Electrical engineering is a professional engineering
discipline that generally deals with the study
and application of electricity, electronics,
and electromagnetism. This field first became
an identifiable occupation in the later half
of the 19th century after commercialization
of the electric telegraph, the telephone,
and electric power distribution and use. Subsequently,
broadcasting and recording media made electronics
part of daily life. The invention of the transistor,
and later the integrated circuit, brought
down the cost of electronics to the point
they can be used in almost any household object.
Electrical engineering has now subdivided
into a wide range of subfields including electronics,
digital computers, computer engineering, power
engineering, telecommunications, control systems,
robotics, radio-frequency engineering, signal
processing, instrumentation, and microelectronics.
Many of these subdisciplines overlap with
other engineering branches, spanning a huge
number of specializations such as hardware
engineering, power electronics, electromagnetics
& waves, microwave engineering, nanotechnology,
electrochemistry, renewable energies, mechatronics,
electrical materials science, and much more.
See glossary of electrical and electronics
engineering.
Electrical engineers typically hold a degree
in electrical engineering or electronic engineering.
Practicing engineers may have professional
certification and be members of a professional
body. Such bodies include the Institute of
Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
and the Institution of Engineering and Technology
(IET) (formerly the IEE).
Electrical engineers work in a very wide range
of industries and the skills required are
likewise variable. These range from basic
circuit theory to the management skills required
of a project manager. The tools and equipment
that an individual engineer may need are similarly
variable, ranging from a simple voltmeter
to a top end analyzer to sophisticated design
and manufacturing software.
== History ==
Electricity has been a subject of scientific
interest since at least the early 17th century.
William Gilbert was a prominent early electrical
scientist, and was the first to draw a clear
distinction between magnetism and static electricity.
He is credited with establishing the term
"electricity". He also designed the versorium:
a device that detects the presence of statically
charged objects. In 1762 Swedish professor
Johan Carl Wilcke invented a device later
named electrophorus that produced a static
electric charge. By 1800 Alessandro Volta
had developed the voltaic pile, a forerunner
of the electric battery
=== 19th century ===
In the 19th century, research into the subject
started to intensify. Notable developments
in this century include the work of Georg
Ohm, who in 1827 quantified the relationship
between the electric current and potential
difference in a conductor, of Michael Faraday
(the discoverer of electromagnetic induction
in 1831), and of James Clerk Maxwell, who
in 1873 published a unified theory of electricity
and magnetism in his treatise Electricity
and Magnetism.Electrical engineering became
a profession in the later 19th century. Practitioners
had created a global electric telegraph network
and the first professional electrical engineering
institutions were founded in the UK and USA
to support the new discipline. Although it
is impossible to precisely pinpoint a first
electrical engineer, Francis Ronalds stands
ahead of the field, who created the first
working electric telegraph system in 1816
and documented his vision of how the world
could be transformed by electricity. Over
50 years later, he joined the new Society
of Telegraph Engineers (soon to be renamed
the Institution of Electrical Engineers) where
he was regarded by other members as the first
of their cohort. By the end of the 19th century,
the world had been forever changed by the
rapid communication made possible by the engineering
development of land-lines, submarine cables,
and, from about 1890, wireless telegraphy.
Practical applications and advances in such
fields created an increasing need for standardised
units of measure. They led to the international
standardization of the units volt, ampere,
coulomb, ohm, farad, and henry. This was achieved
at an international conference in Chicago
in 1893. The publication of these standards
formed the basis of future advances in standardisation
in various industries, and in many countries,
the definitions were immediately recognized
in relevant legislation.During these years,
the study of electricity was largely considered
to be a subfield of physics since the early
electrical technology was considered electromechanical
in nature. The Technische Universität Darmstadt
founded the world's first department of electrical
engineering in 1882. The first electrical
engineering degree program was started at
Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT)
in the physics department under Professor
Charles Cross, though it was Cornell University
to produce the world's first electrical engineering
graduates in 1885. The first course in electrical
engineering was taught in 1883 in Cornell’s
Sibley College of Mechanical Engineering and
Mechanic Arts. It was not until about 1885
that Cornell President Andrew Dickson White
established the first Department of Electrical
Engineering in the United States. In the same
year, University College London founded the
first chair of electrical engineering in Great
Britain. Professor Mendell P. Weinbach at
University of Missouri soon followed suit
by establishing the electrical engineering
department in 1886. Afterwards, universities
and institutes of technology gradually started
to offer electrical engineering programs to
their students all over the world.
During these decades use of electrical engineering
increased dramatically. In 1882, Thomas Edison
switched on the world's first large-scale
electric power network that provided 110 volts
— direct current (DC) — to 59 customers
on Manhattan Island in New York City. In 1884,
Sir Charles Parsons invented the steam turbine
allowing for more efficient electric power
generation. Alternating current, with its
ability to transmit power more efficiently
over long distances via the use of transformers,
developed rapidly in the 1880s and 1890s with
transformer designs by Károly Zipernowsky,
Ottó Bláthy and Miksa Déri (later called
ZBD transformers), Lucien Gaulard, John Dixon
Gibbs and William Stanley, Jr.. Practical
AC motor designs including induction motors
were independently invented by Galileo Ferraris
and Nikola Tesla and further developed into
a practical three-phase form by Mikhail Dolivo-Dobrovolsky
and Charles Eugene Lancelot Brown. Charles
Steinmetz and Oliver Heaviside contributed
to the theoretical basis of alternating current
engineering. The spread in the use of AC set
off in the United States what has been called
the War of Currents between a George Westinghouse
backed AC system and a Thomas Edison backed
DC power system, with AC being adopted as
the overall standard.
=== More modern developments ===
During the development of radio, many scientists
and inventors contributed to radio technology
and electronics. The mathematical work of
James Clerk Maxwell during the 1850s had shown
the relationship of different forms of electromagnetic
radiation including possibility of invisible
airborne waves (later called "radio waves").
In his classic physics experiments of 1888,
Heinrich Hertz proved Maxwell's theory by
transmitting radio waves with a spark-gap
transmitter, and detected them by using simple
electrical devices. Other physicists experimented
with these new waves and in the process developed
devices for transmitting and detecting them.
In 1895, Guglielmo Marconi began work on a
way to adapt the known methods of transmitting
and detecting these "Hertzian waves" into
a purpose built commercial wireless telegraphic
system. Early on, he sent wireless signals
over a distance of one and a half miles. In
December 1901, he sent wireless waves that
were not affected by the curvature of the
Earth. Marconi later transmitted the wireless
signals across the Atlantic between Poldhu,
Cornwall, and St. John's, Newfoundland, a
distance of 2,100 miles (3,400 km).In 1897,
Karl Ferdinand Braun introduced the cathode
ray tube as part of an oscilloscope, a crucial
enabling technology for electronic television.
John Fleming invented the first radio tube,
the diode, in 1904. Two years later, Robert
von Lieben and Lee De Forest independently
developed the amplifier tube, called the triode.In
1920, Albert Hull developed the magnetron
which would eventually lead to the development
of the microwave oven in 1946 by Percy Spencer.
In 1934, the British military began to make
strides toward radar (which also uses the
magnetron) under the direction of Dr Wimperis,
culminating in the operation of the first
radar station at Bawdsey in August 1936.In
1941, Konrad Zuse presented the Z3, the world's
first fully functional and programmable computer
using electromechanical parts. In 1943, Tommy
Flowers designed and built the Colossus, the
world's first fully functional, electronic,
digital and programmable computer. In 1946,
the ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator
and Computer) of John Presper Eckert and John
Mauchly followed, beginning the computing
era. The arithmetic performance of these machines
allowed engineers to develop completely new
technologies and achieve new objectives, including
the Apollo program which culminated in landing
astronauts on the Moon.
=== Solid-state electronics ===
The invention of the transistor in late 1947
by William Shockley, John Bardeen, and Walter
Brattain of the Bell Telephone Laboratories
opened the door for more compact devices and
led to the development of the integrated circuit
in 1958 by Jack Kilby and independently in
1959 by Robert Noyce.The microprocessor was
introduced with the Intel 4004. It began with
the "Busicom Project" as Masatoshi Shima's
three-chip CPU design in 1968, before Sharp's
Tadashi Sasaki conceived of a single-chip
CPU design, which he discussed with Busicom
and Intel in 1968. The Intel 4004 was then
developed as a single-chip microprocessor
from 1969 to 1970, led by Intel's Marcian
Hoff and Federico Faggin and Busicom's Masatoshi
Shima. The microprocessor led to the development
of microcomputers and personal computers,
and the microcomputer revolution.
== Subdisciplines ==
Electrical engineering has many subdisciplines,
the most common of which are listed below.
Although there are electrical engineers who
focus exclusively on one of these subdisciplines,
many deal with a combination of them. Sometimes
certain fields, such as electronic engineering
and computer engineering, are considered separate
disciplines in their own right.
=== Power ===
Power engineering deals with the generation,
transmission, and distribution of electricity
as well as the design of a range of related
devices. These include transformers, electric
generators, electric motors, high voltage
engineering, and power electronics. In many
regions of the world, governments maintain
an electrical network called a power grid
that connects a variety of generators together
with users of their energy. Users purchase
electrical energy from the grid, avoiding
the costly exercise of having to generate
their own. Power engineers may work on the
design and maintenance of the power grid as
well as the power systems that connect to
it. Such systems are called on-grid power
systems and may supply the grid with additional
power, draw power from the grid, or do both.
Power engineers may also work on systems that
do not connect to the grid, called off-grid
power systems, which in some cases are preferable
to on-grid systems. The future includes Satellite
controlled power systems, with feedback in
real time to prevent power surges and prevent
blackouts.
=== Control ===
Control engineering focuses on the modeling
of a diverse range of dynamic systems and
the design of controllers that will cause
these systems to behave in the desired manner.
To implement such controllers, electrical
engineers may use electronic circuits, digital
signal processors, microcontrollers, and programmable
logic controllers (PLCs). Control engineering
has a wide range of applications from the
flight and propulsion systems of commercial
airliners to the cruise control present in
many modern automobiles. It also plays an
important role in industrial automation.
Control engineers often utilize feedback when
designing control systems. For example, in
an automobile with cruise control the vehicle's
speed is continuously monitored and fed back
to the system which adjusts the motor's power
output accordingly. Where there is regular
feedback, control theory can be used to determine
how the system responds to such feedback.
=== Electronics ===
Electronic engineering involves the design
and testing of electronic circuits that use
the properties of components such as resistors,
capacitors, inductors, diodes, and transistors
to achieve a particular functionality. The
tuned circuit, which allows the user of a
radio to filter out all but a single station,
is just one example of such a circuit. Another
example to research is a pneumatic signal
conditioner.
Prior to the Second World War, the subject
was commonly known as radio engineering and
basically was restricted to aspects of communications
and radar, commercial radio, and early television.
Later, in post war years, as consumer devices
began to be developed, the field grew to include
modern television, audio systems, computers,
and microprocessors. In the mid-to-late 1950s,
the term radio engineering gradually gave
way to the name electronic engineering.
Before the invention of the integrated circuit
in 1959, electronic circuits were constructed
from discrete components that could be manipulated
by humans. These discrete circuits consumed
much space and power and were limited in speed,
although they are still common in some applications.
By contrast, integrated circuits packed a
large number—often millions—of tiny electrical
components, mainly transistors, into a small
chip around the size of a coin. This allowed
for the powerful computers and other electronic
devices we see today.
=== Microelectronics ===
Microelectronics engineering deals with the
design and microfabrication of very small
electronic circuit components for use in an
integrated circuit or sometimes for use on
their own as a general electronic component.
The most common microelectronic components
are semiconductor transistors, although all
main electronic components (resistors, capacitors
etc.) can be created at a microscopic level.
Nanoelectronics is the further scaling of
devices down to nanometer levels. Modern devices
are already in the nanometer regime, with
below 100 nm processing having been standard
since around 2002.Microelectronic components
are created by chemically fabricating wafers
of semiconductors such as silicon (at higher
frequencies, compound semiconductors like
gallium arsenide and indium phosphide) to
obtain the desired transport of electronic
charge and control of current. The field of
microelectronics involves a significant amount
of chemistry and material science and requires
the electronic engineer working in the field
to have a very good working knowledge of the
effects of quantum mechanics.
=== Signal processing ===
Signal processing deals with the analysis
and manipulation of signals. Signals can be
either analog, in which case the signal varies
continuously according to the information,
or digital, in which case the signal varies
according to a series of discrete values representing
the information. For analog signals, signal
processing may involve the amplification and
filtering of audio signals for audio equipment
or the modulation and demodulation of signals
for telecommunications. For digital signals,
signal processing may involve the compression,
error detection and error correction of digitally
sampled signals.Signal Processing is a very
mathematically oriented and intensive area
forming the core of digital signal processing
and it is rapidly expanding with new applications
in every field of electrical engineering such
as communications, control, radar, audio engineering,
broadcast engineering, power electronics,
and biomedical engineering as many already
existing analog systems are replaced with
their digital counterparts. Analog signal
processing is still important in the design
of many control systems.
DSP processor ICs are found in many types
of modern electronic devices, such as digital
television sets, radios, Hi-Fi audio equipment,
mobile phones, multimedia players, camcorders
and digital cameras, automobile control systems,
noise cancelling headphones, digital spectrum
analyzers, missile guidance systems, radar
systems, and telematics systems. In such products,
DSP may be responsible for noise reduction,
speech recognition or synthesis, encoding
or decoding digital media, wirelessly transmitting
or receiving data, triangulating position
using GPS, and other kinds of image processing,
video processing, audio processing, and speech
processing.
=== Telecommunications ===
Telecommunications engineering focuses on
the transmission of information across a communication
channel such as a coax cable, optical fiber
or free space. Transmissions across free space
require information to be encoded in a carrier
signal to shift the information to a carrier
frequency suitable for transmission; this
is known as modulation. Popular analog modulation
techniques include amplitude modulation and
frequency modulation. The choice of modulation
affects the cost and performance of a system
and these two factors must be balanced carefully
by the engineer.
Once the transmission characteristics of a
system are determined, telecommunication engineers
design the transmitters and receivers needed
for such systems. These two are sometimes
combined to form a two-way communication device
known as a transceiver. A key consideration
in the design of transmitters is their power
consumption as this is closely related to
their signal strength. If the signal strength
of a transmitter is insufficient the signal's
information will be corrupted by noise.
=== Instrumentation ===
Instrumentation engineering deals with the
design of devices to measure physical quantities
such as pressure, flow, and temperature. The
design of such instruments requires a good
understanding of physics that often extends
beyond electromagnetic theory. For example,
flight instruments measure variables such
as wind speed and altitude to enable pilots
the control of aircraft analytically. Similarly,
thermocouples use the Peltier-Seebeck effect
to measure the temperature difference between
two points.Often instrumentation is not used
by itself, but instead as the sensors of larger
electrical systems. For example, a thermocouple
might be used to help ensure a furnace's temperature
remains constant. For this reason, instrumentation
engineering is often viewed as the counterpart
of control.
=== Computers ===
Computer engineering deals with the design
of computers and computer systems. This may
involve the design of new hardware, the design
of PDAs, tablets, and supercomputers, or the
use of computers to control an industrial
plant. Computer engineers may also work on
a system's software. However, the design of
complex software systems is often the domain
of software engineering, which is usually
considered a separate discipline. Desktop
computers represent a tiny fraction of the
devices a computer engineer might work on,
as computer-like architectures are now found
in a range of devices including video game
consoles and DVD players.
=== Related disciplines ===
Mechatronics is an engineering discipline
which deals with the convergence of electrical
and mechanical systems. Such combined systems
are known as electromechanical systems and
have widespread adoption. Examples include
automated manufacturing systems, heating,
ventilation and air-conditioning systems,
and various subsystems of aircraft and automobiles.
Electronic systems design is the subject within
electrical engineering that deals with the
multi-disciplinary design issues of complex
electrical and mechanical systems.The term
mechatronics is typically used to refer to
macroscopic systems but futurists have predicted
the emergence of very small electromechanical
devices. Already, such small devices, known
as Microelectromechanical systems (MEMS),
are used in automobiles to tell airbags when
to deploy, in digital projectors to create
sharper images, and in inkjet printers to
create nozzles for high definition printing.
In the future it is hoped the devices will
help build tiny implantable medical devices
and improve optical communication.Biomedical
engineering is another related discipline,
concerned with the design of medical equipment.
This includes fixed equipment such as ventilators,
MRI scanners, and electrocardiograph monitors
as well as mobile equipment such as cochlear
implants, artificial pacemakers, and artificial
hearts.
Aerospace engineering and robotics an example
is the most recent electric propulsion and
ion propulsion.
== Education ==
Electrical engineers typically possess an
academic degree with a major in electrical
engineering, electronics engineering, electrical
engineering technology, or electrical and
electronic engineering. The same fundamental
principles are taught in all programs, though
emphasis may vary according to title. The
length of study for such a degree is usually
four or five years and the completed degree
may be designated as a Bachelor of Science
in Electrical/Electronics Engineering Technology,
Bachelor of Engineering, Bachelor of Science,
Bachelor of Technology, or Bachelor of Applied
Science depending on the university. The bachelor's
degree generally includes units covering physics,
mathematics, computer science, project management,
and a variety of topics in electrical engineering.
Initially such topics cover most, if not all,
of the subdisciplines of electrical engineering.
At some schools, the students can then choose
to emphasize one or more subdisciplines towards
the end of their courses of study.
At many schools, electronic engineering is
included as part of an electrical award, sometimes
explicitly, such as a Bachelor of Engineering
(Electrical and Electronic), but in others
electrical and electronic engineering are
both considered to be sufficiently broad and
complex that separate degrees are offered.Some
electrical engineers choose to study for a
postgraduate degree such as a Master of Engineering/Master
of Science (M.Eng./M.Sc.), a Master of Engineering
Management, a Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.)
in Engineering, an Engineering Doctorate (Eng.D.),
or an Engineer's degree. The master's and
engineer's degrees may consist of either research,
coursework or a mixture of the two. The Doctor
of Philosophy and Engineering Doctorate degrees
consist of a significant research component
and are often viewed as the entry point to
academia. In the United Kingdom and some other
European countries, Master of Engineering
is often considered to be an undergraduate
degree of slightly longer duration than the
Bachelor of Engineering rather than postgraduate.
== Practicing engineers ==
In most countries, a bachelor's degree in
engineering represents the first step towards
professional certification and the degree
program itself is certified by a professional
body. After completing a certified degree
program the engineer must satisfy a range
of requirements (including work experience
requirements) before being certified. Once
certified the engineer is designated the title
of Professional Engineer (in the United States,
Canada and South Africa), Chartered Engineer
or Incorporated Engineer (in India, Pakistan,
the United Kingdom, Ireland and Zimbabwe),
Chartered Professional Engineer (in Australia
and New Zealand) or European Engineer (in
much of the European Union).
The advantages of licensure vary depending
upon location. For example, in the United
States and Canada "only a licensed engineer
may seal engineering work for public and private
clients". This requirement is enforced by
state and provincial legislation such as Quebec's
Engineers Act. In other countries, no such
legislation exists. Practically all certifying
bodies maintain a code of ethics that they
expect all members to abide by or risk expulsion.
In this way these organizations play an important
role in maintaining ethical standards for
the profession. Even in jurisdictions where
certification has little or no legal bearing
on work, engineers are subject to contract
law. In cases where an engineer's work fails
he or she may be subject to the tort of negligence
and, in extreme cases, the charge of criminal
negligence. An engineer's work must also comply
with numerous other rules and regulations,
such as building codes and legislation pertaining
to environmental law.
Professional bodies of note for electrical
engineers include the Institute of Electrical
and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and the Institution
of Engineering and Technology (IET). The IEEE
claims to produce 30% of the world's literature
in electrical engineering, has over 360,000
members worldwide and holds over 3,000 conferences
annually. The IET publishes 21 journals, has
a worldwide membership of over 150,000, and
claims to be the largest professional engineering
society in Europe. Obsolescence of technical
skills is a serious concern for electrical
engineers. Membership and participation in
technical societies, regular reviews of periodicals
in the field and a habit of continued learning
are therefore essential to maintaining proficiency.
An MIET(Member of the Institution of Engineering
and Technology) is recognised in Europe as
an Electrical and computer (technology) engineer.In
Australia, Canada, and the United States electrical
engineers make up around 0.25% of the labor
force (see note).
== Tools and work ==
From the Global Positioning System to electric
power generation, electrical engineers have
contributed to the development of a wide range
of technologies. They design, develop, test,
and supervise the deployment of electrical
systems and electronic devices. For example,
they may work on the design of telecommunication
systems, the operation of electric power stations,
the lighting and wiring of buildings, the
design of household appliances, or the electrical
control of industrial machinery.
Fundamental to the discipline are the sciences
of physics and mathematics as these help to
obtain both a qualitative and quantitative
description of how such systems will work.
Today most engineering work involves the use
of computers and it is commonplace to use
computer-aided design programs when designing
electrical systems. Nevertheless, the ability
to sketch ideas is still invaluable for quickly
communicating with others.
Although most electrical engineers will understand
basic circuit theory (that is the interactions
of elements such as resistors, capacitors,
diodes, transistors, and inductors in a circuit),
the theories employed by engineers generally
depend upon the work they do. For example,
quantum mechanics and solid state physics
might be relevant to an engineer working on
VLSI (the design of integrated circuits),
but are largely irrelevant to engineers working
with macroscopic electrical systems. Even
circuit theory may not be relevant to a person
designing telecommunication systems that use
off-the-shelf components. Perhaps the most
important technical skills for electrical
engineers are reflected in university programs,
which emphasize strong numerical skills, computer
literacy, and the ability to understand the
technical language and concepts that relate
to electrical engineering.
A wide range of instrumentation is used by
electrical engineers. For simple control circuits
and alarms, a basic multimeter measuring voltage,
current, and resistance may suffice. Where
time-varying signals need to be studied, the
oscilloscope is also an ubiquitous instrument.
In RF engineering and high frequency telecommunications,
spectrum analyzers and network analyzers are
used. In some disciplines, safety can be a
particular concern with instrumentation. For
instance, medical electronics designers must
take into account that much lower voltages
than normal can be dangerous when electrodes
are directly in contact with internal body
fluids. Power transmission engineering also
has great safety concerns due to the high
voltages used; although voltmeters may in
principle be similar to their low voltage
equivalents, safety and calibration issues
make them very different. Many disciplines
of electrical engineering use tests specific
to their discipline. Audio electronics engineers
use audio test sets consisting of a signal
generator and a meter, principally to measure
level but also other parameters such as harmonic
distortion and noise. Likewise, information
technology have their own test sets, often
specific to a particular data format, and
the same is true of television broadcasting.
For many engineers, technical work accounts
for only a fraction of the work they do. A
lot of time may also be spent on tasks such
as discussing proposals with clients, preparing
budgets and determining project schedules.
Many senior engineers manage a team of technicians
or other engineers and for this reason project
management skills are important. Most engineering
projects involve some form of documentation
and strong written communication skills are
therefore very important.
The workplaces of engineers are just as varied
as the types of work they do. Electrical engineers
may be found in the pristine lab environment
of a fabrication plant, onboard a Naval ship,
the offices of a consulting firm or on site
at a mine. During their working life, electrical
engineers may find themselves supervising
a wide range of individuals including scientists,
electricians, computer programmers, and other
engineers.Electrical engineering has an intimate
relationship with the physical sciences. For
instance, the physicist Lord Kelvin played
a major role in the engineering of the first
transatlantic telegraph cable. Conversely,
the engineer Oliver Heaviside produced major
work on the mathematics of transmission on
telegraph cables. Electrical engineers are
often required on major science projects.
For instance, large particle accelerators
such as CERN need electrical engineers to
deal with many aspects of the project: from
the power distribution, to the instrumentation,
to the manufacture and installation of the
superconducting electromagnets.
== See also ==
== Notes ==
Note I - In May 2014 there were around 175,000
people working as electrical engineers in
the US. In 2012, Australia had around 19,000
while in Canada, there were around 37,000
(as of 2007), constituting about 0.2% of the
labour force in each of the three countries.
Australia and Canada reported that 96% and
88% of their electrical engineers respectively
are male.
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== Further reading ==
Adhami, Reza; Meenen, Peter M.; Hite, Denis
(2007). Fundamental Concepts in Electrical
and Computer Engineering with Practical Design
Problems. Universal-Publishers. ISBN 978-1-58112-971-7.
Bober, William; Stevens, Andrew (27 August
2012). Numerical and Analytical Methods with
MATLAB for Electrical Engineers. CRC Press.
ISBN 978-1-4398-5429-7.
Bobrow, Leonard S. (1996). Fundamentals of
Electrical Engineering. Oxford University
Press. ISBN 978-0-19-510509-4.
Chen, Wai Kai (16 November 2004). The Electrical
Engineering Handbook. Academic Press. ISBN
978-0-08-047748-0.
Ciuprina, G.; Ioan, D. (30 May 2007). Scientific
Computing in Electrical Engineering. Springer.
ISBN 978-3-540-71980-9.
Faria, J. A. Brandao (15 September 2008).
Electromagnetic Foundations of 
Electrical Engineering. John Wiley & Sons.
ISBN 978-0-470-69748-1.
Jones, Lincoln D. (July 2004). Electrical
Engineering: Problems and Solutions. Dearborn
Trade Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4195-2131-7.
Karalis, Edward (18 September 2003). 350 Solved
Electrical Engineering Problems. Dearborn
Trade Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7931-8511-5.
Krawczyk, Andrzej; Wiak, S. (1 January 2002).
Electromagnetic Fields in 
Electrical Engineering. IOS Press. ISBN 978-1-58603-232-6.
Laplante, Phillip A. (31 December 1999). Comprehensive
Dictionary of Electrical Engineering. Springer.
ISBN 978-3-540-64835-2.
Leon-Garcia, Alberto (2008). Probability,
Statistics, and Random Processes for Electrical
Engineering. Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-147122-1.
Malaric, Roman (2011). Instrumentation and
Measurement in Electrical Engineering. Universal-Publishers.
ISBN 978-1-61233-500-1.
Sahay, Kuldeep; Sahay, Shivendra Pathak, Kuldeep
(1 January 2006). Basic Concepts of Electrical
Engineering. New Age International. ISBN 978-81-224-1836-1.
Srinivas, Kn (1 January 2007). Basic Electrical
Engineering. I. K. International Pvt Ltd.
ISBN 978-81-89866-34-1.
== External links ==
International Electrotechnical Commission
(IEC)
MIT OpenCourseWare in-depth look at Electrical
Engineering - online courses with video lectures.
IEEE Global History Network A wiki-based site
with many resources about the history of IEEE,
its members, their professions and electrical
and informational technologies and sciences.
