Ulster Irish

[[File:Gaeltachtai le hainmneacha2.svg|thumb|right|The Gaeltachtaí]]

Ulster Irish (, Irish: Canúint Uladh) is the variety of Irish spoken in the province of Ulster. It "occupies a central position in the Gaelic world made up of Ireland, Scotland and the Isle of Man". Ulster Irish thus has more in common with Scottish Gaelic and Manx. Within Ulster there have historically been two main sub-dialects: West Ulster and East Ulster. The Western dialect is spoken in County Donegal and once was in parts of neighbouring counties, hence the name Donegal Irish. The Eastern dialect was spoken in most of the rest of Ulster and northern parts of counties Louth and Meath.

History
Ulster Irish was the main language spoken in Ulster from the earliest recorded times even before Ireland became a jurisdiction in the 1300s. Since the Plantation, Ulster Irish was steadily replaced by English. The Eastern dialect died out in the 20th century, but the Western lives on in the Gaeltacht region of County Donegal. In 1808, County Down natives William Neilson and Patrick Lynch (Pádraig Ó Loingsigh) published a detailed study on Ulster Irish. Both Neilson and his father were Ulster-speaking Presbyterian ministers. When the recommendations of the first Comisiún na Gaeltachta were drawn up in 1926, there were regions qualifying for Gaeltacht recognition in the Sperrins and the northern Glens of Antrim and Rathlin Island. The report also makes note of small pockets of Irish speakers in northwest County Cavan, southeast County Monaghan, and the far south of County Armagh. However, these small pockets vanished early in the 20th century while Ulster Irish in the Sperrins survived until the 1950s and in the Glens of Antrim until the 1970s. The last native speaker of Rathlin Irish died in 1985.

Lexicon
The Ulster dialect contains many words not used in other dialects—of which the main ones are Connacht Irish and Munster Irish—or used otherwise only in northeast Connacht. The standard form of Irish is An Caighdeán Oifigiúil. In other cases, a semantic shift has resulted in quite different meanings attaching to the same word in Ulster Irish and in other dialects. Some of these words include:

 is used to mean "to think" as well as "to make" or "to do", síleann, ceapann and cuimhníonn is used in other dialects, as well as in Ulster Irish.
 or  (West Ulster), "look" (elsewhere ,  and ; this latter means rather "try" or "attempt" in Ulster)
 "opinion", southern tuairim - in Ulster, tuairim is most typically used in the meaning "approximate value", such as tuairim an ama sin "about that time". Note the typically Ulster derivatives barúlach and inbharúla "of the opinion (that...)".
,  "road" (southern and western  and  (cf. Scottish Gaelic , Manx ), and  "way"). Note that  alone is used as a preposition meaning "towards" (literally meaning "in the way of":  = "he looked towards the sea"). In the sense "road", Ulster Irish often uses bealach mór ("big road") even for roads that aren't particularly big or wide.
, "minute" (elsewhere , , , etc., and in Mayo Gaeltacht areas a somewhat halfway version between the northern and southern versions, is the word "móiméad", also probably the original, from which the initial M diverged into a similar nasal N to the south, and into a similar bilabial B to the north.)
, "when?" (Connacht ; Munster , )
, "what is?" (Connacht ; Munster , , , Scottish Gaelic )
, "cabbage" (southern ; Scottish Gaelic )
, "weir" (Connacht , standard )
, "I hear" (southern , but  is also attested in South Tipperary and is also used in Achill and Erris in North and West Mayo). In fact, the initial c- tends to be lenited even when it is not preceded by any particle (this is because there was a leniting particle in Classical Irish:  yielded  in Ulster)
, "hard"-as in difficult (southern ),  "tough"
, "close" (southern and western ; in other dialects  means "to move in relation to or away from something", thus  = to shirk,  = to close in) although druid is also used in Achill and Erris
, "cattle" (southern  = "one head of cattle", beithígh = "cattle", "beasts")
, "wings" (southern )
, "about, under" (standard , Munster ,  and  is only used for "under";  and  = "about";  = "about" or "with regard to")
, "lazy" (southern and western ,  = "false, treacherous") although falsa is also used in Achill and Erris
, "seagull" (standard )
, "also" (standard  )
, , , , "Irish" (standard and Western , Southern , Manx , Scottish Gaelic ) although Gaeilg is used in Achill and was used in parts of Erris and East Connacht
, "gate" (standard )
, "short" (southern )
, "calf" (southern  and ) although gamhain is also used in Achill and Erris
, "boy" (southern ;  means "child" in Connemara)
, "girl" (southern  and )
, "busy" (standard )
, an adjective meaning "some" or "certain" is used instead of the southern .  also means "certain" or "particular".
 is used to mean "I hear, perceive" as well as "I feel" (standard ) but  generally refers to stories or events. The only other place where mothaím is used in this context is in the Irish of Dún Caocháin and Ceathrú Thaidhg in Erris but it was a common usage throughout most of northern and eastern Mayo, Sligo, Leitrim and North Roscommon
, "daughter" (standard ; Scottish Gaelic )
, "news" (standard , but note that even Connemara has nuaíocht)
, "soap" (standard , Connemara )
, "youth", "young man", "boyfriend" (Southern = "gangly, young lad")
, "table" (western and southern  and , Scottish Gaelic )
 is used to mean "I can" as opposed to the standard  or the southern .  is also a preferred Ulster variant. Tig liom and its derivatives are also commonly used in the Irish of Joyce Country, Achill and Erris
the word  "wonderful" is used as an intensifier instead of the prefix  used in other dialects.

Words generally associated with the now dead East Ulster Irish include:
 (feel, hear, perceive) - but also known in more southern Irish dialects
, more standardized ársaigh (tell) - but note the expression ag ársaí téamaí "telling stories, spinning yearns" used by the modern Ulster writer Séamus Ó Grianna.
 (evening)
, more standardized spelling corraí (anger)
 (sore)
 (yet)
 (cow)
 (hurry)
 (house)
 (duck)

In other cases, a semantic shift has resulted in quite different meanings attaching to the same word in Ulster Irish and in other dialects. Some of these words include:

 "head" (southern and western ; elsewhere,  is used to mean "skull")
 "mare" (southern and western ; elsewhere,  means "horse")

Phonology
The phonemic inventory of Ulster Irish (based on the dialect of Gweedore) is as shown in the following chart (see International Phonetic Alphabet for an explanation of the symbols). Symbols appearing in the upper half of each row are velarized (traditionally called "broad" consonants) while those in the bottom half are palatalized ("slender"). The consonants  are neither broad nor slender.

The vowels of Ulster Irish are as shown on the following chart. These positions are only approximate, as vowels are strongly influenced by the palatalization and velarization of surrounding consonants.

The long vowels have short allophones in unstressed syllables and before .

In addition, Ulster has the diphthongs .

Some characteristics of the phonology of Ulster Irish that distinguish it from the other dialects are:
 The only broad labial continuant is the approximant . In other dialects, fricative  is found instead of or in addition to . No dialect makes a phonemic contrast between the approximant and the fricative, however.
Often in Ulster dialects,  can become  as in "teach" (pronounced similarly to the English "ch"). Likewise  can become  as in "dearg" (pronounced similarly to the English "j"). This is particularly evident in younger speakers of this dialect. Such pronunciation of the slender "t" and "d" also occurs in Scottish Gaelic and Manx.
 There is a three-way distinction among coronal nasals and laterals: ,  as there is in Scottish Gaelic, and there is no lengthening or diphthongization of short vowels before these sounds and . Thus, while  "head" is  in Connacht and  in Munster, in Ulster it is  (compare Scottish Gaelic 
  corresponds to the  of other dialects. The Ulster  corresponds to the  of other dialects.
 Long vowels are shortened when in unstressed syllables.
  is realized as  (or is replaced by ) after consonants other than . This happens in Connacht and Scottish Gaelic as well.
 Orthographic  in unstressed syllables is always  (this includes verb forms), as it is in southern Scottish Gaelic dialects.
 Unstressed orthographic  is pronounced , , or .
 According to Ó Dochartaigh (1987), the loss of final schwa "is a well-attested feature of Ulster Irish". This has led to words like fada being pronounced .

Differences between the Western and Eastern sub-dialects of Ulster include the following:
In West Ulster and most of Ireland, the vowel written ea is pronounced  (e.g. fear ), but in East Ulster it is pronounced  (e.g. fear  as it is in Scottish Gaelic (). J. J. Kneen comments that Scottish Gaelic and Manx generally follow the East Ulster pronunciation. The name Seán is pronounced  in Munster and  in West Ulster, but  in East Ulster, whence anglicized spellings like Shane O'Neill and Glenshane.
In East Ulster, th or ch in the middle of a word tends to vanish and leave one long syllable. William Neilson wrote that this happens "in most of the counties of Ulster, and the east of Leinster".
In East Ulster,  at the end of words (as in loch) tends to be much weaker. For example, amach may be pronounced  and bocht pronounced . Neilson wrote that this is found "in all the country along the sea coast, from Derry to Waterford".
Neilson wrote that the "ancient pronunciation" of broad bh and mh as , especially at the beginning or end of a word "is still retained in the North of Ireland, as in Scotland, and the Isle of Man", whereas "throughout Connaught, Leinster and some counties of Ulster, the sound of  is substituted". However, broad bh or mh may become  in the middle of a word (for example in leabhar).

Morphology

Initial mutations

Ulster Irish has the same two initial mutations, lenition and eclipsis, as the other two dialects and the standard language, and mostly uses them the same way. There is, however, one exception: in Ulster, a dative singular noun after the definite article is lenited (e.g.  "on the tree") (as is the case in Scottish and Manx), whereas in Connacht and Munster, it is eclipsed (), except in the case of den, don and insan, where lenition occurs in literary language. Both possibilities are allowed for in the standard language.

Verbs

Irish verbs are characterized by having a mixture of analytic forms (where information about person is provided by a pronoun) and synthetic forms (where information about number is provided in an ending on the verb) in their conjugation. In Ulster and North Connacht the analytic forms are used in a variety of forms where the standard language has synthetic forms, e.g.  "we praise" (standard ,  being a back formation from the verbal ending  and not found in the Munster dialect, which retains  as the first person plural pronoun as do Scottish Gaelic and Manx) or  "they would praise" (standard ). The synthetic forms, including those no longer emphasised in the standard language, may be used in short answers to questions.

The 2nd conjugation future stem suffix in Ulster is  (pronounced ) rather than , e.g.   "I will bless" (standard  ).

Some irregular verbs have different forms in Ulster from those in the standard language. For example:
  (independent form only) "I do, make" (standard ) and  "I did, made" (standard rinne mé)
   (independent form only) "I see" (standard , Southern chím, cím (independent form only))
  "I give" (standard , southern bheirim (independent only)),  or  "I do not give" (standard only ), and / "I will give" (standard , southern bhéarfad(independent form only))
  (indpependent form only) "I get" (standard ),  "I do not get"
  "I say, speak" (standard ,  "I do not say, speak", although  is used to mean "I say" in a more general sense.)

Particles
In Ulster the negative particle  (before a vowel , in past tenses  - Scottish Gaelic/Manx chan, cha do) is sometimes used where other dialects use  and . The form is more common in the north of the Donegal Gaeltacht.  cannot be followed by the future tense: where it has a future meaning, it is followed by the habitual present. It triggers a "mixed mutation":  and  are eclipsed, while other consonants are lenited. In some dialects however (Gweedore), cha eclipses all consonants, except b- in the forms of the verb "to be", and sometimes f- :

In the Past Tense, some irregular verbs are lenited/eclipsed in the Interrogative/Negative that differ from the standard, due to the various particles that may be preferred :-

Syntax
The Ulster dialect uses the present tense of the subjunctive mood in certain cases where other dialects prefer to use the future indicative:

Sit down here by my side, Séimí, till I give you some advice and tell you my story.

The verbal noun can be used in subordinate clauses with a subject different from that of the main clause:

I would like you to go there.

Music
Some notable Irish singers who sing songs in the Ulster Irish dialect include Kneecap, Lillis Ó Laoire, Maighread Ní Dhomhnaill, Mairéad Ní Mhaonaigh and Pádraigín Ní Uallacháin.

Literature
Notable Ulster Irish writers include Micí Mac Gabhann, Seosamh Mac Grianna, Peadar Toner Mac Fhionnlaoich, Cosslett Ó Cuinn, Niall Ó Dónaill, Séamus Ó Grianna, Brian Ó Nualláin, Colette Ní Ghallchóir and Cathal Ó Searcaigh.

See also 
Ulster Scots dialects
Mid Ulster English
Scottish Gaelic
Irish language in Northern Ireland

References 

Basic Irish Conversation and Grammar by A.J. Hughes (Ben Madigan Press)
Book & 2  CDs in the Ulster dialect

Irish day by day A.J. Hughes book & 2 CDs in
Ulster dislect

Published literature
‘AC FHIONNLAOICH, Seán: Scéal Ghaoth Dobhair. Foilseacháin Náisiúnta Teoranta, Baile Átha Cliath 1981 (stair áitiúil) Gaoth Dobhair
MAC A’ BHAIRD, Proinsias: Cogar san Fharraige. Scéim na Scol in Árainn Mhóir, 1937-1938. Coiscéim, Baile Átha Cliath 2002 (béaloideas) Árainn Mhór
MAC CIONAOITH, Maeleachlainn: Seanchas Rann na Feirste - Is fann guth an éin a labhras leis féin. Coiscéim, Baile Átha Cliath 2005 (béaloideas) Rann na Feirste
MAC CUMHAILL, Fionn (= Mánus): Na Rosa go Brách. An Gúm, Baile Átha Cliath 1997 (úrscéal) Na Rosa

- Slán Leat, a Mhaicín. Úrscéal do Dhaoine Óga. An Gúm, Baile Átha Cliath 1998 (úrscéal) Na Rosa

- Gura Slán le m’Óige. Oifig an tSoláthair, Baile Átha Cliath 1974 (úrscéal) Na Rosa

MAC GABHANN, Micí: Rotha Mór an tSaoil. Seán Ó hEochaidh a scríobh, Proinsias Ó Conluain a chuir in eagar. Cló IarChonnachta, Indreabhán 1996/1997 (dírbheathaisnéis) Ulaidh
MAC GIOLLA DOMHNAIGH, Gearóid agus Gearóid STOCKMAN (Eag.): Athchló Uladh. Comhaltas Uladh, Béal Feirste 1991 (béaloideas) Oirthear Uladh: Aontroim, Reachrainn
MAC GRIANNA, Seosamh: An Druma Mór. An Gúm, Baile Átha Cliath 1991 (úrscéal) Na Rosa

- Pádraic Ó Conaire agus Aistí Eile. An Gúm, Baile Átha Cliath 1986 (aistí) Na Rosa

- Dá mBíodh Ruball ar an Éan. An Gúm, Baile Átha Cliath 1992 (úrscéal gan chríochnú) Na Rosa

- Mo Bhealach Féin. An Gúm, Baile Átha Cliath 1997 (dírbheathaisnéis) Na Rosa

MAC MEANMAN, Seán Bán: An Chéad Mhám. Coiscéim, Baile Átha Cliath 1990 (gearrscéalta) Lár Thír Chonaill

- An Dara Mám. Coiscéim, Baile Átha Cliath 1991 (gearrscéalta) Lár Thír Chonaill

- An Tríú Mám. Coiscéim, Baile Átha Cliath 1992 (aistí) Lár Thír Chonaill

- Cnuasach Céad Conlach. Coiscéim, Baile Átha Cliath 1989 (béaloideas) Lár Thír Chonaill

McGLINCHEY, CHARLES: An Fear Deireanach den tSloinneadh. Patrick Kavanagh a bhreac síos. Eag. Desmond Kavanagh agus Nollaig Mac Congáil. Arlen House, Gaillimh 2002 (dírbheathaisnéis) Inis Eoghain
NIC AODHÁIN, Medhbh Fionnuala (Eag.): Báitheadh iadsan agus tháinig mise. Coiscéim, Baile Átha Cliath 1993 (finscéalta) Tír Chonaill
NIC GIOLLA BHRÍDE, Cáit: Stairsheanchas Ghaoth Dobhair. Coiscéim, Baile Átha Cliath 1996/1997 (seanchas, béaloideas, cuimhní cinn) Na Rosa
Ó BAOIGHILL, Pádraig: An Coileach Troda agus scéalta eile. Coiscéim, Baile Átha Cliath 1993 (gearrscéalta) Na Rosa

- Óglach na Rosann. Coiscéim, Baile Átha Cliath 1994 (beathaisnéis) Na Rosa

- Cuimhní ar Dhochartaigh Ghleann Fhinne. Coiscéim, Baile Átha Cliath 1994 (aistí beathaisnéise) Na Rosa

- Nally as Maigh Eo. Coiscéim, Baile Átha Cliath 1998 (beathaisnéis) Na Rosa

- Gaeltacht Thír Chonaill - Ó Ghleann go Fánaid. Coiscéim, Baile Átha Cliath 2000 (seanchas áitiúil) Na Rosa

- Srathóg Feamnaí agus Scéalta Eile. Coiscéim, Baile Átha Cliath 2001 (gearrscéalta) Na Rosa

- Ceann Tìre/Earraghàidheal. Ár gComharsanaigh Ghaelacha. Coiscéim, Baile Átha Cliath 2003 (leabhar taistil)

- Amhráin Hiúdaí Fheidhlimí agus Laoithe Fiannaíochta as Rann na Feirste. Pádraig Ó Baoighill a chuir in eagar, Mánus Ó Baoill a chóirigh an ceol. Preas Uladh, Muineachán 2001

- Gasúr Beag Bhaile na gCreach. Coiscéim, Baile Átha Cliath 2004

- (Eag.) Faoi Scáth na Mucaise. Béaloideas Ghaeltachtaí Imeallacha Thír Chonaill. Coiscéim, Baile Átha Cliath 2005

Ó BAOILL, Dónall P. (Eag.):Amach as Ucht na Sliabh, Imleabhar 1. Cumann Staire agus Seanchais Ghaoth Dobhair i gcomhar le Comharchumann Forbartha Ghaoth Dobhair. Gaoth Dobhair 1992 (béaloideas) Gaoth Dobhair

- …Imleabhar 2. Cumann Staire agus Seanchais Ghaoth Dobhair i gcomhar le Comharchumann Forbartha Gh. D. Gaoth Dobhair 1996 (béaloideas) Gaoth Dobhair

Ó COLM, Eoghan: Toraigh na dTonn. Cló IarChonnachta, Indreabhán 1995 (cuimhní cinn, stair áitiúil) Toraigh/Machaire an Rabhartaigh
Ó DONAILL, Eoghan: Scéal Hiúdaí Sheáinín. An Gúm, Baile Átha Cliath 1997 (beathaisnéis agus béaloideas) Na Rosa
Ó DONAILL, Niall: Na Glúnta Rosannacha. Oifig an tSoláthair, Baile Átha Cliath 1974 (stair áitiúil) Na Rosa

- Seanchas na Féinne. An Gúm, Baile Átha Cliath 1998 (miotaseolaíocht) Na Rosa

Ó GALLACHÓIR, Pádraig: Seachrán na Mic Uí gCorra. Coiscéim, Baile Átha Cliath 2008 (úrscéal)
Ó GALLCHÓIR, Tomás: Séimidh agus scéalta eile. Coiscéim, Baile Átha Cliath 1996 Na Rosa
Ó GRIANNA, Séamus (= “Máire”): Caisleáin Óir. Cló Mercier, Baile Átha Cliath 1994 (úrscéal) Na Rosa

- Castar na Daoine ar a Chéile. Scríbhinní Mháire 1. Eagarthóir: Nollaig Mac Congáil. Coiscéim, Baile Átha Cliath 2002 (úrscéal, altanna) Na Rosa

- Cith is Dealán. Cló Mercier, Baile Átha Cliath agus Corcaigh 1994 (gearrscéalta) Na Rosa

- Cora Cinniúna 1-2. An Gúm, Baile Átha Cliath 1993 (gearrscéalta) Na Rosa

- Cúl le Muir agus scéalta eile. Oifig an tSoláthair, Baile Átha Cliath 1961 (gearrscéalta) Na Rosa

- Na Blianta Corracha. Scríbhinní Mháire 2. Eagarthóir: Nollaig Mac Congáil. Coiscéim, Baile Átha Cliath 2003 (altanna) Na Rosa

- Nuair a Bhí Mé Óg. Cló Mercier, Baile Átha Cliath agus Corcaigh 1986 (dírbheathaisnéis) Na Rosa

- An Sean-Teach. Oifig an tSoláthair, Baile Átha Cliath 1968 (úrscéal) Na Rosa

- Tairngreacht Mhiseoige. An Gúm, Baile Átha Cliath 1995 (úrscéal) Na Rosa

Ó LAIGHIN, Donnchadh C.: An Bealach go Dún Ulún. Scéalta Seanchais agus Amhráin Nuachumtha as Cill Charthaigh. Cló Iar-Chonnachta, Indreabhán, Conamara 2004 Cill Charthaigh
Ó SEARCAIGH, Cathal: Seal i Neipeal. Cló Iar-Chonnachta, Indreabhán, Conamara 2004 (leabhar taistil) Gort an Choirce
Ó SEARCAIGH, Séamus: Beatha Cholm Cille. An Gúm, Baile Átha Cliath 1997 Na Rosa

- Laochas - Scéalta as an tSeanlitríocht. An Gúm, Baile Átha Cliath 1945/1984/1996 (miotaseolaíocht) Na Rosa

ÓN tSEANAM ANALL - Scéalta Mhicí Bháin Uí Bheirn. Mícheál Mac Giolla Easbuic a chuir in eagar. Cló Iar-Chonnachta, Indreabhán, Conamara 2008. Cill Chárthaigh
SCIAN A CAITHEADH LE TOINN Scéalta agus amhráin as Inis Eoghain agus cuimhne ar Ghaeltacht Iorrais. Cosslett Ó Cuinn a bhailigh, Aodh Ó Canainn agus Seosamh Watson a chóirigh. Coiscéim, Baile Átha Cliath 1990 (béaloideas) Tír Eoghain
UA CNÁIMHSÍ, Pádraig: Idir an Dá Ghaoth. Sáirséal Ó Marcaigh, Baile Átha Cliath 1997 (stair áitiúil) Na Rosa

External links

Gaelic resources focusing on Ulster Irish 
A yahoogroup for learners of Ulster Irish
Oideas Gael (based in Sliabh Liag)

Category:Irish dialects
Category:Ulster
Category:Languages of Northern Ireland