The concept of God in Hinduism varies in its
diverse traditions. Hinduism spans a wide
range of beliefs such as henotheism, monotheism,
polytheism, panentheism, pantheism, pandeism,
monism, atheism and nontheism.Forms of theism
find mention in the Bhagavad Gita. Emotional
or loving devotion (bhakti) to a primary god
such as avatars of Vishnu (Krishna for example),
Shiva and Devi emerged in the early medieval
period, and is now known as Bhakti movement.
Other Hindus consider atman within every living
being to be same as Vishnu or Shiva or Devi,
or alternatively identical to the eternal
metaphysical Absolute called (Brahman) in
Hinduism. Such a philosophical system of Advaita
or non-dualism as it developed in the Vedanta
school of Hindu philosophy, especially as
set out in the Upanishads and popularised
by Adi Shankara in the 9th century has been
influential on Hinduism.The Dvaita tradition
founded by 13th/14th-century Madhvacharya
is based on a concept similar to God in major
world religions. His writings led some early
colonial-era Indologists such as George Abraham
Grierson to suggest Madhvacharya was influenced
by Christianity, but later scholarship has
rejected this theory. Madhva's historical
influence in Hinduism, state Kulandran and
Kraemer, has been salutary, but not extensive.
== Henotheism, kathenotheism, equitheism and
non-theism ==
Henotheism was the term used by scholars such
as Max Müller to describe the theology of
Vedic religion. Müller noted that the hymns
of the Rigveda, the oldest scripture of Hinduism,
mention many deities, but praises them successively
as the "one ultimate, supreme God", alternatively
as "one supreme Goddess", thereby asserting
that the essence of the deities was unitary
(ekam), and the deities were nothing but pluralistic
manifestations of the same concept of the
divine (God).The idea that there can be and
are plural perspectives for the same divine
or spiritual principle repeats in the Vedic
texts. For example, other than hymn 1.164
with this teaching, the more ancient hymn
5.3 of the Rigveda states:
You at your birth are Varuna, O Agni.
When you are kindled, you are Mitra.
In you, O son of strength, all gods are centered.
You are Indra to the mortal who brings oblation.
You are Aryaman, when you are regarded as
having
the mysterious names of maidens, O Self-sustainer.
Related terms to henotheism are monolatrism
and kathenotheism. The latter term is an extension
of "henotheism", from καθ' ἕνα θεόν
(kath' hena theon) — "one god at a time".
Henotheism refers to a pluralistic theology
wherein different deities are viewed to be
of a unitary, equivalent divine essence. Some
scholars prefer the term monolatry to henotheism,
to discuss religions where a single god is
central, but the existence or the position
of other gods is not denied. Another term
related to henotheism is "equitheism", referring
to the belief that all gods are equal.
The Vedic era conceptualization of the divine
or the One, states Jeaneane Fowler, is more
abstract than a monotheistic God, it is the
Reality behind and of the phenomenal universe.
The Vedic hymns treat it as "limitless, indescribable,
absolute principle", thus the Vedic divine
is something of a panentheism rather than
simple henotheism. In late Vedic era, around
the start of Upanishadic age (c. 800 BCE),
theosophical speculations emerge that develop
concepts which scholars variously call nondualism
or monism, as well as forms of non-theism
and pantheism. An example of the questioning
of the concept of God, in addition to henotheistic
hymns found therein, are in later portions
of the Rigveda, such as the Nasadiya Sukta.
Hinduism calls the metaphysical absolute concept
as Brahman, incorporating within it the transcendent
and immanent reality. Different schools of
thought interpret Brahman as either personal,
impersonal or transpersonal. Ishwar Chandra
Sharma describes it as "Absolute Reality,
beyond all dualities of existence and non-existence,
light and darkness, and of time, space and
cause".Influential ancient and medieval Hindu
philosophers, states philosophy professor
Roy Perrett, teach their spiritual ideas with
a world created ex nihilo and "effectively
manage without God altogether".
== Brahman ==
In Hinduism, Brahman connotes the highest
Universal Principle, the Ultimate Reality
in the universe. In major schools of Hindu
philosophy, it is the material, efficient,
formal and final cause of all that exists.
It is the pervasive, genderless, infinite,
eternal truth and bliss which does not change,
yet is the cause of all changes. Brahman as
a metaphysical concept is the single binding
unity behind the diversity in all that exists
in the universe.Brahman is a Vedic Sanskrit
word, and it is conceptualized in Hinduism,
states Paul Deussen, as the "creative principle
which lies realized in the whole world". Brahman
is a key concept found in the Vedas, and it
is extensively discussed in the early Upanishads.
The Vedas conceptualize Brahman as the Cosmic
Principle. In the Upanishads, it has been
variously described as Sat-cit-ānanda (truth-consciousness-bliss)
and as the unchanging, permanent, highest
reality.Brahman is discussed in Hindu texts
with the concept of Atman (Soul, Self), personal,
impersonal or Para Brahman, or in various
combinations of these qualities depending
on the philosophical school. In dualistic
schools of Hinduism such as the theistic Dvaita
Vedanta, Brahman is different from Atman (soul)
in each being, and therein it shares conceptual
framework of God in major world religions.
In non-dual schools of Hinduism such as the
monist Advaita Vedanta, Brahman is identical
to the Atman, Brahman is everywhere and inside
each living being, and there is connected
spiritual oneness in all existence.The Upanishads
contain several mahā-vākyas or "Great Sayings"
on the concept of Brahman:
=== Nirguna and Saguna ===
While Hinduism sub-schools such as Advaita
Vedanta emphasize the complete equivalence
of Brahman and Atman, they also expound on
Brahman as saguna Brahman—the Brahman with
attributes, and nirguna Brahman—the Brahman
without attributes. The nirguna Brahman is
the Brahman as it really is, however, the
saguna Brahman is posited as a means to realizing
nirguna Brahman, but the Hinduism schools
declare saguna Brahman to be ultimately illusory.
The concept of the saguna Brahman, such as
in the form of avatars, is considered in these
schools of Hinduism to be a useful symbolism,
path and tool for those who are still on their
spiritual journey, but the concept is finally
cast aside by the fully enlightened.The Bhakti
movement of Hinduism built its theosophy around
two concepts of Brahman—Nirguna and Saguna.
Nirguna Brahman was the concept of the Ultimate
Reality as formless, without attributes or
quality. Saguna Brahman, in contrast, was
envisioned and developed as with form, attributes
and quality. The two had parallels in the
ancient pantheistic unmanifest and theistic
manifest traditions, respectively, and traceable
to Arjuna-Krishna dialogue in the Bhagavad
Gita. It is the same Brahman, but viewed from
two perspectives: one from Nirguni knowledge-focus
and other from Saguni love-focus, united as
Krishna in the Gita. Nirguna bhakta's poetry
were Jnana-shrayi, or had roots in knowledge.
Saguna bhakta's poetry were Prema-shrayi,
or with roots in love. In Bhakti, the emphasis
is reciprocal love and devotion, where the
devotee loves God, and God loves the devotee.Nirguna
and Saguna Brahman concepts of the Bhakti
movement has been a baffling one to scholars,
particularly the Nirguni tradition because
it offers, states David Lorenzen, "heart-felt
devotion to a God without attributes, without
even any definable personality". Yet given
the "mountains of Nirguni bhakti literature",
adds Lorenzen, bhakti for Nirguna Brahman
has been a part of the reality of the Hindu
tradition along with the bhakti for Saguna
Brahman. These were two alternate ways of
imagining God during the bhakti movement.
== Ishvara ==
The Yogasutras of Patanjali use the term Ishvara
in 11 verses: I.23 through I.29, II.1, II.2,
II.32 and II.45. Ever since the Sutra's release,
Hindu scholars have debated and commented
on who or what is Isvara? These commentaries
range from defining Isvara from a "personal
god" to "special self" to "anything that has
spiritual significance to the individual".
Whicher explains that while Patanjali's terse
verses can be interpreted both as theistic
or non-theistic, Patanjali's concept of Isvara
in Yoga philosophy functions as a "transformative
catalyst or guide for aiding the yogin on
the path to spiritual emancipation".Patanjali
defines Isvara (Sanskrit: ईश्वर)
in verse 24 of Book 1, as "a special Self
(पुरुषविशेष, puruṣa-viśeṣa)",
Sanskrit: क्लेश कर्म विपाकाशयैःपरामृष्टः
पुरुषविशेष ईश्वरः
॥२४॥
– Yoga Sutras I.24
This sutra of Yoga philosophy of Hinduism
adds the characteristics of Isvara as that
special Self which is unaffected (अपरामृष्ट,
aparamrsta) by one's obstacles/hardships (क्लेश,
klesha), one's circumstances created by past
or one's current actions (कर्म, karma),
one's life fruits (विपाक, vipâka),
and one's psychological dispositions/intentions
(आशय, ashaya).Among various Bhakti path
practicing sects of Hinduism, which built
upon the Yoga school of Hinduism, Isvara can
also mean a specific deity such as Krishna,
Rama, Shiva, Lakshmi, Parvati and others.
== Madhvacharya's monotheistic God ==
Madhvacharya (1238–1317 CE) developed the
Dvaita theology wherein Vishnu was presented
as a monotheistic God, similar to major world
religions. His writings led some such as George
Abraham Grierson to suggest he was influenced
by Christianity.Madhvacharya was misperceived
and misrepresented by both Christian missionaries
and Hindu writers during the colonial era
scholarship. The similarities in the primacy
of one God, dualism and distinction between
man and God, devotion to God, the son of God
as the intermediary, predestination, the role
of grace in salvation, as well as the similarities
in the legends of miracles in Christianity
and Madhvacharya's Dvaita tradition fed these
stories. Among Christian writers, G. A. Grierson
creatively asserted that Madhva's ideas evidently
were "borrowed from Christianity, quite possibly
promulgated as a rival to the central doctrine
of that faith". Among Hindu writers, according
to Sarma, S. C. Vasu creatively translated
Madhvacharya's works to identify Madhvacharya
with Christ, rather than compare their ideas.Modern
scholarship rules out the influence of Christianity
on Madhvacharya, as there is no evidence that
there ever was a Christian settlement where
Madhvacharya grew up and lived, or that there
was a sharing or discussion of ideas between
someone with knowledge of the Bible and Christian
myths, and him.
== Svayam Bhagavan ==
Svayam Bhagavan, a Sanskrit theological term,
is the concept of absolute representation
of the monotheistic God as Bhagavan himself
within Hinduism.It is most often used in Gaudiya
Vaishnava Krishna-centered theology as referring
to Krishna. The title Svayam Bhagavan is used
exclusively to designate Krishna. Certain
other traditions of Hinduism consider him
to be the source of all avatars, and the source
of Vishnu himself, or to be the same as Narayana.
As such, he is therefore regarded as Svayam
Bhagavan.The term is seldom used to refer
to other forms of Krishna and Vishnu within
the context of certain religious texts such
as the Bhagavata Purana, and also within other
sects of Vaishnavism.
When Krishna is recognized to be Svayam Bhagavan,
it can be understood that this is the belief
of Gaudiya Vaishnavism, the Vallabha Sampradaya,
and the Nimbarka Sampradaya, where Krishna
is accepted to be the source of all other
avatars, and the source of Vishnu himself.
This belief is drawn primarily "from the famous
statement of the Bhagavatam"(1.3.28).A different
viewpoint, opposing this theological concept
is the concept of Krishna as an avatar of
Narayana or Vishnu. It should be however noted
that although it is usual to speak of Vishnu
as the source of the avataras, this is only
one of the names of god of Vaishnavism, who
is also known as Narayana, Vasudeva and Krishna
and behind each of those names there is a
divine figure with attributed supremacy in
Vaishnavism.The theological interpretation
of Svayam Bhagavān differs with each tradition
and the literal translation of the term has
been understood in several distinct ways.
Translated from the Sanskrit language, the
term literary means "Bhagavan Himself" or
"directly Bhagavan". Gaudiya Vaishnava tradition
often translates it within its perspective
as primeval Lord or original Personality of
Godhead, but also considers the terms such
as Supreme Personality of Godhead and Supreme
God as an equivalent to the term Svayam Bhagavan,
and may also choose to apply these terms to
Vishnu, Narayana and many of their associated
Avatars.Earlier commentators such as Madhvacharya
translated the term Svayam Bhagavan as "he
who has bhagavatta"; meaning "he who has the
quality of possessing all good qualities".
Others have translated it simply as "the Lord
Himself". Followers of Vishnu-centered sampradayas
of Vaishnavism rarely address this term, but
believe that it refers to their belief that
Krishna is among the highest and fullest of
all Avatars and is considered to be the "paripurna
Avatara", complete in all respects and the
same as the original. According to them Krishna
is described in the Bhagavata Purana as the
Purnavatara (or complete manifestation) of
the Bhagavan, while other incarnations are
called partial.
== See also ==
Adi parashakti
Brahma
Hindu views on monotheism
Soham (Sanskrit)
Svayam Bhagavan
Iṣṭa-devatā
Names of God
Conceptions of God
God in Theosophy (Blavatskian)
== Notes ==
== References ==
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== External links ==
The Idea of God in Hinduism, A. S. Woodburne
(1925), The Journal of Religion
GRETIL etext: The transliterated Sanskrit
text for the entire work – Bhagavata Purana
(uni-goettingen.de)
Srimad Bhagavatam – glories, subjects, dating,
concordance to Vedanta-sutra
