MicroRNAs (miRNAs) were first identified only a few years ago, but already it is clear that they play an important role in regulating gene activity. These 20-22 nucleotide noncoding RNAs have the ability to hybridize via base-pairing with specific target mRNAs and downregulate the expression of these transcripts, by mediating either RNA cleavage or translational repression. Recent studies have indicated that miRNAs have important functions during development. In plants, they have been shown to control a variety of developmental processes including flowering time, leaf morphology, organ polarity, floral morphology, and root development (reviewed by Mallory and Vaucheret (2006) Nat Genet 38: S31-36). Given the established regulatory role of miRNAs, it is likely that they are also involved in the control of some of the major crop traits such drought tolerance and disease resistance.
Plant miRNAs are processed from longer precursor transcripts termed pre-miRNA that range in length from ˜50 to 500 nucleotides, and these precursors have the ability to form stable hairpin structures (reviewed by Bartel (2004) Cell 116: 281-297). Many miRNA hairpin precursors originate as longer transcripts of 1-2 kb or longer, termed pri-miRNA, that are polyadenylated and capped. This fact coupled with the detection of numerous pri-miRNAs in Expressed Sequence Tags (ESTs) libraries indicates that RNA polymerase II is the enzyme responsible for miRNA gene transcription. Transgenic experiments indicate that it is the structure rather than the sequence of the pre-miRNA that directs their correct processing and that the rest of the pri-miRNA is not required for the production of miRNAs. While pri-miRNAs are processed to pre-miRNAs by Drosha in the nucleus and Dicer cleaves pre-miRNAs in the cytoplasm in metazoans, miRNA maturation in plants differs from the pathway in animals because plants lack a Drosha homolog. Instead, the RNase III enzyme DICER-LIKE 1 (DCL1), which is homologous to animal Dicer, may possess Drosha function in addition to its known function in hairpin processing (Kurihara and Watanabe (2004) Proc Natl Acad Sci 101: 12753-12758).
Through the cloning efforts of several labs, at least 30 miRNA families have been identified in Arabidopsis (reviewed by Meyers et al. (2006) Curr Opin Biotech 17; 1-8). Many of these miRNA sequences are represented by more than one locus, bringing the total number up to approximately 100. Because the particular miRNAs found by one lab are not generally overlapping with those found by another independent lab, it is assumed that the search for the entire set of miRNAs expressed by a given plant genome, the “miRNome,” is not yet complete. One reason for this might be that many miRNAs are expressed only under very specific conditions, and thus may have been missed by standard cloning efforts. A recent study by Sunkar and Zhu (2004, Plant Cell 16: 2001-2019) suggests that, indeed, miRNA discovery may be facilitated by choosing “non-standard” growth conditions for library construction. Sunkar and Zhu identified novel miRNAs in a library consisting of a variety of stress-induced tissues. They proceeded to demonstrate induction of some of these miRNAs by drought, cold and other stresses, suggesting a role for miRNAs in stress response. It is likely, then, that efforts to fully characterize the plant miRNome will require examination of the small RNA profile in many different tissues and under many different conditions.
A complementary approach to standard miRNA cloning is computational prediction of miRNAs using available genomic and/or EST sequences, and several labs have reported finding novel Arabidopsis miRNAs in this manner (reviewed by Bonnet et al. (2006) New Phytol 171:451-468). Using these computational approaches, which rely in part on the observation that known miRNAs reside in hairpin precursors, hundreds of plant miRNAs have been predicted. However only a small fraction have been experimentally verified by Northern blot analysis. In addition, most of these computational methods rely on comparisons between two representative genomes (e.g. Arabidopsis and rice) in order to find conserved intergenic regions, and thus are not suitable for identifying species-specific miRNAs, which may represent a substantial fraction of the miRNome of any given organism.
Computational methods have also facilitated the prediction of miRNA targets, and in general plant miRNAs share a high degree of complementarity with their targets (reviewed by Bonnet et al. (2006) New Phytol 171:451-468). The predicted mRNA targets of plant miRNAs encode a wide variety of proteins. Many of these proteins are transcription factors and are thus likely to be important for development. However, there are also many enzymes that are putatively targeted, and these potentially have roles in such processes as mitochondrial metabolism, oxidative stress response, proteasome function, and lignification. It is likely that this list of processes regulated by miRNA will get longer as additional miRNAs are identified, and that eventually miRNAs will be implicated in processes critical to crop improvement. For example, a recently identified miRNA targeting genes in the sulfur assimilation pathway was identified, and shown to be induced under conditions of sulfate starvation (Jones-Rhoades and Bartel (2004) Mol Cell 14: 787-799). This particular miRNA, then, is a candidate gene for increasing sulfur assimilation efficiency. It is tempting to speculate that the pathways for assimilating other compounds such as water and nitrate may also be under miRNA control.
Much of the work on identification of novel miRNAs has been carried out in the model system Arabidopsis, and thus miRNomes of crop plants such as maize, rice and soybean are less fully understood. There is also no complete genome sequence available for crops such as maize and soybeans, further hampering miRNome analysis. Many Arabidopsis miRNAs have homologs in these other species, however there are also miRNAs that appear to be specific to Arabidopsis. Likewise, it is expected that there will be nonconserved miRNAs specific to the aforementioned crop species. A significant fraction of the non-conserved miRNAs could be part of the regulatory networks associated with species-specific growth conditions or developmental processes. As such, it is crucial to carry out miRNA cloning in crop species such as maize, to complement the bioinformatic approaches currently being used, and ultimately to more fully characterize the miRNomes of crop species.
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