Śramaṇa (Sanskrit: श्रमण; Pali:
samaṇa) means "one who labors, toils, or
exerts themselves (for some higher or religious
purpose)" or "seeker, one who performs acts
of austerity, ascetic". The term in the early
Vedic literature is predominantly used as
an epithet for the Rishis with reference to
Shrama associated with the ritualistic exertion.
The term in these texts doesn't express non-Vedic
connotations as it does in post-Vedic Buddhist
and Jain canonical texts. During its later
semantic development, the term came to refer
to several non-Brahmanical ascetic movements
parallel to but separate from the Vedic religion.
The śramaṇa tradition includes Jainism,
Buddhism, and others such as the Ājīvikas,
Ajñanas and Cārvākas.The śramaṇa movements
arose in the same circles of mendicants in
ancient India that led to the development
of yogic practices, as well as the popular
concepts in all major Indian religions such
as saṃsāra (the cycle of birth and death)
and moksha (liberation from that cycle).The
Śramaṇic traditions have a diverse range
of beliefs, ranging from accepting or denying
the concept of soul, fatalism to free will,
idealization of extreme asceticism to that
of family life, wearing dress to complete
nudity in daily social life, strict ahimsa
(non-violence) and vegetarianism to permissibility
of violence and meat-eating.
== Etymology and origin ==
One of the earliest recorded uses of the word
śramaṇa, in the sense of a mendicant, is
in verse 4.3.22 of the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad
composed by about the 8th century BCE. The
concept of renunciation and monk-like lifestyle
is found in Vedic literature, with terms such
as yatis, rishis, and śramaṇas. The Vedic
literature from pre-1000 BCE era, mentions
Muni (मुनि, monks, mendicants, holy
man). Rig Veda, for example, in Book 10 Chapter
136, mentions mendicants as those with kēśin
(केशिन्, long-haired) and mala
clothes (मल, dirty, soil-colored, yellow,
orange, saffron) engaged in the affairs of
mananat (mind, meditation).
The hymn uses the term vātaraśana (वातरशन)
which means "girdled with wind". Some scholars
have interpreted this to mean "sky-clad, naked
monk" and therefore a synonym for Digambara
(a Jainism sect). However, other scholars
state that this could not be the correct interpretation
because it is inconsistent with the words
that immediately follow, "wearing soil-hued
garments". The context likely means that the
poet is describing the "munis" as moving like
the wind, their garments pressed by the wind.
According to Olivelle, it is unlikely that
the vātaraśana implies a class within the
Vedic context.The earliest known explicit
use of the term śramaṇa is found in section
2.7 of the Taittiriya Aranyaka, a layer within
the Yajurveda (~1000 BCE, a scripture of Hinduism).
It mentions śramaṇa Rishis and celibate
Rishis.Buddhist commentaries associate the
word's etymology with the quieting (samita)
of evil (pāpa) as in the following phrase
from the 3rd century BCE Dhammapada, verse
265: samitattā pāpānaŋ ʻsamaṇoʼ ti
pavuccati ("someone who has pacified evil
is called samaṇa").The word śramaṇa is
postulated to be derived from the verbal root
śram, meaning "to exert effort, labor or
to perform austerity". The history of wandering
monks in ancient India is partly untraceable.
The term 'parivrajaka' was perhaps applicable
to all the peripatetic monks of India, such
as those found in Buddhism, Jainism and Hinduism.The
śramaṇa refers to a variety of renunciate
ascetic traditions from the middle of the
1st millennium BCE. The śramaṇas were individual,
experiential and free-form traditions. The
term "śramaṇas" is used sometimes to contrast
them with "Brahmins" in terms of their religious
models. Part of the śramaṇa tradition retained
their distinct identity from Hinduism by rejecting
the epistemic authority of the Vedas, while
a part of the śramaṇa tradition became
part of Hinduism as one stage in the Ashrama
dharma, that is as renunciate sannyasins.Pali
samaṇa has been suggested as the ultimate
origin of the word Evenki сама̄н (samān)
"shaman", possibly via Middle Chinese or Tocharian
B; however, the etymology of this word, which
is also found in other Tungusic languages,
is controversial (see Shamanism § Etymology).
== History ==
Several śramaṇa movements are known to
have existed in India before the 6th century
BCE (pre-Buddha, pre-Mahavira), and these
influenced both the āstika and nāstika traditions
of Indian philosophy. Martin Wiltshire states
that the Śramaṇa tradition evolved in India
over two phases, namely Paccekabuddha and
Savaka phases, the former being the tradition
of individual ascetic and latter of disciples,
and that Buddhism and Jainism ultimately emerged
from these as sectarian manifestations. These
traditions drew upon already established Brahmanical
concepts, states Wiltshire, to formulate their
own doctrines. Reginald Ray concurs that Śramaṇa
movements already existed and were established
traditions in pre-6th century BCE India, but
disagrees with Wiltshire that they were nonsectarian
before the arrival of Buddha.According to
the Jain Agamas and the Buddhist Pāli Canon,
there were other śramaṇa leaders at the
time of Buddha. In the Mahāparinibbāna Sutta
(DN 16), a śramaṇa named Subhadda mentions:
...those ascetics, samaṇa and Brahmins who
have orders and followings, who are teachers,
well-known and famous as founders of schools,
and popularly regarded as saints, like Pūraṇa
Kassapa, Makkhali Gosāla, Ajita Kesakambalī,
Pakudha Kaccāyana, Sanjaya Belatthiputta
and Nigaṇṭha Nātaputta (Mahavira)...
=== Relationship with Vedism ===
Govind Chandra Pande, a professor of Indian
history, states in his 1957 study on the origins
of Buddhism, that Śramaṇa was a "distinct
and separate cultural and religious" tradition
than the Vedic.Patrick Olivelle, a professor
of Indology and known for his translations
of major ancient Sanskrit works, states in
his 1993 study that contrary to some representations,
the original Śramaṇa tradition was a part
of the Vedic one. He writes,
Sramana in that context obviously means a
person who is in the habit of performing srama.
Far from separating these seers from the vedic
ritual tradition, therefore, śramaṇa places
them right at the center of that tradition.
Those who see them [Sramana seers] as non-Brahmanical,
anti-Brahmanical, or even non-Aryan precursors
of later sectarian ascetics are drawing conclusions
that far outstrip the available evidence.
According to Olivelle, and other scholars
such as Edward Crangle, the concept of Śramaṇa
exists in the early Brahmanical literature.
The term is used in an adjectival sense for
sages who lived a special way of life that
the Vedic culture considered extraordinary.
However, Vedic literature does not provide
details of that life. The term did not imply
any opposition to either Brahmins or householders.
In all likelihood states Olivelle, during
the Vedic era, neither did the Śramaṇa
concept refer to an identifiable class, nor
to ascetic groups as it does in later Indian
literature. Additionally, in the early texts,
some pre-dating 3rd-century BCE ruler Ashoka,
the Brahmana and Śramaṇa are neither distinct
nor opposed. The distinction, according to
Olivelle, in later Indian literature "may
have been a later semantic development possibly
influenced by the appropriation of the latter
term [Sramana] by Buddhism and Jainism".The
Vedic society, states Olivelle, contained
many people whose roots were non-Aryan who
must have influenced the Aryan classes. However,
it is difficult to identify and isolate these
influences, in part because the vedic culture
not only developed from influences but also
from its inner dynamism and socio-economic
developments.According to Bronkhorst, the
sramana culture arose in "greater Magadha,"
which was Indo-European, but not Vedic. In
this culture, Kshatriyas were placed higher
than Brahmins, and it rejected Vedic authority
and rituals.
=== Pre-Buddhist śrāmana schools in Buddhist
texts ===
Pande attributes the origin of Buddhism, not
entirely to the Buddha, but to a "great religious
ferment" towards the end of the Vedic period
when the Brahmanic and Sramanic traditions
intermingled.The Buddhist text of the Samaññaphala
Sutta identifies six pre-Buddhist śrāmana
schools, identifying them by their leader.
These six schools are represented in the text
to have diverse philosophies, which according
to Padmanabh Jaini, may be "a biased picture
and does not give a true picture" of the Sramanic
schools rivaling with Buddhism,
śrāmana movement of Purana Kassapa (Amoralism):
believed in antinomian ethics. This ancient
school asserted that there are no moral laws,
nothing is moral or immoral, there is neither
virtue nor sin.
śrāmana movement of Makkhali Gosala (Ajivika):
believed in fatalism and determinism that
everything is the consequence of nature and
its laws. The school denied that there is
free will, but believed that soul exists.
Everything has its own individual nature,
based on how one is constituted from elements.
Karma and consequences are not due to free
will, cannot be altered, everything is pre-determined,
because of and including one's composition.
śrāmana movement of Ajita Kesakambali (Lokayata-Charvaka):
believed in materialism. Denied that there
is an after-life, any samsara, any karma,
or any fruit of good or evil deeds. Everything
including humans are composed of elemental
matter, and when one dies one returns to those
elements.
śrāmana movement of Pakudha Kaccayana: believed
in atomism. Denied that there is a creator,
knower. Believed that everything is made of
seven basic building blocks that are eternal,
neither created nor caused to be created.
The seven blocks included earth, water, fire,
air, happiness, pain and soul. All actions,
including death is mere re-arrangement and
interpenetration of one set of substances
into another set of substances.
śrāmana movement of Mahavira (Jainism):
believed in fourfold restraint, avoid all
evil (see more below).
śrāmana movement of Sanjaya Belatthiputta
(Ajñana): believed in absolute agnosticism.
Refused to have any opinion either way about
existence of or non-existence of after-life,
karma, good, evil, free will, creator, soul,
or other topics.The pre-Buddhist śrāmana
movements were organized Sanghagani (order
of monks and ascetics), according to the Buddhist
Samaññaphala Sutta. The six leaders above
are described as a Sanghi (head of the order),
Ganacariyo (teacher), Cirapabbajito (recluse),
Yasassi and Neto (of repute and well known).
=== Jainism ===
Jain literature too mentions Pūraṇa Kassapa,
Makkhali Gosāla and Sañjaya Belaṭṭhaputta.
During the life of Buddha, Mahavira and the
Buddha were leaders of their śramaṇa orders.
Nigaṇṭha Nātaputta refers to Mahāvīra.According
to Pande, Jainas were same as the Niganthas
mentioned in the Buddhist texts, and they
were a well established sect when Buddha began
preaching. He states, without identifying
supporting evidence, that "[Jainas] appear
to have belonged to the non-Vedic Munis and
Sramanas who may have been ultimately connected
with pre-Vedic civilization". The śramaṇa
system is believed by a majority of Jaina
scholars to have been of independent origin
and not a protest movement of any kind, were
led by Jaina thinkers, and were pre-Buddhist
and pre-Vedic.Some scholars posit that the
Indus Valley Civilisation symbols may be related
to later Jain statues, and the bull icon may
have a connection to Rishabhanatha. According
to Dundas, outside of the Jain tradition,
historians date the Mahavira as about contemporaneous
with the Buddha in the 5th-century BC, and
accordingly the historical Parshvanatha, based
on the c. 250-year gap, is placed in 8th or
7th century BC.
=== Buddhism ===
It was as a śramaṇa that the Buddha left
his father's palace and practised austerities.
Gautama Buddha, after fasting nearly to death
by starvation, regarded extreme austerities
and self-mortification as useless or unnecessary
in attaining enlightenment, recommending instead
a "Middle Way" between the extremes of hedonism
and self-mortification. Devadatta, a cousin
of Gautama, caused a split in the Buddhist
sangha by demanding more rigorous practices.The
Buddhist movement chose a moderate ascetic
lifestyle. This was in contrast to Jains,
who continued the tradition of stronger austerity,
such as fasting and giving away all property
including clothes and thus going naked, emphasizing
that complete dedication to spirituality includes
turning away from material possessions and
any cause for evil karma. The moderate ascetic
precepts, states Collins, likely appealed
to more people and widened the base of people
wanting to become Buddhists. Buddhism also
developed a code for interaction of world-pursuing
lay people and world-denying Buddhist monastic
communities, which encouraged continued relationship
between the two. Collins states, for example,
that two rules of the vinaya (monastic code)
were that a person could not join a monastic
community without parent's permission, and
that at least one son remained with each family
to care for that family. Buddhism also combined
the continuing interaction, such as giving
alms to renunciants, in terms of merit gained
for good rebirth and good karma by the lay
people. This code played a historic role in
its growth, and provided a means for reliable
alms (food, clothing) and social support for
Buddhism.Randall Collins states that Buddhism
was more a reform movement within the educated
religious classes, composed mostly of Brahmins,
rather than a rival movement from outside
these classes. In early Buddhism, the largest
number of monastics were originally brahmins,
and virtually all were recruited from the
two upper classes of society – brahmins
and kshatriyas.
=== Ājīvika ===
Ājīvika was founded in the 5th century BCE
by Makkhali Gosala, as a śramaṇa movement
and a major rival of early Buddhism and Jainism.
Ājīvikas were organised renunciates who
formed discrete communities.The Ājīvikas
reached the height of their prominence in
the late 1st millennium BCE, then declined,
yet continued to exist in south India until
the 14th Century CE, as evidenced by inscriptions
found in southern India. Ancient texts of
Buddhism and Jainism mention a city in the
first millennium BCE named Savatthi (Sanskrit
Śravasti) as the hub of the Ājīvikas; it
was located in what is now the North Indian
state of Uttar Pradesh. In later part of the
common era, inscriptions suggests that the
Ājīvikas had a significant presence in the
South Indian state of Karnataka and the Kolar
district of Tamil Nadu.Original scriptures
of the Ājīvika school of philosophy once
existed, but these are unavailable and probably
lost. Their theories are extracted from mentions
of Ājīvikas in the secondary sources of
ancient Indian literature. Scholars question
whether Ājīvika philosophy has been fairly
and completely summarized in these secondary
sources, written by ancient Buddhist and Jaina
scholars, who represented competing and adversarial
philosophies to Ājīvikas.
=== Conflict between śramaṇa movements
===
According to the 2nd century CE text Ashokavadana,
the Mauryan emperor Bindusara was a patron
of the Ajivikas, and it reached its peak of
popularity during this time. Ashokavadana
also mentions that Bindusara's son Ashoka
converted to Buddhism, became enraged at a
picture that depicted Buddha in negative light,
and issued an order to kill all the Ajivikas
in Pundravardhana. Around 18,000 followers
of the Ajivika sect were executed as a result
of this order.Jaina texts mention separation
and conflict between Mahavira and Gosala,
accusation of contemptuous comments, and an
occasion where the Jaina and Ajivika monastic
orders "came to blows". However, given the
texts alleging conflict and portraying Ajivikas
and Gosala in negative light were written
centuries after the incident by their śramaṇa
opponents, and given the versions in Buddhist
and Jaina texts are different, the reliability
of these stories, states Basham, is questionable.
== Philosophy ==
=== Jain philosophy ===
Jainism derives its philosophy from the teachings
and lives of the twenty-four Tirthankaras,
of whom Mahavira was the last. Acharyas Umaswati,
Kundakunda, Haribhadra, Yaśovijaya Gaṇi
and others further developed and reorganized
Jain philosophy in its present form. The distinguishing
features of Jain philosophy are its belief
in the independent existence of soul and matter,
predominance of karma, the denial of a creative
and omnipotent God, belief in an eternal and
uncreated universe, a strong emphasis on nonviolence,
an accent on anekantavada and morality and
ethics based on liberation of the soul. The
Jain philosophy of anekantavada and syādvāda,
which posits that the truth or reality is
perceived differently from different points
of view, and that no single point of view
is the complete truth, have made very important
contributions to ancient Indian philosophy,
especially in the areas of skepticism and
relativity.
=== Usage in Jain texts ===
Jain monastics are known as śramaṇas while
lay practitioners are called śrāvakas. The
religion or code of conduct of the monks is
known as the śramaṇa dharma. Jain canons
like Ācāranga Sūtra and other later texts
contain many references to Sramanas.
==== Ācāranga Sūtra ====
One verse of the Ācāranga sūtra defines
a good śramaṇa:
Disregarding (all calamities) he lives together
with clever monks, insensitive to pain and
pleasure, not hurting the movable and immovable
(beings), not killing, bearing all: so is
described the great sage, a good Sramana.
The chapter on renunciation contains a śramaṇa
vow of non-possession:
I shall become a śramaṇa who owns no house,
no property, no sons, no cattle, who eats
what others give him; I shall commit no sinful
action; Master, I renounce to accept anything
that has not been given.' Having taken such
vows, (a mendicant) should not, on entering
a village or free town, take himself, or induce
others to take, or allow others to take, what
has not been given.
The Ācāranga Sūtra gives three names of
Mahavira, the twenty fourth Tirthankara, one
of which was Śramaṇa:
The Venerable ascetic Mahavira belonged to
the Kasyapa gotra. His three names have thus
been recorded by tradition: by his parents
he was called Vardhamana, because he is devoid
of love and hate; (he is called) Sramana (i.e.
ascetic), because he sustains dreadful dangers
and fears, the noble nakedness, and the miseries
of the world; the name Venerable Ascetic Mahavira
has been given to him by the gods.
==== Sūtrakrtanga ====
Another Jain canon, Sūtrakrtanga describes
the śramaṇa as an ascetic who has taken
Mahavrata, the five great vows:
He is a Śramaṇa for this reason that he
is not hampered by any obstacles, that he
is free from desires, (abstaining from) property,
killing, telling lies, and sexual intercourse;
(and from) wrath, pride, deceit, greed, love,
and hate: thus giving up every passion that
involves him in sin, (such as) killing of
beings. (Such a man) deserves the name of
a Śramaṇa, who subdues (moreover) his senses,
is well qualified (for his task), and abandons
his body.
The Sūtrakrtanga records that a prince, Ardraka,
who became disciple to Mahavira, arguing with
other heretical teachers, told Makkhali Gosala
the qualities of śramaṇas:
He who (teaches) the great vows (of monks)
and the five small vows (of the laity 3),
the five Âsravas and the stoppage of the
Âsravas, and control, who avoids Karman in
this blessed life of Śramaṇas, him I call
a Śramaṇa.
=== Buddhist philosophy ===
Buddha initially practiced severe austerities,
fasting himself nearly to death of starvation.
However, he later considered extreme austerities
and self-mortification as unnecessary and
recommended a "Middle Way" between the extremes
of hedonism and self-mortification.The Brahmajāla
Sutta mentions many śramaṇas with whom
Buddha disagreed. For example, in contrast
to Sramanic Jains whose philosophical premise
includes the existence of an Atman (self,
soul) in every being, Buddhist philosophy
denies that there is any self or soul. This
concept called Anatta (or Anatman) is a part
of Three Marks of existence in Buddhist philosophy,
the other two being Dukkha (suffering) and
Anicca (impermanence). According to Buddha,
states Laumakis, everything lacks inherent
existence. Buddhism is a non-theistic philosophy,
which is especially concerned with pratītyasamutpāda
(dependent origination) and śūnyatā (emptiness
or nothingness).From rock edicts, it is found
that both Brahmans as well as śramaṇas
enjoyed equal sanctity.
=== Ajivika philosophy ===
The Ājīvika school is known for its Niyati
doctrine of absolute determinism, the premise
that there is no free will, that everything
that has happened, is happening and will happen
is entirely preordained and a function of
cosmic principles. Ājīvika considered the
karma doctrine as a fallacy. Ajivika metaphysics
included a theory of atoms similar to the
Vaisheshika school, where everything was composed
of atoms, qualities emerged from aggregates
of atoms, but the aggregation and nature of
these atoms was predetermined by cosmic forces.
Ājīvikas were atheists and rejected the
epistemic authority of the Vedas, but they
believed that in every living being is an
ātman – a central premise of Hinduism and
Jainism.
=== Comparison of philosophies ===
The śramaṇa traditions subscribed to diverse
philosophies, significantly disagreeing with
each other as well as orthodox Hinduism and
its six schools of Hindu philosophy. The differences
ranged from a belief that every individual
has a soul (self, atman) to asserting that
there is no soul, from axiological merit in
a frugal ascetic life to that of a hedonistic
life, from a belief in rebirth to asserting
that there is no rebirth.A denial of the epistemic
authority of the Vedas and Upanishads was
one of the several differences between Sramanic
philosophies and orthodox Hinduism. Jaini
states that while authority of vedas, belief
in a creator, path of ritualism and social
system of heredity ranks, made up the cornerstones
of Brahminal schools, the path of ascetic
self-motification was the main characteristic
of all the Sramanic schools.In some cases
when the Sramanic movements shared the same
philosophical concepts, the details varied.
In Jainism, for example, Karma is based on
materialist element philosophy, where Karma
is the fruit of one's action conceived as
material particles which stick to a soul and
keep it away from natural omniscience. The
Buddha conceived Karma as a chain of causality
leading to attachment of the material world
and hence to rebirth. The Ajivikas were fatalists
and elevated Karma as inescapable fate, where
a person's life goes through a chain of consequences
and rebirths until it reaches its end. Other
śramaṇa movements such as those led by
Pakkudha Kaccayana and Purana Kashyapa, denied
the existence of Karma.
== Influences on Indian culture ==
The śramaṇa traditions influenced and were
influenced by Hinduism and by each other.
According to some scholars, the concept of
the cycle of birth and death, the concept
of samsara and the concept of liberation may
quite possibly be from śramaṇa or other
ascetic traditions. Obeyesekere suggests that
tribal sages in the Ganges valley may instead
have inspired the ideas of samsara and liberation,
just like rebirth ideas that emerged in Africa
and Greece. O'Flaherty states that there isn't
enough objective evidence to support any of
these theories.It is in the Upanishadic period
that Sramanic theories influence the Brahmanical
theories. While the concepts of Brahman and
Atman (Soul, Self) can be consistently traced
back to pre-Upanishadic layers of Vedic literature,
the heterogeneous nature of the Upanishads
show infusions of both social and philosophical
ideas, pointing to evolution of new doctrines,
likely from the Sramanic movements.Śramaṇa
traditions brought concepts of Karma and Samsara
as central themes of debate. Śramaṇa views
were influential to all schools of Indian
philosophies. Concepts, such as karma and
reincarnation may have originated in the śramaṇa
or the renunciant traditions, and then become
mainstream. There are multiple theories of
possible origins of concepts such as Ahimsa,
or non-violence. The Chāndogya Upaniṣad,
dated to about the 7th century BCE, in verse
8.15.1, has the earliest evidence for the
use of the word Ahimsa in the sense familiar
in Hinduism (a code of conduct). It bars violence
against "all creatures" (sarvabhuta) and the
practitioner of Ahimsa is said to escape from
the cycle of metempsychosis (CU 8.15.1). According
to some scholars, such as D. R. Bhandarkar,
the Ahimsa dharma of the Sramanas made an
impression on the followers of Brahamanism
and their law books and practices.Theories
on who influenced whom, in ancient India,
remains a matter of scholarly debate, and
it is likely that the different philosophies
contributed to each other's development. Doniger
summarizes the historic interaction between
scholars of Vedic Hinduism and Sramanic Buddhism:
There was such constant interaction between
Vedism and Buddhism in the early period that
it is fruitless to attempt to sort out the
earlier source of many doctrines, they lived
in one another's pockets, like Picasso and
Braque (who, in later years, were unable to
say which of them had painted certain paintings
from their earlier, shared period).
=== Hinduism ===
Randall Collins states that "the basic cultural
framework for lay society which eventually
became Hinduism" was laid down by Buddhism.Modern
Hinduism can be regarded as a combination
of Vedic and śramaṇa traditions as it is
substantially influenced by both traditions.
Among the Astika schools of Hinduism, Vedanta,
Samkhya, and Yoga philosophies influenced
and were influenced by the śramaṇa philosophy.
As Geoffrey Samuel notes,
Our best evidence to date suggests that [yogic
practice] developed in the same ascetic circles
as the early śramaṇa movements (Buddhists,
Jainas and Ajivikas), probably in around the
sixth and fifth centuries BCE.
Some Brahmins joined the śramaṇa movement
such as Cānakya and Sāriputta. Similarly,
a group of eleven Brahmins accepted Jainism
and become Mahavira's chief disciples or ganadharas.Patrick
Olivelle suggests that the Hindu ashrama system
of life, created probably around the 4th-century
BCE, was an attempt to institutionalize renunciation
within the Brahmanical social structure. This
system gave complete freedom to adults to
choose what they want to do, whether they
want to be householders or sannyasins (ascetics),
the monastic tradition was a voluntary institution.
This voluntary principle, states Olivelle,
was the same principle found in Buddhist and
Jain monastic orders at that time.
== In Western literature ==
Various possible references to "śramaṇas",
with the name more or less distorted, have
appeared in ancient Western literature.
=== Clement of Alexandria (150-211) ===
Clement of Alexandria makes several mentions
of the śramaṇas, both in the context of
the Bactrians and the Indians:
Thus philosophy, a thing of the highest utility,
flourished in antiquity among the barbarians,
shedding its light over the nations. And afterwards
it came to Greece. First in its ranks were
the prophets of the Egyptians; and the Chaldeans
among the Assyrians; and the Druids among
the Gauls; and the Samanaeans among the Bactrians
("Σαμαναίοι Βάκτρων"); and
the philosophers of the Celts; and the Magi
of the Persians, who foretold the Saviour's
birth, and came into the land of Judaea guided
by a star. The Indian gymnosophists are also
in the number, and the other barbarian philosophers.
And of these there are two classes, some of
them called Sarmanae ("Σαρμάναι"),
and Brahmanae ("Βραχμαναι").
=== Porphyry (233-305) ===
Porphyry extensively describes the habits
of the śramaṇas, whom he calls "Samanaeans",
in his "On Abstinence from Animal Food" Book
IV [1]. He says his information was obtained
from "the Babylonian Bardesanes, who lived
in the times of our fathers, and was familiar
with those Indians who, together with Damadamis,
were sent to Caesar."
For the polity of the Indians being distributed
into many parts, there is one tribe among
them of men divinely wise, whom the Greeks
are accustomed to call Gymnosophists. But
of these there are two sects, over one of
which the Brahmins preside, but over the other
the Samanaeans. The race of the Brahmins,
however, receive divine wisdom of this kind
by succession, in the same manner as the priesthood.
But the Samanaeans are elected, and consist
of those who wish to possess divine knowledge.
On entering the order
All the Bramins originate from one stock;
for all of them are derived from one father
and one mother. But the Samanaeans are not
the offspring of one family, being, as we
have said, collected from every nation of
Indians. A Bramin, however, is not a subject
of any government, nor does he contribute
any thing together with others to government.
The Samanaeans are, as we have said, elected.
When, however, any one is desirous of being
enrolled in their order, he proceeds to the
rulers of the city; but abandons the city
or village that he inhabited, and the wealth
and all the other property that he possessed.
Having likewise the superfluities of his body
cut off, he receives a garment, and departs
to the Samanaeans, but does not return either
to his wife or children, if he happens to
have any, nor does he pay any attention to
them, or think that they at all pertain to
him. And, with respect to his children indeed,
the king provides what is necessary for them,
and the relatives provide for the wife. And
such is the life of the Samanaeans. But they
live out of the city, and spend the whole
day in conversation pertaining to divinity.
They have also houses and temples, built by
the king, in which they are stewards, who
receive a certain emolument from the king,
for the purpose of supplying those that dwell
in them with nutriment. But their food consists
of rice, bread, autumnal fruits, and pot-herbs.
And when they enter into their house, the
sound of a bell being the signal of their
entrance, those that are not Samanaeans depart
from it, and the Samanaeans begin immediately
to pray.
On food and living habits
And with respect to those that are philosophers,
among these some dwell on mountains, and others
about the river Ganges. And those that live
on mountains feed on autumnal fruits, and
on cows' milk coagulated with herbs. But those
that reside near the Ganges, live also on
autumnal fruits, which are produced in abundance
about that river. The land likewise nearly
always bears new fruit, together with much
rice, which grows spontaneously, and which
they use when there is a deficiency of autumnal
fruits. But to taste of any other nutriment,
or, in short, to touch animal food, is considered
by them as equivalent to extreme impurity
and impiety. And this is one of their dogmas.
They also worship divinity with piety and
purity. They spend the day, and the greater
part of the night, in hymns and prayers to
the Gods; each of them having a cottage to
himself, and living, as much as possible,
alone. For the Bramins cannot endure to remain
with others, nor to speak much; but when this
happens to take place, they afterwards withdraw
themselves, and do not speak for many days.
They likewise frequently fast.
On life and death
They are so disposed with respect to death,
that they unwillingly endure the whole time
of the present life, as a certain servitude
to nature, and therefore they hasten to liberate
their souls from the bodies [with which they
are connected]. Hence, frequently, when they
are seen to be well, and are neither oppressed,
nor driven to desperation by any evil, they
depart from life.
== In contemporary Western culture ==
German novelist Hermann Hesse, long interested
in Eastern, especially Indian, spirituality,
wrote Siddhartha, in which the main character
becomes a Samana upon leaving his home (where
he was a Kshatriya).
== See also ==
Bhikkhu
Bhikkhuni
Fakir
Hermit
Sadhu
Śrāmaṇera
Yogi
Yogini
== Notes ==
== 
References ==
=== Citations ===
=== Sources ===
