Hollywood’s is intent on conveying a certain “image” of the Classics. Perhaps there is a desire to “Nordify” ancient Greece just as there is a desire to “Orientalize” the ancient Iranians. At least the portrait of King Leonidas in the movie was consistent with the depictions of ancient Greeks as seen in the vases of Classical Greece. For a previous discussion of the depiction of Greeks and Iranians in Hollywood by the author, kindly consult:
The Alexander Movie: How are Greeks and Iranians Portrayed?
http://www.ghandchi.com/iranscope/Anthology/KavehFarrokh/farrokh6.htm
When it comes to the portrayal of the Iranians and the Greeks, I find the following observation by Dr. Ahmad Sadri (College Professor of Islamic World Studies, Lake Forest College) rather astute:
“Snyder’s Persians – I am not talking about the disposable extras covered up to their eyes in male burqas – are predominantly black and by implication of mannerism and affect, homosexual. Allowing the widest berth for the genre and medium one still marvels at Snyder’s audacity in demonizing the “Asiatic hordes” while morphing the Spartan warrior into the typical white American survivalist. Snyder’s Spartans are white guys fighting a sea of racially inferior blacks, yellows and browns. ”
As I walked out of the theater during the closing credits, I heard the following comment by one of the viewers in the audience:
“This movie chose really excellent Eye-ranian [Iranian] actors – they showed them so accurately – just what you would expect them to be…”
It is very interesting that in this movie (and its comic book original) insists on portraying the “Persians” (especially the elites) as black Africans. In the movie trailer, King Leonidas is shown kicking the “Persian messenger” into a bottomless pit and shouting “This is Sparta!”:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bCwT0TF6fa4
Movie Trailer for 300
The “Persian messenger” is black. Other Persians in the film are also black, including a “Persian” general executed by Xerxes and a “Persian” emissary sent to communicate with Leonidas – the latter role being played by talented actor Tyrone Benskin (Marked Man, 1996; Sci-Fighters, 1996, etc.):
Tyrone Benskin
Interestingly, the recent movie, Alexander (starring Colin Farrell), featured (with few exceptions) Arabic speaking North Africans instead of Iranians in the role of “the Persians”, whereas the 300 book and movie portrays Iranians as Africans. As we shall see later below, there are indications that Hollywood (in general) believes that such portrayals, however inaccurate, “sell better” in North America and Northwest Europe.
There are NO Greek or Roman references to black “Persians” and Greco-Roman sources also CLEARLY distinguish between the Arabs of antiquity and “the Persians.” Greek vase art from the Classical period show “the Persians” as remarkably similar to the Greeks – their differences are in wardrobe and equipment:
In this discussion, I will make use of the term “Iranian” as opposed to “Persian” as the former is more inclusive and includes Kurds, Azeris, Persians and other peoples of Iranic origin. The term “Persian” was used by the Greeks to designate all Iranian peoples of the time, when in fact, the Medes and the Scythians (Saka) were also partners in empire alongside the Persians.
There is a dearth of primary sources to help archeologists, anthropologists and historians reconstruct the ancient Iranians contemporary to Xerxes’ invasion of Greece. Note the clear distinction that is made between African (Ethiopian) and Caucasian (Iranian) troops by Greek vase-arts:
[
African levy in Achaemenid service (left) and Iranian troops (right) as portrayed in Greek art. The Greeks clearly distinguished between the Iranians (portrayed as Caucasians) and Africans in their artistic works (Nick Sekunda, The Persian Army, Osprey Publishing, 1992, p.16-17).
As a Classical historian, Sekunda has reconstructed King Xerxes, Iranian warriors as well as their African contingents:
Ethiopian marine (left), Iranian warrior (centre) and Iranian spearbearer (Nick Sekunda, The Persian Army, Osprey Publications, 1992, Plate C; Paintings by Simon Chew). Note how these re-constructions differ from how Iranians have been portrayed in the “Alexander” and “300” movies.
The Iranians shown in the centre and right would not look unusual in today’s Iran. Later Roman sources also provide a very clear and detailed pictorial view of the Iranians contemporary to the 3rd – 7th centuries AD. Note the Roman drawing of the three Iranians in Persian dress from Ravenna, Italy:
Roman depiction of Iranian nobles depicted here as the three wise men. It is clear that the Romans were objective in their portrayal of their enemies, the Parthians and the Sassanians.
The cultural and linguistic legacy of the Indo-European or “Aryan” arrivals on the Iranian plateau since at least the 2nd millennium BC continues to resonate in modern Iran, and in Iranian speaking Kurds in the Near East as well as the Caucasus and Central Asia. Please note that I use the word “Aryan” with considerable caution here, as we are referring to the Old Iranian from “Airya” and/or “Eire” which loosely means “Lord” or “freeman” – the closest European equivalent is the Irish word “Eire”.
However what makes Iran unique on the world stage of history is the fact that Iran is the world’s oldest multi-ethnic and multi-language nation in history. Before the Indo-European arrivals, Iran was already host to a vibrant Elamite civilization to the southwest as well as Manneans and Hurrians to the northwest and west. These peoples fused their culture with the incoming Iranian speaking Indo-Europeans – Iran has been a evolving tapestry of peoples ever since. In any of Iran’s cities one can find an array of faces and languages – from Turkish in the northwest to Arabic in south. There are Iranians of African descent as well, these being partly descended from Ethiopians who were settled along Iran’s Persian Gulf coast during the Achaemenid era.
Genetic researchers have conducted a number of detailed genetic studies on Iran, the Caucasus as well as the Near East. One example is a recent study by Professor Martin Richards and 26 other researchers who conducted a thorough genetic analysis of Turks, Arabs, and Iranians. The latter focused mainly on Iranian-speaking Kurds (mainly descendants of the Medes) and the mainly Turkish speaking Azerbaijanis of Iran (themselves descendants of the Media Atropatene – one of the ancient homes of the aforementioned Zoroastrian religion). There was also a large sample of Ossetians in the study; Ossetians speak variations of the Old Iranian Avestan language (the basis of many of the old Zoroastrian hymns). Armenians were also studied.
Put simply, the results show a very high incidence of U5 lineages – genes common among modern Europeans as a whole. The results are aptly summarized as such:
“…many Armenian and Azeri types are derived from European and northern Caucasian types (p.1263)…The U5 cluster… in Europe… although rare elsewhere in the Near east, are especially concentrated in the Kurds, Armenians and Azeris…a hint of partial European ancestry for these populations – not entirely unexpected on historical and linguistic grounds (p.1264)”
[Richards et al., (2000). Tracing European founder lineages in the Near Eastern mtDNA pool. American Journal of Human Genetics, 67, p.1263-1264, 2000]
There were no genetic links between the Iranian groups cited and the Arabs of that study. Interestingly, a number of Turks from western Turkey in the Richard study showed incidences of the European gene markers, indicating mixtures with Greek and other European populations in the course of Turkish history. Suffice it so say that Caucasians with so-called “European” appearances are nothing unusual in today’s Iran – they are part and parcel of today’s multi-ethnic Iran.
Photograph taken in 1971 by Ali Massoudi of a girl from Rasht in Gilan province, Northern Iran (Source: R. Tarverdi (Editor) & A. Massoudi (Art editor), The land of Kings, Tehran: Rahnama Publications, 1971, p.116).
There seems to be very little international motivation to understand the multifaceted nature of the Iranians themselves as well as their history and culture. A survey by Jack Shaheen (author of “The TV Arab”, 1984) in the early 1980s found that over 80 percent of North Americans wrongly believe Iranians to be Arabs and to speak Arabic. This may explain in part the persistence of the “Hollywood Persian” image in the entertainment industry.
Addendum: Is there a Case of Institutionalized Discrimination against Iranians in Hollywood?
There are disturbing indications that a subtle form of racism has at times been applied in Hollywood against actors and extras of Iranian origin. A vivid example of this was demonstrated over 15 years ago during the filming of the action movie “The Hitman”, starring Chuck Norris, released in 1991.
A portion of the filming took place in North Vancouver, British Columbia in Canada in 1989-1990. The directors and Norris put ads in the local papers asking for Iranians to audition as extras for the movie. What happened next is as comical as it is tragic.
Many of the “Iranians” who showed up on the set proved to be a major disappointment to Norris. This is because, far from fitting into the popularized “Hollywood Persian” stereotype, the potential Iranian extras displayed a variety of phenotypes. The group included Iranians from the northern regions (Gilan, Mazandaran, Semnan, Talesh), the northwest (Azerbaijan) and the west (Lurs and Kurds) as well people from Isfahan and Tehran. Many of these could appear as “regular Americans” on the street or in your local shopping mall. The directors and Norris were very disappointed at this and were visibly upset. Here is an excerpt by one of the auditioning Iranian extras on the set (his identity withheld at his request):
“…the directors came to the set and were upset to see us. Among us were Mashadis of Turcomen background [with Central Asian/Far eastern appearance], Baluchis and more blondish types from the north and west…Norris and the directors said ‘what are these Caucasians doing on the set? I said I want ‘Iranian extras’ not Caucasians…Americans like to see real Iranians…”
The recruiters then explained that the “Caucasian” extras were natives of Iran from the north, Tehran and the northwest, but to no avail. Norris and the directors insisted on expelling the (so-called) “Caucasians” from the set. Similar reports have been reported by the aforementioned Jack Saheen with respect to Arab actors of Lebanese origin. Hollywood certainly is not free of human bias, seriously compromising any educational value of some of its “historical” releases. This leads us to the fantastic depiction of Xerxes himself:
If the portrayal “the Persians” is fictional, that of Xerxes has set new parameters for creativity. For a thorough analysis of the actual appearance of Xerxes, kindly consult Daniel Pourkesali’s article:
Movie 300: A Tale of Pure Fantasy
http://www.payvand.com/news/07/mar/1157.html
As noted astutely by Daniel Pourkesali, the movie’s portrayal of Xerxes is based faithfully on the graphic novel, but widely divergent with historical depictions of Xerxes. Below is his portrait as he appears in Persepolis:
An Iranian portrait of Xerxes
Below is another reconstruction by Professor Sekunda of Xerxes as he would have appeared in Greece.
Court Eunuch (left), King Xerxes (centre) and Royal Spearbearer (right) (Nick Sekunda, The Persian Army, Osprey Publications, 1992, Plate B; Paintings by Simon Chew).
Below is a Classical Greek depiction of Xerxes when he was still a prince in the court of his father, Darius the Great:
Greek depiction of Darius the Great (seated on throne in top row at centre) debating with his advisors as to whether he should invade Greece in 490 BC. Prince Xerxes is seen on the top row, second from the right.
The Miller/Warner Brothers portrayal of Xerxes and the way he would have historically appeared are literally as different as day and night. Professor Ephraim Lytle, a Hellenistic historian at the University of Toronto in Canada, has aptly summarized the picture’s portrayal of Xerxes and “the Persians”:
“300's Persians are ahistorical monsters and freaks. Xerxes is eight feet tall, clad chiefly in body piercings and garishly made up, but not disfigured. No need – it is strongly implied Xerxes is homosexual which, in the moral universe of 300, qualifies him for special freakhood.”
[Professor Ephraim Lytle, “Sparta? No. This is Madness”, The Toronto Sun, March 11, 2007]
(7) A Note on the Iranian Women in Antiquity
I received the following e-mail from “Pedram” which aptly summarizes this segment of our discussion: "Have you seen the movie? I have heard that it was so insulting to Persian women… "
The 300 movie certainly portrayed Iranian women as shallow, mindless “harem girl-objects”. This is even testified to in the trailer:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bCwT0TF6fa4
The portrayal of Iranian women in this movie is not only grossly inaccurate in historical terms, but also degrading, insulting to women in general. Again, this seems to be derived from a massive sense of ignorance regarding the role of Iranian women in history.
The women of ancient Iran were priestesses (i.e. Temple of Anahita), warriors, leaders and guardians of learning. While a detailed discussion is beyond the scope of this article, a few highlights will hopefully serve to arouse the interest of the readers.
Roman sources are very clear in referring to women among the ranks of the Iranian cavalry in the Sassanian era: “in the Persian army…there are said to have been found women also, dressed and armed like men…” [Zonaras (XII, 23, 595, 7-596, 9) in reference to forces of Shapur I]
King Shapur receives the surrender of Emperor Valerian at Barbalissos. Female Iranian cavalry officer (left), nobleman of the Suren clan (with tall “beaked” hat), Emperor Valerian (kneeling), Roman Senator (man with toga) and King Shapur I (right) (Farrokh, Elite Sassanian Cavalry, 2005, Plate A; Paintings by Angus McBride).
Iranian women organized resistance against the Arabian invaders of the Ummayad and later Abbassid caliphates after the fall of Sassanian Iran (or Persia) in the 7th century AD. Key figures include Apranik, the daughter of General Piran, as well as Azadeh, guerilla resistance leader of Gilan-Mazandaran in northern Iran, and Banu, the wife of the anti-Abassid rebel Babak Khurramdin who led a decades long anti-Caliphate movement from Iranian Azerbaijan (see Farrokh, Shadows in the Desert, 2007, Chapters 4-5).
Iranian women continued to play leadership roles well after the fall of Sassanian Iran (or Persia) to the Islamic invaders of Arabia in the 7th century AD. One example is the governess of Rayy, birthplace of the medical savant Rhazes (near modern Tehran):
Governess of Rayy (Farrokh, Elite Sassanian cavalry, 2005, p.60)
The equality of women with men in enshrined in the Zoroastrian religion itself. One the Zoroastrian fables refers to a conversation between Zoroaster and his daughter Freyne highlighting the fact that it is up to women to choose their mates for courtship and marriage.
(8) “Good” versus “Evil”
A short and final point has to do with the portrayal of “the Persians” as “evil”. In one of the earlier scenes, King Leonidas holds a dying boy who, in reference to the invading host, states softly that the Persians “…came from the blackness…”. It is very clear that “the Persians” are literally portrayed as “evil”.
The retort to this is that the movie is only faithfully reproducing the characters of a harmless comic book. But is it?
How would members of other ethnic communities worldwide feel if their ancestors were being portrayed as monsters, troglodytes, degenerates, and demons? These same producers would probably think twice if they were to portray other nationalities in the manner that they have done with the “Persians”. If my logic (flawed as it may be) is not mistaken, portraying Iranians as monsters, troglodytes, degenerates, and demons is “artistic entertainment”, but other nationalities are exempt from this “art form” as this would be “tasteless and politically incorrect” and would be regarded as a “hate crime”.
The targeting of specific ethnic groups with negative attributes in the name of entertainment dollars is dangerously misinformed and irresponsible. As noted earlier in this commentary, viewers and media outlets (especially in the English-speaking world) are already interpreting much of the movie in a “historical” light. The Greco-Persian wars evoke very intense emotions in northwest European culture, in some ways even more so than in modern-day Greece and Italy. The movie 300 has successfully capitalized on those very emotions in the quest for profit.
It is at this juncture of the discussion, where we must remind ourselves of one of Zoroaster’s chief teachings: Zoroaster taught that good and evil resides in all members of humanity, regardless of racial origin, ethnic membership or religious affiliation. Each person is given the choice between good and evil – it is up to us to choose between them.
= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
Having discussed the issues at length, it is hoped that the reader will appreciate the multifaceted and organic nature of human history. Nations, peoples and cultures have had a symbiotic relationship with one another through trade, cultural exchanges and war. It is these very processes that have shaped our identities and who we perceive ourselves to be today. As the size of our world diminishes daily due to the breathtaking leaps in technology and communications, it is all the more important to make the endeavor to understand history, not in terms of “east” versus “west”, but with the appreciation of human civilization being a collective.
Regards
Kaveh Farrokh
= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
Dr. Kaveh Farrokh is the author of “Sassanian Cavalry” (Osprey Publishing, 2005). He has lectured at the University of British Columbia as well as Stanford University and has appeared on the History Channel as an expert on ancient Iran. Dr. Farrokh is currently a member of the Iran Linguistics Society, the Persian Gulf preservation Society as well as the WAIS (World Association of International Studies) at Stanford University. His new book, “Shadows in the Desert: Persia at War” by Osprey Publishing is to be released in late April 2007. Available to order here:
http://www.ospreypublishing.com/title_detail.php/title=T1087
Bibliography
Notions of Democracy and Human Rights/What Really Led to War
Farrokh, K. (2007). Shadows in the Desert: Persia at War. London: Osprey Publishing Ltd.
Frye, R.N. (1962). The Heritage of Persia. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson.
Frye, R.N. (1984). History of Ancient Iran. Munich: C.H. Beck.
Moorey, P.R.S. (1975). Ancient Iran. Oxford: Ashmolean Museum.
Spatari. N. (2003).Calabria, L'enigma Delle Arti Asittite: Nella Calabria Ultramediterranea. Italy: MUSABA.
The Greco-Persian Wars and the Battle of Salamis
Cartledge, P. (2004). The Spartans. Random House
Cook, J.M. (1962). The Greeks in Ionia and the East. London: Thames & Hudson.
Farrokh, K. (2005). Elite Sassanian Cavalry. London: Osprey Publishing Ltd.
Farrokh, K. (2007). Shadows in the Desert: Persia at War. London: Osprey Publishing Ltd.
Head, D. (1992). The Achaemenid Persian Army. Stockport: Montvert Publications.
Holland, T. (2006). Persian Fire: The First World Empire and the Battle for the West. Doubleday Publishing.
Khorasani, M.M. (2006).Arms and Armor from Iran: The Bronze Age to end of the Qajar Period. Legat Verlag.
Sekunda, N. (1992). The Persian Army. London: Osprey Publishing Ltd.
Wallinga, H.T. (2005). Xerxes' Greek Adventure: The Naval Perspective. Leiden Brill Academic Publishers.
The Portrayal of Iranians and Greeks
Ewen, S. & Ewen, E. (2006). Typecasting: On the Arts and Sciences of Human Inequality. New York: Seven Stories Press.
Parenti, M. (1992). Make-Believe Media: The Politics of Entertainment. New York: St. Martin's Press.
Shaheen, J. (1984). The TV Arab. Bowling green, Ohio: Bowling Green State University Popular Press.
McChesney, R.W. (1997). Corporate Media and the Threat to Democracy. New York: Seven Stories Press.
See also on-line posting by Darius Kadivar:
Sword and Sandals: Films about Ancient Persia
http://www.iranian.com/DariusKadivar/2003/January/Bigger/index.html
Iranian Women
Interested readers may consult the following sources for further reading:
Brosius, M. (1998). Women in Ancient Persia: 559-333 BC. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Davis-Kimball, J. (2002). Warrior Women: An Archaeologist's Search for History's Hidden Heroines. Clayton, Victoria: Warner Books.
Farrokh, K. (2005). Elite Sassanian Cavalry. London: Osprey Publishing Ltd.
Farrokh, K. (2007). Shadows in the Desert: Persia at War. London: Osprey Publishing Ltd.
Winchester, B.P.P. (1930). The heroines of ancient Persia: Stories Retold from the Shahnama of Firdausi. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

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At the same time, slavery was practiced in all the Greek cities-states, even in so-called “democracies” such as Athens, where slaves accounted for the majority of the population, and in which only 8,000 out of 400,000 citizens had political rights.

The Persian army consisted exclusively of professionals and charitators, while on the Greek side hundreds of slaves, the so-called helots, were fighting.

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At the same time , slavery was practiced in all the Greek cities - states , even in so - called “ democracies ” such as Athens , where slaves accounted for the majority of the population , and in which only 8,000 out of 400,000 citizens had political rights .

The Persian army consisted exclusively of professionals and charitators , while on the Greek side hundreds of slaves , the so - called helots , were fighting .

Perzijska vojska sastojala se isključivo od profesionalaca i dragovoljaca, dok su na grčkoj strani ratovali stotine robova, tzv. helota.

At the same time, slavery was practiced in all the Greek cities-states, even in so-called “democracies” such as Athens, where slaves accounted for the majority of the population, and in which only 8,000 out of 400,000 citizens had political rights. The Persian army consisted exclusively of professionals and charitators, while on the Greek side hundreds of slaves, the so-called helots, were fighting.

At the same time, slavery was practiced in all the Greek cities-states, even in so-called “democracies” such as Athens, where slaves accounted for the majority of the population, and in which only 8,000 out of 400,000 citizens had political rights.

The Persian army consisted exclusively of professionals and charitators, while on the Greek side hundreds of slaves, the so-called helots, were fighting.

She has inspired numerous songs and quotes, books, movies, series and video games, and an important factor is the oral lecture.

TEHRAN, March 16 -- The Iranian Academy of Arts has prepared a declaration against onscreen Hollywood production of "300" to offer the UNESCO.
The film and cinema group of the academy has asked the UNESCO secretary to respond to the destructive acts of Hollywood in distorting history and culture of Iran which is one of the ancient civilizations in the world.
The declaration emphasizes that UNESCO is responsible to protect civilizations and cultural heritage of nations, and it should not be silent toward degrading nations through art and cinema.
UNESCO has prevented any threat of demolishing ancient sites, so it is expected to oppose destruction of historical identity of all nations in the form of film and cinema, reads part of declaration, adding that it is not less important than a monument's destruction.
The declaration also warns the art and cultural figures of other countries for intermingling art and cinema with political intentions to violate peaceful interactions of the nations.
The declaration is signed by Mohammad Beheshti, Dariush Mehrjuii, Mohammad-Mehdi Heidarian, Seifollah Daad, Manuchehr Tayyab, Majid Majidi, Mohammad-Ali Hossein-Nejad, Mojtaba Raii, Mehdi Organi and Mohammad-Ali Najafi.
The English and French versions of the text are ready and will be sent to the secretary of UNESCO.
Directed by Zack Snyder and based on the epic graphic novel by Frank Miller, '300' is a ferocious retelling of the ancient Battle of Thermopylae in which King Leonidas and 300 Spartans fought to the death against Xerxes and his massive Persian army. Facing insurmountable odds, their valor and sacrifice inspire all of Greece to unite against their Persian enemy, drawing a line in the sand for democracy.
300's Persians are ahistorical monsters and freaks. They are black creatures with bloody eyes looking like the terrorists of today. Xerxes is eight feet tall, clad chiefly in body piercings and garishly made up.

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She has inspired numerous songs and quotes , books , movies , series and video games , and an important factor is the oral lecture .

Among the most famous works of art are the 1962 film " 300 Spartans " and Frank Miller 's 2007 film " 300 " , which became very controversial due to the disturbance of Persian culture and the display of Persians as deformed blood - grow barbarians , which led to the Iranians protesting around the world ;

Inspirirala je nebrojene pjesme i citate, knjige, filmove, serije i videoigre, a važan čimbenik je i usmena predaja.

She has inspired numerous songs and quotes, books, movies, series and video games, and an important factor is the oral lecture. Among the most famous works of art are the 1962 film "300 Spartans" and Frank Miller's 2007 film "300", which became very controversial due to the disturbance of Persian culture and the display of Persians as deformed blood-grow barbarians, which led to the Iranians protesting around the world;

She has inspired numerous songs and quotes, books, movies, series and video games, and an important factor is the oral lecture.

The Battle of Thermopil has become an icon of western history since ancient times.

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The Battle of Thermopil has become an icon of western history since ancient times .

Bitka kod Termopila postala je ikona zapadne povijesti još od antičkog doba.

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The Battle of Thermopil has become an icon of western history since ancient times.

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External links Dr. Kaveh Farrokh: Screenshots on the film “300” EDSITEment

Curriculum: 300 Spartans in the Battle of Thermopil: Herodot's Rights Story (from the National Foundation for Humanities)

Five Great Battles of Antiquity by David L. Smith, Symposion Lectures, June 30, 2006.

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External links Dr. Kaveh Farrokh: Screenshots on the film “300” EDSITEment

Curriculum: 300 Spartans in the Battle of Thermopil: Herodot's Rights Story (from the National Foundation for Humanities)

Five Great Battles of Antiquity by David L. Smith, Symposion Lectures, June 30, 2006.

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External links Dr. Kaveh Farrokh : Screenshots on the film “ 300 ” EDSITEment

Curriculum : 300 Spartans in the Battle of Thermopil : Herodot 's Rights Story ( from the National Foundation for Humanities )

Five Great Battles of Antiquity by David L. Smith , Symposion Lectures , June 30 , 2006 .

Vanjske poveznice Dr. Kaveh Farrokh: Osvrt na film „300“ EDSITEment

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Pet velikih bitaka antike od Davida L. Smitha, Symposion Lectures , 30. lipanj 2006.

External links Dr. Kaveh Farrokh: Screenshots on the film “300” EDSITEment Curriculum: 300 Spartans in the Battle of Thermopil: Herodot's Rights Story (from the National Foundation for Humanities) Five Great Battles of Antiquity by David L. Smith, Symposion Lectures, June 30, 2006.

External links Dr. Kaveh Farrokh: Screenshots on the film “300” EDSITEment

Curriculum: 300 Spartans in the Battle of Thermopil: Herodot's Rights Story (from the National Foundation for Humanities)

Five Great Battles of Antiquity by David L. Smith, Symposion Lectures, June 30, 2006.

Click below to link to the available lectures:
Symposion alpha: The History of the English Language
Symposion beta: The Five Great Battles of Antiquity
Symposion gamma: The History of Anatomic Inquiry
Welcome to the Symposion Lectures Homepage
Here, you can view or download visual aids for the Lecture series.
Click below to link to the available lectures:
Symposion alpha: The History of the English Language
Symposion beta: The Five Great Battles of Antiquity
Symposion gamma: The History of Anatomic Inquiry

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Vanjske poveznice Dr . Kaveh Farrokh : Osvrt na

Vanjske poveznice Dr. Kaveh Farrokh: Osvrt na film „300“ EDSITEment

External links Dr. Kaveh Farrokh: Screenshots on the film “300” EDSITEment