Inflammatory conditions, whether of a chronic or acute nature, represent a substantial problem in the healthcare industry. Briefly, chronic inflammation is considered to be inflammation of a prolonged duration (weeks or months) in which active inflammation, tissue destruction and attempts at healing are proceeding simultaneously (Robbins Pathologic Basis of Disease by R. S. Cotran, V. Kumar, and S. L. Robbins, W. B. Saunders Co., p. 75, 1989). Although chronic inflammation can follow an acute inflammatory episode, it can also begin as an insidious process that progresses with time, for example, as a result of a persistent infection (e.g., tuberculosis, syphilis, and fungal infection) that causes a delayed hypersensitivity reaction, prolonged exposure to endogenous (e.g., elevated plasma lipids) or exogenous (e.g., silica, asbestos, cigarette tar, and surgical sutures) toxins, or autoimmune reactions against the body's own tissues (e.g., rheumatoid arthritis, systemic lupus erythematosus, multiple sclerosis, and psoriasis).
Inflammatory arthritis is a serious health problem in developed countries, particularly given the increasing number of aged individuals. For example, one form of inflammatory arthritis, rheumatoid arthritis (RA), is a multisystem chronic, relapsing, inflammatory disease affecting 1% to 2% of the world's population.
Although many organs can be affected, RA is basically a severe form of chronic synovitis that sometimes leads to destruction and ankylosis of affected joints (Robbins Pathologic Basis of Disease by R. S. Cotran, V. Kumar, and S. L. Robbins, W.B. Saunders Co., 1989). Pathologically, the disease is characterized by a marked thickening of the synovial membrane that forms villous projections that extend into the joint space, multilayering of the synoviocyte lining (synoviocyte proliferation), infiltration of the synovial membrane with white blood cells (macrophages, lymphocytes, plasma cells, and lymphoid follicles; called an “inflammatory synovitis”), and deposition of fibrin with cellular necrosis within the synovium. The tissue formed as a result of this process is called pannus and eventually the pannus grows to fill the joint space. The pannus develops an extensive network of new blood vessels through the process of angiogenesis, which is essential to the evolution of the synovitis. Release of digestive enzymes (matrix metalloproteinases (e.g., collagenase, stromelysin)) and other mediators of the inflammatory process (e.g., hydrogen peroxide, superoxides, lysosomal enzymes, and products of arachidonic acid metabolism) from the cells of the pannus tissue leads to the progressive destruction of the cartilage tissue. The pannus invades the articular cartilage leading to erosions and fragmentation of the cartilage tissue. Eventually, there is erosion of the subchondral bone with fibrous ankylosis, and ultimately bony ankylosis, of the involved joint.
It is generally believed that RA is an autoimmune disease and that many different arthrogenic stimuli activate the immune response in an immunogenetically susceptible host. Both exogenous infectious agents (Epstein-Barr virus, rubella virus, cytomegalovirus, herpes virus, human T-cell lymphotropic virus, mycoplasma, and others) and endogenous proteins such as collagen, proteoglycans, altered immunoglobulins and post-translationally modified proteins like citrullinated proteins have been implicated as a causative agent that triggers an inappropriate host immune response. Regardless of the inciting agent, autoimmunity plays a role in the progression of the disease. In particular, the relevant antigen is ingested by antigen-presenting cells (macrophages or dendritic cells in the synovial membrane), processed, and presented to T lymphocytes. The T cells initiate a cellular immune response and stimulate the proliferation and differentiation of B lymphocytes into plasma cells. The end result is the production of an excessive inappropriate immune response directed against the host tissues (e.g., antibodies directed against type II collagen, antibodies directed against the Fc portion of autologous IgG (called “Rheumatoid Factor”)) and antibodies directed against different citrullinated epitopes (anti-CCP). This further amplifies the immune response and hastens the destruction of the cartilage tissue. Once this cascade is initiated, numerous mediators of cartilage destruction are responsible for the progression of rheumatoid arthritis.
The above-mentioned anti-CCP antibodies have been demonstrated to be highly specific for RA. Recent evidence shows that each individual that is seropositive for these antibodies either already has RA or will develop this disease in the future. The presence of anti-CCP antibodies (especially when high titers are present) is predictive of erosive disease outcome (Nijenhuis et al., Clin. Chim. Acta, vol. 350, 17-34, 2004). Furthermore, it has been demonstrated that anti-CCP antibodies are produced locally at the site of inflammation. The proportion of anti-CCP antibodies with respect to total IgG found in synovial material from RA patients appeared to be significantly higher than that in serum of the same patients (Masson-Bessiere et al., Clin. Exp. Immunol., vol. 119, 544-552, 2000) (Reparon-Schuijt et al., Arthritis Rheum., vol. 44, 41-47, 2001).
The presence of anti-CCP producing plasma cells in the synovium is indicative of an antigen-driven maturation of CCP-specific B cells at the site of inflammation. Once anti-CCP antibodies are produced, the formation of immune complexes with citrullinated proteins in the synovia may trigger the progression of the inflammatory process. These and other data supported the hypothesis that anti-CCP antibodies actually caused at least part of the disease symptoms of RA. A role for the anti-CCP antibodies in the pathogenesis of RA is supported by the results of B lymphocyte depletion experiments in patients with RA (Cambridge et al., Arthritis Rheum., vol. 48, 2146-2154, 2003).
People with advanced rheumatoid arthritis have a mortality rate greater than some forms of cancer and because of this, treatment regimens have shifted toward aggressive early drug therapy designed to reduce the probability of irreversible joint damage. Recent recommendations of the American College of Rheumatology (Arthritis and Rheumatism 39(5):713-722, 1996) include early initiation of disease-modifying anti-rheumatic drug (DMARD) therapy for any patient with an established diagnosis and ongoing symptoms. Anticancer drugs have become the first line therapy for the vast majority of patients, with the chemotherapeutic drug methotrexate being the drug of choice for 60% to 70% of rheumatologists. The severity of the disease often warrants indefinite weekly treatment with this drug, and in those patients whose disease progresses despite methotrexate therapy (over 50% of patients), second line chemotherapeutic drugs such as cyclosporin and azathioprine (alone or in combination) are frequently employed.
There remains a need for compounds for the treatment or prevention of inflammatory diseases that are capable of inhibiting the pathogenesis of inflammatory diseases, in particular, diseases wherein the synovium is involved, and citrulline-related inflammatory diseases.
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